title: Wind power in the United Kingdom

text: In June 2016, Global Energy Group announced it had signed a contract in association with Siemens to fabricate and assemble turbines for the Beatrice Wind Farm, at its Nigg Energy Park site. It hopes in the future to become a centre for excellence and has opened a skills academy to help re-train previous offshore workers for green energy projects.


title: Wind power in the United Kingdom

text: During 2021, £900M were invested in UK offshore wind power manufacturing. The UK offshore wind industry occupied 19,600 people directly in 2021, while thousands others worked in related businesses.


title: Wind power in the United Kingdom

text: Wind power is Scotland's fastest growing renewable energy technology, with 5328 MW of installed capacity as of March 2015. This includes 5131 MWof onshore wind and 197MW of offshore wind.


title: Wind power in the United Kingdom

text: Whitelee Wind Farm near Eaglesham, East Renfrewshire is the largest onshore wind farm in the United Kingdom with 215 Siemens and Alstom wind turbines and a total capacity of 539MW. Clyde Wind Farm near Abington, South Lanarkshire is the UK's second largest onshore wind farm comprising 152 turbines with a total installed capacity of 350MW. There are many other large onshore wind farms in Scotland, at various stages of development, including some that are in community ownership.


title: Wind power in the United Kingdom

text: Robin Rigg Wind Farm in the Solway Firth is Scotland's only commercial-scale, operational offshore wind farm. Completed in 2010, the farm comprises 60 Vestas turbines with a total installed capacity of 180MW. Scotland is also home to two offshore wind demonstration projects: The two turbine, 10 MW Beatrice Demonstrator Project located in the Moray Firth, has led to construction of the 84 turbine, 588MW Beatrice Wind Farm set to begin in 2017 and the single turbine, 7MW Fife Energy Park Offshore Demonstration Wind Turbine in the Firth of Forth. There are also several other commercial-scale and demonstration projects in the planning stages.


title: Wind power in the United Kingdom

text: The siting of turbines is often an issue, but multiple surveys have shown high local community acceptance for wind power in Scotland. There is further potential for expansion, especially offshore given the high average wind speeds, and a number of large offshore wind farms are planned.


title: Wind power in the United Kingdom

text: The Scottish Government has achieved its target of generating 50% of Scotland's electricity from renewable energy by 2015, and is hoping to achieve 100% by 2020. Renewables produced 97.4% of Scotland's net electricity in 2020, mostly from wind power.


title: Wind power in the United Kingdom

text: In July 2017 work commissioning an experimental floating wind farm known as Hywind at Peterhead began. The wind farm is expected to supply power to 20,000 homes. Manufactured by Statoil, the floating turbines can be located in water up to a kilometre deep. In its first two years of operation the facility with five floating wind turbines, giving a total installed capacity of 30MW, has averaged a capacity factor in excess of 50%


title: Red banana

text: Red bananas are a group of varieties of banana with reddish-purple skin. Some are smaller and plumper than the common Cavendish banana, others much larger. When ripe, raw red bananas have a flesh that is cream to light pink in color. They are also softer and sweeter than the yellow Cavendish varieties, some with a slight raspberry flavor and others with an earthy one. Many red bananas are exported by producers in East Africa, Asia, South America and the United Arab Emirates. They are a favorite in Central America as a form of aphrodisiac juice, along with being a favourite in India in order to promote fertility but are sold throughout the world.


title: Red banana

text: The red banana is a triploid cultivar of the wild banana "Musa acuminata", belonging to the AAA group.


title: Red banana

text: It is known in English as Red dacca (Australia), Red banana, 'Red' banana (USA), Claret banana, Cavendish banana "Cuban Red", Jamaican red banana, and Red Cavendish banana.


title: Red banana

text: Red bananas should have a deep red or maroon rind when ripe, and are best eaten when unbruised and slightly soft. This variety contains more beta carotene and vitamin C than yellow bananas. It also contains potassium and iron. The redder the fruit, the more carotene and the higher the vitamin C level. As with yellow bananas, red bananas will ripen in a few days at room temperature and are best stored outside from refrigeration.


title: Red banana

text: Compared with the most common banana, the Cavendish banana, they tend to be smaller, have a slightly thicker skin with a sweeter taste, but do have a longer shelf life than yellow bananas.


title: Red banana

text: They tend to cost about 50% more per pound than yellow bananas, just because there is a much smaller supply of them.


title: Red banana

text: Red bananas are eaten in the same way as yellow bananas, by peeling the fruit before eating. They are frequently eaten raw, whole or chopped, and added to desserts and fruit salads, but can also be baked, fried, and toasted. Red bananas are also commonly sold dried in stores.


title: Red banana

text: The red banana has more beta carotene and vitamin C than yellow banana varieties. All bananas contain natural sources of three sugars: sucrose, fructose, and glucose.


title: Red banana

text: The first bananas to appear on the market in Toronto (in the 1870s and 1880s) were red bananas. Red bananas are available year round at specialty markets and larger supermarkets in the United States.


title: Steve Higgins

text: Steve Higgins (born August 13, 1963) is an American writer, producer, announcer, actor, and comedian. He currently serves as the announcer of "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon" and as a writer and producer of "Saturday Night Live". Prior to "The Tonight Show", Higgins was the announcer for "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon" from 2009 to 2014. Early in his career, he was part of the sketch comedy trio "The Higgins Boys and Gruber", who had their own eponymous sketch series on Comedy Central from 1989 to 1991.


title: Steve Higgins

text: Higgins was born on August 13, 1963, in Des Moines, Iowa, to Marian (née Coppola) and Harold Higgins, who managed the custodial operations in West Des Moines schools. He was one of five children, including his brothers David and Alan.


title: Steve Higgins

text: Higgins formed the comedy troupe "Don't Quit Your Day Job," with brothers David and Alan and friend Dave "Gruber" Allen. Country music star David Allen Coe was also seen playing Iowa back woods clubs during this time period, causing much confusion among fans and promoters and leading to some embarrassing double bookings of Coe and Gruber or of Coe and Higgins. The comedy troupe did make it through these times with Dave Allen at the helm. They performed at notable places in Iowa including the Hotel Kirkwood, Corky's, and the Spaghetti Works.


title: Steve Higgins

text: They eventually moved to California, where they started performing in Los Angeles and soon got their big break on the Comedy Central sketch comedy series "The Higgins Boys and Gruber". Following a very lean year after their third year performing the group was suddenly relegated to selling donated "merch" at yard sales in the Mississippi back woods. These forays into sales usually netted the group lunch money or at least


title: Steve Higgins

text: In 1989, Higgins performed at The Vic Theatre in Chicago for HBO's "One Night Stand" television series, along with his brother Dave, and Gruber. Alongside Nick Bakay, Higgins performed in 1993 at the "Girly Magazine Party" show at Theatre/Theater in Hollywood, Los Angeles. They played "a sleazoid male chauvinist comedy duo who exchange off-color ethnic jokes and prance around in suits and ties like Steve Martin on PCP". His brother, Dave, performed in the show and in a separate act. Higgins was praised for his ability of knowing "when to go over the top and when to rein it in", and how he was able to be "acutely tuned in to the comings and goings around them and know how to play off each other". Soon after, Higgins went on to become a writer for the short-lived MTV programs "Trashed" and "The Jon Stewart Show".


title: Steve Higgins

text: From 1995 to 1997, Higgins was the co-head writer of "Saturday Night Live". Since 1997, he has served on the writing staff of the show, and since 1996, he has served as a producer of the show. In 2000 he played the inspirational AV teacher in the last episode of "Freaks and Geeks". He has been nominated for several Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Variety, Music or Comedy Series and Outstanding Writing for a Variety, Music or Comedy Program in 2008, for his work on "Saturday Night Live" and as a writer. In a 2012 interview with "The A.V. Club", former "Saturday Night Live" writer Michael Schur revealed that Higgins was the inspiration for the "Parks and Recreation" character Andy Dwyer after Higgins would playfully fight with him when they worked together at "SNL".


title: Steve Higgins

text: From 2009 to 2014, Higgins served as announcer on "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon". When Jimmy Fallon was selected by NBC to succeed Jay Leno, Higgins was brought on as announcer for "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon". From 2013 to 2015, Higgins voiced Mr. Awesome in the Hulu original series "The Awesomes". He voiced the character "Chadwick the Edible Blargmonger" in the 2014 animated special "". In 2017, he won an Emmy for his work on SNL.


title: Steve Higgins

text: In July 2015, while Jimmy Fallon was recovering from surgery after suffering a serious injury to his finger, Higgins was hospitalized for Lyme disease. He returned to the "Tonight Show" fully recovered and on the same night as Fallon's return.


title: Builder pattern

text: The builder pattern is a design pattern designed to provide a flexible solution to various object creation problems in object-oriented programming. The intent of the Builder design pattern is to separate the construction of a complex object from its representation. It is one of the Gang of Four design patterns.


title: Builder pattern

text: The Builder design pattern is one of the "Design Patterns" that describe how to solve recurring design problems in object-oriented software.


title: Builder pattern

text: Creating and assembling the parts of a complex object directly within a class is inflexible. It commits the class to creating a particular representation of the complex object and makes it impossible to change the representation later independently from (without having to change) the class.


title: Builder pattern

text: A class (the same construction process) can delegate to different codice_1 objects to create different representations of a complex object.


title: Builder pattern

text: The intent of the Builder design pattern is to separate the construction of a complex object from its representation. By doing so, the same construction process can create different representations.


