title: Gesture

text: Gesture processing takes place in areas of the brain such as Broca's and Wernicke's areas, which are used by speech and sign language. In fact, language is thought by some scholars to have evolved in "Homo sapiens" from an earlier system consisting of manual gestures. The theory that language evolved from manual gestures, termed Gestural Theory, dates back to the work of 18th-century philosopher and priest Abbé de Condillac, and has been revived by contemporary anthropologist Gordon W. Hewes, in 1973, as part of a discussion on the origin of language.


title: Gesture

text: Gestures have been studied throughout time from different philosophers. Marcus Fabius Quintilianus was a Roman Rhetorician who studied in his Institutio Oratoria on how gesture can be used on rhetorical discourses. One of his greatest works and foundation for communication was the "Institutio Oratoria" where he explains his observations and nature of different oratories.


title: Gesture

text: A study done in 1644, by John Bulwer an English physician and early Baconian natural philosopher wrote five works exploring human communications pertaining to gestures. Bulwer analyzed dozens of gestures and provided a guide under his book named Chirologia which focused on hand gestures. In the 19th century, Andrea De Jorio an Italian antiquarian who considered a lot of research about body language published an extensive account of gesture expressions.


title: Gesture

text: Andrew N. Meltzoff an American psychologist internationally renown for infant and child development conducted a study in 1977 on the imitation of facial and manual gestures by newborns. The study concluded that "infants between 12 and 21 days of age can imitate the facial and manual gestures of parents". In 1992, David Mcneill, a professor of linguistics and psychology at the University of Chicago, wrote a book based on his ten years of research and concluded that "gestures do not simply form a part of what is said, but have an impact on thought itself." Meltzoff argues that gestures directly transfer thoughts into visible forms, showing that ideas and language cannot always be express. A peer-reviewed journal Gesture has been published since 2001, and was founded by Adam Kendon and Cornelia Müller. The International Society for Gesture Studies (ISGS) was founded in 2002.


title: Gesture

text: Gesture has frequently been taken up by researchers in the field of dance studies and performance studies in ways that emphasize the ways they are culturally and contextually inflected. Performance scholar Carrie Noland describes gestures as "learned techniques of the body" and stresses the way gestures are embodied corporeal forms of cultural communication. But rather than just residing within one cultural context, she describes how gestures migrate across bodies and locations to create new cultural meanings and associations. She also posits how they might function as a form of "resistance to homogenization" because they are so dependent on the specification of the bodies that perform them.


title: Gesture

text: Gesture has also been taken up within queer theory, ethnic studies and their intersections in performance studies, as a way to think about how the moving body gains social meaning. José Esteban Muñoz uses the idea of gesture to mark a kind of refusal of finitude and certainty and links gesture to his ideas of ephemera. Muñoz specifically draws on the African-American dancer and drag queen performer Kevin Aviance to articulate his interest not in what queer gestures might mean, but what they might perform. Juana María Rodríguez borrows ideas of phenomenology and draws on Noland and Muñoz to investigate how gesture functions in queer sexual practices as a way to rewrite gender and negotiate power relations. She also connects gesture to Giorgio Agamben's idea of "means without ends" to think about political projects of social justice that are incomplete, partial, and legibile within culturally and socially defined spheres of meaning.


title: Gesture

text: Within the field of linguistics, the most hotly contested aspect of gesture revolves around the subcategory of Lexical or Iconic Co-Speech Gestures. Adam Kendon was the first to hypothesize on their purpose when he argued that Lexical gestures do work to amplify or modulate the lexico-semantic content of the verbal speech with which they co-occur. However, since the late 1990s, most research has revolved around the contrasting hypothesis that Lexical gestures serve a primarily cognitive purpose in aiding the process of speech production. As of 2012, there is research to suggest that Lexical Gesture does indeed serve a primarily communicative purpose and cognitive only secondary, but in the realm of socio-pragmatic communication, rather than lexico-semantic modification.


title: Gesture

text: Humans have the ability to communicate through language, but they can also express through gestures. In particular, gestures can be transmitted through movements of body parts, face, and body expressions. Researchers Goldin Meadow and Brentari D. conducted research in 2015 and concluded that communicating through sign language is no different from spoken language.


title: Gesture

text: The first way to distinguish between categories of gesture is to differentiate between communicative gesture and informative gesture. While most gestures can be defined as possibly happening during the course of spoken utterances, the informative-communicative dichotomy focuses on intentionality of meaning and communication in co-speech gesture.


title: Gesture

text: Informative gestures are passive gestures that provide information about the speaker as a person and not about what the speaker is trying to communicate. Some movements are not purely considered gestures, however a person could perform these adapters in such way like scratching, adjusting clothing, and tapping.


title: Gesture

text: These gestures can occur during speech, but they may also occur independently of communication, as they are not a part of active communication. While informative gestures may communicate information about the person speaking (e.g. itchy, uncomfortable, etc.), this communication is not engaged with any language being produced by the person gesturing.


title: Gesture

text: Communicative gestures are gestures that are produced intentionally and meaningfully by a person as a way of intensifying or modifying speech produced in the vocal tract (or with the hands in the case of sign languages), even though a speaker may not be actively aware that they are producing communicative gestures. For instance, on the picture above of Uncle Sam, he is pointing and sending a non-verbal form of gesture by implying he wants you to join the U.S. Army. This is a form of symbolic gesture, usually used in the absence of speech.


title: Gesture

text: Body language is a form of nonverbal communication that allows visual cues that transmit messages without speaking. Gestures are movement that are made with the body: arms, hands, facial, etc. Authors Barbara Pease and Allan Pease, of "The Definitive Book of Body Language" concluded that everyone does a shoulder shrug, a gesture signifying that the person is not comprehending what they are supposed to be understanding. Also, that showing the palms of both hands to show a person is not hiding anything, and raising the eyebrows to indicate a greeting.


