title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: Partly following anger and rising tensions after the October elections, the Social Democrats called a general strike; one of Finland's only three in history. Otto Ville Kuusinen and Kullervo Manner, as members of the SDP's internal executive council favored revolution now and the SDP's council voted against the decision for revolution in November by only one vote - later Kuusinen regretted this, as he had already named several pro-revolution figures to the council and had support for more. Additionally, tensions were increased when a massacre occurred in Mommila, in which an independent Bolshevik detachment of Russian soldiers stormed a Finnish mansion murdering Finnish businessman Alfred Kordelin. Future president Risto Ryti and his wife Gerda escaped the events at Mommila by mere minutes, fleeing to a nearby forest.


title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: The White Guards started mobilizing following the attack and declared their support for Svinhufvud's Senate.


title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: By mid-January, the country had plunged to chaos. General-Lieutenant Carl Mannerheim had arrived from discharge from Odessa to Petrograd to Vaasa to organize a Finnish army. In mid-January the Svinhufvud Senate declared the White guard to be the legal and official army of the Finnish state. Several members of parliament loyal to the republic and Svinhufvud senate departed to Vaasa, where the White Army's headquarters were to be located. Additionally, the money printing machines of the Bank of Finland were evacuated to Vaasa to continue the production of currency for the Finnish state.


title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: By January 27, 1918, the Red Guards lit the flames atop the Helsinki Workers' House signifying the revolution had begun. The White Army organized in Vaasa managed to disarm thousands of Russian soldiers (with Bolshevik sympathies) in Seinäjoki and Vaasa on January 26 and 27. By February, the Finnish Jägers from Germany had returned back to Finland and arrived in Vaasa. By February–March 1918, Reds were in a tough state, as German negotiators (with active contacts by the White Finnish government) during the Brest-Litovsk peace treaty negotiations essentially forced the Bolsheviks to give up rights to Finland, stop supporting the Reds and completely disarm the rest of the Russian soldiers stationed in Finnish land still controlled by the Reds.


title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: In March–April, German forces landed in Hanko, Åland and East Uusimaa region and with a three-pronged attack from the West, North and East, captured Helsinki with Finnish troops. The war essentially ended by May 15, 1918, and the Whites held a victory parade in Helsinki on May 16, 1918.


title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: The Leninist victories also inspired a surge in revolutionary action to achieve world communism: the larger German Revolution and its offspring, like the Bavarian Soviet Republic, the neighbouring Hungarian Revolution and the Biennio Rosso in Italy in addition to various smaller uprisings, protests and strikes, all of which proved abortive.


title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: The German Revolution however proved decisive in abdication of the German Kaiser, as well the end of the German empire and as such came to shape the political future of Europe. It also helped convince lawmakers in the U.K. to start lifting the crippling embargo on the country.


title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: The Bolsheviks sought to coordinate this new wave of revolution in the Soviet-led Comintern, and new communist parties separated from their former socialist organisations and the older moderate Second International. Lenin saw the success of the potential German revolution as being able to end the economic isolation of the newly formed Soviet Russia. Despite ambitions for world revolution, supporters of Socialism in one country led by Joseph Stalin came to power in the soviet state, instituted bolshevization of the Comintern, and abolished it in 1943.


title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: After the Second World War, the Red Army occupied most of Eastern Europe, and communists came to power in the Baltic states, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romanian, Bulgaria and East Germany.


title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: In Ireland, then part of the United Kingdom, the nationalist Easter Rising of 1916 anticipated the Irish War of Independence (1919–1921) within the same historical period as this first wave of communist revolution. The Irish republican movement of the time was predominantly a nationalist and populist form of radical-republicanism, and although it had left-wing positions and included socialists and communists, it was not communist. The Irish and Soviet Russian Republics, nevertheless, found common ground in their opposition to the British Empire and established a trading relationship. However, the British historian E. H. Carr later commented that "the negotiations were not taken very seriously on either side". Both the Irish Republic and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic were pariah states that were excluded from the Paris Peace Conference. The resulting Irish Free State was founded in 1922.


title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: The clash between radical republicanism and conservative monarchism was also at the heart of political conflict in Greece. In the years leading up to the war, Greece had participated in Balkan Wars against neighbouring states on nationalist and irredentist grounds. The Great War, by bringing Greece into the victorious side against its old rival, Ottoman Empire, had brought to a head existing tensions between two loose camps of Greek political elites that is known as the National Schism. On the left, the Venizelists, led by Eleftherios Venizelos, was liberal, republican, progressive and nationalist; favoured France and Britain in foreign policy and sought profound democratising reforms influenced by the Radicals in the French Third Republic and by British Prime Minister David Lloyd George. On the right, the monarchists were conservative, clerical and traditionalist; favoured Germany in foreign policy, and supported a powerful political role for the king. Between 1919 and 1922, Greece pursued war with Turkey to take advantage of the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and acquire territory inhabited by ethnic Greeks. Greece's disaster at the Battle of Dumlupınar prompted the discrediting of its conservative and monarchist establishment: the army mutinies and popular uprisings in 1922 led to initially a military coup by republican army officers, followed by the forced abdication of King Constantine I in 1923 and the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of the Second Hellenic Republic in 1924. That period of instability carried on for the rest of the interwar period, with General Pangalos installed as dictator in the military coup of 1925, a return to democracy under Venizelos in 1928 and the restoration of the monarchy by a military coup in 1935.


title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: Spain, despite its neutrality during the war, was also affected by turmoil between radical republicanism and traditionalist monarchism. The Restoration Monarchy of 1874 was a parliamentary regime but a conservative one that underrepresented popular classes and gave the monarch a major political role. A democratising revolution was attempted in 1917 by an alliance of radical republicans, socialists and disaffected Spanish Armed Forces officers, but it soon failed. After the war, however, critics of the constitutional monarchy grew as the international climate proved favourable to republican or democratising institutional change, and the Restoration state proved unable to resolve a series of challenges brought on by the war, notably a postwar economic slump and renewed anti-imperial action in the colonies. Strike movements proliferated between 1919 and 1923, leading notably to an escalating paramilitary conflict between worker and employer movements in cities such as Barcelona. Meanwhile, Spain went to war in 1920 to maintain control over the last remnants of its colonial empire, which culminated in the disastrous defeat of the Battle of Annual in 1921, which finally discredited the constitutional monarchy. Repeated elections failed to produce working majorities in parliament for either establishment party, the Fused Liberal Party or the Liberal-Conservative Party, to address the crises. In the face of widespread social unrest and institutional paralysis, General Miguel Primo de Rivera demanded power, and was appointed head of government with dictatorial powers by King Alfonso XIII. The revolutionary and democratising movements of 1916-22 were forestalled by the installation of a military dictatorship that would last until the Second Republic of 1931.


title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: The same was true of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920), which had degenerated into factional fighting among the rebels by 1915, as the more radical forces of Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa lost ground to the more conservative "Sonoran oligarchy" and its Constitutional Army. The Felicistas, the last major group of counterrevolutionaries, abandoned their armed campaign in 1920, and the internecine power struggles abated for a time after revolutionary General Álvaro Obregón had bribed or slain his former allies and rivals alike, but the following decade witnessed the assassination of Obregon and several others, abortive military coup attempts and a massive traditionalist uprising, the Cristero War, against the government's persecution of Roman Catholics.


title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: The Sette Giugno of 1919 was a revolt characterised by a series of riots and protests by the Maltese population, initially as a reaction to the rise in the cost of living in the aftermath of World War I and the sacking of hundreds of workers from the dockyard. That coincided with popular demands for self-government that resulted in a National Assembly being formed in Valletta at the same time of the riots. That dramatically boosted the uprising, as many people headed to Valletta to show their support for the Assembly. The British forces fired into the crowd, killing four local men. The cost of living increased dramatically after the war. Imports were limited, and as food became scarce prices rose, which made the fortune of farmers and merchants with surpluses to trade.


title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: A countrywide revolution against the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan was carried out by Egyptians and Sudanese from different walks of life in the wake of the British-ordered exile of the revolutionary leader Saad Zaghloul and other members of the Wafd Party in 1919. The revolution led to Britain's recognition of Egyptian independence in 1922 and the implementation of a new constitution in 1923. Britain, however, continued in control of what was renamed the Kingdom of Egypt. British guided the king and retained control of the Canal Zone, Sudan and Egypt's external and military affairs. King Fuad died in 1936, and Farouk inherited the throne at only 16. Alarmed by the Second Italo-Abyssinian War during which Fascist Italy invaded Ethiopia, he signed the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, which required Britain to withdraw all troops from Egypt by 1949 except at the Suez Canal. During World War II, Allied troops used Egypt as a major base for its operations throughout the region. The British Armed Forces were withdrawn to the Suez Canal area in 1947, but nationalist anti-British sentiment continued to grow after the war.


title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: Following the surrender of the Ottoman Empire in the Armistice of Mudros and the subsequent Treaty of Sevres, resistance to both the Ottoman Sultanate and foreign occupying forces ramped up through the formation of the Kuva-yi Milliye, irregular militias that fought against the French in what became the Southern Front of the war. Following the occupation of Izmir by Greek forces, the Grand National Assembly(GNA) was formed as a counter-government led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The GNA continued to fight against occupying forces, especially the Greeks who marched further into Anatolia, but halted their advance at the Battle of the Sakarya. This was followed by the start of the Great Offensive which pushed the invading Greek forces out of Anatolia.


title: Revolutions of 1917–1923

text: The aftermath of the war of independence saw the abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate, ending 623 years of Ottoman rule and the sovereignty of the Grand National Assembly over Turkey. On October 29th, 1923, a Republic was declared in Turkey with Ataturk as its president, who introduced Atatürk's reforms. These were a series of reforms and policies that completely overhauled Turkish society, economy, and government.


title: Communication channel

text: A communication channel refers either to a physical transmission medium such as a wire, or to a logical connection over a multiplexed medium such as a radio channel in telecommunications and computer networking. A channel is used for information transfer of, for example, a digital bit stream, from one or several "senders" to one or several "receivers". A channel has a certain capacity for transmitting information, often measured by its bandwidth in Hz or its data rate in bits per second.