title: Builder pattern

text: Instead, the codice_4 refers to the codice_1 interface for building (creating and assembling) the parts of a complex object,


title: Builder pattern

text: which makes the codice_4 independent of which concrete classes are instantiated (which representation is created).


title: Builder pattern

text: The codice_10 class implements the codice_1 interface by creating and assembling the codice_5 and codice_6 objects.


title: Builder pattern

text: The codice_4 object calls codice_15 on the codice_10 object, which creates and assembles the codice_5 object.


title: Builder pattern

text: The Director assembles a bicycle instance in the example above, delegating the construction to a separate builder object that has been given to the Director by the Client.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: Meningococcal vaccine refers to any vaccine used to prevent infection by "Neisseria meningitidis". Different versions are effective against some or all of the following types of meningococcus: A, B, C, W-135, and Y. The vaccines are between 85 and 100% effective for at least two years. They result in a decrease in meningitis and sepsis among populations where they are widely used. They are given either by injection into a muscle or just under the skin.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: The World Health Organization recommends that countries with a moderate or high rate of disease or with frequent outbreaks should routinely vaccinate. In countries with a low risk of disease, they recommend that high risk groups should be immunized. In the African meningitis belt efforts to immunize all people between the ages of one and thirty with the meningococcal A conjugate vaccine are ongoing. In Canada and the United States the vaccines effective against four types of meningococcus (A, C, W, and Y) are recommended routinely for teenagers and others who are at high risk. Saudi Arabia requires vaccination with the quadrivalent vaccine for international travellers to Mecca for Hajj.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: Meningococcal vaccines are generally safe. Some people develop pain and redness at the injection site. Use in pregnancy appears to be safe. Severe allergic reactions occur in less than one in a million doses.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: The first meningococcal vaccine became available in the 1970s. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: Inspired by the response to the 1997 outbreak in Nigeria, the WHO, Médecins Sans Frontières, and other groups created the International Coordinating Group on Vaccine Provision for Epidemic Meningitis Control, which manages global response strategy. ICGs have since been created for other epidemic diseases.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: "Neisseria meningitidis" has 13 clinically significant serogroups, classified according to the antigenic structure of their polysaccharide capsule. Six serogroups, A, B, C, Y, W-135, and X, are responsible for virtually all cases of the disease in humans.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: There are three vaccines available in the United States to prevent meningococcal disease, all quadrivalent in nature, targeting serogroups A, C, W-135, and Y:


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: The first meningococcal conjugate vaccine (MCV-4), Menactra, was licensed in the U.S. in 2005 by Sanofi Pasteur; Menveo was licensed in 2010 by Novartis. Both MCV-4 vaccines have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for people 2 through 55 years of age. Menactra received FDA approval for use in children as young as 9 months in April 2011 while Menveo received FDA approval for use in children as young as two months in August 2013. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has not made recommendations for or against its use in children less than two years.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: MenQuadFi, manufactured by Sanofi Pasteur, was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on 23 April 2020, for use in individuals 2 years of age and older.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: Meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine (MPSV-4), Menomune, has been available since the 1970s. It may be used if MCV-4 is not available, and is the only meningococcal vaccine licensed for people older than 55. Information about who should receive the meningococcal vaccine is available from the CDC.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: Nimenrix (developed by GlaxoSmithKline and later acquired by Pfizer), is a quadrivalent conjugate vaccine against serogroups A, C, W-135, and Y. In April 2012 Nimenrix was approved as the first quadrivalent vaccine against invasive meningococcal disease to be administered as a single dose in those over the age of one year, by the European Medicines Agency. In 2016, they approved the vaccine in infants six weeks of age and older, and it has been approved in other countries including Canada and Australia, among others. It is not licensed in the United States.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: Mencevax (GlaxoSmithKline) and NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135 (JN-International Medical Corporation) are used worldwide, but have not been licensed in the United States.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: The duration of immunity mediated by Menomune (MPSV-4) is three years or less in children aged under five because it does not generate memory T cells. Attempting to overcome this problem by repeated immunization results in a diminished, not increased, antibody response, so boosters are not recommended with this vaccine. As with all polysaccharide vaccines, Menomune does not produce mucosal immunity, so people can still become colonised with virulent strains of meningococcus, and no herd immunity can develop. For this reason, Menomune is suitable for travellers requiring short-term protection, but not for national public health prevention programs.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: Menveo and Menactra contain the same antigens as Menomune, but the antigens are conjugated to a diphtheria toxoid polysaccharide–protein complex, resulting in anticipated enhanced duration of protection, increased immunity with booster vaccinations, and effective herd immunity.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: A study published in March 2006, comparing the two kinds of vaccines found that 76% of subjects still had passive protection three years after receiving MCV-4 (63% protective compared with controls), but only 49% had passive protection after receiving MPSV-4 (31% protective compared with controls). As of 2010, there remains limited evidence that any of the current conjugate vaccines offer continued protection beyond three years; studies are ongoing to determine the actual duration of immunity, and the subsequent requirement of booster vaccinations. The CDC offers recommendations regarding who they feel should get booster vaccinations.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: On 14 June 2012, the FDA approved a combination vaccine against two types of meningococcal disease and Hib disease for infants and children 6 weeks to 18 months old. The vaccine, Menhibrix, prevents disease caused by "Neisseria meningitidis" serogroups C and Y and "Haemophilus influenzae" type b. This was the first meningococcal vaccine that could be given to infants as young as six weeks old.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: A vaccine called MenAfriVac has been developed through a program called the Meningitis Vaccine Project and has the potential to prevent outbreaks of group A meningitis, which is common in sub-Saharan Africa.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: Vaccines against serotype B meningococcal disease have proved difficult to produce, and require a different approach from vaccines against other serotypes. Whereas effective polysaccharide vaccines have been produced against types A, C, W-135, and Y, the capsular polysaccharide on the type B bacterium is too similar to human neural adhesion molecules to be a useful target.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: A number of "serogroup B" vaccines have been produced. Strictly speaking, these are not "serogroup B" vaccines, as they do not aim to produce antibodies to the group B antigen: it would be more accurate to describe them as serogroup independent vaccines, as they employ different antigenic components of the organism; indeed, some of the antigens are common to different "Neisseria" species.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: A vaccine for serogroup B was developed in Cuba in response to a large outbreak of meningitis B during the 1980s. This vaccine was based on artificially produced outer membrane vesicles of the bacterium. The VA-MENGOC-BC vaccine proved safe and effective in randomized double-blind studies, but it was granted a licence only for research purposes in the United States as political differences limited cooperation between the two countries.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: Due to a similarly high prevalence of B-serotype meningitis in Norway between 1974 and 1988, Norwegian health authorities developed a vaccine specifically designed for Norwegian children and young adolescents. Clinical trials were discontinued after the vaccine was shown to cover only slightly more than 50% of all cases. Furthermore, lawsuits for damages were filed against the State of Norway by persons affected by serious adverse reactions. Information that the health authorities obtained during the vaccine development were subsequently passed on to Chiron (now GlaxoSmithKline), who developed a similar vaccine, MeNZB, for New Zealand.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: A MenB vaccine was approved for use in Europe in January 2013. Following a positive recommendation from the European Union's Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use, Bexsero, produced by Novartis, received a licence from the European Commission. However, deployment in individual EU member countries still depends on decisions by national governments. In July 2013, the United Kingdom's Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation (JCVI) issued an interim position statement recommending against adoption of Bexsero as part of a routine meningococcal B immunisation program, on the grounds of cost-effectiveness. This decision was reverted in favor of Bexsero vaccination in March 2014. In March 2015 the UK government announced that they had reached agreement with GlaxoSmithKline who had taken over Novartis' vaccines business, and that Bexsero would be introduced into the UK routine immunization schedule later in 2015.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: In November 2013, in response to an outbreak of B-serotype meningitis on the campus of Princeton University, the acting head of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) meningitis and vaccine preventable diseases branch told NBC News that they had authorized emergency importation of Bexsero to stop the outbreak. Bexsero was subsequently approved by the FDA in February 2015 for use in individuals 10 through 25 years of age. In October 2014, Trumenba, a serogroup B vaccine produced by Pfizer, was approved by the FDA for use in individuals 10 through 25 years of age.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: The occurrence of serogroup X has been reported in North America, Europe, Australia, and West Africa. There is no vaccine to protect against serogroup X "N. meningitidis" disease.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: Common side effects include pain and redness around the site of injection (up to 50% of recipients). A small percentage of people develop a mild fever. A small proportion of people develop a severe allergic reaction. In 2016 Health Canada warned of an increased risk of anemia or hemolysis in people treated with eculizumab (Soliris). The highest risk was when individuals "received a dose of Soliris within 2 weeks after being vaccinated with Bexsero".