title: Gesture

text: Finger gestures are commonly used in a variety of ways, from point at something to indicate that you want to show a person something to indicating a thumbs up to show everything is good.


title: Gesture

text: Some gestures are near universals, i.e., found all over the world with only some exceptions. An example is the head shake to signify "no". Also, in most cultures nodding your head signifies "Yes", which the book "The Definitive Book of Body Language" describes as submissive gesture to representing the conversation is going the direction of the person speaking. The book explains that people who are born deaf can show a form of submissive gesture to signify "Yes".


title: Gesture

text: Within the realm of communicative gestures, the first distinction to be made is between gestures made with the hands and arms, and gestures made with other parts of the body. Examples of Non-manual gestures may include head nodding and shaking, shoulder shrugging, and facial expression, among others. Non-manual gestures are attested in languages all around the world, but have not been the primary focus of most research regarding co-speech gesture.


title: Gesture

text: A gesture that is a form of communication in which bodily actions communicate particular messages. Manual gestures are most commonly broken down into four distinct categories: Symbolic (Emblematic), Deictic (Indexical), Motor (Beat), and Lexical (Iconic) It is important to note that manual gesture in the sense of communicative co-speech gesture does not include the gesture-signs of Sign Languages, even though sign language is communicative and primarily produced using the hands, because the gestures in Sign Language are not used to intensify or modify the speech produced by the vocal tract, rather they communicate fully productive language through a method alternative to the vocal tract.


title: Gesture

text: The most familiar are the so-called emblems or quotable gestures. These are conventional, culture-specific gestures that can be used as replacement for words, such as the handwave used in the US for "hello" and "goodbye". A single emblematic gesture can have a very different significance in different cultural contexts, ranging from complimentary to highly offensive. The page List of gestures discusses emblematic gestures made with one hand, two hands, hand and other body parts, and body and facial gestures.


title: Gesture

text: Symbolic gestures can occur either concurrently or independently of vocal speech. Symbolic gestures are iconic gestures that are widely recognized, fixed, and have conventionalized meanings.


title: Gesture

text: Deictic gestures can occur simultaneously with vocal speech or in place of it. Deictic gestures are gestures that consist of indicative or pointing motions. These gestures often work in the same way as demonstrative words and pronouns like "this" or "that".


title: Gesture

text: Motor or beat gestures usually consist of short, repetitive, rhythmic movements that are closely tied with prosody in verbal speech. Unlike symbolic and deictic gestures, beat gestures cannot occur independently of verbal speech and convey no semantic information. For example, some people wave their hands as they speak to emphasize a certain word or phrase.


title: Gesture

text: These gestures are closely coordinated with speech. The so-called beat gestures are used in conjunction with speech and keep time with the rhythm of speech to emphasize certain words or phrases. These types of gestures are integrally connected to speech and thought processes.


title: Gesture

text: Other spontaneous gestures used during speech production known as iconic gestures are more full of content, and may echo, or elaborate, the meaning of the co-occurring speech. They depict aspects of spatial images, actions, people, or objects. For example, a gesture that depicts the act of throwing may be synchronous with the utterance, "He threw the ball right into the window." Such gestures that are used along with speech tend to be universal. For example, one describing that he/she is feeling cold due to a lack of proper clothing and/or a cold weather can accompany his/her verbal description with a visual one. This can be achieved through various gestures such as by demonstrating a shiver and/or by rubbing the hands together. In such cases, the language or verbal description of the person does not necessarily need to be understood as someone could at least take a hint at what's being communicated through the observation and interpretation of body language which serves as a gesture equivalent in meaning to what's being said through communicative speech.


title: Gesture

text: The elaboration of lexical gestures falls on a spectrum of iconic-metaphorical in how closely tied they are to the lexico-semantic content of the verbal speech they coordinate with. More iconic gesture very obviously mirrors the words being spoken (such as drawing a jagged horizontal line in the air to describe mountains) whereas more metaphorical gestures clearly contain some spatial relation to the semantic content of the co-occurring verbal speech, but the relationship between the gesture and the speech might be more ambiguous.


title: Gesture

text: Lexical gestures, like motor gestures, cannot occur independently of verbal speech. The purpose of lexical gestures is still widely contested in the literature with some linguists arguing that lexical gestures serve to amplify or modulate the semantic content of lexical speech, or that it serves a cognitive purpose in aiding in lexical access and retrieval or verbal working memory. Most recent research suggests that lexical gestures serve a primarily socio-pragmatic role.


title: Gesture

text: Studies affirm a strong link between gesture typology and language development. Young children under the age of two seem to rely on pointing gestures to refer to objects that they do not know the names of. Once the words are learned, they eschewed those referential (pointing) gestures. One would think that the use of gesture would decrease as the child develops spoken language, but results reveal that gesture frequency increased as speaking frequency increased with age. There is, however, a change in gesture typology at different ages, suggesting a connection between gestures and language development. Children most often use pointing and adults rely more on iconic and beat gestures. As children begin producing sentence-like utterances, they also begin producing new kinds of gestures that adults use when speaking (iconics and beats). Evidence of this systematic organization of gesture is indicative of its association to language development.


title: Gesture

text: Gestural languages such as American Sign Language and its regional siblings operate as complete natural languages that are gestural in modality. They should not be confused with finger spelling, in which a set of emblematic gestures are used to represent a written alphabet. American sign language is different from gesturing in that concepts are modeled by certain hand motions or expressions and has a specific established structure while gesturing is more malleable and has no specific structure rather it supplements speech. Before an established sign language was created in Nicaragua after the 1970s, deaf communities would use "home signs" in order to communicate with each other. These home signs were not part of a unified language but were still used as familiar motions and expressions used within their family—still closely related to language rather than gestures with no specific structure. This is similar to what has been observed in the gestural actions of chimpanzees. Gestures are used by these animals in place of verbal language, which is restricted in animals due to their lacking certain physiological and articulation abilities that humans have for speech. Corballis (2009) asserts that "our hominid ancestors were better pre-adapted to acquire language-like competence using manual gestures than using vocal sounds." This leads to a debate about whether humans, too, looked to gestures first as their modality of language in the early existence of the species. The function of gestures may have been a significant player in the evolution of language.


