title: Stateville Correctional Center

text: Stateville's 1,300 employees make it a Level 1 facility; the highest of eight security level designations. There is also a minimum security unit commonly referred to as the Stateville Farm, which is a Level 7 facility, located within the new Northern Reception Center, located just south of the main facility. The Northern Reception Center (NRC), accepts incoming prisoners from the county jails in the northern two-thirds of the state.


title: Stateville Correctional Center

text: Stateville is located north of Joliet, Illinois (16830 IL Route 53 Crest Hill, IL 60403; (815) 727-3607), on a site of over , of which are surrounded by a concrete perimeter with 10 wall towers. Stateville is often confused with the former Joliet Correctional Center, which closed in 2002. Located in the nearby city of Joliet, the former Joliet Prison is much older and smaller. It is located about southeast of Stateville on the corner of Woodruff Rd. and Collins St., across the Illinois and Michigan Canal.


title: Cross-dominance

text: Cross-dominance, also known as mixed-handedness, hand confusion, or mixed dominance, is a motor skill manifestation in which a person favors one hand for some tasks and the other hand for others, or a hand and the contralateral leg. For example, a cross-dominant person might write with the right hand and do everything else with the left one, or manage and kick a ball preferentially with the left leg.


title: Cross-dominance

text: It can also refer to mixed laterality, which refers to a person favoring eyes, ears, feet, or hands on one side of the body. A person who is cross-dominant can also be stronger on the opposite side of the body that they favor; for example, a right-handed person can be stronger on the left side. Cross-dominance can often be a problem when shooting or in activities that require aim, although athletes can still achieve success in sports that require accuracy, like passing in American football and shooting in basketball.


title: Cross-dominance

text: In baseball a left-handed batter is about two steps closer to first base than a right-handed batter, one important advantage. Because curveballs and sliders – the most commonly used breaking pitches in the game – curve in the direction of a pitcher's non-throwing hand, a batter who bats opposite the pitcher's throwing hand enjoys an advantage. Since most pitchers are right-handed, left-handed batters enjoy a second advantage over their right-handed counterparts. However, right-handed throwing is more valuable in the infield. Every fielding position can be played by a right-handed thrower, although left-handers are considered more valuable pitchers and have a slight advantage at first base owing to the fact that they do not have to turn around to place their foot on first when stretching to catch a throw, and because their gloved hand is closer to the runner on pick-off plays. Conversely, left-handed throwers are almost completely absent at the highest level at the other infield positions and at catcher. Switch hitting exists so a batter can hit from the side opposite every pitcher's throwing arm, but it has gained some criticism because a batter will always be more dominant from one side of the plate than the other; the switch hitter may be less reliable from one side. So, many baseball players are trained to be simply cross-dominant, batting solely left-handed and throwing solely right-handed. There are a few position players, such as Rickey Henderson and Cleon Jones, who bat right and throw left, but this serves as a substantial disadvantage. Henderson batted right despite his natural inclination to do so left-handed only because he was taught to do so by right-handed teammates.


title: Ferengi

text: The Ferengi () are a fictional extraterrestrial species in the American science fiction franchise "Star Trek". They were devised in 1987 for the series "", played a prominent role in the following series "", and have made brief appearances in subsequent series such as "", "", "", and "".


title: Ferengi

text: When launching "Star Trek: The Next Generation" in 1987, Gene Roddenberry and the show's writers decided to introduce a new alien species to serve as antagonists for the crew of the USS "Enterprise"-D. The Ferengi first appeared in "", the show's fourth episode, which was set in the year 2364. The writers decided that the Ferengi ultimately failed to appear sufficiently menacing, instead replacing them with the Romulans and Borg as primary antagonists. Throughout the rest of the series, Ferengi characters were primarily used for comedic effect.


title: Ferengi

text: When creating "Star Trek: Deep Space Nine", the show's writers decided to introduce the Ferengi bartender Quark (Armin Shimerman) as a major character, and subsequently his brother Rom (Max Grodénchik) and nephew Nog (Aron Eisenberg) as recurring characters, again frequently using them for comedic purposes.


title: Ferengi

text: Ferengi culture, especially as portrayed on "Deep Space Nine", is depicted as hyper-capitalistic, focused on the acquisition of profit as the highest goal. "Deep Space Nine" writers have described how they saw the Ferengi as a satirical presentation of 20th century humans. Critics have drawn comparisons between the Ferengi and anti-Semitic stereotypes of Jews.


title: Ferengi

text: The name "Ferengi" was coined based on the Persian term "Ferenghi", used throughout Asia (compare older "Feringhee"), meaning "foreigners" or "Europeans".


title: Ferengi

text: While preparing scripts for the first season of "", the idea of the Ferengi was devised by Gene Roddenberry and Herbert Wright. The new alien species initially appeared in the first season's fourth episode, "", which was based on a story by Richard Krzemien and a teleplay by Wright. In this story, the USS "Enterprise"-D—whose crew are the main protagonists of the series—makes first contact with the Ferengi while pursuing one of their vessels, which has stolen a T-9 energy converter. Both ships are immobilized over an unknown planet, leading both to send away parties to investigate, where they encounter each other. One of the actors who played a Ferengi in "The Last Outpost", Armin Shimerman, would go on to play a Ferengi again in the later episode "Peak Performance" before being cast as the Ferengi bartender Quark in "Star Trek: Deep Space Nine".


title: Ferengi

text: The Ferengi outfits designed for "The Last Outpost" featured fur wrap-arounds. As weapons, they were given blue whips that fired energy bolts when cracked; these were subsequently dropped from the series and not used in later depictions of the species.


title: Ferengi

text: Mike Okuda designed the Ferengi insignia to present the idea of "dog eat dog". It was colored green because of that color's associations with greed, envy, and money. The Ferengi ship featured in the episode was designed by Andy Probert, who used a horseshoe crab on Wright's desk as inspiration, with the model then being constructed by Greg Jein.


title: Ferengi

text: The Ferengi were reused for the season's ninth episode, "", based on a story by Larry Forrester that Wright converted into a teleplay. This episode was first aired in November 1987. In it, a Ferengi called DaiMon Bok gives the "Enterprise" Captain Jean-Luc Picard (Patrick Stewart) the derelict ship that the latter once captained, the "Stargazer". Over the course of the episode, it is revealed that this is part of Bok's plan for vengeance, for he holds Picard responsible for the death of his son many years before. Forrester's first plot outline had featured various scenes aboard the Ferengi spaceship, but these did not make it into the episode. Series writer Rick Berman later noted that because of their "silliness quotient", the Ferengi became "a disappointment as a major adversary".


title: Ferengi

text: For the second-season episode "", written by David Kemper and directed by Robert Scheerer, the USS-"Enterprise"-D is depicted encountering a hostile Ferengi ship while engaging in a practice exercise. The Ferengi uniform was revised for this episode, and new collar pips were added to designate their differing ranks. The season three episode "", which was written by Hannah Louise Shearer, directed by Robert Scheerer, and first aired in November 1989, also included Ferengi characters. In it, two Ferengi delegates compete against their Federation counterparts to gain access to a newly discovered stable wormhole; later in the episode, it is revealed that the wormhole was not really stable and the Ferengi get stuck on the other side of it, in a distant part of the galaxy. "The Price" is the first episode in which a Ferengi starship was referred to as a "marauder".


title: Ferengi

text: When the writers were putting together the premise of "Star Trek: Deep Space Nine", they decided to introduce a recurring Ferengi character who would inhabit the space station Deep Space Nine that was the main setting for the show. The show's co-creator, Michael Piller, later noted that: "It was clear to me that having a Ferengi aboard Deep Space 9 would provide the show with instant humor and built-in conflict with the Federation guy in charge of the station". The show's creators developed the character of Quark, a Ferengi bartender who would, according to Piller, be "a constant thorn in the side of law and order, but who has a sense of humor about it. He'd be someone who could obviously throw lots of story dynamics into play." Piller and the others consciously wanted to play the Quark character off against the station constable, Odo (René Auberjonois); according to Piller, "the idea of Odo and Quark being at loggerheads was there from day one".


title: Ferengi

text: Through the character of Quark and his family, "Deep Space Nine" developed the culture and politics of the Ferengi in some detail. Episodes of the series portray the Ferengi's hyper-capitalistic emphasis on profit and sexist social norms (at the beginning of the series, Ferengi females are not permitted to earn profit or even wear clothing), and the society's gradual evolution away from those norms as, for example, Quark's mother becomes a respected businesswoman and Quark comes to tolerate his employees forming a union.


title: Ferengi

text: In the third season of "Deep Space Nine", Quark's nephew Nog becomes the first Ferengi to join Starfleet, the military and exploration arm of the United Federation of Planets. This development prompted discussions on electronic mailing lists devoted to "Star Trek". Various commentators suggested that, given how Nog had behaved in previous episodes, it was surprising that Starfleet would take him on. They suggested that this might indicate that Starfleet had some form of affirmative action policy to benefit species not presently represented in Starfleet. Other online commentators argued that this viewpoint was racist, and that Nog would have been accepted as a Starfleet cadet because he was qualified, not because of his racial identity.


title: Ferengi

text: Ferengi culture is depicted, especially on "Deep Space Nine", as focused on the acquisition of profit as the highest goal. Many episodes portray this as taken to a comical extreme, as, for example, Ferengi prayer involves paying bribes to the gods, and Ferengi funeral rites involve auctioning off the deceased's remains. Ferengi characters frequently quote the "Rules of Acquisition", a collection of proverbs that are said to govern Ferengi business practices (such as "Never place friendship above profit"); a compilation of these Rules was published by "Deep Space Nine" showrunner Ira Steven Behr.