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: Despite initial concerns about Guillain-Barré syndrome, subsequent studies in 2012 have shown no increased risk of GBS after meningococcal conjugate vaccination.


title: Meningococcal vaccine

text: Travellers who wish to enter or leave certain countries or territories must be vaccinated against meningococcal meningitis, preferably 10–14 days before crossing the border, and be able to present a vaccination record/certificate at the border checks. Countries with required meningococcal vaccination for travellers include The Gambia, Indonesia, Lebanon, Libya, the Philippines and, most importantly and extensively, Saudi Arabia for Muslims visiting or working in Mecca during the Hajj or Umrah pilgrimages. For some countries in African meningitis belt, vaccinations prior to entry are not required, but highly recommended.


title: Patricia Altschul

text: Patricia Altschul (born April 16, 1941) is an American socialite, art collector, and personality on the reality television series, "Southern Charm". She is the widow of Arthur G. Altschul, a former Goldman Sachs partner and prominent art collector and philanthropist. Mrs. Altschul has been a director or trustee of several nonprofit organizations including the New York Historical Society and Historic Hudson Valley (the Rockefeller Family properties). In 2012, Altschul was given a Woman of the Year award for philanthropy by the Police Athletic League of New York City. In 2013, she received a Carolopolis Award from the Preservation Society of Charleston for her renovation of the historic Isaac Jenkins Mikell House in Charleston, SC.


title: Patricia Altschul

text: On "Southern Charm", Patricia plays “the resident madcap grande dame” according to a profile in "Architectural Digest". "Pat quickly became a fan favorite last year and has even drawn the affection of celebrities like Lady Gaga who claimed 'that looking at Patricia is like looking in a mirror,'" commented TV critic Christine Lo in her blog.


title: Patricia Altschul

text: Patricia Altschul was born Patricia Madelyn Dey in Jacksonville, Florida in 1941 and grew up in Richmond, Virginia. Her parents were Francis Pearl Sudler Dey and Walter Pettus Dey, a medical doctor who graduated from the University of Alabama and received a medical degree from Tulane University in 1909. Patricia was educated at Marymount School, Olney Friends School, and George Washington University, where she obtained a bachelor's degree "magna cum laude" in 1964 and then a master's degree in 1965, both in art history and archaeology. She started as an instructor and later became an assistant professor in art history at George Washington University. She lived for many years in Georgetown, where she later owned and ran Arcadia, a private art dealership that handled major paintings by such artists as Georgia O'Keeffe, Martin Johnson Heade, Frederick Church, and Winslow Homer.


title: Patricia Altschul

text: In 1962, Altschul married L. Hayes Smith. The couple lived in Falls Church and McLean, Virginia. Their son, film maker and television producer Whitney Sudler-Smith, was born in 1968 in Washington, D.C. They were divorced in 1979.


title: Patricia Altschul

text: Patricia married the doctor and entrepreneur Edward Stitt Fleming in 1989. In 1995, the couple divorced amicably. Dr. Fleming was a longtime Washington psychiatrist who founded the Psychiatric Institute of Washington and the Psychiatric Institutes of America. He was president and chief executive of Psychiatric Institutes of America, a private provider of inpatient psychiatric care, which he started in 1969 and sold in 1983.


title: Patricia Altschul

text: In 1996, she married Arthur Goodhart Altschul, a general partner in the investment banking firm of Goldman, Sachs & Company from 1959 to 1977 and later a limited partner. He was also one of the founders of General American Investors. Altschul was a prominent art collector, especially of paintings by Neoimpressionist, Pointillist, Nabis, and Ashcan School artists. The Yale University Art Gallery organized a major exhibition of art from the collection. Altschul was Chairman of the board at Barnard College and a member of the boards at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Whitney Museum of American Art, National Gallery of Art, and the Smithsonian Institution. His Overbrook Foundation had assets of more than $150 million. Arthur Altschul died in 2002.


title: Patricia Altschul

text: While Patricia was married to Altschul, the couple were inveterate party-goers. After the attack on the World Trade Center, a "New York Times" reporter wrote an article about whether people should attend parties such as the upcoming gala for New Yorkers For Children, given the tragedy of 9/11. She interviewed Patricia and wrote:


title: Patricia Altschul

text: Altschul's prominence (and donations) helped her to be named to the Board of the New York Historical Society and the Rockefeller family Hudson Hills Trust. She was described by novelist Jay McInerney in New York Magazine as being one of New York's “Big Girls” – “the wives (and widows and heiresses) who are the keepers of the benefit circuit.” The Altschuls were frequently seen with other society types such as Melania and Donald Trump and Patricia's friends Georgette Mosbacher, Deeda Blair, and Carolyn Roehm, former wife of Henry Kravis and a designer in Manhattan.


title: Patricia Altschul

text: In 1997, Arthur and Patricia Altschul bought the 15-room Long Island estate "Southerly" overlooking Oyster Bay from Ambassador Hushang & Maryam Ansary. They hired Mario Buatta to redecorate. "The view is sensational and magical: you can see the water from every room in the house," Mrs. Altschul later told "The New York Times".


title: Patricia Altschul

text: After Arthur's death, Patricia decided to put "Southerly" up for sale and move back to the South. Reporter M.J. Smith commented in "The New York Times" about the house that, "While the allusions to F. Scott Fitzgerald and Jazz Age parties may be trite, it is hard not to think of them when it comes to Southerly, a 10,000-square-foot Long Island estate that is now on the market for $15.8 million."


title: Patricia Altschul

text: In 2008, Altschul decided to leave New York for Charleston. She purchased the historic Isaac Jenkins Mikell House, an imposing 1854 Greek Revival residence noted for its pedimented portico with six large columns having capitals ornamented with rams’ heads. The house was formerly the Charleston Free Library and served as a public library until the early 1960s when it reverted to a private residence. Altschul was said to have paid over $4.8 million for the house and spent over $5 million renovating it. The "New York Post" noted that it has "a picturesque piazza and 18th-century French toilets."


title: Patricia Altschul

text: In 2013 the Preservation Society of Charleston gave Altschul a Pro Merito Award/Carolopolis Award for her renovation of the house, and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2014.


title: Patricia Altschul

text: In addition to the main house, there is a kitchen building and separate coach house on the Mikell House premises.


title: Patricia Altschul

text: When Altschul's son, producer Whitney Sudler-Smith, decided to create a reality TV show about life in Charleston, he urged his mother to participate. In "Southern Charm", Patricia plays "the resident madcap grande dame," according to "Architectural Digest". She is a "straight shooter with a serious pedigree and a ton of clout to throw around . . . famous for her no-nonsense advice, wicked tongue, and appreciation for a high quality cocktail," says blogger and TV critic Christine Lo. She provides sometimes snarky comments about the misdeeds of younger cast members.


title: Patricia Altschul

text: Patricia said she hasn't lost any sleep over how she'll be portrayed. “I frankly don’t care,” she says. “I always say exactly what I think and they can do what they want. I just don’t want them putting up any ugly pictures of me.”


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: The Iroquois Theatre fire occurred on December 30, 1903, at the Iroquois Theatre in Chicago, Illinois, United States. It is the deadliest theater fire and the deadliest single-building fire in U.S. history, resulting in at least 602 deaths.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: The Iroquois Theatre was located at 24–28 West Randolph Street, between State Street and Dearborn Street, in Chicago, Illinois. The syndicate that bankrolled its construction chose the location specifically to attract women on day trips from out of town who, it was thought, would be more comfortable attending a theater near the police-patrolled Loop shopping district. The theater opened on November 23, 1903, after numerous delays due to labor unrest and, according to one writer, the unexplained inability of architect Benjamin Marshall to complete required drawings on time. Upon opening the theater was lauded by drama critics; Walter K. Hill wrote in the "New York Clipper" (a predecessor of "Variety") that the Iroquois was "the most beautiful ... in Chicago, and competent judges state that few theaters in America can rival its architectural perfections ..."


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: The Iroquois had a capacity of 1,602 with three audience levels. The main floor, known as the "orchestra" or "parquet", had approximately 700 seats on the same level as the foyer and Grand Stair Hall. The second level, the "dress circle" or "[first] balcony", had more than 400 seats. The third level, the "gallery", had about 500 seats. There were four boxes on the first level and two above.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: The theater had only one entrance. A broad stairway which led from the foyer to the balcony level was also used to reach the stairs to the gallery level. Theater designers claimed this allowed patrons to "see and be seen" regardless of the price of their seats. However, the common stairway ignored Chicago fire ordinances that required separate stairways and exits for each balcony. The design proved disastrous: people exiting the gallery encountered a crowd leaving the balcony level, and people descending from the upper levels met the orchestra level patrons in the foyer. The backstage areas were unusually large. Dressing rooms were on five levels, and an elevator was available to transport actors down to the stage level. The fly gallery (where scenery was hung) was also uncommonly large.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: After the fire, the Iroquois Theatre was renamed and reopened as the Hyde & Behman's Music Hall in September 1904. In October 1905 it was rechristened as the Colonial Theatre. It remained active until the building was demolished in 1925. In 1926, the Oriental Theatre was built on the site. In 2019, the Oriental Theatre was renamed the Nederlander Theatre.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: Despite being billed as "Absolutely Fireproof" in advertisements and playbills, numerous deficiencies in fire readiness were apparent in the theater building. An editor of "Fireproof Magazine" toured the Iroquois during construction and noted "the absence of an intake, or stage draft shaft; the exposed reinforcement of the (proscenium) arch; the presence of wood trim on everything and the inadequate provision of exits." A Chicago Fire Department (CFD) captain Patrick Jennings who made an unofficial tour of the theater days before the official opening noted that there were no sprinklers, alarms, telephones, or water connections. The captain and the theater's fireman, William Sallers, discussed the deficiencies. Sallers did not report the matter directly to fire chief William Musham for fear he would be dismissed by the syndicate which owned the theater. When captain Jennings reported the matter to his commanding officer, battalion chief John J. Hannon, he was told that nothing could be done as the theater already had a fireman.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: The onsite firefighting equipment consisted of six "Kilfyre" fire extinguishers. Kilfyre was a form of dry chemical extinguisher also sold for dousing chimney fires in residential houses. It consisted of a tube of tin filled with about of white powder, mostly sodium bicarbonate. The user was instructed to "forcibly hurl" the contents of the tube at the base of the flames. The fire began high above the stage, so the Kilfyre, when thrown, fell uselessly to the ground.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: On December 30, 1903, a Wednesday, the Iroquois presented a matinee performance of the popular Drury Lane musical "Mr. Blue Beard", which had been playing at the theater since opening night. The play, a burlesque of the traditional Bluebeard folk tale, featured Dan McAvoy as Bluebeard and Eddie Foy as Sister Anne, a role that let him showcase his physical comedy skills. Dancer Bonnie Maginn was also in the cast as Imer Dasher. Attendance since opening night had been disappointing; people having been driven away by poor weather, labor unrest, and other factors. The December 30 performance drew a much larger sellout audience. Tickets were sold for every seat in the house, plus hundreds more for the "standing room" areas at the back of the theater. Many of the estimated 2,100–2,200 patrons attending the matinee were children. The standing room areas were so crowded that some patrons sat in the aisles, blocking the exits.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: At about 3:15 p.m., shortly after the beginning of the second act, eight men and eight women were performing the double octet musical number "In the Pale Moonlight", with the stage illuminated by blue-tinted spotlights to suggest a night scene. Sparks from an arc light ignited a muslin curtain, possibly as a result of an electrical short circuit, although the lamp operator, William McMullen, testified that the lamp was placed too close to the curtain but stage managers failed to offer a solution when he reported the problem. McMullen clapped at the fire when it started but the flame quickly raced up the curtain and beyond his reach. Theater fireman William Sallers tried to douse the fire with the Kilfyre canisters provided, but by that time it had spread to the fly gallery high above the stage. There, several thousand square feet of highly flammable painted canvas scenery flats were hung. The stage manager tried to lower the asbestos fire curtain, but it snagged. Early reports state that the asbestos curtain was stopped by the trolley-wire that carried one of the acrobats over the stage, but later investigation showed that the curtain had been blocked by a light reflector which stuck out under the proscenium arch. A chemist who later tested part of the curtain stated that it was mainly wood pulp mixed with asbestos, and would have been "of no value in a fire".