title: Gesture

text: Gesturing is probably universal; there has been no report of a community that does not gesture. Gestures are a crucial part of everyday conversation such as chatting, describing a route, negotiating prices on a market; they are ubiquitous. Gestures are learned embodied cultural practices that can function as a way to interpret ethnic, gender, and sexual identity.


title: Gesture

text: Gestures, commonly referred to as "body language," play an important role in industry. Proper body language etiquette in business dealings can be crucial for success. However, gestures can have different meanings according to the country in which they are expressed. In an age of global business, diplomatic cultural sensitivity has become a necessity. Gestures that we take as innocent may be seen by someone else as deeply insulting.


title: Gesture

text: The following gestures are examples of proper etiquette with respect to different countries' customs on salutations:


title: Gesture

text: In Hinduism and Buddhism, a "mudra" (Sanskrit, literally "seal") is a symbolic gesture made with the hand or fingers. Each mudra has a specific meaning, playing a central role in Hindu and Buddhist iconography.


title: Gesture

text: A common religious gesture include crossing oneself in a number of religions as a sign of respect, typically by kneeling before a sacred object in many. Gestures play a central role in religious or spiritual rituals such as the Christian sign of the cross.


title: Gesture

text: Gestures are also a means to initiate a mating ritual. This may include elaborate dances and other movements. Gestures play a major role in many aspects of human life.


title: Gesture

text: Additionally, when people use gestures, there is a certain shared background knowledge. Different cultures use similar gestures when talking about a specific action such as how we gesture the idea of drinking out of a cup.


title: Gesture

text: When an individual makes a gesture, another person can understand because of recognition of the actions/shapes.


title: Gesture

text: Gestures have been documented in the arts such as in Greek vase paintings, Indian Miniatures or European paintings.


title: Gesture

text: An example, Vitarka Vicara, the gesture of discussion and transmission of Buddhist teaching. It is done by joining the tips of the thumb and the index together, while keeping the other fingers straight.


title: Gesture

text: Gestures are processed in the same areas of the brain as speech and sign language such as the left inferior frontal gyrus (Broca's area) and the posterior middle temporal gyrus, posterior superior temporal sulcus and superior temporal gyrus (Wernicke's area). It has been suggested that these parts of the brain originally supported the pairing of gesture and meaning and then were adapted in human evolution "for the comparable pairing of sound and meaning as voluntary control over the vocal apparatus was established and spoken language evolved". As a result, it underlies both symbolic gesture and spoken language in the present human brain. Their common neurological basis also supports the idea that symbolic gesture and spoken language are two parts of a single fundamental semiotic system that underlies human discourse.


title: Gesture

text: The linkage of hand and body gestures in conjunction with speech is further revealed by the nature of gesture use in blind individuals during conversation. This phenomenon uncovers a function of gesture that goes beyond portraying communicative content of language and extends David McNeill's view of the gesture-speech system. This suggests that gesture and speech work tightly together, and a disruption of one (speech or gesture) will cause a problem in the other. Studies have found strong evidence that speech and gesture are innately linked in the brain and work in an efficiently wired and choreographed system. McNeill's view of this linkage in the brain is just one of three currently up for debate; the others declaring gesture to be a "support system" of spoken language or a physical mechanism for lexical retrieval.


title: Gesture

text: Because of this connection of co-speech gestures—a form of manual action—in language in the brain, Roel Willems and Peter Hagoort conclude that both gestures and language contribute to the understanding and decoding of a speaker's encoded message. Willems and Hagoort's research suggest that "processing evoked by gestures is qualitatively similar to that of words at the level of semantic processing." This conclusion is supported through findings from experiments by Skipper where the use of gestures led to "a division of labor between areas related to language or action (Broca's area and premotor/primary motor cortex respectively)", The use of gestures in combination with speech allowed the brain to decrease the need for "semantic control". Because gestures aided in understanding the relayed message, there was not as great a need for semantic selection or control that would otherwise be required of the listener through Broca's area. Gestures are a way to represent the thoughts of an individual, which are prompted in working memory. The results of an experiment revealed that adults have increased accuracy when they used pointing gestures as opposed to simply counting in their heads (without the use of pointing gestures) Furthermore, the results of a study conducted by Marstaller and Burianová suggest that the use of gestures affect working memory. The researchers found that those with low capacity of working memory who were able to use gestures actually recalled more terms than those with low capacity who were not able to use gestures.


title: Gesture

text: Although there is an obvious connection in the aid of gestures in understanding a message, "the understanding of gestures is not the same as understanding spoken language." These two functions work together and gestures help facilitate understanding, but they only "partly drive the neural language system".


title: Gesture

text: The movement of gestures can be used to interact with technology like computers, using touch or multi-touch popularised by the iPhone, physical movement detection and visual motion capture, used in video game consoles.


title: Gesture

text: In order to better understand the linguistic values that gestures hold, Adam Kendon, a pioneer in gesture research has proposed to look at it as a continuum from less linguistic to fully linguistic. Using the continuum, speech declines as "the language-like properties of gestural behaviors increase and idiosyncratic gestures are replaced by socially regulated signs".


title: Gesture

text: Gestures of different kinds fall within this continuum and include spontaneous gesticulations, language-like gestures, pantomime, emblems, and sign language. Spontaneous gesticulations are not evident without the presence of speech, assisting in the process of vocalization, whereas language-like gestures are "iconic and metaphoric, but lack consistency and are context-dependent". "Language-like gesture" implies that the gesture is assuming something linguistic (Loncke, 2013). Pantomime falls in the middle of the continuum and requires shared conventions. This kind of gesture helps convey information or describe an event.