title: Ferengi

text: Ferengi culture is also portrayed as extremely sexist; in early seasons of "Deep Space Nine", Ferengi females are not permitted to earn profit, travel, or even wear clothing. A long-running plot thread on "DS9" features Ferengi society's gradual evolution away from these practices, especially as Quark's mother Ishka establishes herself as a respected businesswoman and financial advisor.


title: Ferengi

text: The Ferengi were first designed by Andrew Probert and later refined and produced by Michael Westmore.


title: Ferengi

text: The most prominent feature in Ferengi design is their large ear lobes. Ferengi experience sexual stimulation when their lobes are rubbed — an act called "oo-mox". Ferengi females allegedly have smaller lobes, but the only female Ferengi characters shown in the series were Pel and Ishka. Betazoids are incapable of reading Ferengi emotions. The focus on ears extends to figures of speech (i.e. "not having the lobes" to indicate a lack of courage) and to health problems (i.e. an ear infection proving fatal).


title: Ferengi

text: The Ferengi home planet, Ferenginar, is introduced in the "Star Trek: Deep Space Nine" episode "". Ferenginar experiences near-constant torrential rain; consequently, the Ferengi language has 178 different words for rain (and none for "crisp").


title: Ferengi

text: A Ferengi shuttlecraft was introduced in the episode "The Price". It was also seen in "Little Green Men" as a spacecraft used by Quark. The studio model for VFX was auctioned by Christie's for over US$8,000 in 2006.


title: Ferengi

text: There is a larger Ferengi spaceship called the Marauder. The Marauder was designed by Andrew Probert, and the model was built by Greg Jein; the studio model was constructed of resin, fiberglass, and aluminum.


title: Ferengi

text: In 2017, SYFY rated the Ferengi one of the top 11 most bizarre aliens of "Star Trek: The Next Generation".


title: Ferengi

text: In 2017, "Den of Geek" ranked the Ferengi the 8th best aliens of the "Star Trek" franchise, in between Andorians and Romulans.


title: Ferengi

text: Examples of well-received Ferengi-focused episodes in "" include "", in which Ferengi characters travel back in time to the 1940s and become the alien invaders in the Roswell UFO incident, and "The Magnificent Ferengi", in which a group of Ferengi characters team up to rescue Quark's mother when she is captured by an enemy empire.


title: Ferengi

text: Various critics have argued that the depiction of the Ferengi and their culture mirrors anti-Semitic stereotypes of Jews, namely the love of profit and the over-sized facial features – in the case of the Ferengi, the ears. During the 1990s, this issue was discussed on electronic mailing lists devoted to the franchise, with some commentators arguing that there were parallels and others objecting to the comparison. In his 2007 critique of "The Next Generation" for the "National Review", the commentator Jonah Goldberg described the Ferengi as "runaway capitalists with bullwhips who looked like a mix between Nazi caricatures of Jews and the original Nosferatu."


title: Ferengi

text: The scholar of religion Ross S. Kraemer wrote that "Ferengi religion seems almost a parody, perhaps of traditional Judaism." He wrote that the 285 Rules of Acquisition bore similarities with the 613 Commandments of Judaism and that the Ferengi social restrictions on women mirrored Orthodox Judaism's restrictions on women studying the Torah. Historian Paul Sturtevant wrote in 2018 that not only are the Ferengi "extremely legalistic" and "defined by their greed", echoing common stereotypes of Jews, but the major Ferengi characters on "Deep Space Nine" were all played by Jewish actors.


title: Ferengi

text: Shimerman addressed the issue when asked at a question-and-answer session at a "Star Trek" convention. He stated that:


title: Appaloosa (film)

text: Appaloosa is a 2008 American Western film based on the 2005 novel "Appaloosa" by crime writer Robert B. Parker. Directed by Ed Harris and co-written by Harris and Robert Knott, "Appaloosa" stars Harris alongside Viggo Mortensen, Renée Zellweger and Jeremy Irons. The film premiered at 2008 Toronto International Film Festival and was released in selected cities on September 19, 2008, then expanded into wide-release on October 3, 2008.


title: Appaloosa (film)

text: In 1882, the small town of Appaloosa, New Mexico, is being terrorized by local rancher Randall Bragg, who killed the town's marshal, Jack Bell, and two deputies when they came to Bragg's ranch to arrest two men. The town hires lawman and peacekeeper Virgil Cole and his deputy Everett Hitch to protect and regain control of the town. The pair agrees on one condition: that the town follow Cole's law and essentially cede control to him. The lawmen begin by confronting four of Bragg's men who are causing a disturbance in the saloon. Three men refuse to allow themselves to be arrested, forcing Cole and Hitch to kill them. The fourth man surrenders and leaves the saloon. Bragg has a meeting with Cole and Hitch, initiating a standoff.


title: Appaloosa (film)

text: Hitch sees a woman, Allison "Allie" French, a young widow, who just came to the town and immediately takes an interest in her. He follows her to the diner where Cole is having a breakfast. They make acquaintance with her and observing Cole and Allie are getting together well, Hitch keeps his silence. Soon, Cole and Allie begin a romantic relationship and buy a house together. However, Allie attempts to seduce Hitch when they are alone but Hitch refuses her advances out of his loyalty to Cole.


title: Appaloosa (film)

text: When one of Bragg's men tells Cole and Hitch that he will testify against Bragg on the triple murder case, they arrest Bragg and keep him locked up until the trial in spite of the attempts of Bragg's gang to free him. The trial finds him guilty and sentences him to death. Cole and Hitch are joined by Sheriff Clyde Stringer and a deputy before transporting Bragg via train to the prison where he is to be hanged. When the engine makes a water stop over a bridge, hired guns Ring and Mackie Shelton, old acquaintances of Cole, appear with Allie as a hostage. At gunpoint, they force Cole to release Bragg to them.


title: Appaloosa (film)

text: Cole and Hitch catch up with the outlaws and see Allie and Ring Shelton frolicking naked together in a stream. When the outlaws are attacked by Chiricahua Apache, Cole and Hitch force the Native Americans away. Hitch tells Cole that Allie's promiscuity is the result of her insecurity and she really likes Cole. They then turn Bragg over to the sheriff of Beauville; unbeknownst to Cole, the sheriff is a cousin of the Shelton brothers. Knowing that Cole is determined to bring Bragg to the gallows, the Sheltons and the sheriff free Bragg and engage Cole and Hitch in a gunfight. Cole and Hitch are wounded but manage to kill Ring, Mackie and the sheriff. Bragg escapes on horseback and Cole and Hitch return to Appaloosa with Allie.


title: Appaloosa (film)

text: After some time, Bragg is granted a full pardon by President Chester Arthur (whom he previously claimed to have known) and returns to Appaloosa in an attempt to publicly reform himself. He buys the hotel and ingratiates himself with the locals. Privately he brags before Cole and Hitch to infuriate them over their failure to hang him. Cole tells Hitch that he still wants to be with Allie, despite her fickleness. Hitch decides to leave the town to make some money and resigns as deputy. Later he discovers that Allie is having a relationship with Bragg and challenges Bragg to a duel. Cole attempts to stop him, but Hitch remains steadfast and asks Cole to permit the gunfight to occur. Hitch manages to fire first, hitting Bragg in the chest, killing him. Hitch leaves town, seeing that Allie and Cole are together; his parting thoughts express his hope that Cole can find happiness with Allie and for him, he gladly walks into uncertainty in hope of finding adventure and fortune.


title: Appaloosa (film)

text: "Appaloosa" marks Ed Harris's second outing as director, following the 2000 biopic "Pollock", which he also starred in; Harris co-wrote and co-produced "Appaloosa" with Robert Knott. The budget for "Appaloosa" was $20 million and filming took place from October 1, 2007, to November 24, 2007, around Albuquerque and Santa Fe, New Mexico, and Austin, Texas. Harris was drawn to Robert B. Parker's bestselling novel because it was constructed like a classic Western, but included crime themes still relevant to contemporary society. He purchased the rights to the novel and hired Parker to adapt his book into a screenplay. Harris, who also stars as Virgil Cole, wanted to make the film in the old-fashioned style of such films as "", "My Darling Clementine" and "The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance", rather than a revisionist approach. Harris also acknowledged the challenge of making a successful Western movie, saying, "You can count on one hand, or maybe half a hand, the number of Westerns that were box office successes in the recent past." Production of "Appaloosa" slowed when New Line Cinema and producers became concerned with the box office prospects of a Western during a season with such anticipated blockbusters as "The Dark Knight". Diane Lane originally signed on to play Allie French, but left the project when the film stalled. The movie got back on track due to the success of the "Deadwood" series on HBO and the film remake of "". Renée Zellweger was signed to replace Lane.


title: Appaloosa (film)

text: Harris enjoyed working with Viggo Mortensen in "A History of Violence" and had him in mind for the part of Everett Hitch. While publicizing "A History of Violence" at the Toronto International Film Festival, Harris handed Mortensen a copy of the novel and asked him to read it and consider playing the part. Harris said it was "a totally awkward proposition, handing another actor a book like that," but Mortensen agreed to take the part after responding well to the character and the relationship dynamic between the two characters. Harris said he wanted to make the film because he was drawn to the "unspoken comradeship" of Virgil Cole and Everett Hitch. "Though they've been hanging out for years, they're not too intimate, but they know each other. Aside from in sports, or being a cop, I can't think of any other situation where a friendship like that is called for." Mortensen felt similarly, saying, "I like to ride horses, and I like Westerns, but there are a lot of bad ones. What set this one apart is just how the characters are a little more guarded." Mortensen studied Frederic Remington drawings and other images of the American Old West to get into character and master the proper way to stand during a gunfight.


title: Appaloosa (film)

text: The DVD includes a number of bonus extra featurettes, including "Dean Semler's Return to the Western." Although cinematographer Semler has been a pioneer in shooting digital movies, he was glad for this special opportunity to shoot a traditional old-fashioned Western using classic film stock technology.