title: Communication channel

text: Communicating an information signal across distance requires some form of pathway or medium. These pathways, called communication channels, use two types of media: Transmission line (e.g. twisted-pair, coaxial, and fiber-optic cable) and broadcast (e.g. microwave, satellite, radio, and infrared).


title: Communication channel

text: In information theory, a channel refers to a theoretical "channel model" with certain error characteristics. In this more general view, a storage device is also a communication channel, which can be sent to (written) and received from (reading) and allows communication of an information signal across time.


title: Communication channel

text: All of these communication channels share the property that they transfer information. The information is carried through the channel by a signal.


title: Communication channel

text: Mathematical models of the channel can be made to describe how the input (the transmitted signal) is mapped to the output (the received signal). There exist many types and uses of channel models specific to the field of communication. In particular, separate models are formulated to describe each layer of a communication system.


title: Communication channel

text: A channel can be modeled physically by trying to calculate the physical processes which modify the transmitted signal. For example, in wireless communications, the channel can be modeled by calculating the reflection of every object in the environment. A sequence of random numbers might also be added to simulate external interference and/or electronic noise in the receiver.


title: Communication channel

text: Statistically, a communication channel is usually modeled as a triple consisting of an input alphabet, an output alphabet, and for each pair "(i, o)" of input and output elements, a transition probability "p(i, o)". Semantically, the transition probability is the probability that the symbol "o" is received given that "i" was transmitted over the channel.


title: Communication channel

text: Statistical and physical modeling can be combined. For example, in wireless communications the channel is often modeled by a random attenuation (known as fading) of the transmitted signal, followed by additive noise. The attenuation term is a simplification of the underlying physical processes and captures the change in signal power over the course of the transmission. The noise in the model captures external interference and/or electronic noise in the receiver. If the attenuation term is complex it also describes the relative time a signal takes to get through the channel. The statistical properties of the random attenuation are decided by previous measurements or physical simulations.


title: Communication channel

text: Channel models may be continuous channel models in that there is no limit to how precisely their values may be defined.


title: Communication channel

text: Communication channels are also studied in a discrete-alphabet setting. This corresponds to abstracting a real-world communication system in which the analog → digital and digital → analog blocks are out of the control of the designer. The mathematical model consists of a transition probability that specifies an output distribution for each possible sequence of channel inputs. In information theory, it is common to start with memoryless channels in which the output probability distribution only depends on the current channel input.


title: Communication channel

text: In a digital channel model, the transmitted message is modeled as a digital signal at a certain protocol layer. Underlying protocol layers, such as the physical layer transmission technique, is replaced by a simplified model. The model may reflect channel performance measures such as bit rate, bit errors, latency/delay, delay jitter, etc. Examples of digital channel models are:


title: Communication channel

text: In an analog channel model, the transmitted message is modelled as an analog signal. The model can be a linear or non-linear, time-continuous or time-discrete (sampled), memoryless or dynamic (resulting in burst errors), time-invariant or time-variant (also resulting in burst errors), baseband, passband (RF signal model), real-valued or complex-valued signal model. The model may reflect the following channel impairments:


title: Communication channel

text: In networks, as opposed to point-to-point communication, the communication media is shared between multiple communication endpoints (terminals). Depending on the type of communication, different terminals can cooperate or interfere on each other. In general, any complex multi-terminal network can be considered as a combination of simplified multi-terminal channels. The following channels are the principal multi-terminal channels which was first introduced in the field of information theory:


title: Communication channel

text: From the above 4 basic multi-terminal channels, the multiple access channel is the only one whose capacity region is known. Even for the special case of the Gaussian scenario, the capacity region of the other 3 channels except the broadcast channel is unknown in general.


title: The Scorpion King: Book of Souls

text: The Scorpion King: Book of Souls is a 2018 direct-to-video sword and sorcery action adventure film released on October 23, 2018. It is the fifth installment in "The Scorpion King" series, and the final installment in the original series and a sequel to "".


title: The Scorpion King: Book of Souls

text: In ancient Egypt, King Memtep makes a covenant with Anubis, lord of the underworld, to create a cursed sword so powerful that whoever possesses it could rule the world. The sword, named the Fang of Anubis, is fueled by taking the souls of its enemies; the names of those killed by the sword are forever written in the Book of Souls.


title: The Scorpion King: Book of Souls

text: Nebserek plunders the tomb of King Memtep and steals the Fang of Anubis. Meanwhile, his lieutenant Khensa captures the blacksmith Mathayus (Zach McGowan), who they claim is the Scorpion King (which he denies) and kills his friend Abel. A warrior from Nubia, Tala, frees the blacksmith and heals him with the stings of scorpions. She tells him that her father, Balthazar, King of Nubia, told her to find the legendary Scorpion King to help bring peace to Egypt. She demands he join in a quest to end the evil empire of Nebserek. Nebserek is warned by his priestess that the sword can be destroyed by the Book of Souls, so they begin to seek it out.


title: The Scorpion King: Book of Souls

text: On the way to the Valley of the 13th Moon, Mathayus and Tala are captured by Uruk, leader of the Black Arrows, for trespassing. Mathayus requests he die with honor, being hunted, and Uruk accepts. After defeating and sparing the lives of four men and Uruk, Uruk releases them with respect. They continue on their quest to the gateway of the Temple of Scrolls. Tala opens the sacred gate using a lens that manipulates moonlight. Inside, they are attacked by a golem, Enkidu. A woman called Amina appears and explains that Enkidu was formed from clay and brought to life by magic to protect her. She reveals that she is the Book of Souls and sees and feels the souls taken by the Fang of Anubis. Wishing for her to join them, Mathayus traps Enkidu in the cave with a wall of fire and they head to the tomb of Memtep.


title: The Scorpion King: Book of Souls

text: The three are attacked on a beach by Harhar (another of Nebsereks's lieutenants) and some soldiers. They kill them all with the help of Enkidu, who braves the flames to protect Amina. They go into a city to get passage on a boat and Mathayus attacks Khensa; he does not kill her. As they escape by boat, Amina sees and feels the death of King Tarqa by Nebserek. He was Tala's brother; she is now queen. They then find the tomb and inside a Sphinx statue they find the way to end the curse of the sword - destroy the Book of Souls. Just as they discover this, Nebserek catches up to them and they are captured.


title: The Scorpion King: Book of Souls

text: Mathayus is chained up and Nebserek plans to fight him honorably, but he cuts his side with the sword. Tala and Enkidu are jailed together; now that she is queen the Nubian captives agree to fight on her command. Having seen Nebserek with the captives, the Black Arrows sneak up to their camp and prepare to fight. Tala wills Mathayus to remember being the Scorpion King, and several scorpions sting him, invigorating him to break his chains. Tala and Enkidu then break out of the jail and begin to fight Khensa. Uruk and the Black Arrows attack and kill the priestess, Mennofer. Nebserek is enraged and fights Mathayus while Tala and Khensa battle. Enkidu is stabbed with the Fang of Anubis and falls into the fire with it to protect Amina. The Scorpion King kills Khensa and throws Nebserek into the fire. He takes the sword from the fire; Amina insists she die by the sword to break its curse and free the souls it took. She walks into the blade and she and it turn to sand. Mathayus rides off alone.


title: JR Bourne

text: David Bourne (born April 8, 1970), known professionally as JR Bourne, is a Canadian actor. He portrayed Chris Argent on all six seasons of the MTV supernatural drama series "Teen Wolf" (2011–2017) and was part of the main cast in the final season. Bourne has also appeared as a series regular on the ABC mystery drama "Somewhere Between" (2017) and The CW science fiction drama "The 100" (2019–2020). Other notable television roles include Martouf / Lantash on the Showtime science fiction adventure "Stargate SG-1" (1998–2000), CIA Agent Edwards on the Fox science fiction drama "Fringe" (2009–2011), and Kenny Ryan on the ABC drama "Revenge" (2012–2013).


title: JR Bourne

text: Outside of television, Bourne has won two Vancouver Film Critics Circle Awards for Best Supporting Actor in a Canadian Film for "On the Corner" in 2004 and "Everything's Gone Green" in 2007. He also received nominations for Best Supporting Performance by a Male in a Feature Length Drama for both films at the Leo Awards.


title: JR Bourne

text: Bourne's niece Madison was born with the genetic disorder cystic fibrosis. The actor has long been a champion of the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. In an interview with MTV News, Bourne revealed that he had come to realize back when he'd first started doing conventions for "Teen Wolf" how amazing of a platform it provided to raise money and awareness for the foundation.


title: Jugular venous pressure

text: The jugular venous pressure (JVP, sometimes referred to as jugular venous pulse) is the indirectly observed pressure over the venous system via visualization of the internal jugular vein. It can be useful in the differentiation of different forms of heart and lung disease.


title: Jugular venous pressure

text: The patient is positioned at a 45° incline, and the filling level of the external jugular vein determined. The internal jugular vein is visualised when looking for the pulsation. In healthy people, the filling level of the jugular vein should be less than 4 centimetres vertical height above the sternal angle. A pen-light can aid in discerning the jugular filling level by providing tangential light.


title: Jugular venous pressure

text: The JVP is easiest to observe if one looks "along" the surface of the sternocleidomastoid muscle, as it is easier to appreciate the movement relative to the neck when looking from the side (as opposed to looking at the surface at a 90 degree angle). Like judging the movement of an automobile from a distance, it is easier for an observer to see the movement of an automobile when it is crossing the observer's path at 90 degrees (i.e., moving left to right or right to left), as opposed to coming towards the observer.


title: Jugular venous pressure

text: Pulses in the JVP are rather hard to observe, but trained cardiologists do try to discern these as signs of the state of the right atrium.


title: Jugular venous pressure

text: A classical method for quantifying the JVP was described by Borst & Molhuysen in 1952. It has since been modified in various ways. A "venous arch" may be used to measure the JVP more accurately.