title: Gesture

text: Following pantomime are emblems, which have specific meanings to denote "feelings, obscenities, and insults" and are not required to be used in conjunction with speech. The most linguistic gesture on Kendon's continuum is sign language, where "single manual signs have specific meanings and are combined with other manual signs according to specific rules".


title: Gesture

text: In recent years, various authors have dealt with philosophical theories of gesture, proposing different versions. Among the most important we should note that of Giorgio Agamben, presented in the book "Karman", in which the gesture is seen as a pure means without purpose, as an intermediate form between the doing of praxis and that of poiesis. In an opposite spirit, Giovanni Maddalena introduced "The philosophy of gesture" where gesture is defined as any performed act with a beginning and an end that carries on a meaning (from the latin gero = to bear, to carry on). According to this philosophy, gesture is our normal procedure to embody vague ideas in singular actions with a general meaning. Gesture is forged by a dense blending of icons, indices, and symbols and by a complexity of phenomenological characteristics, such as feelings, actual actions, general concepts, and habits (firstness, secondness, and thirdness in Charles S. Peirce’s phenomenology).


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: Charlie St. Cloud is a 2010 American supernatural drama film based on Ben Sherwood's novel "The Death and Life of Charlie St. Cloud", published in 2004 by Bantam Books. The film is directed by Burr Steers and stars Zac Efron and Amanda Crew. The story is about Charlie St. Cloud's choice between keeping a promise he made to his younger brother, who died in a car accident, or going after the girl he loves. In some markets the film used the complete title of the book.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: After winning the rights to adapt the book into film, Universal Pictures had James Schamus and Lewis Colick write drafts for the script, with Craig Pearce writing the final script, and director Steers helping to polish it for completion. The film's production (by Relativity Media and Marc Platt Productions) began in upstate New York and British Columbia. Filming lasted from July to late October 2009, with much of it occurring in upstate New York's forest and Gibsons' coastal pier.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: "Charlie St. Cloud" was theatrically released in the United States on July 30, 2010 and was both a critical and commercial failure. The film received generally negative reviews from critics, with many criticizing the script's tonal confliction and Efron's performance. "Charlie St. Cloud" grossed just $48 million worldwide against a production budget of $44 million (not including advertisement and distribution costs).


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: Charlie St. Cloud, with his younger brother Sam, wins a boating race on his sailboat "Splendid Splinter", subsequently receiving a sailing scholarship to Stanford University. He graduates from Winslow High School and after graduation, Charlie promises Sam they will practice baseball every day until he leaves for Stanford.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: That night, Charlie wants to attend a graduation party with his friends, but his mother makes him babysit Sam. Charlie tries sneaking out to the party, but Sam catches him and asks for a ride to his friend Tommy's house. While on the road, Charlie reassures him that his departure will not be like their father's abandonment.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: The car later gets rear-ended by a SUV, pushing them into an intersection where they are T-boned by a 18-wheeler, killing them both. During an out-of-body experience, Charlie hugs and reassures Sam, promising not to leave him.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: Paramedic Florio Ferrente revives Charlie but Sam dies in his arms. At the funeral, Charlie runs off, unable to put Sam's baseball glove in the grave. Running through the woods, he finds his spirit and discovers they can interact. Charlie fulfills Sam's dying wish by practicing baseball with him every day at sunset, even though it keeps Sam's spirit from "moving on."