title: Appaloosa (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, "Appaloosa" has an approval rating of 76% based on 164 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7/10. The consensus reads, "A traditional genre western, "Appaloosa" sets itself apart with smart psychology, an intriguing love triangle, and good chemistry between the leads."


title: Appaloosa (film)

text: Early reviews of "Appaloosa" from the 2008 Toronto International Film Festival were lukewarm. Brad Frenette of the "National Post" said "the film feels double its 114-minute running time, but "Appaloosa" redeems itself through unexpected moments of levity, Harris's steady direction and the God amongst men, Lance Henriksen." Frenette also said Renee Zellweger is "mostly a bust" and Viggo Mortensen "oozes cool." "Popjournalism" reviewer Sarah Gopaul said Harris and Mortensen spend too much time talking and discussing their feelings, which she said made the film too light for the gritty Western genre. Gopaul said Ed Harris and Viggo Mortensen delivered decent performances and that Renee Zellweger's character has more depth than the traditional romantic interest in a Western. The "New Yorker’s" David Denby called it “a well-made, satisfying, traditionalist Western with some odd quirks and turns.”


title: Appaloosa (film)

text: The film appeared on some critics' top ten lists of the best films of 2008. Ray Bennett of "The Hollywood Reporter" named it the 8th best film of 2008, and Mike Russell of "The Oregonian" named it the 10th best film of 2008.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Diabetic retinopathy (also known as diabetic eye disease), is a medical condition in which damage occurs to the retina due to diabetes mellitus. It is a leading cause of blindness in developed countries.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Diabetic retinopathy affects up to 80 percent of those who have had both type 1 and type 2 diabetes for 20 years or more. In at least 90% of new cases, progression to more aggressive forms of sight threatening retinopathy and maculopathy could be reduced with proper treatment and monitoring of the eyes The longer a person has diabetes, the higher his or her chances of developing diabetic retinopathy. Each year in the United States, diabetic retinopathy accounts for 12% of all new cases of blindness. It is also the leading cause of blindness in people aged 20 to 64.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Nearly all people with diabetes develop some degree of retina damage ("retinopathy") over several decades with the disease. For many, that damage can only be detected by a retinal exam, and has no noticeable effect on vision. Over time, progressive retinal damage may appear on a retinal exam, first with small bulges in retinal blood vessels called microaneurysms. Then larger abnormalities in retinal vessels: cotton wool spots, hemorrhages, lipid deposits called "hard exudates", intraretinal microvascular abnormalities, and abnormal-looking retinal veins. Eventually, many progress to a stage where new blood vessels grow throughout the retina. These new blood vessels often break and bleed. Minor bleeding can cause dark floating spots obstructing vision; major bleeding can completely block vision.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Around half of people with diabetic retinopathy develop swelling of the macula, called macular edema, which can begin at any time. If the swelling occurs near the center of the macula, it can cause vision disruptions ranging from mildly blurred vision to severe loss of the center of an affected person's visual field. Left untreated, around 30% of those with such swelling experience vision disruption over the next 3–5 years. Macular edema is the most common cause of vision loss in people with diabetic retinopathy.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: The repeated processes of blood vessel growth, swelling, and scarring can eventually cause retinal detachment, which manifests as the sudden appearance of dark floating spots, flashes of light, or blurred vision.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Diabetic retinopathy is typically diagnosed by retinal exam observations using ophthalmoscopy. The American Academy of Ophthalmology divides diabetic retinopathy into five categories of progressive severity. The first category, "no apparent retinopathy", describes those with a healthy retinal exam. The next three categories: mild, moderate, and severe nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR) describe increasing levels of damage to the retina. People with mild NPDR have microaneurysms in the retina, but no other damage. Those with severe NPDR have 20+ retinal hemorrhages in each quadrant of the retina, a distinctive pattern of damage on the veins of the retina called "venous beading" in at least two retinal quadrants, and obvious intraretinal microvascular abnormalities anywhere on the retina. Moderate NPDR is defined as more severe than mild NPDR, but not yet meeting the criteria for severe NPDR. The fifth stage, proliferative diabetic retinopathy, is for those with new blood vessels forming throughout the retina ("retinal neovascularization"), or blood leaking into the vitreous humor ("vitreous hemorrhage") or between the vitreous membrane and retina ("preretinal hemorrhage").


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: The same guidelines separately divide macular edema into two categories: "macular edema apparently absent" and "macular edema apparently present". The latter is further subdivided into "mild" – retinal thickening or lipid deposits far from the macula's center; "moderate" – thickening or deposits near the center; and "severe" – thickening or deposits on the macula center. Optical coherence tomography is frequently used to assess macular edema.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Fluorescein angiography is used by retina specialists to further assess diabetic retinopathy severity and to determine sites of macular damage.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Due to the lack of symptoms, most people with diabetic retinopathy are unaware that they have the condition until they visit an eye doctor.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Both the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the International Council of Ophthalmology (ICO) recommend regular eye exams for those with diabetes to screen for diabetic retinopathy (excepting those with gestational diabetes). The ADA recommends a comprehensive eye examination at the time of type 2 diabetes diagnosis, and within five years of the onset of type 1 diabetes. For women with diabetes who become pregnant, the ADA recommends an eye examination before pregnancy, in each trimester, and for a year post partum.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: The ICO recommends eye examinations for those with diabetes include a visual acuity examination and a retinal examination via ophthalmoscopy or retinal photography.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Iceland, Ireland, and the United Kingdom are the only countries with full national diabetic retinopathy screening programs, while substantial regional screening programs have been implemented in parts of mainland Europe, parts of Asia, and Botswana. In the UK, screening for diabetic retinopathy is part of the standard of care for people with diabetes. After one normal screening in people with diabetes, further screening is recommended every year. Teleophthalmology has been employed in these programs.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Diabetic retinopathy is caused by prolonged high blood glucose damaging the small blood vessels of the retina.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: The major risk factors for developing diabetic retinopathy are duration of diabetes, poor blood sugar control, and to a lesser extent high blood pressure. Five years after diabetes diagnosis, around 25% of those with type 1 diabetes have some degree of diabetic retinopathy, while 2% have proliferative diabetic retinopathy. By 15 years after diagnosis, that increases to 80% with some retinopathy, and 25% with proliferative disease. Children are an exception – regardless of duration of diabetes, children rarely experience sight-threatening retinopathy; however, puberty can accelerate retinopathy progression.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Similarly, pregnancy can accelerate the progression of diabetic retinopathy (although women with gestational diabetes are not at risk).