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: Foy, who was preparing to go on stage at the time, ran out and attempted to calm the crowd, first making sure that his young son was in the care of a stagehand. He later wrote, "It struck me as I looked out over the crowd during the first act that I had never before seen so many women and children in the audience. Even the gallery was full of mothers and children." Foy was widely seen as a hero after the fire for his courage in remaining on stage and pleading with patrons not to panic even as large chunks of burning scenery landed around him.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: By this time, many of the patrons on all levels were attempting to flee the theater. Some had found the fire exits hidden behind draperies on the north side of the building, but found that they could not open the unfamiliar bascule locks. Bar owner Frank Houseman, a former baseball player with the Chicago Colts, defied an usher who refused to open a door. He was able to open the door because his ice box at home had a similar lock. Houseman credited his friend outfielder Charlie Dexter, who had just quit the Boston Beaneaters, with forcing open another door. A third door was opened either by brute force or by a blast of air, but most of the other doors could not be opened. Some patrons panicked, crushing or trampling others in a desperate attempt to escape from the fire. Many were killed while trapped in dead ends or while trying to open what looked like doors with windows in them but were actually only windows.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: The dancers on stage were also forced to flee, along with the performers backstage and in the numerous dressing rooms. Several performers and stagehands facilitated an escape through the building's main rear exit, which consisted of an unusually large set of stock double doors that would have normally served the purpose of moving large fly sceneries and set pieces or props into the backstage area of the theater. When this was opened an icy wind blast rushed inside, fueling the flames with air and causing the fire to grow substantially larger.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: Many performers escaped from the burning theater through the coal hatch and through windows in the dressing rooms, and others tried to escape via the west stage door, which opened inwards and became jammed as actors pressed toward the door frantically trying to get out. By chance a passing railroad agent saw the crowd pressing against the door and unfastened the hinges from the outside using tools that he normally carried with him, allowing the actors and stagehands to escape. As the vents above the stage were nailed or wired shut, the fireball instead traveled outwards, ducking under the stuck asbestos curtain and streaking toward the vents behind the dress circle and gallery away. The hot gases and flames passed over the heads of those in the orchestra seats and incinerated everything flammable in the gallery and dress circle levels, including patrons still trapped in those areas.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: Those in the orchestra section exited into the foyer and out of the front door, but those in the dress circle and gallery who escaped the fireball could not reach the foyer because stairwells were blocked by high layers of fallen people. Iron grates (closed during performances to prevent patrons in the cheaper seats from sneaking downstairs to the more expensive lower levels) that barred secondary stairways were still in place but first responders found very few victims near the gates. The largest death toll was at the base of stairways, where hundreds of people were trampled, crushed, or asphyxiated. Patrons who were able to escape via the emergency exits on the north side found themselves on fire escapes, one of which was improperly installed causing people to trip upon exiting the fire escape door. Many jumped or fell from the icy, narrow fire escapes to their deaths; the bodies of the first jumpers broke the falls of those who followed them. Students from the Northwestern University building north of the theater tried bridging the gap with a ladder and then with some boards between the rooftops, saving those few able to manage the makeshift cross-over.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: The Iroquois had no fire alarm box or telephone. The CFD's Engine 13 was alerted to the fire by a stagehand who had been ordered to run from the burning theater to the nearest firehouse. On the way to the scene, at approximately 3:33 pm, a member of Engine 13 activated an alarm box to call additional units. Initial efforts focused on the people trapped on the fire escapes. The alley to the north of the theater, known as Couch Place, was icy, narrow, and full of smoke. Aerial ladders could not be used in the alley and black nets, concealed by the smoke, proved useless.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: The Chicago Police Department became involved when an officer patrolling the theater district saw people emerge from the building in a panic, some with clothing on fire. The officer called in from a police box on Randolph Street, and police, summoned by whistles, soon converged on the scene to control traffic and aid with the evacuation. Some of the city's thirty uniformed police matrons were called in because of the number of female casualties.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: Mass panic ensued and, attempting their own escape from the burning building, many of those trapped inside tried climbing over piles of bodies. Corpses were stacked ten feet high around some of the blocked exits. The victims were asphyxiated by the fire, smoke, and gases, or were crushed to death by the onrush of other terrified patrons behind them. It is estimated that 575 people were killed on the day of the fire; at least thirty more died of injuries over the following weeks. (The Great Chicago Fire, by comparison, killed about 300 people.) Many of the Iroquois fire victims were buried in Montrose, Calvary, Saint Boniface, Mount Greenwood, Mount Hope, Mount Olivet, Oak Woods, Rosehill, Graceland, Forest Home, and Waldheim Jewish cemeteries.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: Of the 300 or so actors, dancers, and stagehands, only five people died: the aerialist (Nellie Reed), an actor in a bit part, an usher, and two female attendants. The aerialist's role was to fly out as a fairy over the audience on a trolley wire, showering them with pink carnations. She was trapped above the stage while waiting for her entrance; during the fire she fell, was gravely injured, and died of burns and internal injuries three days later.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: In New York City on New Year's Eve, some theaters eliminated standing room. Building and fire codes were subsequently reformed; theaters were closed for retrofitting all around the country and in some cities in Europe. All theater exits had to be clearly marked and the doors configured so that, even if they could not be pulled open from the outside, they could be pushed open from the inside.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: After the fire, it was alleged that fire inspectors had been bribed with free tickets to overlook code violations. Mayor Carter Harrison, Jr. ordered all theaters in Chicago closed for six weeks after the fire. As a result of public outrage, many were charged with crimes, including Mayor Harrison. Most charges were dismissed three years later because of the delaying tactics of the syndicate's lawyers and their use of loopholes and inadequacies in the city's building and safety ordinances. Levy Mayer was the attorney of the theater and its manager, Will J. Davis.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: The exterior of the Iroquois was intact and was reopened nine months later as Hyde & Behman's Music Hall. The building later reopened as the Colonial Theater, which was demolished in 1925 to make way for the Oriental Theater.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: The risks inherent in flammable scenery and props were recognized even in 1903. Two features, a safety curtain that confines fire to the stage area and smoke doors that allow smoke and heat to escape through the roof above the stage, combine to increase fire safety in theaters. This arrangement creates negative pressure; the stage area becomes a chimney, and fresh, breathable air is sucked through the exit doors into the audience area. At the Iroquois, the smoke doors above the stage were fastened closed. This meant that smoke flowed out of the building through many of the same exits people were trying to use to escape.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: The owners of the theater claimed that the 30 exits would allow everyone inside to escape the building in five minutes. Audiences in 1903 were aware of the hazards of fires in theaters, particularly after at least 384 people died in the Ringtheater fire in Vienna, Austria.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: Iroquois Memorial Hospital was built as a memorial to the fire. The hospital held a bronze bas-relief memorial by sculptor Lorado Taft. The "Chicago Tribune" described the marker on December 31, 1911, as depicting "the Motherhood of the World protecting the children of the universe, the body of a child borne on a litter by herculean male figures, with a bereaved mother bending over it". The bronze memorial was removed from the Iroquois Hospital when the building was demolished in 1951. It was placed in storage in City Hall until it was installed in its current location, near the building's LaSalle Street entrance, in 1960. The memorial was rededicated on November 5, 2010, and a descriptive plaque was donated by the Union League Club of Chicago. The dedication was attended by members of the Chicago City Council, the Union League Club and Taft's granddaughter.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: Five years after the fire, Andrew Kircher, founder of Montrose Cemetery, erected a memorial on the grounds to memorialize the tragedy.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: The Iroquois fire prompted widespread implementation of the panic bar, first invented in the United Kingdom following the Victoria Hall disaster. Panic exit devices are now required by building codes for high-occupancy spaces, and were mass manufactured in the US following the fire by the Von Duprin company (now part of Allegion).