title: Jugular venous pressure

text: This sign is used to determine which waveform you are viewing. Feel the radial pulse while simultaneously watching the JVP. The waveform that is seen immediately after the arterial pulsation is felt is the 'v wave' of the JVP.


title: Jugular venous pressure

text: The term "hepatojugular reflux" was previously used as it was thought that compression of the liver resulted in "reflux" of blood out of the hepatic sinusoids into the inferior vena cava, thereby elevating right atrial pressure and visualized as jugular venous distention. The exact physiologic mechanism of jugular venous distention with a positive test is much more complex and the commonly accepted term is now "abdominojugular test".


title: Jugular venous pressure

text: In a prospective randomized study involving 86 patients who underwent right and left cardiac catheterization, the abdominojugular test was shown to correlate best with the pulmonary arterial wedge pressure. Furthermore, patients with a positive response had lower left ventricular ejection fractions and stroke volumes, higher left ventricular filling pressure, higher mean pulmonary arterial, and higher right atrial pressures.


title: Jugular venous pressure

text: The abdominojugular test, when done in a standardized fashion, correlates best with the pulmonary arterial wedge pressure, and therefore, is probably a reflection of an increased central blood volume. In the absence of isolated right ventricular failure, seen in some patients with right ventricular infarction, a positive abdominojugular test suggests a pulmonary artery wedge pressure of 15 mm Hg or greater.


title: Jugular venous pressure

text: An elevated JVP is the classic sign of venous hypertension (e.g. right-sided heart failure). JVP elevation can be visualized as jugular venous distension, whereby the JVP is visualized at a level of the neck that is higher than normal. The jugular venous pressure is often used to assess the central venous pressure in the absence of invasive measurements (e.g. with a central venous catheter, which is a tube inserted in the neck veins). A 1996 systematic review concluded that a high jugular venous pressure makes a high central venous pressure more likely, but does not significantly help confirm a low central venous pressure. The study also found that agreement between doctors on the jugular venous pressure can be poor, calling into question its reliability as a clinical decision-making tool. Similarly, a 2016 study examined the use of JVP measurements by clinical examination in the evaluation of central venous pressure in patients with heart failure. This study found that JVP examination was not consistent with actual central venous pressures, such that it was unreliable both for ruling in and ruling out heart failure. JVP measurement was especially unreliable in patients with high body fat. Additionally, it was noted that clinicians seemed to "extrapolate" JVP measurements from other, more easily examinable findings (like lung auscultation, body weight, heart rate, brachial blood pressure, and chest radiography findings).


title: Jugular venous pressure

text: The paradoxical increase of the JVP with inspiration (instead of the expected decrease) is referred to as the Kussmaul sign, and indicates impaired filling of the right ventricle. The differential diagnosis of Kussmaul's sign includes constrictive pericarditis, restrictive cardiomyopathy, pericardial effusion, and severe right-sided heart failure.


title: Jugular venous pressure

text: Certain wave form abnormalities, include "cannon a-waves", or increased amplitude 'a' waves, are associated with AV dissociation (third degree heart block), when the atrium is contracting against a closed tricuspid valve, or even in ventricular tachycardia. Another abnormality, ""c-v waves"", can be a sign of tricuspid regurgitation. The absence of 'a' waves may be seen in atrial fibrillation.


title: Jugular venous pressure

text: An exaggerated "y" wave or diastolic collapse of the neck veins from constrictive pericarditis is referred to as Friedreich's sign.


title: Diem Brown

text: Danielle Michelle "Diem" Brown (June 12, 1980 – November 14, 2014) was an American television personality, philanthropist, and entertainment reporter. She was best known as a recurring cast member on the MTV reality television series "The Challenge". She also founded MedGift, a web-based advocacy service that provides a gift registry for patients and support pages to both people experiencing illnesses and their caregivers. Before her family settled in the United States, Diem and family moved frequently due to her father’s Army postings. Diem spent a significant amount of her pre-high school childhood in Baumholder, Germany. She attended high school in Roswell, Georgia and obtained her bachelor's degree in communications from Florida State University. She was a member of Delta Gamma sorority.


title: Diem Brown

text: Since debuting on "" in 2006, Brown competed in seven additional "Challenges". In her debut challenge, filmed in November 2005, she revealed that she had been diagnosed with ovarian cancer, to the surprise of both the cast and the production company. Her final season of "The Challenge", "", aired in early 2015.


title: Diem Brown

text: "Fresh Meat" was the twelfth season of "Real World/Road Rules Challenge". Filmed in Australia, it featured two-player teams; each team had an alumnus of "The Real World" or "Road Rules" partnered with a newcomer to "The Challenge" (collectively known as "Fresh Meat") who was never part of one of the two aforementioned series. Brown was partnered with "Road Rules" alumnus Derrick Kosinski, and the pair finished in fourth place in the competition. Brown, who was just completing her treatment for cancer, went on to compete in "". She took off her wig during one of the competitions, and this has been viewed as one of the most memorable and touching "Challenge" moments.


title: Diem Brown

text: Brown was an entertainment reporter and worked for the Associated Press, Sky Living, and Foxnews.com. She also blogged about her experiences battling cancer and thoughts on "The Challenge" for People.com and hosted the MTV.com special "Surviving Cancer".


title: Diem Brown

text: The website MedGift was the brainchild of Diem. MedGift was a non-profit, web-based application that seeks to connect those in need with those who care. MedGift's objective is to help patients obtain support from family and friends while in treatment. She was also a patient advocate, speaking and appearing on numerous television and online shows and conferences. Brown took part in the first Stand Up to Cancer telethon as well as other charitable efforts such as MTV's "Restore the Shore" telethon for Hurricane Sandy. She was chosen as one of the initial 100 groundbreaking women to be profiled on MAKERS.com in 2012. MedGift discontinued operations on December 1, 2022.


title: Diem Brown

text: Brown dated fellow "Challenge" castmember Chris "CT" Tamburello for over a year and a half after meeting on "" in 2006. Brown credited Tamburello for playing a role in her remission recovery and giving her confidence. The couple competed on the same team on "" and were featured on the MTV documentary show MADE, on which Brown aspired to learn how to salsa dance to regain her confidence. Following their split, Brown and Tamburello competed on "" as well as a team on "" and "" — they were the runners-up in the final of the original "Exes".


title: Diem Brown

text: In June 2012, after six years of remission, Brown's ovarian cancer returned. She delayed treatment to harvest eggs before undergoing surgery to remove her ovary and receiving chemotherapy treatments. In an on-air interview with Brown, Dr. Drew Pinsky characterized the choice to delay treatment as "risky." In 2013, Brown's cancer once again went into remission. Brown ended chemotherapy in February 2013, and later competed in her seventh "Challenge" season, "", because she was told by doctors during her second bout with cancer that "seeing 2013 was not that likely." Brown and her rival partner Aneesa Ferreira finished in fourth place.


title: Diem Brown

text: Brown was diagnosed with cancer for a third time in June 2014, but initially shared this information with only close friends. Two months later (August 2014), while filming her eighth and final "Challenge" competition, "Battle of the Exes II" in Panama, Brown collapsed on set, and was immediately airlifted to a New York hospital, where doctors performed emergency surgery. Though it was widely reported that she was diagnosed with colon cancer, Brown stated that her ovarian cancer had metastasized to her colon and stomach. Brown died on November 14, 2014. She spent her final hours in the company of friends and family.


title: Diem Brown

text: Shortly after her death, it was revealed that Brown's age had been misrepresented to the public. Her family supported the false information by including an incorrect age on programs distributed at her funeral, but later her sister was quoted in a "People" magazine article about the true facts as saying that Brown had felt that many years of her life were taken from her due to cancer and treatments, and that deducting two years was a response to those circumstances. Some media headlines and reports corrected her reported age at the time of her death in response to the later information.


title: Diem Brown

text: In 2015 former "The Challenge" contestant and United States Representative Sean Duffy of Wisconsin, started the Ovarian Cancer Caucus alongside Representative Rosa DeLauro of Connecticut, an ovarian cancer survivor. In attendance were several other "Challenge" contestants, who came to honor Brown, whose death Duffy said “touched our MTV reality-TV family.” In attendance were Duffy along with his wife Rachel Campos-Duffy and "" castmate David “Puck” Rainey as well as Norman Korpi (""), Derrick Kosinski ("" and Brown's "Fresh Meat" partner), and Laurel Stucky ("").


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: The Mayor of Casterbridge: The Life and Death of a Man of Character is an 1886 novel by the English author Thomas Hardy. One of Hardy's Wessex novels, it is set in a fictional rural England with Casterbridge standing in for Dorchester in Dorset where the author spent his youth. It was first published as a weekly serialisation from January 1886.


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: The novel is considered to be one of Hardy's masterpieces, although it has been criticised for incorporating too many incidents, a consequence of the author trying to include something in every weekly published instalment.


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: At a country fair near Casterbridge in Wessex, Michael Henchard, a 21-year-old hay-trusser, argues with his wife Susan. Drunk on rum-laced furmity he auctions her off, along with their baby daughter Elizabeth-Jane, to Richard Newson, a passing sailor, for five guineas. Sober and remorseful the next day, he is too late to locate his family. He vows not to touch liquor again for 21 years.


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: Believing the auction to be legally binding, Susan lives as Newson's wife for 18 years. After Newson is lost at sea Susan, lacking any means of support, decides to seek out Henchard again, taking her daughter with her. Susan has told Elizabeth-Jane little about Henchard, and the young woman knows only that he is a relation by marriage. Susan discovers that Henchard has become a very successful hay and grain merchant and Mayor of Casterbridge, known for his staunch sobriety. He has avoided explaining how he lost his wife, allowing people to assume he is a widower.


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: When the couple are reunited, Henchard proposes remarrying Susan after a sham courtship, this in his view being the simplest and most discreet way to remedy matters and to prevent Elizabeth-Jane learning of their disgrace. To do this, however, he is forced to break off an engagement with a woman named Lucetta Templeman, who had nursed him when he was ill.