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Both chronically high blood sugar (measured by a high HbA1c) and highly variable blood sugar are associated with developing diabetic retinopathy. Several more minor risk factors also exacerbate diabetic retinopathy, namely kidney disease, abnormal blood lipids, high body mass index, and smoking.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Genetic predisposition to diabetic retinopathy in type 2 diabetes consists of many genetic variants across the genome that are collectively associated with diabetic retinopathy (polygenic risk) and overlaps with genetic risk for glucose, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and systolic blood pressure. Several variations in the "VEGFC" gene have also been associated with an increased risk of developing macular edema.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: People with Down syndrome, who have extra chromosome 21 material, almost never acquire diabetic retinopathy. This protection appears to be due to the elevated levels of endostatin, an anti-angiogenic protein, derived from collagen XVIII. The collagen XVIII gene is located on chromosome 21.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Incidence of Retinitis Pigmentosa is observed to result in fewer and less severe microvascular lesions in both humans and mouse models. Retinitis Pigmentosa results in loss of rod receptors in the mid peripheral field, reducing the oxygen consumption that is linked with release of VEGF and growth of unwanted blood vessels in the retina.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) has been associated with a higher incidence of diabetic eye disease due to blood desaturation caused by intermittent upper airway obstructions. Treatment for OSA can help reduce the risk of diabetic complications.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Diabetic retinopathy is the result of damage to the small blood vessels and neurons of the retina. The earliest changes leading to diabetic retinopathy include narrowing of the retinal arteries associated with reduced retinal blood flow; dysfunction of the neurons of the inner retina, followed in later stages by changes in the function of the outer retina, associated with subtle changes in visual function; dysfunction of the blood-retinal barrier, which protects the retina from many substances in the blood (including toxins and immune cells), leading to the leaking of blood constituents into the retinal neuropile. Later, the basement membrane of the retinal blood vessels thickens, capillaries degenerate and lose cells, particularly pericytes and vascular smooth muscle cells. This leads to loss of blood flow and progressive ischemia, and microscopic aneurysms which appear as balloon-like structures jutting out from the capillary walls, which recruit inflammatory cells; and advanced dysfunction and degeneration of the neurons and glial cells of the retina. The condition typically develops about 10–15 years after receiving the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: An experimental study suggests that pericyte death is caused by blood glucose persistently activating protein kinase C and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), which, through a series of intermediates, inhibits signaling through platelet-derived growth factor receptors — signaling that supports cellular survival, proliferation, and growth. The resulting withdrawal of this signaling leads to the programmed cell death (apoptosis) of the cells in this experimental model.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: In addition, excessive sorbitol in diabetics is deposited on retina tissue and it is also proposed to play a role in diabetic retinopathy.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: A genetic study showed that diabetic retinopathy shares a similar genetic predisposition with levels of glucose, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and systolic blood pressure, indicating that glycemic control and cardiometabolic factors may be important in the development of diabetic retinopathy.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: There are four common treatments for diabetic retinopathy – anti-VEGF injections, steroid injections, panretinal laser photocoagulation, and vitrectomy. Current treatment regimens can prevent 90% of severe vision loss.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Although these treatments are very successful (in slowing or stopping further vision loss), they do not cure diabetic retinopathy. Caution should be exercised in treatment with laser surgery since it causes a loss of retinal tissue. It is often more prudent to inject triamcinolone or anti-VEGF drugs. In some patients it results in a marked increase of vision, especially if there is an edema of the macula.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: In addition, standard treatment for diabetic retinopathy includes improving control of blood sugar, blood pressure, and blood cholesterol, all of which can reduce diabetic retinopathy progression.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Injection of anti-VEGF drugs or steroids can reduce diabetic retinopathy progression in around half of eyes treated; however, whether this results in improved vision long term is not yet known. For those with mild to moderate nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy, the American Academy of Ophthalmology recommends only more frequent retinal exams – every six to 12 months – as these people are at an increased risk of developing proliferative retinopathy or macular edema.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Laser photocoagulation can be used in two scenarios for the treatment of diabetic retinopathy. Firstly, It can be used to treat macular edema which was common before eye injections were introduced. and secondly, it can be used for treating whole retina (panretinal photocoagulation) for controlling neovascularization. It is widely used for early stages of proliferative retinopathy. There are different types of lasers and there is evidence available on their benefits to treat proliferative diabetic retinopathy.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: For those with proliferative or severe non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy, vision loss can be prevented by treatment with panretinal laser photocoagulation.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: The goal is to create 1,600 – 2,000 burns in the retina with the hope of reducing the retina's oxygen demand, and hence the possibility of ischemia. It is done in multiple sittings.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: In treating advanced diabetic retinopathy, the burns are used to destroy the abnormal new blood vessels that form in the retina. This has been shown to reduce the risk of severe vision loss for eyes at risk by 50%.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Before using the laser, the ophthalmologist dilates the pupil and applies anaesthetic drops to numb the eye. In some cases, the doctor also may numb the area behind the eye to reduce discomfort. The patient sits facing the laser machine while the doctor holds a special lens on the eye. The physician can use a single spot laser, a pattern scan laser for two dimensional patterns such as squares, rings and arcs, or a navigated laser which works by tracking retinal eye movements in real time. During the procedure, the patient will see flashes of light. These flashes often create an uncomfortable stinging sensation for the patient. After the laser treatment, patients should be advised not to drive for a few hours while the pupils are still dilated. Vision will most likely remain blurry for the rest of the day. Though there should not be much pain in the eye itself, an ice-cream headache like pain may last for hours afterwards.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Patients will lose some of their peripheral vision after this surgery although it may be barely noticeable by the patient. The procedure does however save the center of the patient's sight. Laser surgery may also slightly reduce colour and night vision.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: A person with proliferative retinopathy will always be at risk for new bleeding, as well as glaucoma, a complication from the new blood vessels. This means that multiple treatments may be required to protect vision.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Triamcinolone is a long acting steroid preparation. Treating people with DME with intravitreal injections of triamcinolone may lead to a some degree of improvement in visual acuity when compared to eyes treated with placebo injections. When injected in the vitreous cavity, the steroid decreases the macular edema (thickening of the retina at the macula) caused due to diabetic maculopathy, and that may result in an increase in visual acuity. The effect of triamcinolone is not permnanent and may last up to three months, which necessitates repeated injections for maintaining the beneficial effect. Best results of intravitreal Triamcinolone have been found in eyes that have already undergone cataract surgery. Complications of intravitreal injection of triamcinolone may include cataract, steroid-induced glaucoma, and endophthalmitis.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Those with diabetic macular edema benefit from regular injections with anti-VEGF antibodies like ranibizumab, bevacizumab, and aflibercept. There is no widely accepted dosing schedule, though people typically receive more frequent injections during the first year of treatment, with less frequent injections in subsequent years sufficient to maintain remission.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: A 2017 systematic review update found moderate evidence that aflibercept may have advantages in improving visual outcomes over bevacizumab and ranibizumab, after one year. In cases with vitreous hemorrhage, however, anti-VEGF injections proved to be less effective in restoring visual acuity than vitrectomy combined with panretinal laser-photocoagulation. Present recommended treatment for diabetic macular edema is multiple injections of anti-VEGF drugs sometimes combined with Modified Grid laser photocoagulation. Sustained delivery systems for anti-VEGF medications can reduce the chances of endophthalmitis development by reducing the number of intravitreal injections necessary for treatment. Hydrogels have shown great promise for this platform.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: There is little evidence for the role of topical medications in the treatment of macular edema, for example, topical non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory agents.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Instead of laser surgery, some people require a vitrectomy to restore vision. A vitrectomy is performed when there is a lot of blood in the vitreous. It involves removing the cloudy vitreous and replacing it with a saline solution.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Studies show that people who have a vitrectomy soon after a large hemorrhage are more likely to protect their vision than someone who waits to have the operation. Early vitrectomy is especially effective in people with insulin-dependent diabetes, who may be at greater risk of blindness from a hemorrhage into the eye.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Vitrectomy may be done under general or local anesthesia. The doctor makes a tiny incision in the sclera, or white of the eye. Next, a small instrument is placed into the eye to remove the vitreous and insert the saline solution into the eye.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Patients may be able to return home soon after the vitrectomy, or may be asked to stay in the hospital overnight. After the operation, the eye will be red and sensitive, and patients usually need to wear an eyepatch for a few days or weeks to protect the eye. Medicated eye drops are also prescribed to protect against infection. There is evidence which suggests anti-VEGF drugs given either prior to or during vitrectomy may reduce the risk of posterior vitreous cavity haemorrhage. Vitrectomy is frequently combined with other modalities of treatment.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Around 34.6% of people with diabetes have some kind of diabetic retinopathy, with around 7% experiencing proliferative diabetic retinopathy, 7% diabetic macular edema, and 10% experiencing loss of vision from diabetic retinopathy. Diabetic retinopathy is the leading cause of vision loss in those 20–74 years old.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: The global burden of diabetic retinopathy increased dramatically from 1990 to 2015 – from 1.4 million to 2.6 million people with visual impairment; from 0.2 million to 0.4 million blinded – due in large part to the increasing burden of type 2 diabetes in low- and middle-income countries.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Several large multicenter randomized clinical trials have been done to evaluate treatment protocols for those with diabetic retinopathy, namely the Early Treatment for Diabetic Retinopathy Study, Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study, Diabetic Retinopathy Study, Diabetes Control and Complications Trial, UK Prospective Diabetes Study, and the Diabetic Retinopathy Clinical Research Network Protocols I, S, and T.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: A medical device comprising a mask that delivers green light through the eyelids while a person sleeps was under development in 2016. The light from the mask stops rod cells in the retina from dark adapting, which is thought to reduce their oxygen requirement, which in turn diminishes new blood vessel formation and thus prevents diabetic retinopathy. As of 2016 a large clinical trial was underway. As of 2018, the results from the clinical trial showed no long-term therapeutic benefit from using the mask in diabetic retinopathy patients.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: C-peptide had shown promising results in treatment of diabetic complications incidental to vascular degeneration. Creative Peptides, Eli Lilly, and Cebix all had drug development programs for a C-peptide product. Cebix had the only ongoing program until it completed a Phase IIb trial in December 2014 that showed no difference between C-peptide and placebo, and it terminated its program and went out of business.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Clinical trials are under way or are being populated in preparation for study at medical centers in Brazil, Iran and the United States. Current trials involve using the patients' own stem cells derived from bone marrow and injected into the degenerated areas in an effort to regenerate the vascular system.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: A Cochrane review examined 15 randomized controlled trials to determine whether interventions that sought to control or reduce blood pressure in diabetics had any effects of diabetic retinopathy. While the results showed that interventions to control or reduce blood pressure prevented diabetic retinopathy for up to 4–5 years in diabetics, there was no evidence of any effect of these interventions on progression of diabetic retinopathy, preservation of visual acuity, adverse events, quality of life, and costs.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Diabetic retinopathy is diagnosed entirely by recognizing abnormalities on retinal images taken by fundoscopy. Color fundus photography is mainly used for staging the disease. Fluorescein angiography is used to assess the extent of retinopathy that aids in treatment plan development. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is used to determine the severity of edema and treatment response.


title: Diabetic retinopathy

text: Because fundoscopic images are the main sources for diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy, manually analyzing those images can be time-consuming and unreliable, as the ability of detecting abnormalities varies by years of experience. Therefore, scientists have explored developing computer-aided diagnosis approaches to automate the process, which involves extracting information about the blood vessels and any abnormal patterns from the rest of the fundoscopic image and analyzing them.


title: Mohr's circle

text: Mohr's circle is a two-dimensional graphical representation of the transformation law for the Cauchy stress tensor.


title: Mohr's circle

text: Mohr's circle is often used in calculations relating to mechanical engineering for materials' strength, geotechnical engineering for strength of soils, and structural engineering for strength of built structures. It is also used for calculating stresses in many planes by reducing them to vertical and horizontal components. These are called principal planes in which principal stresses are calculated; Mohr's circle can also be used to find the principal planes and the principal stresses in a graphical representation, and is one of the easiest ways to do so.


title: Mohr's circle

text: After performing a stress analysis on a material body assumed as a continuum, the components of the Cauchy stress tensor at a particular material point are known with respect to a coordinate system. The Mohr circle is then used to determine graphically the stress components acting on a rotated coordinate system, i.e., acting on a differently oriented plane passing through that point.


title: Mohr's circle

text: The abscissa and ordinate (formula_1,formula_2) of each point on the circle are the magnitudes of the normal stress and shear stress components, respectively, acting on the rotated coordinate system. In other words, the circle is the locus of points that represent the state of stress on individual planes at all their orientations, where the axes represent the principal axes of the stress element.


title: Mohr's circle

text: 19th-century German engineer Karl Culmann was the first to conceive a graphical representation for stresses while considering longitudinal and vertical stresses in horizontal beams during bending. His work inspired fellow German engineer Christian Otto Mohr (the circle's namesake), who extended it to both two- and three-dimensional stresses and developed a failure criterion based on the stress circle.


title: Mohr's circle

text: Alternative graphical methods for the representation of the stress state at a point include the Lamé's stress ellipsoid and Cauchy's stress quadric.