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: A second result of the fire was the requirement that an asbestos fire curtain (or sheet metal screen) be raised before each performance and lowered afterward to separate the audience from the stage.


title: Iroquois Theatre fire

text: The third result was that all doors in public buildings must open in the direction of egress, but that practice did not become national until the Collinwood School Fire of 1908.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The Republic of Nicaragua v. The United States of America (1986) was a case where the International Court of Justice (ICJ) held that the U.S. had violated international law by supporting the Contras in their rebellion against the Sandinistas and by mining Nicaragua's harbors. The case was decided in favor of Nicaragua and against the United States with the awarding of reparations to Nicaragua.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The Court had 15 final decisions upon which it voted. The Court found in its verdict that the United States was "in breach of its obligations under customary international law not to use force against another State", "not to intervene in its affairs", "not to violate its sovereignty", "not to interrupt peaceful maritime commerce", and "in breach of its obligations under Article XIX of the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between the Parties signed at Managua on 21 January 1956." In Statement 9, the Court stated that while the U.S. encouraged human rights violations by the Contras by the manual entitled "Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare", this did not make such acts attributable to the U.S.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The United States refused to participate in the proceedings, arguing that the ICJ lacked jurisdiction to hear the case. The U.S. also blocked enforcement of the judgment by the United Nations Security Council and thereby prevented Nicaragua from obtaining any compensation. Nicaragua, under the later, post-FSLN government of Violeta Chamorro, withdrew the complaint from the court in September 1992 following a repeal of the law which had required the country to seek compensation.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The first armed intervention by the United States in Nicaragua occurred under President Taft. In 1909, he ordered the overthrow of Nicaraguan President José Santos Zelaya. During August and September 1912, a contingent of 2,300 U.S. Marines landed at the port of Corinto and occupied León and the railway line to Granada. A pro-U.S. government was formed under the occupation. The 1914 Bryan–Chamorro Treaty granted perpetual canal rights to the U.S. in Nicaragua and was signed ten days before the U.S.-operated Panama Canal opened for use, thus preventing anyone from building a competing canal in Nicaragua without U.S. permission.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: In 1927, under Augusto César Sandino, a major peasant uprising was launched against both the U.S. occupation and the Nicaraguan establishment. In 1933, the Marines withdrew and left the Nicaraguan National Guard in charge of internal security and elections. In 1934, Anastasio Somoza García, the head of the National Guard, ordered his forces to capture and murder Sandino. In 1937, Somoza assumed the presidency, while still in control of the National Guard, and established a dictatorship that his family controlled until 1979.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The downfall of the regime is attributed to its embezzlement of millions of dollars in foreign aid that was given to the country in response to the devastating 1972 earthquake. Many moderate supporters of the dictatorship began abandoning it in the face of growing revolutionary sentiment. The Sandinista (FSLN) movement organized relief, began to expand its influence and assumed the leadership of the revolution. A popular uprising brought the FSLN to power in 1979. The United States had long been opposed to the socialist FSLN, and after the revolution the Carter administration moved quickly to support the Somocistas with financial and material aid. When Ronald Reagan took office, he augmented the direct support to an anti-Sandinista group, called the Contras, which included factions loyal to the former dictatorship. When Congress prohibited further funding to the Contras, Oliver North continued the funding through arms sales that were also prohibited by Congress.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Nicaragua demanded that all such actions cease and that the United States had an obligation to pay reparations to the government for damage to their people, property, and economy.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: It is noteworthy that the United States, the respondent party, was the only member that put forward arguments against the validity of the judgment of the court, arguing that it passed a decision that it "had neither the jurisdiction nor the competence to render." Members that sided with the United States in opposing Nicaragua's claims did not challenge the court's jurisdiction, its findings, nor the substantive merits of the case.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The very long judgment first listed 291 points, among them that the United States had been involved in the "unlawful use of force". The violations included attacks on Nicaraguan facilities and naval vessels, the mining of Nicaraguan ports, the invasion of Nicaraguan air space, and the training, arming, equipping, financing and supplying of forces (the "Contras") and seeking to overthrow Nicaragua's Sandinista government. This was followed by the statements that the judges voted on.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The court found evidence of an arms flow between Nicaragua and insurgents in El Salvador between 1979 and 1981. However, there was not enough evidence to show that the Nicaraguan government was imputable for this or that the US response was proportional. The court also found that certain transborder incursions into the territory of Guatemala and Costa Rica, in 1982, 1983 and 1984, were imputable to the Government of Nicaragua. However, neither Guatemala nor Costa Rica had made any request for US intervention; El Salvador did in 1984, well after the US had intervened unilaterally.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: "As regards El Salvador, the Court considers that in customary international law the provision of arms to the opposition in another State does not constitute an armed attack on that State. As regards Honduras and Costa Rica, the Court states that, in the absence of sufficient information as to the transborder incursions into the territory of those two States from Nicaragua, it is difficult to decide whether they amount, singly or collectively, to an armed attack by Nicaragua. The Court finds that neither these incursions nor the alleged supply of arms may be relied on as justifying the exercise of the right of collective self-defence."


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Regarding human rights violations by the Contras, "The Court has to determine whether the relationship of the contras to the United States Government was such that it would be right to equate the Contras, for legal purposes, with an organ of the United States Government, or as acting on behalf of that Government. The Court considers that the evidence available to it is insufficient to demonstrate the total dependence of the Contras on United States aid. A partial dependency, the exact extent of which the Court cannot establish, may be inferred from the fact that the leaders were selected by the United States, and from other factors such as the organisation, training and equipping of the force, planning of operations, the choosing of targets and the operational support provided. There is no clear evidence that the United States actually exercised such a degree of control as to justify treating the contras as acting on its behalf... Having reached the above conclusion, the Court takes the view that the Contras remain responsible for their acts, in particular the alleged violations by them of humanitarian law. For the United States to be legally responsible, it would have to be proved that that State had effective control of the operations in the course of which the alleged violations were committed."


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The Court concluded that the United States, despite its objections, was subject to the Court's jurisdiction. The Court had ruled on November 26 by 11 votes to one that it had jurisdiction in the case on the basis of either Article 36 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice (i.e. compulsory jurisdiction) or the 1956 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between the United States and Nicaragua. The Charter provides that, in case of doubt, it is for the Court itself to decide whether it has jurisdiction, and that each member of the United Nations undertakes to comply with the decision of the Court. The Court also ruled by unanimity that the present case was admissible. The United States then announced that it had "decided not to participate in further proceedings in this case." About a year after the Court's jurisdictional decision, the United States took the further, radical step of withdrawing its consent to the Court's compulsory jurisdiction, ending its previous 40 year legal commitment to binding international adjudication. The Declaration of acceptance of the general compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice terminated after a 6-month notice of termination delivered by the Secretary of State to the United Nations on October 7, 1985.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Although the Court called on the United States to "cease and to refrain" from the unlawful use of force against Nicaragua and stated that the US was "in breach of its obligation under customary international law not to use force against another state" and ordered it to pay reparations, the United States refused to comply. As a permanent member of the Security Council, the U.S. has been able to block any enforcement mechanism attempted by Nicaragua. On November 3, 1986 the United Nations General Assembly passed, by a vote of 94-3 (El Salvador, Israel and the US voted against), a non-binding resolution urging the US to comply.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The ruling did in many ways clarify issues surrounding prohibition of the use of force and the right of self-defence. Arming and training the Contra was found to be in breach with principles of non-intervention and prohibition of use of force, as was laying mines in Nicaraguan territorial waters.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Nicaragua's dealings with the armed opposition in El Salvador, although it might be considered a breach with the principle of non-intervention and the prohibition of use of force, did not constitute "an armed attack", which is the wording in article 51 justifying the right of self-defence.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The Court considered also the United States claim to be acting in collective self-defence of El Salvador and found the conditions for this not reached as El Salvador never requested the assistance of the United States on the grounds of self-defence.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: In regards to laying mines, "...the laying of mines in the waters of another State without any warning or notification is not only an unlawful act but also a breach of the principles of humanitarian law underlying the Hague Convention No. VIII of 1907."


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Judge Schwebel's dissent was twice as long as the actual judgment. Judge Schwebel argued that the Sandinista government came to power with support of foreign intervention similar to what it was now complaining about. He argued that the Sandinista government achieved international recognition and received large amounts of foreign aid in exchange for commitments they subsequently violated. He cited evidence that the Sandinista government had indeed supported the rebels in El Salvador and noted that Nicaragua's own CIA witness contradicted their assertions that they had never at any point supported the rebels in El Salvador. The CIA witness said that there was no evidence of weapon shipments since early 1981, but Schwebel argued that he could not credibly explain why opponents of Contra aid such as Congressman Boland, who also saw the evidence, believed that weapon shipments were ongoing. He further argued that Daniel Ortega publicly admitted such shipments in statements in 1985 and 1986. Furthermore, there was no dispute that the leadership of the rebels operated in Nicaragua from time to time.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: He stated that in August 1981 the U.S. offered to resume aid to Nicaragua and to not support regime change in exchange for Nicaraguan commitments to not support the rebels in El Salvador. These proposals were rejected by the Sandinistas, and judge Schwebel argued that the U.S. was entitled to take action in collective self-defense with El Salvador by authorizing Contra aid in December 1981. He stated that further U.S. proposals to resolve the issue made in early 1982 were also ignored by the Sandinistas. The Sandinista government in 1983 began advancing proposals in which it would undertake not to support the rebels, but Schwebel noted that these were coupled with demands that the U.S. cease supporting the lawful government of El Salvador. The judge noted that since early 1985 the U.S. had increasingly made regime change a primary objective but argued this was not inconsistent with self-defense because it was reasonable to believe that Nicaragua would not maintain any commitments unless Sandinista power was diluted.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The judge said that both sides of the wars in Nicaragua and El Salvador had committed atrocities. He said the U.S. mining of Nicaraguan harbors was unlawful in regard to third parties, but not Nicaragua.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The first witness called by Nicaragua was Nicaragua's first Vice Minister of the Interior, Commander Luis Carrion. Commander Carrion had overall responsibility for state security and was in charge of all government operations in the "principal war zone". He was responsible for monitoring United States involvement in military and paramilitary activities against Nicaragua, directing Nicaragua's military and intelligence efforts against the contra guerrillas.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Commander Carrion began by explaining the condition of the contras prior to United States' aid in December 1981. Commander Carrion stated that the contras consisted of insignificant bands of poorly armed and poorly organized members of Somoza's National Guard, who carried out uncoordinated border raids and rustled cattle (presumably for food).