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: Five years later, Charlie is a caretaker at Waterside Cemetery, having abandoned his scholarship. He continues to interact with ghosts, including his friend Sully who died in the Marines. Charlie runs into Florio, who is dying of cancer.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: Florio encourages Charlie to live his life more fully, in search of the reason why he was saved. At the docks, Charlie meets Tess Carroll, an old classmate and sailor planning to solo-sail around the world.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: The following day, Charlie finds an injured Tess tending her father's grave. He tends to her at his home and they develop a relationship. Later, when Charlie arrives late to see Sam, he says he felt Charlie forgetting him and himself disappearing. Charlie explains his ongoing relationship with Sam to Tess, who has followed him, and ends things to not lose Sam.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: Charlie learns that Tess disappeared with her boat in a storm three days earlier. After meeting her on the docks, he believes he's really been interacting with her spirit as she appeared at the cemetery, and he assumes she died at sea.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: Florio's wife Carla tells Charlie that Florio died the previous night, giving him his St. Jude medallion. Remembering that Florio believed there is no such thing as a lost cause, he becomes convinced that Tess is alive and that he was saved to save her now.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: With his friend Alistair and Tess's coach Tink, Charlie takes Tink's boat to find her. At sunset, Charlie misses his game with Sam, causing him to move on from the living world as the brothers affirm their love. Sam appears to Charlie as a shooting star, revealing Tess' location. They find the wrecked boat and an unconscious Tess. Charlie uses his body heat to keep her warm until the Coast Guard arrives, protecting her against hypothermia.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: Later, Charlie invites Tess to ride with him on an old sail boat he has bought. She is afraid, as she has had vivid dreams about them together. He tells Tess that these are memories, reciting a quote from her father's funeral that he discussed with her spirit. Charlie quits his job and makes his final peace with Sam's spirit. Some time later, they set off to sail around the world.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: A bidding war for the film rights to the book by author Ben Sherwood broke out in April and May 2003, before the book was published, with three studios competing for the rights. Universal Studios and Marc Platt (Universal's president of production) prevailed, paying a reported [estimated] $500,000 to $1 million for the rights (with that figure rising above $1 million if the film is made). Ben Sherwood was guaranteed an executive producer credit on the film, and Universal Studios executive producer Donna Langley was assigned to the picture. Joe Johnston was initially chosen to direct.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: Drafts for the script were written by James Schamus and Lewis Colick, but the final script was written by Craig Pearce. By March 2009, Johnston had been replaced as director by Burr Steers, and Platt had named himself as producer. Steers helped polish the script. The first lead performer cast in the film was Zac Efron, who turned down the lead role in Paramount Pictures' remake of "Footloose" to star in this film. Pre-production had commenced by March 2009, with filming set to begin in July 2009.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: Training with Efron began in Vancouver, British Columbia, in July 2009, and started production in upstate New York July 2009 to October 5. Amanda Crew joined the film as Tess Carroll in July 2009, and shot her scenes the following September. A number of scenes in the film were shot in Gibsons, British Columbia, including a scene in the famous 'Beachcombers' restaurant. Portions of the film were filmed at a Deep Cove school, Seycove Secondary School, in North Vancouver, B. C. Kim Basinger agreed to play Louise St. Cloud (later Claire) in mid-August 2009. Chris Massoglia was signed in October 2009 to play a teenaged Sam St. Cloud, but never made it into the final film. Efron wrapped his scenes in late October 2009.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: Rolfe Kent wrote the score, with Tony Blondal orchestrating. It was recorded at Skywalker Sound, Marin County, California. Kelvin Humenny served as the art director for the film.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: "Charlie St. Cloud" was released on July 30, 2010 and earned $12.4 million during its opening weekend, grossing $31.2 million in the United States and Canada, and earning another $17 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $48.2 million, against a production budget of $44 million.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: "Charlie St. Cloud" received negative reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a approval rating based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads: "Zac Efron gives it his all, but "Charlie St. Cloud" is too shallow and cloying to offer much more than eye candy for his fans." On Metacritic, the film has an average score of 37 out of 100, based on 30 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: Film critic A. O. Scott of "The New York Times" commended Efron for having enough "geniality and melancholy" in the title role and cinematographer Enrique Chediak for giving the scenery a "convincingly romantic look and mood," but found the film overall conflicted with being a supernatural romantic drama that plays like a horror movie in certain places, concluding that "you are supposed to be transported beyond skepticism on a wave of pure, tacky feeling. Instead, in this case, you drown in sentimental, ghoulish nonsense." Bruce DeMara of the "Toronto Star" gave praise to Efron as the title character but felt it wasn't enough to elevate the film from being "too formulaic, pretentious and cloying," concluding that: "Still, if your intent is to drink in the stunning hunkiness of Zac Efron, he's there in virtually every frame, brooding, wry, intense and actually somewhat believable. Too bad the rest of this ghost story doesn't hold up." Betsy Sharkey of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that: "The good news is that Efron continues to get better with each film; he just hasn't gotten a role yet that will finally put his acting potential to the test." "Entertainment Weekly"s Owen Gleiberman gave the film a "C−" grade, criticizing Efron's pretty boy facials for not displaying the character's emotional despair but "a fake-profound, lost-idol tranquility."


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: "The Hollywood Reporter"s Kirk Honeycutt called it "the latest to portray everlasting love on the screen and [the film] doesn't just fail, it actually gets sillier by the minute." "The Guardian"s Peter Bradshaw wrote that: "Like a high-jumper cracking the bar in two with his forehead, former teen star Zac Efron fails to make it into the Mature Performer league in this unendurable romantic drama, filmed in the buttery late-summer glow I associate with movies such as "Message in a Bottle" and "The Notebook"." Wesley Morris of "The Boston Globe" wrote that Efron lacked suitable material to make his character interesting and that Steers' direction "cares not for pacing [or] depth or the power of real emotion," saying "the movie is very much dead already. It has no pulse, no apparent breath, and a curious odor seems to waft from the screen not long after Charlie and Sam win a race together in the opening scene." Mark Jenkins of "NPR" felt the film lacked "genuine emotion" to backup its concept and that Efron was miscast in the title character role, concluding that, "[U]nlike "The Lovely Bones", this film doesn't attempt to show the afterlife as experienced by those who die too young. But then, who needs Heaven when you live in a picturesque sailing village in Microsoftland? "Charlie St. Cloud" may be a tale of loss, but its characters seem to have everything they could possibly want."


title: Charlie St. Cloud

text: Efron was nominated for a Teen Choice Award for Choice Summer Movie Star - Male and an MTV Movie Award for Best Male Performance for his work in the film, but they both went to Robert Pattinson for "". Tahan was nominated for Best Performance by a Younger Actor at the 37th Saturn Awards, but lost the award to Chloë Grace Moretz for "Let Me In".


title: Charlie Strong

text: Charles Rene Strong (born August 2, 1960) is an American football coach who is currently the co-defensive coordinator and linebackers coach at the University of Miami. He recently served as the assistant head coach and inside linebackers coach for the Jacksonville Jaguars of the National Football League (NFL) in 2021 and also previously served as a defensive analyst at the University of Alabama in 2020.


title: Charlie Strong

text: Strong served as the head coach at the University of South Florida from 2017 to 2019, University of Texas at Austin from 2014 to 2016 and the University of Louisville from 2010 to 2013. Prior to becoming head coach at Louisville, Strong held numerous assistant coaching positions. During his four-year stint at Louisville, he led the Cardinals to a 37–15 record and reached a bowl game each season, including the 2013 Sugar Bowl. After the 2013 season he left Louisville to become the head coach at the University of Texas. He was fired by Texas after the 2016 season with a 16–21 record in three seasons. One month after leaving Texas, Strong was hired at South Florida where he led the Bulls to a 21–16 record before being fired in 2019.


title: Charlie Strong

text: Charles Rene Strong was born in Batesville, Arkansas, one of six children of mother Delois Ramsey. Strong's father, also named Charles Strong, was a teacher and coach in Luxora, Arkansas and never married Ramsey. The younger Strong grew up in a blended household with his aunt and aunt's six children. After lettering for four years (1980–1983) as a defensive back at the University of Central Arkansas, Strong joined the University of Florida coaching staff as a graduate assistant in 1983. He later served as a graduate assistant at Texas A&M in 1985. He received a master's degree from Henderson State University and also received a master's degree and education specialist degree from the University of Florida. He is a member of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity.