title: Mohr's circle

text: The Mohr circle can be applied to any symmetric 2x2 tensor matrix, including the strain and moment of inertia tensors.


title: Mohr's circle

text: Internal forces are produced between the particles of a deformable object, assumed as a continuum, as a reaction to applied external forces, i.e., either surface forces or body forces. This reaction follows from Euler's laws of motion for a continuum, which are equivalent to Newton's laws of motion for a particle. A measure of the intensity of these internal forces is called stress. Because the object is assumed as a continuum, these internal forces are distributed continuously within the volume of the object.


title: Mohr's circle

text: In engineering, e.g., structural, mechanical, or geotechnical, the stress distribution within an object, for instance stresses in a rock mass around a tunnel, airplane wings, or building columns, is determined through a stress analysis. Calculating the stress distribution implies the determination of stresses at every point (material particle) in the object. According to Cauchy, the "stress at any point" in an object (Figure 2), assumed as a continuum, is completely defined by the nine stress components formula_3 of a second order tensor of type (2,0) known as the Cauchy stress tensor, formula_4:


title: Mohr's circle

text: After the stress distribution within the object has been determined with respect to a coordinate system formula_6, it may be necessary to calculate the components of the stress tensor at a particular material point formula_7 with respect to a rotated coordinate system formula_8, i.e., the stresses acting on a plane with a different orientation passing through that point of interest —forming an angle with the coordinate system formula_6 (Figure 3). For example, it is of interest to find the maximum normal stress and maximum shear stress, as well as the orientation of the planes where they act upon. To achieve this, it is necessary to perform a tensor transformation under a rotation of the coordinate system. From the definition of tensor, the Cauchy stress tensor obeys the tensor transformation law. A graphical representation of this transformation law for the Cauchy stress tensor is the Mohr circle for stress.


title: Mohr's circle

text: In two dimensions, the stress tensor at a given material point formula_7 with respect to any two perpendicular directions is completely defined by only three stress components. For the particular coordinate system formula_6 these stress components are: the normal stresses formula_12 and formula_13, and the shear stress formula_14. From the balance of angular momentum, the symmetry of the Cauchy stress tensor can be demonstrated. This symmetry implies that formula_15. Thus, the Cauchy stress tensor can be written as:


title: Mohr's circle

text: The objective is to use the Mohr circle to find the stress components formula_1 and formula_2 on a rotated coordinate system formula_8, i.e., on a differently oriented plane passing through formula_7 and perpendicular to the formula_21-formula_22 plane (Figure 4). The rotated coordinate system formula_8 makes an angle formula_24 with the original coordinate system formula_6.


title: Mohr's circle

text: To derive the equation of the Mohr circle for the two-dimensional cases of plane stress and plane strain, first consider a two-dimensional infinitesimal material element around a material point formula_7 (Figure 4), with a unit area in the direction parallel to the formula_22-formula_28 plane, i.e., perpendicular to the page or screen.


title: Mohr's circle

text: From equilibrium of forces on the infinitesimal element, the magnitudes of the normal stress formula_1 and the shear stress formula_2 are given by:


title: Mohr's circle

text: Both equations can also be obtained by applying the tensor transformation law on the known Cauchy stress tensor, which is equivalent to performing the static equilibrium of forces in the direction of formula_1 and formula_2.


title: Mohr's circle

text: These two equations are the parametric equations of the Mohr circle. In these equations, formula_35 is the parameter, and formula_1 and formula_2 are the coordinates. This means that by choosing a coordinate system with abscissa formula_1 and ordinate formula_2, giving values to the parameter formula_24 will place the points obtained lying on a circle.


title: Mohr's circle

text: Eliminating the parameter formula_35 from these parametric equations will yield the non-parametric equation of the Mohr circle. This can be achieved by rearranging the equations for formula_1 and formula_2, first transposing the first term in the first equation and squaring both sides of each of the equations then adding them. Thus we have


title: Mohr's circle

text: with radius formula_47 centered at a point with coordinates formula_48 in the formula_49 coordinate system.


title: Mohr's circle

text: There are two separate sets of sign conventions that need to be considered when using the Mohr Circle: One sign convention for stress components in the "physical space", and another for stress components in the "Mohr-Circle-space". In addition, within each of the two set of sign conventions, the engineering mechanics (structural engineering and mechanical engineering) literature follows a different sign convention from the geomechanics literature. There is no standard sign convention, and the choice of a particular sign convention is influenced by convenience for calculation and interpretation for the particular problem in hand. A more detailed explanation of these sign conventions is presented below.


title: Mohr's circle

text: The previous derivation for the equation of the Mohr Circle using Figure 4 follows the engineering mechanics sign convention. The engineering mechanics sign convention will be used for this article.


title: Mohr's circle

text: From the convention of the Cauchy stress tensor (Figure 3 and Figure 4), the first subscript in the stress components denotes the face on which the stress component acts, and the second subscript indicates the direction of the stress component. Thus formula_14 is the shear stress acting on the face with normal vector in the positive direction of the formula_21-axis, and in the positive direction of the formula_22-axis.


title: Mohr's circle

text: In the physical-space sign convention, positive normal stresses are outward to the plane of action (tension), and negative normal stresses are inward to the plane of action (compression) (Figure 5).


title: Mohr's circle

text: In the physical-space sign convention, positive shear stresses act on positive faces of the material element in the positive direction of an axis. Also, positive shear stresses act on negative faces of the material element in the negative direction of an axis. A positive face has its normal vector in the positive direction of an axis, and a negative face has its normal vector in the negative direction of an axis. For example, the shear stresses formula_14 and formula_54 are positive because they act on positive faces, and they act as well in the positive direction of the formula_22-axis and the formula_21-axis, respectively (Figure 3). Similarly, the respective opposite shear stresses formula_14 and formula_54 acting in the negative faces have a negative sign because they act in the negative direction of the formula_21-axis and formula_22-axis, respectively.


title: Mohr's circle

text: In the Mohr-circle-space sign convention, normal stresses have the same sign as normal stresses in the physical-space sign convention: positive normal stresses act outward to the plane of action, and negative normal stresses act inward to the plane of action.


title: Mohr's circle

text: Shear stresses, however, have a different convention in the Mohr-circle space compared to the convention in the physical space. In the Mohr-circle-space sign convention, positive shear stresses rotate the material element in the counterclockwise direction, and negative shear stresses rotate the material in the clockwise direction. This way, the shear stress component formula_14 is positive in the Mohr-circle space, and the shear stress component formula_54 is negative in the Mohr-circle space.


title: Mohr's circle

text: Two options exist for drawing the Mohr-circle space, which produce a mathematically correct Mohr circle:


title: Mohr's circle

text: Plotting positive shear stresses upward makes the angle formula_35 on the Mohr circle have a positive rotation clockwise, which is opposite to the physical space convention. That is why some authors prefer plotting positive shear stresses downward, which makes the angle formula_35 on the Mohr circle have a positive rotation counterclockwise, similar to the physical space convention for shear stresses.


title: Mohr's circle

text: To overcome the "issue" of having the shear stress axis downward in the Mohr-circle space, there is an "alternative" sign convention where positive shear stresses are assumed to rotate the material element in the clockwise direction and negative shear stresses are assumed to rotate the material element in the counterclockwise direction (Figure 5, option 3). This way, positive shear stresses are plotted upward in the Mohr-circle space and the angle formula_35 has a positive rotation counterclockwise in the Mohr-circle space. This "alternative" sign convention produces a circle that is identical to the sign convention #2 in Figure 5 because a positive shear stress formula_63 is also a counterclockwise shear stress, and both are plotted downward. Also, a negative shear stress formula_63 is a clockwise shear stress, and both are plotted upward.


title: Mohr's circle

text: This article follows the engineering mechanics sign convention for the physical space and the "alternative" sign convention for the Mohr-circle space (sign convention #3 in Figure 5)


title: Mohr's circle

text: Assuming we know the stress components formula_12, formula_13, and formula_14 at a point formula_7 in the object under study, as shown in Figure 4, the following are the steps to construct the Mohr circle for the state of stresses at formula_7:


title: Mohr's circle

text: The magnitude of the principal stresses are the abscissas of the points formula_88 and formula_89 (Figure 6) where the circle intersects the formula_90-axis. The magnitude of the major principal stress formula_91 is always the greatest absolute value of the abscissa of any of these two points. Likewise, the magnitude of the minor principal stress formula_92 is always the lowest absolute value of the abscissa of these two points. As expected, the ordinates of these two points are zero, corresponding to the magnitude of the shear stress components on the principal planes. Alternatively, the values of the principal stresses can be found by


title: Mohr's circle

text: where the magnitude of the average normal stress formula_95 is the abscissa of the centre formula_85, given by


title: Mohr's circle

text: and the length of the radius formula_98 of the circle (based on the equation of a circle passing through two points), is given by


title: Mohr's circle

text: The maximum and minimum shear stresses correspond to the ordinates of the highest and lowest points on the circle, respectively. These points are located at the intersection of the circle with the vertical line passing through the center of the circle, formula_85. Thus, the magnitude of the maximum and minimum shear stresses are equal to the value of the circle's radius formula_98


title: Mohr's circle

text: As mentioned before, after the two-dimensional stress analysis has been performed we know the stress components formula_12, formula_13, and formula_14 at a material point formula_7. These stress components act in two perpendicular planes formula_107 and formula_81 passing through formula_7 as shown in Figure 5 and 6. The Mohr circle is used to find the stress components formula_1 and formula_2, i.e., coordinates of any point formula_112 on the circle, acting on any other plane formula_112 passing through formula_7 making an angle formula_24 with the plane formula_81. For this, two approaches can be used: the double angle, and the Pole or origin of planes.