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: In December 1981, the U.S. Congress authorized an initial appropriation of 19 million dollars to finance paramilitary operations in Nicaragua and elsewhere in Central America. Because of this aid, Commander Carrion stated that the contras began to become centralized and received both training and weapons from the CIA. During 1982 the contra guerrillas engaged the Sandinista armed forces in a series of hit and run border raids and carried out a number of sabotage operations including:


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The United States Central Intelligence Agency, and Argentine military officers financed by the CIA, were engaged in the training of the contra forces. The guerrillas received both basic infantry training as well as training in specialized sabotage and demolition for "special operation groups".


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The U.S. Congress apportioned new funds for the contras to the amount of $30 million at the end of 1982. This made it possible for the contra forces to launch a military offensive against Nicaragua. According to Commander Carrion, the offensive known as "C Plan" had the objective of capturing the Nicaraguan border town of Jalapa in order to install a provisional government, which could receive international recognition. This plan failed.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: After the failure of the Jalapa offensive the contras changed their tactics from frontal assaults to economic warfare against State farms, coffee plantations, grain storage centers, road junctions, etc.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The CIA began to support the contras by setting up and coordinating a communications and logistical system. The CIA supplied aircraft and the construction of airfields in the Honduran border area next to Nicaragua. This allowed the contras to carry out deep penetration raids into the more developed and populated areas of the Nicaraguan interior. U.S. Army engineers created this airfield. The purpose of these deep penetration attacks upon economic targets was to weaken the Nicaraguan economy, causing a shortages of goods.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: As a part of its training program for the contras, the CIA prepared and distributed a manual entitled Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare. This manual included instructions in the "use of implicit and explicit terror", and in the "selective use of violence for propaganda effects". Commander Carrion explained that the manual was given to the Contras, "All of these terrorist instructions have the main purpose of alienating the population from the Government through creating a climate of terror and fear, so that nobody would dare support the Government". The manual calls for the "neutralization" (i.e. assassination) of Sandinista local government officials, judges, etc. for purposes of intimidation. It was openly admitted by the President Reagan in a press conference that the manual had been prepared by a CIA contract employee.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: After the United States Congress approved an additional $24 million aid to the contras in December 1983, a new offensive was launched, named Plan Sierra. This offensive involved approximately 7000 members of the contra forces. As in earlier attacks, the initial objective of this offensive was to capture the border town of Jalapa to install a provisional government, which the CIA informed the contras would be immediately recognized by the United States Government. But this contra offensive was also repulsed by the Nicaraguan government forces.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: In the beginning of 1984, the contras made a major effort to prevent the harvesting of the coffee crop, which is one of Nicaragua's most important export products. Coffee plantations and state farms where coffee is grown were attacked, vehicles were destroyed, and coffee farmers were killed.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Commander Carrion testified that the ability of the contras to carry out military operations was completely dependent upon United States funding, training and logistical support. Carrion stated that the U.S. Government supplied the contras with uniforms, weapons, communications equipment, intelligence, training, and coordination in using this material aid.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: In September 1983, CIA operatives blew up Nicaragua's only oil pipeline, which was used to transport oil from off-loading facilities to storage tanks on shore. The United States was also directly involved in a large scale sabotage operation directed against Nicaragua's oil storage facilities. This last attack was carried out by CIA contract employees termed by that organization as "Unilaterally Controlled Latin Assets" (UCLAs). The CIA personnel were also directly involved in a helicopter attack on a Nicaraguan army training camp. One of the helicopters was shot down by Nicaraguan ground fire resulting in the death of two U.S. citizens.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Commander Carrion testified that the United States was involved in the mining of Nicaragua's ports between February – April 1984. The mining operation was carried out by CIA ships directing the operation from international waters, while the actual mining was carried out by CIA employees on board speedboats operating inshore. After the mine-laying was completed the speedboats returned to the mother vessel.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Carrion stated that 3,886 people had been killed and 4,731 wounded in the four years since the contras began their attacks. Carrion estimated property damage at $375 million.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Commander Carrion stated if the United States stopped aid, support and training, this would result in the end of the contras military activities within three months. Asked why he was so sure of this, Commander Carrion answered, "Well, because the contras are an artificial force, artificially set up by the United States, that exists only because it counts on United States direction, on United States training, on United States assistance, on United States weapons, on United States everything...Without that kind of support and direction the contras would simply disband, disorganize, and thus lose their military capacity in a very short time".


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: David MacMichael was an expert on counter-insurgency, guerrilla warfare, and Latin American affairs, he was also a witness because he was closely involved with U.S. intelligence activities as a contract employee from March 1981 – April 1983. MacMichael worked for Stanford Research Institute, which was contracted by the U.S. Department of Defense. After this he worked two years for the CIA as a "senior estimates officer", preparing the National Intelligence Estimate. Dr. MacMichael's responsibility was centered upon Central America. He had top-secret clearance. He was qualified and authorized to have access to all relevant U.S. intelligence concerning Central America, including intelligence relating to alleged Nicaraguan support for, and arms shipments to the anti-Government insurgents in El Salvador. He took part in high level meetings of the Latin American affairs office of the CIA. Including a fall 1981 meeting, which submitted the initial plan to set up a 1500-man covert force on the Nicaraguan border, shipping arms from Nicaragua to the El Salvador insurgents. This plan was approved by President Reagan.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: "The overall purpose (for the creation of the contras) was to weaken, even destabilize the Nicaraguan Government and thus reduce the menace it allegedly posed to the United States' interests in Central America..."


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Contra paramilitary actions would "hopefully provoke cross-border attacks by Nicaraguan forces and thus serve to demonstrate Nicaragua's aggressive nature and possibly call into play the Organization of American States' provisions (regarding collective self-defense). It was hoped that the Nicaraguan Government would clamp down on civil liberties within Nicaragua itself, arresting its opposition, so demonstrating its allegedly inherent totalitarian nature and thus increase domestic dissent within the country, and further that there would be reaction against United States citizens, particularly against United States diplomatic personnel within Nicaragua and thus to demonstrate the hostility of Nicaragua towards the United States".


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Mr. Glennon testified about a fact-finding mission he had conducted in Nicaragua to investigate alleged human rights violations committed by the Contra guerrillas, sponsored by the International Human Rights Law Group, and the Washington Office on Latin America. Glennon conducted the investigation with Mr. Donald T. Fox who is a New York attorney and a member of the International Commission of Jurists.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: They traveled to Nicaragua, visiting the northern region where the majority of contra military operations took place. The two lawyers interviewed around 36 northern frontier residents who had direct experience with the contras. They also spoke with the U.S. Ambassador to Nicaragua, and with senior officials of the U.S. Department of State in Washington after returning to the United States.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: No hearsay evidence was accepted. Professor Glennon stated that those interviewed were closely questioned, and their evidence was carefully cross-checked with available documentary evidence. Doubtful "testimonies" were rejected, and the results were published in April 1985.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: We found that there is substantial credible evidence that the contras were engaged with some frequency in acts of terroristic violence directed at Nicaraguan civilians. These are individuals who have no connection with the war effort-persons with no economic, political or military significance. These are Individuals who are not caught in the cross-fire between Government and contra forces, but rather individuals who are deliberately targeted by the contras for acts of terror. "Terror" was used in the same sense as in recently enacted United States law, i.e. "an activity that involves a violent act or an act dangerous to human life that Is a violation or the criminal law, and appears to be intended to intimidate or coerce a civilian population, to Influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion, or to affect the conduct of a government by assassination or kidnapping.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: In talks with U.S. State Department officials, at those in Managua U.S. Embassy, and with officials in Washington, Professor Glennon had inquired whether the U.S. Government had ever investigated human rights abuses by the contras. Professor Glennon testified that no such investigation had ever been conducted, because in the words of a ranking State Department official who he could not name, the U.S. Government maintained a policy of "intentional ignorance" on the matter. State Department officials in Washington- had admitted to Glennon that "it was clear that the level of atrocities was enormous". Those words "enormous" and "atrocities" were the ranking State Department official's words.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Father Jean Loison was a French priest who worked as a nurse in a hospital in the northern frontier region close to Honduras.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Asked whether the contras engaged in acts of violence directed against the civilian population, Father Loison answered:


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Yes, I could give you several examples. Near Quilali, at about 30 kilometers east of Quilali, there was a little village called El Coco. The contras arrived, they devastated it, they destroyed and burned everything. They arrived in front of a little house and turned their machinegun fire on it, without bothering to check if there were any people inside. Two children, who had taken fright and hidden under a bed, were hit. I could say the same thing of a man and woman who were hit, this was in the little co-operative of Sacadias Olivas. It was just the same. They too had taken fright and got into bed. Unlike El Coco, the contras had just been on the attack, they had encountered resistance and were now in flight. During their flight they went into a house, and seeing that there were people there, they threw grenade. The man and the woman were killed and one of the children was injured.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: I would say that kidnappings are one of the reasons why some of the peasants have formed themselves into groups. Here (indicates a point on the map) is Quilali. Between Quilali and Uilili, in this region to the north, there are hardly any peasants left of any age to bear arms, because they have all been carried off.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Father Loison described many examples of violence, mostly indiscriminate, directed at the civilian population in the region where he resides. The picture that emerges from his testimony is that the contras engage in brutal violation of minimum standards of humanity. He described murders of unarmed civilians, including women and children, rape followed in many instances by torture or murder, and indiscriminate terror designed to coerce the civilian population. His testimony was similar to various reports including the International Human Rights Law Group, Amnesty International, and others.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: William Hüper was Nicaragua's Minister of Finance. He testified about Nicaragua economic damage, including the loss of fuel as a result of the attack in the oil storage facilities at Corinto, the damage to Nicaragua's commerce as a result of the mining of its ports, and other economic damage.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: After five vetoes in the Security Council between 1982 and 1985 of resolutions concerning the situation in Nicaragua , the United States made one final veto on 28 October 1986 (France, Thailand, and United Kingdom abstaining) of a resolution calling for full and immediate compliance with the judgment.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Nicaragua brought the matter to the U.N. Security Council, where the United States vetoed a resolution (11 to 1, 3 abstentions) calling on all states to observe international law. Nicaragua also turned to the General Assembly, which passed a resolution 94 to 3 calling for compliance with the World Court ruling. Two states, Israel and El Salvador, joined the United States in opposition. At that time, El Salvador was receiving substantial funding and military advisement from the U.S., which was aiming to crush a Sandinista-like revolutionary movement by the FMLN. At the same session, Nicaragua called upon the U.N. to send an independent fact-finding mission to the border to secure international monitoring of the borders after a conflict there; the proposal was rejected by Honduras with U.S. backing. A year later, on November 12, 1987, the General Assembly again called for "full and immediate compliance" with the World Court decision. This time only Israel joined the United States in opposing adherence to the ruling.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The United States refused to participate in the merits phase of the proceedings, but the Court found that the US refusal did not prevent it from deciding the case. The Court also rejected the United States defense that its action constituted collective self-defense.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The United States argued that the Court did not have jurisdiction, with U.S. ambassador to the United Nations Jeane Kirkpatrick dismissing the Court as a "semi-legal, semi-juridical, semi-political body, which nations sometimes accept and sometimes don't."


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: The United States had signed the treaty accepting the Court's decision as binding, but with the exception that the court would not have the power to hear cases based on multilateral treaty obligations unless it involved all parties to the treaty affected by that decision or the United States specially agreed to jurisdiction. The court found that it was obliged to apply this exception and refused to take on claims by Nicaragua based on the United Nations Charter and Organization of American States charter, but concluded that it could still decide the case based on customary international law obligations with 11-4 majority.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: When a similar but crucially non-binding resolution was brought before the United Nations General Assembly on 3 November it was passed. Only El Salvador and Israel voted with the U.S. against it. El Salvador's ruling junta was at that time receiving substantial funding and military advisement from the U.S., which was aiming to crush a Sandinista-like revolutionary movement by the FMLN. In spite of this resolution, the U.S. still chose not to pay the fine.


title: Nicaragua v. United States

text: Professor of International Law, Anthony D'Amato, writing for the "American Journal of International Law" (Vol. 80, 1986), commented on this case, stating that "...law would collapse if defendants could only be sued when they agreed to be sued, and the proper measurement of that collapse would be not just the drastically diminished number of cases but also the necessary restructuring of a vast system of legal transactions and relations predicated on the availability of courts as a last resort. There would be talk of a return to the law of the jungle." The author also notes that the case resulted in an unusual candor. A month after the announced withdrawal, Secretary of State Shultz suggested, and President Reagan later confirmed in a press conference, that the goal of U.S. policy was to overthrow the Sandinista Government of Nicaragua. Although this was what Nicaragua had alleged to be the U.S. goal, while the case was actively pending, the United States could not concede that goal without serious risk of undermining its litigating position.


title: Tilaka

text: In Dharmic culture, the tilaka () () is a mark worn usually on the forehead, at the point of the Ajna chakra, or sometimes another part of the body such as the neck, hand, chest or arm. "Tilaka" may be worn daily or for rites of passage or special spiritual and religious occasions only, depending on regional customs.


title: Tilaka

text: The term also refers to the Hindu ritual of marking someone's forehead with a fragrant paste, such as of sandalwood or vermilion, as a welcome and an expression of honour when they arrive.


title: Tilaka

text: Historically, "tilaka" were also used in other Dharmic cultures including Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, which were influenced by Hinduism and its spiritual and philosophical beliefs.


title: Tilaka

text: The tilaka is a mark created by the application of powder or paste on the forehead. Tilakas are vertical markings worn by Vaishnavites (a sect of Hinduism) . The Vaishnava tilaka consists of a long vertical marking starting from just below the hairline to almost the end of one's nose tip, and they are also known as Urdhva Pundra. It is intercepted in the middle by an elongated U. There may be two marks on the temples as well. This tilaka is traditionally made with sandalwood paste.


title: Tilaka

text: The other major tilaka variant is often worn by the followers of Shiva, known by the names of Rudra-tilaka and Tripundra. It consists of three horizontal bands across the forehead with a single vertical band or circle in the middle. This is traditionally done with sacred ash from fire sacrifices. This variant is the more ancient of the two and shares many common aspects with similar markings worn across the world.


title: Tilaka

text: Shaktas, worshippers of the various forms of the Goddess (Devi), wear a large red dot of kumkum (vermillion or red turmeric) on the forehead.


title: Tilaka

text: Chapter 2 of the "Kalagni Rudra Upanishad", a Shaiva traditional text, explains the three lines of a Tilaka as a reminder of various triads: three sacred fires, three syllables in Om, three "gunas", three worlds, three types of "atman" (self), three powers in oneself, first three Vedas, three times of extraction of the Vedic drink Soma.


title: Tilaka

text: These lines, represent Shiva's threefold power of will (icchāśakti), knowledge (jñānaśakti), and action (kriyāśakti). The Tripuṇḍra described in this and other Shaiva texts also symbolises Shiva's trident (triśūla) and the divine triad of Brahmā, Vishnu, and Shiva.


title: Tilaka

text: The Vasudeva Upanishad, a Vaishnava tradition text, similarly explains the significance of three vertical lines in "Urdhva Pundra" Tilaka to be a reminder of Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva; the Vedic scriptures – Rigveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda; three worlds Bhu, Bhuva, Svar; the three syllables of Om – A, U, M; three states of consciousness – awake, dream sleep, deep sleep; three realities – Maya, Brahman and Atman; the three bodies – Sthula, Sukshma, and Karana.


title: Tilaka

text: The choice of style is not mandated in Hindu texts, and it is left to the individual and the regional culture, leading to many versions. The known styles include Vijayshree – white tilaka "urdhwapundra" with a white line in the middle, founded by Swami Balanand of Jaipur; Bendi tilaka – white tilak "urdhwapundra" with a white round mark in the middle, founded by Swami Ramprasad Acharya of Badasthan Ayodhya; and Chaturbhuji tilaka – white tilak "urdhwapundra" with the upper portion turned 90 degrees in the opposite direction, no "shri" in the middle, founded by Narayandasji of Bihar, ascetics of Swarg Dwar of Ayodhya follow it. Sharma has named additional styles as, Vallabh Sampraday Tilak, Sri Tilaka of Rewasa Gaddi, Ramacharandas Tilaka, Srijiwarama ka Tilaka, Sri Janakraja Kishori Sharan Rasik Aliji ka Tilaka, Sri Rupkalajee ka Tilaka, Rupsarasji ka Tilaka, Ramasakheeji ka Tilaka, Kamanendu Mani ka Tilaka, Karunasindhuji ka Tilaka, Swaminarayana Tilaka, Nimbarka ka Tilaka and Madhwa ka Tilaka.


title: Tilaka

text: A "bindi" is worn only between the eyes, whereas a tilaka can also cover the face or other parts of the body. Tilaka can be applied to twelve parts of the body: head, forehead, neck, both upper-arms, both forearms, chest, both sides of the torso, stomach and shoulder.