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: Donald Farfrae, a young and energetic Scotsman passing through Casterbridge, helps Henchard by showing him how to salvage substandard grain he has bought. Henchard takes a liking to the man, persuades him not to emigrate, and hires him as his corn factor, rudely turning away a man named Jopp to whom he had already offered the job. Farfrae is extremely successful in the role, and increasingly outshines his employer. When he catches the eye of Elizabeth-Jane, Henchard dismisses him and Farfrae sets himself up as an independent merchant. Farfrae conducts himself with scrupulous honesty, but Henchard is so determined to ruin his rival that he makes risky business decisions that prove disastrous.


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: Susan falls ill and dies shortly after the couple's remarriage, leaving Henchard a letter to be opened on the day of Elizabeth-Jane's wedding. Henchard reads the letter, which is not properly sealed, and learns that Elizabeth-Jane is not in fact his daughter, but Newson's – his Elizabeth-Jane having died as an infant. Henchard's new knowledge causes him to behave coldly towards the second Elizabeth-Jane.


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: Elizabeth-Jane accepts a position as companion to Lucetta, a newcomer, unaware that she had had a relationship with Henchard which resulted in her social ruin. Now wealthy after receiving an inheritance from her aunt, and learning that Henchard's wife had died, Lucetta has come to Casterbridge to marry him. However, on meeting Farfrae, she becomes attracted to him, and he to her.


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: Henchard's financial difficulties persuade him that he should marry Lucetta quickly. But she is in love with Farfrae, and the couple run away one weekend to get married, not telling Henchard until after the fact. Henchard's credit collapses and he goes bankrupt. Farfrae buys Henchard's old business and tries to help Henchard by employing him as a journeyman.


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: Lucetta asks Henchard to return her old love letters, and Henchard asks Jopp to take them to her. Jopp, who still bears a grudge for having been cheated out of the position of factor, opens the letters and reads them out loud at an inn. Some of the townspeople publicly shame Henchard and Lucetta, creating effigies of them in a skimmington ride. Lucetta is so devastated by the spectacle that she collapses, has a miscarriage, and dies.


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: The next day, Newson – who it transpires was not lost at sea – arrives at Henchard's door asking about his daughter. Henchard, who has come to value her kindness to him, is afraid of losing her companionship and tells Newson she is dead. Newson leaves in sorrow. After 21 years, Henchard's vow of abstinence expires, and he starts drinking again.


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: Eventually discovering that he has been lied to, Newson returns, and Henchard disappears rather than endure a confrontation. On the day of Elizabeth-Jane's wedding to Farfrae, Henchard comes back, timidly seeking a reconciliation. She rebuffs him, and he departs for good. Later, regretting her coldness, she and Farfrae set out to find him. They arrive too late, and learn that he has died alone. They also find his last written statement: his dying wish is to be forgotten.


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: The book is one of Hardy's Wessex novels, and is set largely in the fictional town of Casterbridge, based on Dorchester in Dorset. The author intended Casterbridge to be an imaginative presentation of certain aspects of the town as he remembered it in the "dream" of his childhood.


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: Although the opening sentence of the novel states that the events described took place "before the nineteenth century had reached one-third of its span" the date of Hardy's own childhood places it rather later – in the mid-to-late 1840s.


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: Hardy started work on "The Mayor of Casterbridge" in the spring of 1884, after a three-year pause. He completed it in a little over a year, and it was first issued in weekly parts in January 1886, followed by full publication in May 1886. A reader for the publisher, Smith, Elder & Co. was not impressed and complained that the lack of gentry among the characters made it uninteresting. It was issued with a small print run of only 750 copies.


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: Hardy himself felt that in his efforts to get an incident into almost every weekly instalment he had added events to the narrative somewhat too freely, resulting in over-elaboration. However, he was deeply affected, telling a friend that the novel was the only tragedy that made him weep while writing it.


title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

text: In her 2006 biography of Thomas Hardy, the author Claire Tomalin called the book a "masterpiece," a deeply imagined dramatic and poetic work, with a narrative on a grand scale and paced with extraordinary moments. She praised it as being built on the territory in which Hardy worked best, in which the rural landscape is drawn with a naturalist's eye and in which country people play out their lives between custom and education, work and ideas, and love of place and experience of change. Hardy's portrait of Henchard – "depressive, black-tempered, self-destructive, and also lovable as a child is lovable" – she considered one of his strongest achievements. She did concur with Hardy, however, in noting that he tried to pack in too many incidents.


title: Horatio Alger

text: Horatio Alger Jr. (; January 13, 1832 – July 18, 1899) was an American author who wrote young adult novels about impoverished boys and their rise from humble backgrounds to lives of middle-class security and comfort through good works. His writings were characterized by the "rags-to-riches" narrative, which had a formative effect on the United States during the Gilded Age.


title: Horatio Alger

text: All of Alger's juvenile novels share essentially the same theme: a teenage boy improves his circumstances by virtuous behavior. There is a "Horatio Alger myth" that the boy becomes wealthy through hard work, but this is inaccurate. In the actual stories, invariably the cause of success is an accident that works to the boy's advantage after he conducts himself according to traditional virtues such as honesty, charity, and altruism. The boy might return a large sum of lost money or rescue someone from an overturned carriage. This brings the boy—and his plight—to the attention of a wealthy individual. In one story, for example, a young boy is almost run over by a streetcar and a homeless orphan youth snatches him out of the way to safety. The young boy's father turns out to be wealthy and adopts the orphan rescuer.


title: Horatio Alger

text: Alger secured his literary niche in 1868 with the publication of his fourth book, "Ragged Dick", the story of a poor bootblack's rise to middle-class respectability. This novel was a huge success. His many books that followed were essentially variations on "Ragged Dick" and featured stock characters: the valiant, hard-working, honest youth; the noble mysterious stranger; the snobbish youth; and the evil, greedy squire. In the 1870s, Alger's fiction was growing stale. His publisher suggested he tour the Western United States for fresh material to incorporate into his fiction. Alger took a trip to California, but the trip had little effect on his writing: he remained mired in the staid theme of "poor boy makes good." The backdrops of these novels, however, became the Western United States, rather than the urban environments of the Northeastern United States.


title: Horatio Alger

text: In the last decades of the 19th century, Alger's moral tone coarsened with the change in boys' tastes. The public wanted sensational thrills. The Protestant work ethic was less prevalent in the United States, and violence, murder, and other sensational themes entered Alger's works. Public librarians questioned whether his books should be made available to the young. They were briefly successful, but interest in Alger's novels was renewed in the first decades of the 20th century, and they sold in the thousands. By the time he died in 1899, Alger had published around a hundred volumes. He is buried in Natick, Massachusetts. Since 1947, the Horatio Alger Association of Distinguished Americans has awarded scholarships and prizes to deserving individuals.


title: Horatio Alger

text: Alger was born on January 13, 1832, in the New England coastal town of Chelsea, Massachusetts, the son of Horatio Alger Sr., a Unitarian minister, and Olive Augusta Fenno.


title: Horatio Alger

text: He had many connections with the New England Puritan aristocracy of the early 19th century. He was the descendant of Pilgrim Fathers Robert Cushman, Thomas Cushman, and William Bassett. He was also the descendant of Sylvanus Lazell, a Minuteman and brigadier general in the War of 1812, and Edmund Lazell, a member of the Constitutional Convention in 1788.


title: Horatio Alger

text: Horatio's siblings Olive Augusta and James were born in 1833 and 1836, respectively. An invalid sister, Annie, was born in 1840, and a brother, Francis, in 1842. Alger was a precocious boy afflicted with myopia and asthma, but Alger Sr. decided early that his eldest son would one day enter the ministry, and, to that end, he tutored the boy in classical studies and allowed him to observe the responsibilities of ministering to parishioners.


title: Horatio Alger

text: Alger began attending Chelsea Grammar School in 1842, but by December 1844 his father's financial troubles had worsened considerably and, in search of a better salary, he moved the family to Marlborough, Massachusetts, an agricultural town 25 miles west of Boston, where he was installed as pastor of the Second Congregational Society in January 1845 with a salary sufficient to meet his needs. Horatio attended Gates Academy, a local preparatory school, and completed his studies at age 15. He published his earliest literary works in local newspapers.


title: Horatio Alger

text: In July 1848, Alger passed the Harvard entrance examinations and was admitted to the class of 1852. The 14-member, full-time Harvard faculty included Louis Agassiz and Asa Gray (sciences), Cornelius Conway Felton (classics), James Walker (religion and philosophy), and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (belles-lettres). Edward Everett served as president. Alger's classmate Joseph Hodges Choate described Harvard at this time as "provincial and local because its scope and outlook hardly extended beyond the boundaries of New England; besides which it was very denominational, being held exclusively in the hands of Unitarians".


title: Horatio Alger

text: Alger thrived in the highly disciplined and regimented Harvard environment, winning scholastic and other prestigious awards. His genteel poverty and less-than-aristocratic heritage, however, barred him from membership in the Hasty Pudding Club and the Porcellian Club. In 1849 he became a professional writer when he sold two essays and a poem to the "Pictorial National Library", a Boston magazine. He began reading Walter Scott, James Fenimore Cooper, Herman Melville, and other modern writers of fiction and cultivated a lifelong love for Longfellow, whose verse he sometimes employed as a model for his own. He was chosen Class Odist and graduated with Phi Beta Kappa Society honors in 1852, eighth in a class of 88.


title: Horatio Alger

text: Alger had no job prospects following graduation and returned home. He continued to write, submitting his work to religious and literary magazines, with varying success. He briefly attended Harvard Divinity School in 1853, possibly to be reunited with a romantic interest, but left in November 1853 to take a job as an assistant editor at the "Boston Daily Advertiser". He loathed editing and quit in 1854 to teach at The Grange, a boys' boarding school in Rhode Island. When The Grange suspended operations in 1856, Alger found employment directing the 1856 summer session at Deerfield Academy.