title: Mohr's circle

text: As shown in Figure 6, to determine the stress components formula_117 acting on a plane formula_112 at an angle formula_24 counterclockwise to the plane formula_81 on which formula_12 acts, we travel an angle formula_35 in the same counterclockwise direction around the circle from the known stress point formula_78 to point formula_124, i.e., an angle formula_35 between lines formula_126 and formula_127 in the Mohr circle.


title: Mohr's circle

text: The double angle approach relies on the fact that the angle formula_24 between the normal vectors to any two physical planes passing through formula_7 (Figure 4) is half the angle between two lines joining their corresponding stress points formula_117 on the Mohr circle and the centre of the circle.


title: Mohr's circle

text: This double angle relation comes from the fact that the parametric equations for the Mohr circle are a function of formula_35. It can also be seen that the planes formula_80 and formula_81 in the material element around formula_7 of Figure 5 are separated by an angle formula_135, which in the Mohr circle is represented by a formula_136 angle (double the angle).


title: Mohr's circle

text: The second approach involves the determination of a point on the Mohr circle called the "pole" or the "origin of planes". Any straight line drawn from the pole will intersect the Mohr circle at a point that represents the state of stress on a plane inclined at the same orientation (parallel) in space as that line. Therefore, knowing the stress components formula_137 and formula_138 on any particular plane, one can draw a line parallel to that plane through the particular coordinates formula_1 and formula_2 on the Mohr circle and find the pole as the intersection of such line with the Mohr circle. As an example, let's assume we have a state of stress with stress components formula_141, formula_142, and formula_143, as shown on Figure 7. First, we can draw a line from point formula_81 parallel to the plane of action of formula_12, or, if we choose otherwise, a line from point formula_80 parallel to the plane of action of formula_13. The intersection of any of these two lines with the Mohr circle is the pole. Once the pole has been determined, to find the state of stress on a plane making an angle formula_148 with the vertical, or in other words a plane having its normal vector forming an angle formula_24 with the horizontal plane, then we can draw a line from the pole parallel to that plane (See Figure 7). The normal and shear stresses on that plane are then the coordinates of the point of intersection between the line and the Mohr circle.


title: Mohr's circle

text: The orientation of the planes where the maximum and minimum principal stresses act, also known as "principal planes", can be determined by measuring in the Mohr circle the angles ∠BOC and ∠BOE, respectively, and taking half of each of those angles. Thus, the angle ∠BOC between formula_150 and formula_151 is double the angle formula_152 which the major principal plane makes with plane formula_81.


title: Mohr's circle

text: This equation defines two values for formula_157 which are formula_158 apart (Figure). This equation can be derived directly from the geometry of the circle, or by making the parametric equation of the circle for formula_63 equal to zero (the shear stress in the principal planes is always zero).


title: Mohr's circle

text: Assume a material element under a state of stress as shown in Figure 8 and Figure 9, with the plane of one of its sides oriented 10° with respect to the horizontal plane.


title: Mohr's circle

text: Following the engineering mechanics sign convention for the physical space (Figure 5), the stress components for the material element in this example are:


title: Mohr's circle

text: Following the steps for drawing the Mohr circle for this particular state of stress, we first draw a Cartesian coordinate system formula_49 with the formula_2-axis upward.


title: Mohr's circle

text: We then plot two points A(50,40) and B(-10,-40), representing the state of stress at plane A and B as show in both Figure 8 and Figure 9. These points follow the engineering mechanics sign convention for the Mohr-circle space (Figure 5), which assumes positive normals stresses outward from the material element, and positive shear stresses on each plane rotating the material element clockwise. This way, the shear stress acting on plane B is negative and the shear stress acting on plane A is positive.


title: Mohr's circle

text: The diameter of the circle is the line joining point A and B. The centre of the circle is the intersection of this line with the formula_1-axis. Knowing both the location of the centre and length of the diameter, we are able to plot the Mohr circle for this particular state of stress.


title: Mohr's circle

text: The abscissas of both points E and C (Figure 8 and Figure 9) intersecting the formula_1-axis are the magnitudes of the minimum and maximum normal stresses, respectively; the ordinates of both points E and C are the magnitudes of the shear stresses acting on both the minor and major principal planes, respectively, which is zero for principal planes.


title: Mohr's circle

text: Even though the idea for using the Mohr circle is to graphically find different stress components by actually measuring the coordinates for different points on the circle, it is more convenient to confirm the results analytically. Thus, the radius and the abscissa of the centre of the circle are


title: Mohr's circle

text: The coordinates for both points H and G (Figure 8 and Figure 9) are the magnitudes of the minimum and maximum shear stresses, respectively; the abscissas for both points H and G are the magnitudes for the normal stresses acting on the same planes where the minimum and maximum shear stresses act, respectively.


title: Mohr's circle

text: and the normal stresses acting on the same planes where the minimum and maximum shear stresses act are equal to formula_172


title: Mohr's circle

text: We can choose to either use the double angle approach (Figure 8) or the Pole approach (Figure 9) to find the orientation of the principal normal stresses and principal shear stresses.


title: Mohr's circle

text: Using the double angle approach we measure the angles ∠BOC and ∠BOE in the Mohr Circle (Figure 8) to find double the angle the major principal stress and the minor principal stress make with plane B in the physical space. To obtain a more accurate value for these angles, instead of manually measuring the angles, we can use the analytical expression


title: Mohr's circle

text: From inspection of Figure 8, this value corresponds to the angle ∠BOE. Thus, the minor principal angle is


title: Mohr's circle

text: Remember that in this particular example formula_154 and formula_155 are angles with respect to the plane of action of formula_179 (oriented in the formula_180-axis)and not angles with respect to the plane of action of formula_12 (oriented in the formula_21-axis).


title: Mohr's circle

text: Using the Pole approach, we first localize the Pole or origin of planes. For this, we draw through point A on the Mohr circle a line inclined 10° with the horizontal, or, in other words, a line parallel to plane A where formula_183 acts. The Pole is where this line intersects the Mohr circle (Figure 9). To confirm the location of the Pole, we could draw a line through point B on the Mohr circle parallel to the plane B where formula_179 acts. This line would also intersect the Mohr circle at the Pole (Figure 9).


title: Mohr's circle

text: From the Pole, we draw lines to different points on the Mohr circle. The coordinates of the points where these lines intersect the Mohr circle indicate the stress components acting on a plane in the physical space having the same inclination as the line. For instance, the line from the Pole to point C in the circle has the same inclination as the plane in the physical space where formula_91 acts. This plane makes an angle of 63.435° with plane B, both in the Mohr-circle space and in the physical space. In the same way, lines are traced from the Pole to points E, D, F, G and H to find the stress components on planes with the same orientation.


title: Mohr's circle

text: To construct the Mohr circle for a general three-dimensional case of stresses at a point, the values of the principal stresses formula_186 and their principal directions formula_187 must be first evaluated.


title: Mohr's circle

text: Considering the principal axes as the coordinate system, instead of the general formula_188, formula_189, formula_190 coordinate system, and assuming that formula_191, then the normal and shear components of the stress vector formula_192, for a given plane with unit vector formula_193, satisfy the following equations


title: Mohr's circle

text: Knowing that formula_196, we can solve for formula_197, formula_198, formula_199, using the Gauss elimination method which yields


title: Mohr's circle

text: which are the equations of the three Mohr's circles for stress formula_213, formula_214, and formula_215, with radii formula_216, formula_217, and formula_218, and their centres with coordinates formula_219, formula_220, formula_221, respectively.


title: Mohr's circle

text: These equations for the Mohr circles show that all admissible stress points formula_117 lie on these circles or within the shaded area enclosed by them (see Figure 10). Stress points formula_117 satisfying the equation for circle formula_213 lie on, or outside circle formula_213. Stress points formula_117 satisfying the equation for circle formula_214 lie on, or inside circle formula_214. And finally, stress points formula_117 satisfying the equation for circle formula_215 lie on, or outside circle formula_215.


title: Secularization

text: In sociology, secularization (or secularisation) is the transformation of a society from close identification with religious values and institutions toward non-religious values and secular institutions. The "secularization thesis" expresses the idea that as societies progress, particularly through modernization, rationalization, and advances in science and technology, religious authority diminishes in all aspects of social life and governance. In recent years, the secularization thesis has been challenged due to some global studies indicating that the irreligious population of the world may be in decline as a percentage of the world population due to irreligious countries having subreplacement fertility rates and religious countries having higher birth rates in general. Christian sociologist Peter L. Berger coined the term desecularization to describe this phenomenon. In addition, secularization rates are stalling or reversing in some countries/regions such as the countries in the former Soviet Union or large cities in the Western world with significant amounts of religious immigrants.


title: Secularization

text: As a second meaning, the term "secularization" may also occur in the context of the lifting of monastic restrictions from a member of the clergy.


title: Secularization

text: Secularization, in the main, sociological meaning of the term, involves the historical process in which religion loses social and cultural significance. As a result of secularization the role of religion in modern societies becomes restricted. In secularized societies faith lacks cultural authority, and religious organizations have little social power.


title: Secularization

text: Secularization has many levels of meaning, both as a theory and as a historical process. Social theorists such as Karl Marx (1818–1883), Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), Max Weber (1864–1920), and Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) postulated that the modernization of society would include a decline in levels of religiosity. Study of this process seeks to determine the manner in which, or extent to which religious creeds, practices, and institutions are losing social significance. Some theorists argue that the secularization of modern civilization partly results from our inability to adapt the broad ethical and spiritual needs of people to the increasingly fast advance of the physical sciences.


title: Secularization

text: In contrast to the "modernization" thesis, Christian Smith and others argue that intellectual and cultural élites promote secularization to enhance their own status and influence. Smith believes that intellectuals have an inherent tendency to be hostile to their native cultures, causing them to embrace secularism.