title: Charlie Strong

text: Strong's first full-time coaching job was at Southern Illinois in 1986, where he coached wide receivers. He later assumed defensive coaching duties at Florida, Ole Miss, and Notre Dame.


title: Charlie Strong

text: In 1999, Strong joined the South Carolina Gamecocks as defensive coordinator. His stifling defenses and charismatic personality created buzz that he would be possibly the first black head coach in the SEC, but job offers were slim. Sylvester Croom eventually broke the color barrier in the SEC coaching ranks in 2004.


title: Charlie Strong

text: Strong was hired as defensive coordinator for the Florida Gators before the 2003 season. Florida head coach Ron Zook was fired midway through the Gators' 2004 season, but continued to coach until the bowl game; Strong served as interim coach of the Gators for one game, the December 2004 Peach Bowl. Florida lost the game, 27–10, to Miami. When Urban Meyer was hired as Florida's head coach, Strong was the only assistant coach retained from Zook's staff.


title: Charlie Strong

text: In a January 2009 interview with the "Orlando Sentinel", Strong expressed his belief that race played a large part in the reason that he hadn't been offered a head coaching job in 2009. Strong, whose wife is white, especially cited prospective employers' discomfort with his interracial marriage. Strong was a 2009 finalist for the Broyles Award, given annually to the nation's top assistant coach.


title: Charlie Strong

text: He became the 21st head football coach at the University of Louisville on December 9, 2009. In a telephone interview that day with ESPN.com columnist Pat Forde, former Indianapolis Colts head coach Tony Dungy said of Strong, "When they see what he can do, you're probably going to have a lot of people disappointed they didn't hire him sooner."


title: Charlie Strong

text: Strong led Louisville to a victory in the 2013 Sugar Bowl over his former team, the Florida Gators, by a final score of 33–23. It was the biggest upset victory in terms of point spread in any BCS bowl game since the inception of the BCS in 1998, as Florida entered the game favored by almost two touchdowns.


title: Charlie Strong

text: On January 23, 2013, Strong was given a $1.4 million raise which brought his annual compensation to $3.7 million and raised his buyout to $5 million. At the time it made him 7th highest paid active coach in college football and highest paid coach outside the SEC, Big 12, and Big Ten conferences.


title: Charlie Strong

text: On January 5, 2014, the University of Texas announced that Strong would be leaving the University of Louisville to accept the head football coach position at Texas to replace Mack Brown. Strong's 5-year contract was worth $5 million annually. He was formally introduced as Texas' 29th head coach the next day and became the first black head coach of the Texas football program.


title: Charlie Strong

text: Texas athletic director Steve Patterson and university president Bill Powers stated their reasons for hiring Strong for the head-coaching position were Strong's commitment to the tradition of the UT Football program as well as the development of student-athletes. Strong discussed his devotion to his athletes in his first press conference as the head coach of Texas, "I want to see [the players] develop on the field as well as off the field... The program is always going to be about physical and mental toughness."


title: Charlie Strong

text: In his first training camp as Longhorns coach, Strong suspended or dismissed a number of players for legal and disciplinary reasons. Players went to training camp with blank white helmets and Strong said they would have to earn the right to have the Longhorn logo on them.


title: Charlie Strong

text: Texas under Strong started 2–4, which included a 20–17 nail-biter defeat to #12 UCLA and 31–26 close loss to #11 Oklahoma. The Longhorns rallied and finished 6–6, which included an upset win at home versus #23 West Virginia, 33–16, and a 48–45 shootout home win against Iowa State, Strong's first shootout win in the Big 12. A 41–7 loss to BYU at home, 28–7 loss to #7 Baylor at home, 23–0 shutout by #10 Kansas State in Manhattan, and a 48–10 home loss to #5 TCU proved to be blemishes to Strong's first season in Austin. Under Strong, the Longhorns earned a bowl bid in his first season.


title: Charlie Strong

text: On renewing an old Southwest Conference rivalry, playing against Arkansas in the Advocare V100 Texas Bowl in Houston, Strong commented, "I grew up in Arkansas, grew up an Arkansas fan because it's a major university in the state," Strong said. "So many memorable games. Like I said, the '69 game was an unbelievable game. Growing up around it, you just know how big it was and how important it is to so many people." Texas lost the game by a score of 31–7.


title: Charlie Strong

text: In 2015, Strong's coaching staff got a top-10, recruiting class, competing with rivals Texas A&M, Baylor, Texas Tech and TCU in in-state recruiting. During the spring, the coaches switched the offense to a spread offense, as the quarterbacks Strong recruits are used to this style since it is extensively used in high school, Strong noted.


title: Charlie Strong

text: Strong's first upset win against a top 10 team at Texas was in the Red River Showdown in his second year, beating Oklahoma 24–17. Strong had begun the season 1–4, and coming into the game, the Longhorns program was noted by multiple national media outlets as being in trouble. The Longhorns dominated the rushing attack with 313 yards on the ground and had two players rush for over 100 yards in the game. Both players (QB Jerrod Heard and RB D'Onta Foreman) were in their second years, signalling the success of Strong's recruiting at Texas. After the victory, the players picked up Strong and crowd-surfed him in the middle of the field, then Strong posed for photos wearing the Golden Hat. Texas would finish 5–7, not eligible for a bowl game, but ended the season on a high note upsetting No. 12 Baylor.


title: Charlie Strong

text: The offseason saw Strong bring in another offensive coordinator in Sterlin Gilbert from Tulsa, and a top-10 recruiting class. Texas started their 2016 campaign against No. 10 Notre Dame at home, in which Strong started freshman QB Shane Buechele and Tyrone Swoopes scored the game-winning touchdown to upset Notre Dame in 2OT. In the following AP poll, Texas was ranked for the first time under Strong, at No. 11.