title: Horatio Alger

text: His first book, "Bertha's Christmas Vision: An Autumn Sheaf", a collection of short pieces, was published in 1856, and his second book, "Nothing to Do: A Tilt at Our Best Society", a lengthy satirical poem, was published in 1857. He attended Harvard Divinity School from 1857 to 1860, and upon graduation, toured Europe. In the spring of 1861, he returned to a nation in the throes of the Civil War. Exempted from military service for health reasons in July 1863, he wrote in support of the Union cause and associated with New England intellectuals. He was elected an officer in the New England Historic Genealogical Society in 1863.


title: Horatio Alger

text: His first novel, "Marie Bertrand: The Felon's Daughter", was serialized in "New York Weekly" in 1864, and his first boys' book, "Frank's Campaign", was published by A. K. Loring in Boston the same year. Alger initially wrote for adult magazines, including "Harper's Magazine" and "Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper", but a friendship with William Taylor Adams, a boys' author, led him to write for the young.


title: Horatio Alger

text: On December 8, 1864, Alger was enlisted as a pastor with the First Unitarian Church and Society of Brewster, Massachusetts. Between ministerial duties, he organized games and amusements for boys in the parish, railed against smoking and drinking, and organized and served as president of the local chapter of the Cadets for Temperance. He submitted stories to "The Student and Schoolmate", a boys' monthly magazine of moral writings, edited by William Taylor Adams and published in Boston by Joseph H. Allen. In September 1865 his second boys' book, "Paul Prescott's Charge", was published and received favorable reviews.


title: Horatio Alger

text: Early in 1866, a church committee of men was formed to investigate reports that Alger had sexually molested boys. Church officials reported to the hierarchy in Boston that Alger had been charged with "the abominable and revolting crime of gross familiarity with boys". Alger denied nothing, admitted he had been imprudent, considered his association with the church dissolved, and left town. Alger sent Unitarian officials in Boston a letter of remorse, and his father assured them his son would never seek another post in the church. The officials were satisfied and decided no further action would be taken.


title: Horatio Alger

text: In 1866, Alger relocated to New York City where he studied the condition of the street boys, and found in them an abundance of interesting material for stories. He abandoned forever any thought of a career in the church, and focused instead on his writing. He wrote "Friar Anselmo" at this time, a poem that tells of a sinning cleric's atonement through good deeds. He became interested in the welfare of the thousands of vagrant children who flooded New York City following the Civil War. He attended a children's church service at Five Points, which led to "John Maynard", a ballad about an actual shipwreck on Lake Erie, which brought Alger not only the respect of the literati but a letter from Longfellow. He published two poorly received adult novels, "Helen Ford" and "Timothy Crump's Ward". He fared better with stories for boys published in "Student and Schoolmate" and a third boys' book, "Charlie Codman's Cruise".


title: Horatio Alger

text: In January 1867 the first of 12 installments of "Ragged Dick" appeared in "Student and Schoolmate". The story, about a poor bootblack's rise to middle-class respectability, was a huge success. It was expanded and published as a novel in 1868. It proved to be his best-selling work. After "Ragged Dick" he wrote almost entirely for boys, and he signed a contract with publisher Loring for a Ragged Dick Series.


title: Horatio Alger

text: In spite of the series' success, Alger was on financially uncertain ground and tutored the five sons of the international banker Joseph Seligman. He wrote serials for "Young Israel" and lived in the Seligman home until 1876. In 1875 Alger produced the serial "Shifting for Himself" and "Sam's Chance", a sequel to "The Young Outlaw". It was evident in these books that Alger had grown stale. Profits suffered, and he headed West for new material at Loring's behest, arriving in California in February 1877. He enjoyed a reunion with his brother James in San Francisco and returned to New York late in 1877 on a schooner that sailed around Cape Horn. He wrote a few lackluster books in the following years, rehashing his established themes, but this time the tales were played before a Western background rather than an urban one.


title: Horatio Alger

text: In New York, Alger continued to tutor the town's aristocratic youth and to rehabilitate boys from the streets. He was writing both urban and Western-themed tales. In 1879, for example, he published "The District Messenger Boy" and "The Young Miner". In 1877, Alger's fiction became a target of librarians concerned about sensational juvenile fiction. An effort was made to remove his works from public collections, but the debate was only partially successful, defeated by the renewed interest in his work after his death.


title: Horatio Alger

text: In 1881, Alger informally adopted Charlie Davis, a street boy, and another, John Downie, in 1883; they lived in Alger's apartment. In 1881, he wrote a biography of President James A. Garfield but filled the work with contrived conversations and boyish excitements rather than facts. The book sold well. Alger was commissioned to write a biography of Abraham Lincoln, but again it was Alger the boys' novelist opting for thrills rather than facts.


title: Horatio Alger

text: In 1882, Alger's father died. Alger continued to produce stories of honest boys outwitting evil, greedy squires and malicious youths. His work appeared in hardcover and paperback, and decades-old poems were published in anthologies. He led a busy life with street boys, Harvard classmates, and the social elite. In Massachusetts, he was regarded with the same reverence as Harriet Beecher Stowe. He tutored with never a whisper of scandal.


title: Horatio Alger

text: In the last two decades of the 19th century, the quality of Alger's books deteriorated, and his boys' works became nothing more than reruns of the plots and themes of his past. The times had changed, boys expected more, and a streak of violence entered Alger's work. In "The Young Bank Messenger", for example, a woman is throttled and threatened with death—an episode that would never have occurred in his earlier work.


title: Horatio Alger

text: He attended the theater and Harvard reunions, read literary magazines, and wrote a poem at Longfellow's death in 1882. His last novel for adults, "The Disagreeable Woman", was published under the pseudonym Julian Starr. He took pleasure in the successes of the boys he had informally adopted over the years, retained his interest in reform, accepted speaking engagements, and read portions of "Ragged Dick" to boys' assemblies.


title: Horatio Alger

text: His popularity—and income—dwindled in the 1890s. In 1896, he had what he called a "nervous breakdown"; he relocated permanently to his sister's home in South Natick, Massachusetts.


title: Horatio Alger

text: He suffered from bronchitis and asthma for two years. He died on July 18, 1899, at the home of his sister in Natick, Massachusetts. His death was barely noticed. He is buried in the family lot at Glenwood Cemetery, South Natick, Massachusetts.


title: Horatio Alger

text: Before his death, Alger asked Edward Stratemeyer to complete his unfinished works. In 1901, "Young Captain Jack" was completed by Stratemeyer and promoted as Alger's last work. Alger once estimated that he earned only $100,000 between 1866 and 1896; at his death he had little money, leaving only small sums to family and friends. His literary work was bequeathed to his niece, to two boys he had casually adopted, and to his sister Olive Augusta, who destroyed his manuscripts and his letters, according to his wishes.


title: Horatio Alger

text: Alger's works received favorable comments and experienced a resurgence following his death. By 1926, he sold around 20 million copies in the United States. In 1926, however, reader interest plummeted, and his major publisher ceased printing the books altogether. Surveys in 1932 and 1947 revealed very few children had read or even heard of Alger. The first Alger biography was a heavily fictionalized account published in 1928 by Herbert R. Mayes, who later admitted the work was a fraud.


title: Horatio Alger

text: Since 1947, the Horatio Alger Association of Distinguished Americans has bestowed an annual award on "outstanding individuals in our society who have succeeded in the face of adversity" and scholarships "to encourage young people to pursue their dreams with determination and perseverance".


title: Horatio Alger

text: In 1982, to mark his 150th birthday, the Children's Aid Society held a celebration. Helen M. Gray, the executive director of the Horatio Alger Association of Distinguished Americans, presented a selection of Alger's books to Philip Coltoff, the Children's Aid Society executive director.


title: Horatio Alger

text: A 1982 musical, "Shine!", was based on Alger's work, particularly "Ragged Dick" and "Silas Snobden's Office Boy".


title: Horatio Alger

text: In 2015, many of Alger's books were published as illustrated paperbacks and ebooks under the title "Stories of Success" by Horatio Alger. In addition, Alger's books were offered as dramatic audiobooks by the same publisher.


title: Horatio Alger

text: Alger scholar Gary Scharnhorst describes Alger's style as "anachronistic", "often laughable", "distinctive", and "distinguished by the quality of its literary allusions". Ranging from the Bible and William Shakespeare (half of Alger's books contain Shakespearean references) to John Milton and Cicero, the allusions he employed were a testament to his erudition. Scharnhorst credits these allusions with distinguishing Alger's novels from pulp fiction.


title: Horatio Alger

text: Scharnhorst describes six major themes in Alger's boys' books. The first, the Rise to Respectability, he observes, is evident in both his early and his late books, notably "Ragged Dick", whose impoverished young hero declares, "I mean to turn over a new leaf, and try to grow up 'spectable." His virtuous life wins him not riches but, more realistically, a comfortable clerical position and salary. The second major theme is Character Strengthened Through Adversity. In "Strong and Steady" and "Shifting for Himself", for example, the affluent heroes are reduced to poverty and forced to meet the demands of their new circumstances. Alger occasionally cited the young Abe Lincoln as a representative of this theme for his readers. The third theme is Beauty versus Money, which became central to Alger's adult fiction. Characters fall in love and marry on the basis of their character, talents, or intellect rather than the size of their bank accounts. In "The Train Boy", for example, a wealthy heiress chooses to marry a talented but struggling artist, and in "The Erie Train Boy" a poor woman wins her true love despite the machinations of a rich, depraved suitor. Other major themes include the Old World versus the New.


title: Horatio Alger

text: All of Alger's novels have similar plots: a boy struggles to escape poverty through hard work and clean living. However, it is not always the hard work and clean living that rescue the boy from his situation, but rather a wealthy older gentleman, who admires the boy as a result of some extraordinary act of bravery or honesty that the boy has performed. For example, the boy rescues a child from an overturned carriage or finds and returns the man's stolen watch. Often the older man takes the boy into his home as a ward or companion and helps him find a better job, sometimes replacing a less honest or less industrious boy.


title: Horatio Alger

text: According to Scharnhorst, Alger's father was "an impoverished man" who defaulted on his debts in 1844. His properties around Chelsea were seized and assigned to a local squire who held the mortgages. Scharnhorst speculates this episode in Alger's childhood accounts for the recurrent theme in his boys' books of heroes threatened with eviction or foreclosure and may account for Alger's "consistent espousal of environmental reform proposals". Scharnhorst writes, "Financially insecure throughout his life, the younger Alger may have been active in reform organizations such as those for temperance and children's aid as a means of resolving his status-anxiety and establish his genteel credentials for leadership."