title: Secularization

text: The term "secularization" also has additional meanings, primarily historical and religious. Applied to church property, historically it refers to the seizure of church lands and buildings, such as Henry VIII's 16th-century dissolution of the monasteries in England and the later acts during the 18th-century French Revolution, as well as by various anti-clerical enlightened absolutist European governments during the 18th and 19th centuries, which resulted in the expulsion and suppression of the religious communities which occupied them. The 19th-century "Kulturkampf" in Germany and Switzerland and similar events in many other countries also were expressions of secularization.


title: Secularization

text: Still another form of secularization refers to the act of Prince-Bishops or holders of a position in a Monastic or Military Order - holding a combined religious and secular authority under the Catholic Church - who broke away and made themselves into completely secular (typically, Protestant) hereditary rulers. For example, Gotthard Kettler (1517–1587), the last Master of the Livonian Order, converted to Lutheranism, secularised (and took to himself) the lands of Semigallia and Courland which he had held on behalf of the order - which enabled him to marry and leave to his descendants the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia.


title: Secularization

text: The 1960s saw a trend toward increasing secularization in Western Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand. This transformation accompanied major social factors: economic prosperity, youth rebelling against the rules and conventions of society, sexual revolution, women's liberation, radical theology, and radical politics.


title: Secularization

text: Secularization is sometimes credited both to the cultural shifts in society following the emergence of rationality and the development of science as a substitute for superstition—Max Weber called this process the "disenchantment of the world"—and to the changes made by religious institutions to compensate. At the most basic stages, this begins with a slow transition from oral traditions to a writing culture that diffuses knowledge. This first reduces the authority of clerics as the custodians of revealed knowledge. The shift of responsibility for education from the family and community to the state has had two consequences:


title: Secularization

text: A major issue in the study of secularization is the extent to which certain trends such as decreased attendance at places of worship indicate a decrease in religiosity or simply a privatization of religious belief, where religious beliefs no longer play a dominant role in public life or in other aspects of decision making.


title: Secularization

text: C. John Sommerville (1998) outlined six uses of the term secularization in the scientific literature. The first five are more along the lines of 'definitions' while the sixth is more of a 'clarification of use':


title: Secularization

text: As studied by sociologists, one of the major themes of secularization is that of "differentiation"—i.e., the tendency for areas of life to become more distinct and specialized as a society becomes modernized. European sociology, influenced by anthropology, was interested in the process of change from the so-called primitive societies to increasingly advanced societies. In the United States, the emphasis was initially on change as an aspect of progress, but Talcott Parsons refocused on society as a system immersed in a constant process of increased differentiation, which he saw as a process in which new institutions take over the tasks necessary in a society to guarantee its survival as the original monolithic institutions break up. This is a devolution from single, less differentiated institutions to an increasingly differentiated subset of institutions.


title: Secularization

text: Following Parsons, this concept of differentiation has been widely applied. As phrased by José Casanova, this "core and the central thesis of the theory of secularization is the conceptualization of the process of societal modernization as a process of functional differentiation and emancipation of the secular spheres—primarily the state, the economy, and science—from the religious sphere and the concomitant differentiation and specialization of religion within its own newly found religious sphere". Casanova also describes this as the theory of "privatization" of religion, which he partially criticizes. While criticizing certain aspects of the traditional sociological theory of secularization, however, David Martin argues that the concept of social differentiation has been its "most useful element".


title: Secularization

text: At present, secularization as understood in the West is being debated in the sociology of religion. In his works "Legitimacy of the Modern Age" (1966) and "The Genesis of the Copernican World" (1975), Hans Blumenberg has rejected the idea of a historical continuity – fundamental to the so-called 'theorem of secularization'; the Modern age in his view represents an independent epoch opposed to Antiquity and the Middle Ages by a rehabilitation of human curiosity in reaction to theological absolutism. "Blumenberg targets Löwith's argument that progress is the secularization of Hebrew and Christian beliefs and argues to the contrary that the modern age, including its belief in progress, grew out of a new secular self-affirmation of culture against the Christian tradition." Wolfhart Pannenberg, a student of Löwith, has continued the debate against Blumenberg.


title: Secularization

text: Charles Taylor in "A Secular Age" challenges what he calls 'the subtraction thesis' – that science leads to religion being subtracted from more and more areas of life.


title: Secularization

text: Proponents of "secularization theory" demonstrate widespread declines in the prevalence of religious belief throughout the West, particularly in Europe. Some scholars (e.g., Rodney Stark, Peter Berger) have argued that levels of religiosity are not declining, while other scholars (e.g., Mark Chaves, N. J. Demerath) have countered by introducing the idea of neo-secularization, which broadens the definition of secularization to include the decline of religious authority and its ability to influence society.


title: Secularization

text: In other words, rather than using the proportion of irreligious apostates as the sole measure of secularity, neo-secularization argues that individuals increasingly look outside of religion for authoritative positions. Neo-secularizationists would argue that religion has diminishing authority on issues such as birth control, and argue that religion's authority is declining and secularization is taking place even if religious affiliation may not be declining in the United States (a debate still taking place).


title: Secularization

text: Finally, some claim that demographic forces offset the process of secularization, and may do so to such an extent that individuals can consistently drift away from religion even as society becomes more religious. This is especially the case in societies like Israel (with the ultra-Orthodox and religious Zionists) where committed religious groups have several times the birth rate of seculars. The religious fertility effect operates to a greater or lesser extent in all countries, and is amplified in the West by religious immigration. For instance, even as native whites became more secular, London, England, has become more religious in the past 25 years as religious immigrants and their descendants have increased their share of the population. Across the board, the question of secularization has generated considerable (and occasionally heated) debates in the social sciences.


title: Secularization

text: 1870–1930. Christian Smith examined the secularization of American public life between 1870 and 1930. He noted that in 1870 a Protestant establishment thoroughly dominated American culture and its public institutions. By the turn of the 20th century, however, positivism had displaced the Baconian method (which had hitherto bolstered natural theology) and higher education had been thoroughly secularized. In the 1910s "legal realism" gained prominence, de-emphasizing the religious basis for law. That same decade publishing houses emerged that were independent of the Protestant establishment. During the 1920s secularization extended into popular culture and mass public education ceased to be under Protestant cultural influence. Although the general public was still highly religious during this time period, by 1930 the old Protestant establishment was in "shambles".


title: Secularization

text: Key to understanding the secularization, Smith argues, was the rise of an elite intellectual class skeptical of religious orthodoxies and influenced by the European Enlightenment tradition. They consciously sought to displace a Protestant establishment they saw as standing in their way.


title: Secularization

text: 2000–2021. Annual Gallup polls from 2008 through 2015 showed that the fraction of American who did not identify with any particular religion steadily rose from 14.6% in 2008 to 19.6% in 2015. At the same time, the fraction of Americans identifying as Christians sank from 80.1% to 69% in 2021. In December 2021 ~21% of Americans declared no religious identity or preference. Given that non-Christian religions stayed roughly the same (at about 5-7% from 2008 to 2021) secularization thus seems to have affected primarily Christians.


title: Secularization

text: In Britain, secularization came much later than in most of Western Europe. It began in the 1960s as part of a much larger social and cultural revolution. Until then the postwar years had seen a revival of religiosity in Britain. Sociologists and historians have engaged in vigorous debates over when it started, how fast it happened, and what caused it.


title: Secularization

text: Sponsorship by royalty, aristocracy, and influential local gentry provided an important support system for organized religion. The sponsorship faded away in the 20th century, as the local élites were no longer so powerful or so financially able to subsidize their favorite activities. In coal-mining districts, local collieries typically funded local chapels, but that ended as the industry grew distressed and the unionized miners rejected élite interference in their local affairs. This allowed secularizing forces to gain strength.


title: Secularization

text: Data from the annual British Social Attitudes survey and the biennial European Social Survey suggest that the proportion of Britons who identify as Christian fell from 55% (in 1983) to 43% (in 2015). While members of non-Christian religions – principally Muslims and Hindus – quadrupled, the non-religious ("nones") now make up 53% of the British population. More than six in 10 “nones” were brought up as Christians, mainly Anglican or Catholic. Only 2% of “nones” were raised in religions other than Christian.


title: Secularization

text: People who were brought up to practice a religion, but who now identify as having no religion, so-called "non-verts", had different "non-version" rates, namely 14% for Jews, 10% for Muslims and Sikhs, and 6% for Hindus. The proportions of the non-religious who convert to a faith are small: 3% now identify as Anglicans, less than 0.5% convert to Catholicism, 2% join other Christian denominations, and 2% convert to non-Christian faiths.


title: Secularization

text: Spain used to be one of the most religious countries in Europe, but secularization has progressed fast during the past few decades. This was partly due to the anti-clericalism that was one of the roots of the Spanish civil war. Notably, the dictatorship of Francisco Franco embraced “national Catholicism”. However, agreements linked to the constitution of 1978 separated church and state. In 2001, 82% of Spaniards identified as Catholic but only half did in 2021. Only around 20% of Spaniards go to mass regularly and only 20% of weddings are taking place in a church (2019). Similarly, divorce was legalized in 1981, as was abortion and same-sex marriage soon after.


title: Secularization

text: Like other European countries, Germany has recorded a decrease in religiosity (in terms of proportion of individuals affiliated to a Church and baptisms for example) but the trends in East and West Germany are significantly different. In East Germany, the process of secularization has been significantly quicker. These differences are explained by sociologists (Jörg Stolz, Detlef Pollack & Nan Dirk de Graaf) by the State repression in the 1950s and 1960s, which challenges predictions of natural cohort replacements stated by the Voas model.


title: Secularization

text: One traditional view of Chinese culture sees the teachings of Confucianism - influential over many centuries - as basically secular.


title: Secularization

text: The early secularization of Chinese society, which must be recognized as a sign of modernity [...] has ironically left China for centuries without a powerful and stable source of morality and law. All this simply means that the pursuit of wealth or power or simply the competition for survival can be and often has been ruthless without any sense of restraint. [...] Along with the early secularization of Chinese society which was equally early, the concomitant demise of feudalism and hereditary aristocracy, another remarkable development, transformed China earlier than any other country into a unitary system politically, with one single power centre. It also rendered Chinese society much more egalitarian than Western Europe and Japan.