title: Charlie Strong

text: Strong finished the 2016 season with a losing record of 5–7, the third season in a row he had guided the University of Texas football program to a losing season, after inheriting a program from Mack Brown who had achieved an 8–5 record in 2013 and winning records in 15 of 16 seasons at Texas. The low point of the 2016 campaign came in the next-to-last game of the season when the Longhorns blew a 21–10 lead in a 24–21 overtime loss to a Kansas team that had won only one game all season beforehand.


title: Charlie Strong

text: In 2020, Strong was hired as a defensive analyst at the University of Alabama under head coach Nick Saban, following his termination from South Florida. As a defensive analyst, Strong helped the Crimson Tide win the 2021 College Football Playoff National Championship.


title: Charlie Strong

text: On February 11, 2021, Strong was hired by the Jacksonville Jaguars as their assistant to the head coach and inside linebackers coach, reuniting with head coach Urban Meyer.


title: Charlie Strong

text: On March 4, 2022, Strong was hired by the University of Miami as their co-defensive coordinator and linebackers coach.


title: Construction Time Again

text: Construction Time Again is the third studio album by English electronic music band Depeche Mode, released on 22 August 1983 by Mute Records. It was the band's first album to feature Alan Wilder as a member, who wrote the songs "Two Minute Warning" and "The Landscape Is Changing". The album's title comes from the second line of the first verse of the track "Pipeline". It was recorded at John Foxx's Garden Studios in London, and was supported by the Construction Time Again Tour.


title: Construction Time Again

text: In January 1983, shortly before the release of the "Get the Balance Right!" single, songwriter Martin Gore attended an Einstürzende Neubauten concert, giving him the idea to experiment with the sounds of industrial music in the context of pop.


title: Construction Time Again

text: This album introduced a transition in lyrical content for the group. "Construction Time Again" would include a bevy of political themes, sparked by the poverty Gore had seen on a then-recent trip he had taken to Thailand.


title: Construction Time Again

text: The tour, which took place in Europe, began in September 1983 in Hitchin, England. Following an initial leg of dates in the United Kingdom and Ireland, a second leg in December reached Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands and West Germany.


title: Construction Time Again

text: In March 1984, the group performed its first dates in Italy and Spain. The final date was a one-off show in June supporting Elton John in Ludwigshafen, West Germany, where "People Are People", the lead single from their next album, made its live debut on the special set. A tour in support of the act's subsequent studio release, "Some Great Reward", followed in September.


title: Construction Time Again

text: On the album's politically inclined lyrics, Anne Lambert of "Number One" wrote: "[Martin Gore]'s protest songs are serious and sharply observed, but they retain that distinctive ear for a commercial melody". She concludes: "It's impossible to pick out tracks, as the whole effect is sharp, tight, smooth and absolutely riveting!" In "Smash Hits", Peter Martin notes that the band's attention is now turned "outwards to the world (and all its problems)", pointing out the Russian, European and Oriental influences apparent in the music. He goes on: "The songs are still electronically based, but the brilliantly melodic and bouncy edge is contrasted by a brooding "Tin Drum"-type sparseness." Summing up, Martin calls the album "[a] brave departure."


title: Construction Time Again

text: "New Musical Express" hailed the album, saying that "Everything Counts" "is Mode's best ever single [...] It sold because it combines edgy and poignant melodies held in thrilling tension; a tough, urgent dancebeat; and a gleamingly modern sound with an element of quirkiness to mark it out in the crowd. And the same goes for every other track on the album." Reviewer Mat Snow qualified Alan Wilder's composition "Two Minute Warning" as "a haunting melody whose transition from verse to chorus explodes in one of those breathtakingly uplifting moments" and concluded that Depeche Mode "have made a bold and lovely pop record. Simple as that."


title: Construction Time Again

text: Commenting on the results of the band's new line-up, AllMusic's Ned Raggett considers "Construction Time Again" to be "a bit hit and miss... [although] when it does hit, it does so perfectly". Singling out "Love, in Itself", Raggett observes: "Depeche never sounded quite so thick with its sound before, with synths arranged into a mini-orchestra/horn section and real piano and acoustic guitar spliced in at strategic points." Regarding Alan Wilder's songwriting, Raggett states: "Wilder's... songwriting contributions are fine musically, but lyrically, 'preachy' puts it mildly, especially the environment-friendly 'The Landscape Is Changing'."


title: Study skills

text: Study skills or study strategies are approaches applied to learning. Study skills are an array of skills which tackle the process of organizing and taking in new information, retaining information, or dealing with assessments. They are discrete techniques that can be learned, usually in a short time, and applied to all or most fields of study. More broadly, any skill which boosts a person's ability to study, retain and recall information which assists in and passing exams can be termed a study skill, and this could include time management and motivational techniques.


title: Study skills

text: Some examples are mnemonics, which aid the retention of lists of information; effective reading; concentration techniques; and efficient note taking.


title: Study skills

text: Due to the generic nature of study skills, they must, therefore, be distinguished from strategies that are specific to a particular field of study (e.g. music or technology), and from abilities inherent in the student, such as aspects of intelligence or learning styles. It is crucial in this, however, for students to gain initial insight into their habitual approaches to study, so they may better understand the dynamics and personal resistances to learning new techniques.


title: Study skills

text: Study skills are generally critical to success in school, considered essential for acquiring good grades, and useful for learning throughout one's life. While often left up to the student and their support network, study skills are increasingly taught at the high school and university level.


title: Study skills

text: The term "study skills" is used for general approaches to learning, skills for specific courses of study. There are many theoretical works on the subject, including a vast number of popular books and websites. Manuals for students have been published since the 1940s.