title: Horatio Alger

text: Alger scholar Edwin P. Hoyt notes that Alger's morality "coarsened" around 1880, possibly influenced by the Western tales he was writing, because "the most dreadful things were now almost casually proposed and explored". Although he continued to write for boys, Alger explored subjects like violence and "openness in the relations between the sexes and generations"; Hoyt attributes this shift to the decline of Puritan ethics in America.


title: Horatio Alger

text: Scholar John Geck notes that Alger relied on "formulas for experience rather than shrewd analysis of human behavior", and that these formulas were "culturally centered" and "strongly didactic". Although the frontier society was a thing of the past during Alger's career, Geck contends that "the idea of the frontier, even in urban slums, provides a kind of fairy tale orientation in which a Jack mentality can be both celebrated and critiqued". He claims that Alger's intended audience were youths whose "motivations for action are effectively shaped by the lessons they learn".


title: Horatio Alger

text: Geck notes that perception of the "pluck" characteristic of an Alger hero has changed over the decades. During the Jazz Age and the Great Depression, "the Horatio Alger plot was viewed from the perspective of Progressivism as a staunch defense of laissez-faire capitalism, yet at the same time criticizing the cutthroat business techniques and offering hope to a suffering young generation during the Great Depression". By the Atomic Age, however "Alger's hero was no longer a poor boy who, through determination and providence rose to middle-class respectability. He was instead the crafty street urchin who through quick wits and luck rose from impoverishment to riches".


title: Horatio Alger

text: Geck observes that Alger's themes have been transformed in modern America from their original meanings into a male Cinderella myth and are an Americanization of the traditional Jack tales. Each story has its clever hero, its "fairy godmother", and obstacles and hindrances to the hero's rise. "However", he writes, "the true Americanization of this fairy tale occurs in its subversion of this claiming of nobility; rather, the Alger hero achieves the American Dream in its nascent form, he gains a position of middle-class respectability that promises to lead wherever his motivation may take him". The reader may speculate what Cinderella achieved as Queen and what an Alger hero attained once his middle-class status was stabilized, and "[i]t is this commonality that fixes Horatio Alger firmly in the ranks of modern adaptors of the Cinderella myth".


title: Horatio Alger

text: Scharnhorst writes that Alger "exercised a certain discretion in discussing his probable homosexuality" and was known to have mentioned his sexuality only once after the Brewster incident. In 1870 the elder Henry James wrote that Alger "talks freely about his own late insanity—which he in fact appears to enjoy as a subject of conversation". Although Alger was willing to speak to James, his sexuality was a closely guarded secret. According to Scharnhorst, Alger made veiled references to homosexuality in his boys' books, and these references, Scharnhorst speculates, indicate Alger was "insecure with his sexual orientation". Alger wrote, for example, that it was difficult to distinguish whether Tattered Tom was a boy or a girl and in other instances, he introduces foppish, effeminate, lisping "stereotypical homosexuals" who are treated with scorn and pity by others. In "Silas Snobden's Office Boy", a kidnapped boy disguised as a girl is threatened with being sent to the "insane asylum" if he should reveal his actual sex. Scharnhorst believes Alger's desire to atone for his "secret sin" may have "spurred him to identify his own charitable acts of writing didactic books for boys with the acts of the charitable patrons in his books who wish to atone for a secret sin in their past by aiding the hero". Scharnhorst points out that the patron in "Try and Trust", for example, conceals a "sad secret" from which he is redeemed only after saving the hero's life.


title: Horatio Alger

text: Alan Trachtenberg, in his introduction to the Signet Classic edition of "Ragged Dick" (1990), points out that Alger had tremendous sympathy for boys and discovered a calling for himself in the composition of boys' books. "He learned to consult the boy in himself", Trachtenberg writes, "to transmute and recast himself—his genteel culture, his liberal patrician sympathy for underdogs, his shaky economic status as an author, and not least, his dangerous erotic attraction to boys—into his juvenile fiction". He observes that it is impossible to know whether Alger lived the life of a secret homosexual, "[b]ut there are hints that the male companionship he describes as a refuge from the streets—the cozy domestic arrangements between Dick and Fosdick, for example—may also be an erotic relationship". Trachtenberg observes that nothing prurient occurs in "Ragged Dick" but believes the few instances in Alger's work of two boys touching or a man and a boy touching "might arouse erotic wishes in readers prepared to entertain such fantasies". Such images, Trachtenberg believes, may imply "a positive view of homoeroticism as an alternative way of life, of living by sympathy rather than aggression". Trachtenberg concludes, "in "Ragged Dick" we see Alger plotting domestic romance, complete with a surrogate marriage of two homeless boys, as the setting for his formulaic metamorphosis of an outcast street boy into a self-respecting citizen".


title: Parish

text: A parish is a territorial entity in many Christian denominations, constituting a division within a diocese. A parish is under the pastoral care and clerical jurisdiction of a priest, often termed a parish priest, who might be assisted by one or more curates, and who operates from a parish church. Historically, a parish often covered the same geographical area as a manor. Its association with the parish church remains paramount.


title: Parish

text: By extension the term "parish" refers not only to the territorial entity but to the people of its community or congregation as well as to church property within it. In England this church property was technically in ownership of the parish priest "ex-officio", vested in him on his institution to that parish.


title: Parish

text: First attested in English in the late, 13th century, the word "parish" comes from the Old French "paroisse", in turn from , the latinisation of the , "sojourning in a foreign land", itself from ("paroikos"), "dwelling beside, stranger, sojourner", which is a compound of ("pará"), "beside, by, near" and οἶκος ("oîkos"), "house".


title: Parish

text: As an ancient concept, the term "parish" occurs in the long-established Christian denominations: Catholic, Anglican Communion, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and Lutheran churches, and in some Methodist, Congregationalist and Presbyterian administrations.


title: Parish

text: The eighth Archbishop of Canterbury Theodore of Tarsus (c. 602–690) appended the parish structure to the Anglo-Saxon township unit, where it existed, and where minsters catered to the surrounding district.


title: Parish

text: Broadly speaking, the parish is the standard unit in episcopal polity of church administration, although parts of a parish may be subdivided as a "chapelry", with a chapel of ease or filial church serving as the local place of worship in cases of difficulty to access the main parish church.


title: Parish

text: In the wider picture of ecclesiastical polity, a "parish" comprises a division of a diocese or see. Parishes within a diocese may be grouped into a deanery or "vicariate forane" (or simply "vicariate"), overseen by a dean or "vicar forane", or in some cases by an archpriest. Some churches of the Anglican Communion have deaneries as units of an archdeaconry.


title: Parish

text: An outstation is a newly-created congregation, a term usually used where the church is evangelical, or a mission and particularly in African countries, but also historically in Australia. They exist mostly within the Catholic and Anglican parishes.


title: Parish

text: The Anglican Diocese of Cameroon describes their outstations as the result of outreach work "initiated, sponsored and supervised by the mother parishes". Once there is a big enough group of worshippers in the same place, the outstation in named by the bishop of the diocese. They are run by "catechists/evangelists" or lay readers, and supervised by the creator parish or archdeaconry.


title: Parish

text: Outstations are not self-supporting, and in poor areas often consist of a very simple structure. The parish priest visits as often as possible. If and when the community has grown enough, the outstation may become a parish and have a parish priest assigned to it.


title: Parish

text: The Church of England's geographical structure uses the local parish church as its basic unit. The parish system survived the Reformation with the Anglican Church's secession from Rome remaining largely untouched; thus, it shares its roots with the Catholic Church's system described below. Parishes may extend into different counties or hundreds and historically many parishes comprised extra outlying portions in addition to its principal district, usually being described as 'detached' and intermixed with the lands of other parishes. Church of England parishes nowadays all lie within one of 44 dioceses divided between the provinces of Canterbury, 30 and York, 12.


title: Parish

text: Each parish normally has its own parish priest (either a vicar or rector, owing to the vagaries of the feudal tithe system: rectories usually having had greater income) and perhaps supported by one or more curates or deacons - although as a result of ecclesiastical pluralism some parish priests might have held more than one parish living, placing a curate in charge of those where they do not reside. Now, however, it is common for a number of neighbouring parishes to be placed under one benefice in the charge of a priest who conducts services by rotation, with additional services being provided by lay readers or other non-ordained members of the church community.


title: Parish

text: A chapelry was a subdivision of an ecclesiastical parish in England, and parts of Lowland Scotland up to the mid 19th century. It had a similar status to a township but was so named as it had a chapel which acted as a subsidiary place of worship to the main parish church.


title: Parish

text: In England civil parishes and their governing parish councils evolved in the 19th century as ecclesiastical parishes began to be relieved of what became considered to be civic responsibilities. Thus their boundaries began to diverge. The word "parish" acquired a secular usage. Since 1895, a parish council elected by public vote or a (civil) parish meeting administers a civil parish and is formally recognised as the level of local government below a district council.


title: Parish

text: The traditional structure of the Church of England with the parish as the basic unit has been exported to other countries and churches throughout the Anglican Communion and Commonwealth but does not necessarily continue to be administered in the same way.


title: Parish

text: The parish is also the basic level of church administration in the Church of Scotland. Spiritual oversight of each parish church in Scotland is responsibility of the congregation's Kirk Session. Patronage was regulated in 1711 (Patronage Act) and abolished in 1874, with the result that ministers must be elected by members of the congregation. Many parish churches in Scotland today are "linked" with neighbouring parish churches served by a single minister. Since the abolition of parishes as a unit of civil government in Scotland in 1929, Scottish parishes have purely ecclesiastical significance and the boundaries may be adjusted by the local Presbytery.


title: Parish

text: The church in Wales was disestablished in 1920 and is made up of six dioceses. Parishes were also civil administration areas until communities were established in 1974.