title: Tilaka

text: It is also called (তিলক) "tilôk", (টিপ) "tip" or (ফোঁটা)"phota" in Bengali, tika, or tilakam or tilak in Hindi; ; )


title: Tilaka

text: In Nepal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and other regions, the tilakam is called a "tikā"/"teeka" (टिका ), and is a mixture of "sindoor", a red powder, yoghurt, and grains of rice. The most common tilakas are red powder applied with the thumb, or sandalwood ("chandan") paste, in a single upward stroke.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: Rainbow is the seventh studio album by American singer Mariah Carey, released on November 2, 1999, by Columbia Records. The album followed the same pattern as Carey's previous two albums, "Daydream" (1995) and "Butterfly" (1997), in which she began her transition into the urban adult contemporary market. "Rainbow" contains a mix of hip hop-influenced R&B tracks, as well as a variety of slow ballads. Carey produced the album with David Foster and Diane Warren, who, as well as Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis, replaced Walter Afanasieff, the main balladeer Carey worked with throughout the 1990s. As a result of her separation from her husband, Tommy Mottola, Carey had more control over the musical style of this album, so she collaborated with several Hip-Hop artists and rappers such as Jay-Z, Usher and Snoop Dogg, as well as Missy Elliott, Joe, Da Brat, Master P, 98 Degrees and Mystikal.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: On Carey's previous album, "Butterfly", she began incorporating several other genres, including R&B and hip hop, into her musical repertoire. In order to further push her musical horizons, Carey featured Jay-Z on the album's lead single, the first time in her career that another artist was featured on one of her lead singles. Carey wrote ballads that were closer to R&B than pop for this album, and worked with Snoop Dogg and Usher on songs such as "Crybaby" and "How Much", respectively, both of which featured strong R&B beats and grooves. Several of the ballads that Carey wrote during this period, including "Thank God I Found You" (written with Terry Lewis) and "After Tonight" (written with Diane Warren), mirrored sentiments she experienced in her personal life.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: The album spawned five singles, two of which became number-one hits on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, making "Rainbow" her seventh-consecutive studio album to produce one or more number-one hits. The album's lead single, "Heartbreaker", became Carey's fourteenth number-one hit on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and topped the record charts in Canada and New Zealand. "Thank God I Found You", featuring Joe and 98 Degrees, also topped the "Billboard" Hot 100, but achieved moderate international chart success. The next two singles, "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme) and "Crybaby" featuring Snoop Dogg, were released as a double A-side. The songs were at the center of a public feud in between Carey and Sony Music due to the label's alleged weak promotion of the singles. Carey's cover of Phil Collins' "Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)" with Westlife peaked at number one in Ireland, Scotland and the UK Singles Chart.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: "Rainbow" was well received by music critics, who generally praised Carey's embrace of R&B and hip hop in her music. The album debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200, with first week sales of 323,000. It was her first album in years to not reach number one. However, within a month, "Rainbow" was certified triple-Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of three million copies within the United States. Internationally, the album peaked at number one in France and Greece, and charted within the top-five positions in Australia, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Japan and Switzerland. Globally, "Rainbow" has sold an estimated eight million copies.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: Since her debut in 1990, Carey's career was heavily calculated and controlled by her husband and head of her label Sony Music Entertainment, Tommy Mottola. For years, Carey's albums had consisted of slow and meaningful ballads, devoid of any guest appearances or hip hop-influenced melodies. In January 1995, as she recorded "Daydream", Carey began taking more control over her musical style and genre influences. She enlisted the production skills and rap styles of Ol' Dirty Bastard, who was featured on the remix of her song "Fantasy." While Mottola was hesitant at first, Carey's persistence paid off when the song became an international chart topper, with critics calling the collaboration one of the pioneering songs of pop and R&B musical collaborations.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: During the recording and production of Carey's "Butterfly" in 1997, she and Mottola separated, giving Carey an extended amount of control over the unfinished album. Following their separation, Carey began working with younger hip hop and R&B producers and songwriters, aside from her usual work with balladeers Walter Afanasieff and Kenneth Edmonds. While the album incorporated several different genres and components that were not present in Carey's previous releases, "Butterfly" also included a balance of her classic ballads and newer R&B-infused jams. While Sony accepted Carey's new collaborations with writers and producers such as P. Diddy and Bone Thugs-n-Harmony, they continued to focus their promotion on the ballads. After "Honey," the debut single from "Butterfly", was released in August 1997, Sony halted the release of the succeeding R&B-influenced jams, and released the ballad "My All" as the second worldwide single. "Rainbow" followed in its predecessors' footsteps, featuring even more hip hop and R&B.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: During the spring of 1999, Carey began working on the final album of her record contract with Sony, her ex-husband's label. Carey's lover at the time, Luis Miguel, was in the midst of a European tour. In order to spend more time with him, she opted to record the album on the secluded island of Capri, Italy, figuring the seclusion would also help her complete the album sooner. During this time, Carey's strained relationship with Sony affected her work with writing partner Afanasieff, who had worked extensively with Carey throughout the first half of her career. Aside from their growing creative differences, Mottola had given Afanasieff more opportunities to work with other artists. She felt Mottola was trying to separate her from Afanasieff, in hopes of keeping their relationship permanently strained. Due to the pressure and the awkward relationship Carey had now developed with Sony, she completed the album in a period of three months in the summer of 1999, quicker than any of her other albums. In an interview with "Blitz TV", Carey spoke of her decision to record the album in Capri:


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: I love New York. But if I'm there, I want to go out, friends come to the studio, the phone rings constantly. But in Capri, I am in a remote place, and there is no one I can run into. I felt that in Capri I would be able to effectively finish the album on a shorter schedule. And I did. I made it in three months, I was like 'Get me off this label!' I couldn't take it. The situation there [Sony] was becoming increasingly difficult.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: Like her previous releases, Carey co-wrote and co-produced the album's material, working with several hip hop and R&B producers such as Jay-Z, Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, Usher, Snoop Dogg, Missy Elliott, Jermaine Dupri, and Bryan-Michael Cox. For the album's debut single release, Carey collaborated with Jay-Z and DJ Clue. During the spring of 1999, Carey began working with Clue on several hooks and melodies for the lead single. After a few hours, they decided to include a hip hop star on the track, which eventually led to Jay-Z. Carey's longtime friend and back-up vocalist Trey Lorenz, who was featured on her remake of the Jackson 5 song "I'll Be There," added "some soft male [back-up] vocals." Carey worked with Lewis and Jam on the ballad "Thank God I Found You." She had already been in the studio with the duo several times when she contacted them to meet her at the studio, where she told them that she had come up with the title, hook, and melody. Usually, when Carey was writing the songs for "Rainbow", James "Big Jim" Wright would play the organ or piano and assist Carey to find the "right melody." However, since Wright was not present, Lewis played the organ while Carey directed him with her lower registers, providing the chord progression. They composed the song and recorded Carey's vocals. Knowing she wanted to introduce a male vocalist on the track, Lewis brought R&B singer Joe and pop group 98 Degrees into the studio. After a few hours, the group and Joe had recorded all their vocals and the song was complete. In an interview with Bronson, Lewis discussed the night Carey wrote "Thank God I Found You:"


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: It all happened that night. She told us the title of the song, the concept and sang us the melody. We usually have Big Jim Wright sit in on those kind of sessions to work out the chords. he wasn't there so I had to work on the chord myself. So I was playing and there was a part where I said 'Man, what chord am I supposed to do here?' and Mariah has such a good ear that she sang me the chord.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: While the album was immersed further into mainstream R&B territory, Carey included some of her classic ballads and tender love songs on the album, working with writers and producers such as David Foster and Diane Warren. The idea to work with Warren was suggested by Foster, who thought that the two would be able to "hammer out one hell of a ballad" together. The two wrote and produced the song titled "After Tonight." Carey felt the song was a perfect metaphor for her relationship with Miguel, describing their romance in Capri. While the song was deemed a success by both parties, they described their working relationship with mixed feelings. According to Foster, who was involved in the writing session, Carey and Warren would not always agree on the lyrics and melodious structure of the song. He described it as a "give and take relationship"; Warren would offer lyrics and Carey would not like them; she wanted something more intricate and detailed. Carey would produce a hook or lyrics that Warren did not feel were a perfect fit. In the end, Foster felt that they worked "well together." After recording the song, Carey invited Miguel to record the song with her as a duet. However, after recording his verses several times, Foster and Carey realized that the song would not turn out the way they planned. Foster said the song's key was "too high for him"; the voices did not harmonize well. Carey did not have time to re-record her vocals in a lower key to accommodate Miguel's verses. Miguel, furious over the failed collaboration, later sent a cut-up tape of the demo to Foster. Carey and Warren also wrote "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)," one of the other ballads featured on "Rainbow".


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: As with "Butterfly", songs for "Rainbow" were chosen to solidify Carey's reputation as a multi-genre artist. Throughout the first phase of her career, Carey's albums predominantly consisted of pop and adult contemporary ballads. "Rainbow" mixed hip hop and R&B-flavored upbeat songs with softer and lyrically intense ballads resembling those that Carey had previously recorded. "Heartbreaker," Carey's first collaboration with Jay-Z, used a sample from "Attack of the Name Game," recorded by Stacy Lattisaw, as its hook. The loop originated from "The Name Game" by Shirley Ellis; Ellis and co-writer Lincoln Chase are credited as songwriters on the track. Carey incorporated the hook into the song's melody, and added instrumentation. Lyrically, the song chronicles the heartbreak the protagonist feels after learning of her lover's infidelity. "Thank God I Found You" features vocals from Joe and 98 Degrees, as well as songwriting and production from Carey and Lewis. According to Carey, the song reflects on events in her own life at the time, with the lyrics describing the completion the protagonist feels after "finding" their lover. Joe provides the main male vocal throughout each verse, and 98 Degrees sing the background vocals and the bridge.


title: Rainbow (Mariah Carey album)

text: Prior to the album's recording, Mariah and her sister, Alison Carey had a falling out in their relationship. Alison had tested Positive for HIV sometime after she turned 27 in late-1988, and in late-1994, during the time when her second son, Michael who was only 7 years old at the time, was taken away from her by Alison and Mariah's mother, Patricia Carey. She continuted to blame Mariah for many of her problems and heartbreaks throughout the years. In 1990, when Mariah first debuted she began paying for her continuous visits to drug rehabilitation Carey wrote a song titled "Petals," which she describes as the most honest lyrics she has ever written. The song tells of Carey's feelings for her sister, while illustrating the pain Alison's betrayal and suffering have caused. In an interview with Bronson, Carey described the meaning of the lyrics of "Petals":