title: Secularization

text: In this arguably secular setting, the Chinese Communist Party régime of the People's Republic of China (in power on the Chinese mainland from 1949) promoted deliberate secularization.


title: Secularization

text: Many countries in the Arab world show signs of increasing secularization. For instance, in Egypt, support for imposing sharia (Islamic law) fell from 84% in 2011 to 34% in 2016. Egyptians also pray less: among older Egyptians (55+) 90% prayed daily in 2011. Among the younger generation (age 18–24) that fraction was only 70%. By contrast, in 2016 these numbers had fallen to <80% (55+) and <40% (18–24). The other age groups were in between these values. In Lebanon and Morocco, the number of people listening to daily recitals of the Quran fell by half from 2011 to 2016. Some of these developments seem to be driven by need, e.g. by stagnating incomes which force women to contribute to household income and therefore to work. High living costs delay marriage and, as a consequence, seem to encourage pre-marital sex. However, in other countries, such as Jordan and Palestine, support for sharia and Islamist ideas seems to grow. Even in countries in which secularization is growing, there are backlashes. For instance, the president of Egypt, Abdel-Fattah al-Sisi, has banned hundreds of newspapers and websites who may provoke opposition.


title: Nala (The Lion King)

text: Nala is a fictional character in Disney's "The Lion King" film franchise. Introduced in the animated film "The Lion King" (1994), Nala subsequently appears as a less prominent character in the film's sequels "" (1998) and "The Lion King 1½" (2004), and serves as a recurring character in "The Lion Guard" (2015–2019). In the original film, the adult Nala is voiced by American actress Moira Kelly. Young Nala's speaking voice is provided by actress Niketa Calame, while singers Laura Williams and Sally Dworsky provide the singing voices of young and adult Nala respectively. Nala is introduced as the daughter of an unnamed lion and Sarafina, the best friend of Simba, and ultimately becomes his wife as well as the daughter-in-law of Mufasa and Sarabi and the niece-in-law of Scar by the end of "The Lion King". Nala becomes Simba’s wife as well as his Queen. Nala is also Kopa, Kiara and Kion’s mother.


title: Nala (The Lion King)

text: Several years after Simba's uncle Scar has killed Simba's father Mufasa and taken the throne, Nala desperately ventures into the jungle to find help. Upon unexpectedly reuniting with an adult Simba, who she had long been tricked by Scar into presuming dead, Nala encourages him to return to Pride Rock, overthrow his uncle and ultimately become king. As Simba's queen, Nala has a son, Kopa, an adventurous cub in "The Lion King: Six New Adventures", a daughter, Kiara, whose story is explored in "The Lion King: Simba's Pride" and another son named Kion, who serves as the protagonist of "The Lion Guard".


title: Nala (The Lion King)

text: Nala is the most significant female character in "The Lion King". As the film was inspired by William Shakespeare's tragedy "Hamlet", Nala is considered to be "The Lion King"'s equivalent of Hamlet's love interest Ophelia, although differences remain between the two characters. Many early concepts first developed for Nala were eventually abandoned, including a brother and father for the character, as well as her being romantically pursued by Scar. While critical reception towards Nala has been generally mixed, Kelly's vocal performance has been praised.


title: Nala (The Lion King)

text: Nala appears in the Broadway musical adaptation of the film, first played by singer Heather Headley. The character also appears in the television series "The Lion Guard", with Gabrielle Union replacing Kelly as the voice of Nala. Beyoncé and Shahadi Wright Joseph voice the character in the 2019 CGI live adaptation of the original film directed by Jon Favreau.


title: Nala (The Lion King)

text: Screenwriter Linda Woolverton conceived Nala "as part of a gradual progression ... which have driven recent public conversation about what young girls should be able to expect from their cinematic role models." In early versions of the screenplay, Nala has a younger brother named Mheetu, who enjoys accompanying her and her best friend Simba on their adventures. Pronounced "me too", the character's name is a reference to this personality trait. Simba was intended to save the cub from a wildebeest stampede, and Nala would eventually become responsible for protecting Mheetu from Simba's tyrannical uncle Scar. Nala also had a fox friend named Bhati. According to Woolverton, Mheetu and Bhati were eventually written out of the film because their stories were beginning to distract from Simba's, in addition to the Mheetu-Scar subplot making the film too dark when combined with the death of Simba's father Mufasa. At one point, Nala also had a named father; the character was similarly abandoned. In addition, in another script, Sarafina (then named Naanda) was Sarabi's younger sister, and Mufasa was implied to be her mate, and thus Nala's Father. This implication was censored in the final draft as it would lead to incest between Simba and Nala as half siblings as well as first cousins.


title: Nala (The Lion King)

text: Because "The Lion King" was originally conceived as a much more mature and adult-oriented film, Nala was intended to have been banished from the Pride Lands as punishment for rejecting Scar's romantic advances. This idea was to have been further explored in Scar's song "Be Prepared (Reprise)", during which Scar demands that Nala become his queen, but the musical number was ultimately cut from the final film because the scene was considered too "creepy." Matthew Roulette of TheFW believes that the scene was abandoned because of the significant age difference between Nala and Scar.


title: Nala (The Lion King)

text: The character has a mother, whose name is never mentioned in the film; however, she is credited as Sarafina during the film's end credits. Candice Russel of the "Sun-Sentinel" believes that Nala contributes to the film's love story – "an indispensable factor in Disney cartoon features" – in addition to convincing Simba to return to Pride Rock. It has been observed that, unlike Disney's three previous animated efforts ("The Little Mermaid" (1989), "Beauty and the Beast" (1991) and "Aladdin" (1992), the romantic relationship between Nala and Simba is not main plot of the film. Ella Ceron of "Thought Catalog" observed that "At [Simba's] return, she's not exactly the friendliest little kitten, either ... but is willing to overlook her own hurt ego in the spirit of their friendship. She believes in Simba, and doesn't understand why he wouldn't want to fight for his right to rule."


title: Nala (The Lion King)

text: The speaking voice of adult Nala is provided by American actress Moira Kelly. Kelly (who rose her fame in Robert Downey Jr film "Chaplin") learned that Disney was auditioning actresses for the role of Nala from her agent. Despite having not been the directors' first choice for the role, Kelly was allowed to audition because the filmmakers were interested in hearing different voices at the time. Kelly believes the directors had been searching for a specific "quality of voice ... a sort of authoritative voice but with a lot of warmth" to complement Nala's sensible yet nurturing personality. After attending a series of callbacks, during which Kelly returned to Disney several times to re-read the character's lines, Kelly was selected as one of two finalists. Kelly would not officially be offered the part until several months after her audition; Disney's first choice for the role remains undisclosed. Actor Matthew Broderick, voice of Simba, had already begun recording alongside another actress who had been cast as Nala before that actress was replaced with Kelly. Broderick was not informed that his original co-star had been recast, and only learned that Nala was voiced by Kelly at the film's premiere.


title: Nala (The Lion King)

text: The film's entire recording process took approximately three years to complete, during which Kelly's sessions were held in both the United States and Canada, while her co-stars Broderick and Jeremy Irons, voice of Scar, were recording in the United States and England, respectively. Each main cast member recorded their dialogue separately, which took Kelly some time to get used to because she had grown accustomed to working with several other actors at a time on the sets of her live-action films. For "The Lion King", a director would often take the place of another actor for Kelly to act opposite of. Vocally, Kelly decided to approach the role as though she were reading to a child, explaining, "it's kind of fun to play with different voices and try to color the lines for the child so they can imagine it more fully", which she admitted is different than how the actress would approach a live-action role. Because Nala is a "very straight character", determining what kind of voice she would use for her was not a particularly challenging task. Additionally, the filmmakers would also film Kelly's performances in order to incorporate her own facial expressions into her character's design, the process of which impressed the actress. In her film debut, actress Niketa Calame voices young Nala. According to Calame's official website, Nala remains the actress' "biggest role to date".


title: Nala (The Lion King)

text: A classically trained pianist and chorister, Laura Williams provides the singing voice of young Nala, which can be heard in the song "I Just Can't Wait to Be King"; the singer was 15 years old at the time. Meanwhile, singer-songwriter Sally Dworsky provides the singing voice of adult Nala, which is heard during the song "Can You Feel the Love Tonight". The lyrics of the film's love theme, "Can You Feel the Love Tonight", were re-written approximately 15 times, according to lyricist Tim Rice, who wrote the song alongside composer Elton John. At one point, the producers wanted the song to be a comical duet performed by supporting characters Timon and Pumbaa, despite the fact that John had originally composed the song with Nala and Simba in mind. However, John lobbied in favor of "Can You Feel the Love Tonight" being a love song performed as a duet by Nala and Simba, with which the filmmakers ultimately agreed.


title: Nala (The Lion King)

text: When asked by Disney if she was interested in reprising her role as Nala in "The Lion King II: Simba's Pride", Kelly immediately accepted, joking, "Sure, you wanna do a third, fourth, fifth? I'm right there". In the case of "The Lion King "1½, it took the actress only a couple of days to record her character's dialogue due to Nala's comparatively smaller role in the film; much of Nala's footage from the first film was simply reused accordingly. Elton John's official website cites Kelly among the film's cast of actors who "would grace any red carpet." Kelly's performance as Nala is responsible for introducing the actress to a younger audience. Previously, she had been better known for appearing in more adult-oriented live-action films at that time. In 2011, Kelly revealed that fans of the film rarely recognize her speaking voice as the voice of Nala, although Robert DeSalvo of NextMovie.com claims that the actress "has a ... distinctive voice that "The Lion King" fans will instantly recognize as the voice of adult Nala."