title: Parish

text: Although they are more often simply called congregations and have no geographic boundaries, in the United Methodist Church congregations are called parishes. A prominent example of this usage comes in "The Book of Discipline of The United Methodist Church", in which the committee of every local congregation that handles staff support is referred to as the committee on Pastor-Parish Relations. This committee gives recommendations to the bishop on behalf of the parish/congregation since it is the United Methodist Bishop of the episcopal area who appoints a pastor to each congregation. The same is true in the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church.


title: Parish

text: In New Zealand, a local grouping of Methodist churches that share one or more ministers (which in the United Kingdom would be called a circuit) is referred to as a parish.


title: Parish

text: In the Catholic Church, each parish normally has its own parish priest (in some countries called pastor or provost), who has responsibility and canonical authority over the parish.


title: Parish

text: What in most English-speaking countries is termed the "parish priest" is referred to as the "pastor" in the United States, where the term "parish priest" is used of any priest assigned to a parish even in a subordinate capacity. These are called "assistant priests", "parochial vicars", "curates", or, in the United States, "associate pastors" and "assistant pastors".


title: Parish

text: Each diocese (administrative region) is divided into parishes, each with their own central church called the parish church, where religious services take place. Some larger parishes or parishes that have been combined under one parish priest may have two or more such churches, or the parish may be responsible for chapels (or chapels of ease) located at some distance from the mother church for the convenience of distant parishioners. In addition to a parish church, each parish may maintain auxiliary organizations and their facilities such as a rectory, parish hall, parochial school, or convent, frequently located on the same campus or adjacent to the church.


title: Parish

text: Normally, a parish comprises all Catholics living within its geographically defined area, but non-territorial parishes can also be established within a defined area on a personal basis for Catholics belonging to a particular rite, language, nationality, or community. An example is that of personal parishes established in accordance with the 7 July 2007 "motu proprio" "Summorum Pontificum" for those attached to the pre-Vatican II liturgy.


title: Real (manga)

text: "Real" has received the Excellence Award at the 5th Japan Media Arts Festival in 2001. As of November 2020, the manga had over 16 million copies in circulation.


title: Real (manga)

text: The story revolves around three teenagers: Nomiya Tomomi, a high school dropout, Togawa Kiyoharu, an ex-sprinter who now plays wheelchair basketball and Takahashi Hisanobu, a popular leader of the high school's basketball team who now finds himself a paraplegic after an accident.


title: Real (manga)

text: "Real" features a cast of characters who find themselves being marginalized by society, but are all united by one common feature: a desire to play basketball, with no place to play it in. Nomiya, being a high school dropout, has no future in his life. Togawa, being a difficult personality, finds himself constantly feuding with his own teammates. Takahashi, once a popular team leader, now finds himself being unable to move from the chest down.


title: Real (manga)

text: "Real" also deals with the reality of physical disabilities, and the psychological inferiority that the characters struggle against. The characters break through their own psychological barriers bit by bit.


title: Real (manga)

text: "Real", written and illustrated by Takehiko Inoue, has been serialized in Shueisha's "seinen manga" magazine "Weekly Young Jump" since October 1999. The individual chapters have been collected by Shueisha into individual "tankōbon" volumes, with the first volume being published on March 19, 2001. After a long hiatus started in 2014, Inoue announced in 2019 that he would resume the manga on May 23 of the same year. The next chapter of the manga was published on August 29. A new chapter was published in February 2020. As of November 19, 2020, 15 volumes have been published.


title: Real (manga)

text: In North America, the series is licensed for English language release by Viz Media, who announced the acquisition in November 2007. The first volume was released on July 15, 2008.


title: Real (manga)

text: As of November 2013, "Real" had 14 million copies in circulation. As of November 2020, the manga had over 16 million copies in circulation.


title: Real (manga)

text: "Real" received an Excellence Award at the 5th Japan Media Arts Festival in 2001. Citing the reason for the award: "Takehiko Inoue is well-known for "Slam Dunk," a serial comic on the subject of basketball. "Real" is another sports comic, but one whose story revolves around the novel theme of tough guys and wheelchair basketball. All of the Adjudication Committee members could hardly wait to read the next installments and had to content themselves with awarding "Real" the Excellence Prize. It would have been no surprise if Inoue had followed his success with "Vagabond" by winning the Grand Prize for the second year in a row with this terrific manga."


title: Real (manga)

text: A review at The Comics Reporter noted that "all of the skills that Inoue displayed in "Slam Dunk" have evolved for the better in "Real"", going on to conclude that "the emotional content is presented with a poise and certainty that's really nothing short of breathtaking." The series has been praised for its "realism", and how it "breaks away from conventional portrayals of the disabled as innocent people who are weak in every way." Kazuyuki Kyoya, a wheelchair basketball player, has also expressed his approval of the series: "The manga calls for understanding of people not only in wheelchair basketball but also with various other disabilities. I’m impressed that the scenes in which Takahashi undergoes rehab are elaborately expressed." About.com's Deb Aoki lists "Real" as the best new manga of 2008.


title: Dapsone

text: Dapsone, also known as 4,4'-sulfonyldianiline (SDA) or diaminodiphenyl sulfone (DDS), is an antibiotic commonly used in combination with rifampicin and clofazimine for the treatment of leprosy. It is a second-line medication for the treatment and prevention of pneumocystis pneumonia and for the prevention of toxoplasmosis in those who have poor immune function. Additionally, it has been used for acne, dermatitis herpetiformis, and various other skin conditions. Dapsone is available both topically and by mouth.


title: Dapsone

text: Severe side effects may include a decrease in blood cells, red blood cell breakdown especially in those with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency (G-6-PD), or hypersensitivity. Common side effects include nausea and loss of appetite. Other side effects include liver inflammation, methemoglobinemia, and a number of types of skin rashes. While the safety of use during pregnancy is not entirely clear some physicians recommend that it be continued in those with leprosy. It is of the sulfone class.


title: Dapsone

text: Dapsone was first studied as an antibiotic in 1937. Its use for leprosy began in 1945. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. The form, which is taken by mouth, is available as a generic drug and not very expensive.


title: Dapsone

text: Dapsone is commonly used in combination with rifampicin and clofazimine for the treatment of leprosy. It is also used to both treat and prevent pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP). It is also used for toxoplasmosis in people unable to tolerate trimethoprim with sulfamethoxazole.


title: Dapsone

text: Dapsone by mouth was one of the first medications used to treat moderate to severe acne vulgaris, and is still occasionally prescribed for the treatment of severe cases. A topical form of dapsone is also effective with potentially less side effects.


title: Dapsone

text: Dapsone is the recommended treatment for erythema elevatum diutinum, as a review found that using oral dapsone alone was effective in 80% of early cases of the disease. However, dapsone can potentially cause severe side effects, meaning that sometimes steroids or other antibiotics should be used instead, although these alternative treatments are much less effective.


title: Dapsone

text: An August 2015 review notes that dapsone is reported to be effective against generalized granuloma annulare.


title: Dapsone

text: People with porphyria, anemia, cardiac disease, lung disease, HIV infection, G6PD deficiency, and liver impairment are at higher risks of adverse effects when using dapsone.


title: Dapsone

text: Hypersensitivity reactions occur in 1.4% of persons treated with dapsone, and can be fatal in medical settings with low resources. It is a form of severe cutaneous adverse reactions (SCARs) in which a SCARs disorder, primarily the DRESS syndrome or a DRESS syndrome-like reaction occurs.


title: Dapsone

text: Hemolysis is the most prominent side-effect, occurring in about 20 % of patients treated with dapsone, although it is dose-related. It may lead to hemolytic anemia and methemoglobinemia. The side-effect is more common and severe in those with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, leading to the dapsone-containing antimalarial combination Lapdap being withdrawn from clinical use. A case of hemolysis in a neonate from dapsone in breast milk has been reported. Agranulocytosis occurs rarely when dapsone is used alone but more frequently in combination regimens for malaria prophylaxis. Abnormalities in white blood cell formation, including aplastic anemia, are rare, yet are the cause of the majority of deaths attributable to dapsone therapy.


title: Dapsone

text: Methemoglobinemia occurs in about 15 % of patients treated with long-term dapsone at standard doses (100 mg/day). Only special multi-wawelength oximeters (CO-oximeters) can detect methemoglobinemia directly. When there is a "saturation gap" between a low ordinary pulse oximeter reading and a high arterial blood gas analysis result, methemoglobinemia may be suspected.


title: Dapsone

text: Toxic hepatitis and cholestatic jaundice have been reported by the manufacturer. These toxic reactions may also occur as part of the dapsone hypersensitivity syndrome (a form of SCARs-see above) or dapsone syndrome (see below). Dapsone is metabolized by the Cytochrome P450 system, specifically isozymes CYP2D6, CYP2B6, CYP3A4, and CYP2C19. Dapsone metabolites produced by the cytochrome P450 2C19 isozyme are associated with the methemoglobinemia side effect of the drug.


title: Dapsone

text: When used topically, dapsone can cause mild skin irritation, redness, dry skin, burning, and itching. When used together with benzoyl peroxide products, temporary yellow or orange skin discolorations can occur.


title: Dapsone

text: Hypersensitivity reactions occur in some patients. This reaction may be more frequent in patients receiving multiple-drug therapy.


title: Dapsone

text: The reaction always involves a rash, may also include fever, jaundice, and eosinophilia, and is likely to be one manifestation of the SCARs reaction viz., the DRESS syndrome (see above). In general, these symptoms will occur within the first six weeks of therapy or not at all, and may be ameliorated by corticosteroid therapy.


title: Dapsone

text: Other adverse effects include nausea, headache, and rash (which are common), and insomnia, psychosis, and peripheral neuropathy. Effects on the lung occur rarely and may be serious, though are generally reversible.


title: Dapsone

text: As an antibacterial, dapsone inhibits bacterial synthesis of dihydrofolic acid, via competition with para-aminobenzoate for the active site of dihydropteroate synthase, thereby inhibiting nucleic acid synthesis. Though structurally distinct from dapsone, the sulfonamide group of antibacterial drugs also work in this way.


title: Dapsone

text: As an anti-inflammatory, dapsone inhibits the myeloperoxidase-HO-halide-mediated cytotoxic system in polymorphonucleocytes. As part of the respiratory burst that neutrophils use to kill bacteria, myeloperoxidase converts hydrogen peroxide () into hypochlorous acid (HOCl). HOCl is the most potent oxidant generated by neutrophils, and can cause significant tissue damage during inflammation. Dapsone arrests myeloperoxidase in an inactive intermediate form, reversibly inhibiting the enzyme. This prevents accumulation of hypochlorous acid, and reduces tissue damage during inflammation. Myeloperoxidase inhibition has also been suggested as a neuron-sparing mechanism for reducing inflammation in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and stroke.


title: Dapsone

text: Dapsone's anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects are thought to be its mechanism of action in treating dermatitis herpetiformis.


title: Dapsone

text: In the early 20th century, the German chemist Paul Ehrlich was developing theories of selective toxicity based largely on the ability of certain dyes to kill microbes. Gerhard Domagk, who would later win a Nobel Prize for his efforts, made a major breakthrough in 1932 with the discovery of the antibacterial prontosil red (sulfonamidochrysoidine). Further investigation into the involved chemicals opened the way to sulfa drug and sulfone therapy, first with the discovery of sulfanilamide, the active agent of prontosil, by Daniel Bovet and his team at Pasteur Institute (1935), then with that of dapsone independently by Ernest Fourneau in France and Gladwin Buttle in the United Kingdom.


title: Dapsone

text: The spread of drug-resistant malaria in Africa has encouraged the development of new, low-cost antimalarial drugs. "Plasmodium falciparum", one of the "Plasmodium" species that causes malaria, has developed resistance both to chloroquine and sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine, two of the most common treatments for malaria. Artemisinin, another antimalarial drug, had been developed in the 1980s but was too expensive for large-scale use. This led GlaxoSmithKline to develop Lapdap, a combination drug consisting of chlorproguanil and dapsone. Lapdap was licensed in the United Kingdom starting in October 2003.


title: Dapsone

text: One advantage of Lapdap was that chlorproguanil and dapsone are both low-cost drugs. Another was that by virtue of being a combination drug, it was less likely to cause drug resistance. However, because dapsone causes hemolytic anemia in patients with G6PD deficiency, and because G6PD deficiency affects 10-25% of the population of sub-Saharan Africa, it was discovered that Lapdap is not safe for use in Africa. It was available in many African countries for four years before GlaxoSmithKline took it off the market in February 2008.


title: Dapsone

text: Dapsone had been reported in a few cases to effectively treat acne, but the risk of hemolytic anemia kept it from being widely used for this purpose. For many years scientists attempted to develop a topical formulation of dapsone that would be as effective against acne as oral dapsone, but without the hemolysis side effect. This was difficult to accomplish because dapsone is highly insoluble in aqueous solvents. In the early 2000s QLT USA developed Aczone, a 5% dapsone gel that was shown to be effective against acne without causing clinically significant declines in hemoglobin levels, even in subjects with G6PD deficiency. In February 2016, the FDA approved a 7.5% dapsone gel. This higher strength has the advantage of a once-daily application, versus twice-daily application of the 5% formulation.


title: Dapsone

text: Dapsone also find uses as a curing agent in the manufacture of paints, adhesives, composites, powder coats, printed circuit boards, and imine-based vitrimers.


title: Cotabato City

text: كوتا نو كوتاواتو; Iranun: "Bandar a Kotawato", بندر ا كوتاواتو; ), is a third class independent component city in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 325,079 people, making it as the most populated city under the independent component city status.


title: Cotabato City

text: Cotabato City was formerly a part and the regional center of Region XII, but due to the ratification of the Bangsamoro Organic Law, it is now part of Bangsamoro and serves as the regional center. Being an independent component city, it is not a subject to regulation from the Provincial Government of Maguindanao del Norte where it is geographically located. The Philippine Statistics Authority also lists Cotabato City as statistically independent. It was the capital of Sultanate of Maguindanao which fought against Spain, the United States and Japan.


title: Cotabato City

text: Prior to the arrival of Hindus and Muslims, the city was a vast swamp and rainforest landscape where numerous ethno-linguistic groups lived. Maguindanao vernacular architecture developed during this era, which included the architectural techniques of at least 10 ethno-linguistic groups. Later on, Hindu traders arrived and the people of the area embraced the practice of Hinduism. The set of moral standards and culture of present-day people of Maguindanao are seen due to this Hindu influence.


title: Cotabato City

text: By 1515, after a successful Islamic colonization in Sulu, Muslim traders went to Maguindanao and converted many of the natives to Islam. Those that did not accept the arrival of the Muslims went into higher ground or the interior of the island and became the Teduray, as well as other lumad groups. During the same year, the Sultanate of Maguindanao was formally established, with Kuta Watu as its capital, and ruled a vast territory in Mindanao from until its total collapse in 1898.


title: Cotabato City

text: The Spanish Empire had defeated the Sulu Sultanate in war and forced it to sign an unfavorable peace treaty in 1851. With the Moro Gulf and Illana Bay now open to Spanish traffic as a result of their victory over the Sulu Moros, this paved the way for the first steps for the conquest of the Maguindanao Sultanate several years later. To that end, Spanish Jesuit missionaries have already made their way as early as 1859 at Polloc where they earned several hundred converts, but the place was deemed unsuitable in account of its less than optimal ecology. And so the Spanish district governor of Mindanao based in Zamboanga requested Datu Amirul, the father of present Sultan of Maguindanao Muhammad Makakua, for them to establish a military base at the stone fortress at Kota Wato in what is now Barangay Tamontaka, and Datu Amirul gave the consent. The Spanish then established themselves at the said fort, raising the Spanish flag there and renamed it Cotabato, the Hispanized form of its name, on April 30, 1861. The Spanish and the Moro chiefs and locals then had a conference later the same day which stipulated the Maguindanaoan locals of Cotabato are now subjects of the Spanish Crown but their Islamic beliefs would be respected. Thus, on April 30, 1861, in the flood plains of Tamontaka, the town of Cotabato was officially born.


title: Cotabato City

text: Under the reign of Sultan Muhammad Makakua, who while being the nominal sultan of Maguindanao was at this point under complete Spanish vassalage, roads and wharves were built in Cotabato, specifically where the Tamontaka River was situated. Forests were felled and cleared by the new Catholic Tiruray converts of Tamontaka to make way for the expansion of the newly established town. In 1871, the capital of the Spanish military district of Mindanao was moved from Zamboanga to Cotabato, only to be moved back previously the next year when a destructive earthquake ravaged the town.


title: Cotabato City

text: Following the Spanish evacuation in Jan. 1899, Datu Piang led the Moro's in a massacre of the remaining Christian community, enslaving those they did not kill. Americans arrived in Mindanao in 1900 after the Spanish–American War ended in 1898. Cotabato town was part of Moro Province and of Department of Mindanao and Sulu from 1903 to 1920, when the Empire Province of Cotabato, referred to as "Moroland" by the Americans, was founded with the town as the capital, with Datu Piang as its first governor.


title: Cotabato City

text: Several towns were carved off from Cotabato town since the year 1913, with Pikit being the first one founded by Cebuano Christian colonists. Dulawan (now Datu Piang, Maguindanao) and Midsayap were incorporated as regular municipalities in 1936. In 1942, at the beginning of the Pacific Front of World War II, the Japanese Imperial forces entered what is now Maguindanao province. In 1945, Maguindanao was liberated by allied Philippine Commonwealth troops and Muslim Maguindanaoan guerrilla units after defeating the Japanese Imperial forces in the Battle of Maguindanao during the Second World War. On August 18, 1947, just two years after the Second World War and a year after the official inauguration of Philippine independence, the number of towns in the gigantic Cotabato province were multiplied by Executive Order No. 82 signed by President Manuel Roxas, namely: Kidapawan, Pagalungan, Buayan, Marbel, Parang, Nuling, Dinaig, Salaman, Buluan, Kiamba, and Cabacan, a total of eleven (11) towns added to the previous four towns; the newly founded towns of Kabuntalan, Pikit (conversion as regular municipality), and Glan added up on September 30, 1949. More and more newly created towns added up in the province's number of towns as the province entered the second half of the 20th century.


title: Cotabato City

text: The city used to be part of the original Province of Cotabato and was its capital from 1920 until 1967, a year after the separation of South Cotabato; since then the city was the administrative center of the ARMM when Maguindanao was carved out in 1973.


title: Cotabato City

text: On December 22, 1979, along with Manila, Quezon City, Caloocan, Batangas City, Lipa, Iloilo City, and other cities in the country, Cotabato became a highly urbanized city.


title: Cotabato City

text: However, the city broke off administratively from Maguindanao as it rejoined Soccsksargen in the 1990s. Now many sources consider the city as part of the present Cotabato province, although geographically it is still considered part of Maguindanao.


title: Cotabato City

text: The city has traditionally resisted efforts for its inclusion to the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao despite serving as the government center of the region. Despite this, the city's residents voted for their locality's inclusion in the new Bangsamoro Autonomous Region by voting to ratify the Bangsamoro Organic Law in the January 21, 2019 plebiscite. The city became "de jure" part of Bangsamoro following the plebiscite, as well as the government center of the new region. It became "official" part of the region after its formal turnover to the Bangsamoro regional government on December 15, 2020.


title: Cotabato City

text: Cotabato is approximately from Manila, the country's capital, and is bounded by the municipalities of Sultan Kudarat to the north—with Rio Grande de Mindanao/Pulangi River separating the two—Kabuntalan to the east, and Datu Odin Sinsuat to the south. The city faces Illana Bay, part of the Moro Gulf, to the west.


title: Cotabato City

text: Cotabato City has a total land area of , located at the mouth of the Rio Grande de Mindanao and Pulangi River.


title: Cotabato City

text: Cotabato City has 27 urban barangays that are grouped into two major urban areas, the Down Town Area and the Upper Town Area.