title: Study skills

text: In the 1950s and 1960s, college instructors in the fields of psychology and the study of education used to research, theory, and experience with their own students in writing manuals. Marvin Cohn based the advice for parents in his 1978 book "Helping Your Teen-Age Student" on his experience as a researcher and head of a university reading clinic that tutored teenagers and young adults. In 1986, when "Dr. Gary Gruber’s Essential Guide to Test Taking for Kids" was first published, the author had written 22 books on taking standardized tests. A work in two volumes, one for upper elementary grades and the other for middle school, the "Guide" has methods for taking tests and completing schoolwork.


title: Study skills

text: Memorization is the process of committing something to memory, often by rote. The act of memorization is often a deliberate mental process undertaken in order to store information in one's memory for later recall. This information can be experiences, names, appointments, addresses, telephone numbers, lists, stories, poems, pictures, maps, diagrams, facts, music or other visual, auditory, or tactical information. Memorization may also refer to the process of storing particular data into the memory of a device. One of the most basic approaches to learning any information is simply to repeat it by rote. Typically this will include reading over notes or a textbook and re-writing notes.


title: Study skills

text: The weakness of rote learning is that it implies a passive reading and listening style. Educators such as John Dewey have argued that students need to learn critical thinking – questioning and weighing up evidence as they learn. This can be done during lectures or when reading books.


title: Study skills

text: A method that is useful during the first interaction with the subject of study is REAP method. This method helps students to improve their understanding of the text and bridge the idea with that of the author's. REAP is an acronym for Read, Encode, Annotate and Ponder.


title: Study skills

text: Annotating and Encoding helps reprocess content into concise and coherent knowledge which adds to a meaningful symbolic fund of knowledge. Precise annotation, Organizing question annotation, Intentional annotation, and Probe annotation are some of the annotation methods used.


title: Study skills

text: A method used to focus on key information when studying from books uncritically is the PQRST method. This method prioritizes the information in a way that relates directly to how they will be asked to use that information in an exam. PQRST is an acronym for Preview, Question, Read, Summary, Test.


title: Study skills

text: There are a variety of studies from different colleges nationwide that show peer-communication can help increase better study habits tremendously. One study shows that an average of 73% score increase was recorded by those who were enrolled in the classes surveyed.


title: Study skills

text: In order to make reading or reviewing material more engaging and active, learners can create cues that will stimulate recall later on. A cue can be a word, short phrase, or song that helps the learner access a memory that was encoded intentionally with this prompt in mind. The use of cues to aid memory has been popular for many years, however, research suggests that adopting cues made by others is not as effective as cues that learners create themselves.


title: Study skills

text: Self-testing is another effective practice, when preparing for exams or other standardized memory recall situations. Many students prepare for exams by simply rereading textbook passages or materials. However, it's likely that this can create a false sense of understanding because of the increased familiarity that students have with passages that they have reviewed recently or frequently. Instead, in 2006, Roediger and Karpicke studied eighth-grade students’ performance on history exams. Their results showed that students who tested themselves on material they had learned, rather than simply reviewing or rereading subjects had both better and longer lasting retention. The term Testing Effect is used to describe this increase in memory performance.


title: Study skills

text: Taking notes by using a computer can also deter impactful learning, even when students are using computers solely for the purpose note-taking and are not attempting to multitask, during lectures or study sessions. This is likely due to shallower processing from students using computers to take notes. Taking notes on a computer often ushers a tendency for students to record lectures verbatim, instead of writing the points of a lecture in their own words.


title: Study skills

text: Flashcards are visual cues on cards. These have numerous uses in teaching and learning but can be used for revision. Students often make their own flashcards, or more detailed index cards – cards designed for filing, often A5 size, on which short summaries are written. Being discrete and separate, they have the advantage of allowing students to re-order them, pick a selection to read over, or choose randomly for self-testing. Software equivalents can be used.


title: Study skills

text: Summary methods vary depending on the topic, but most involve condensing the large amount of information from a course or book into shorter notes. Often, these notes are then condensed further into key facts.


title: Study skills

text: Organized summaries: Such as outlines showing keywords and definitions and relations, usually in a tree structure.


title: Study skills

text: Spider diagrams: Using spider diagrams or mind maps can be an effective way of linking concepts together. They can be useful for planning essays and essay responses in exams. These tools can give a visual summary of a topic that preserves its logical structure, with lines used to show how different parts link together.


title: Study skills

text: Some memory techniques make use of visual memory. One popular memory enhancing technique is the method of loci, a system of visualizing key information in real physical locations e.g. around a room.


title: Study skills

text: Diagrams are often underrated tools. They can be used to bring all the information together and provide practice reorganizing what has been learned in order to produce something practical and useful. They can also aid the recall of information learned very quickly, particularly if the student made the diagram while studying the information. Pictures can then be transferred to flashcards that are very effective last-minute revision tools rather than rereading any written material.


title: Study skills

text: A mnemonic is a method of organizing and memorizing information. There are four main types of mnemonic: (1) Narrative (relying on a story of some kind, or a sequence of real or imagined events); (2) Sonic/Textual (using rhythm or repeated sound, such as rhyme, or memorable textual patterns such as acronyms); (3) Visual (diagrams, mind maps, graphs, images, etc.); (4) 'Topical' (meaning ‘place-dependent’, for instance, using features of a familiar room, building or set of landmarks as a way of coding and recalling sequenced facts). Some mnemonics use a simple phrase or fact as a trigger for a longer list of information. For example, the cardinal points of the compass can be recalled in the correct order with the phrase "Never Eat Shredded Wheat". Starting with North, the first letter of each word relates to a compass point in clockwise order round a compass.


title: Study skills

text: The Black-Red-Green method (developed through the Royal Literary Fund) helps the student to ensure that every aspect of the question posed has been considered, both in exams and essays. The student underlines relevant parts of the question using three separate colors (or some equivalent). BLAck denotes 'BLAtant instructions', i.e. something that clearly must be done; a directive or obvious instruction. REd is a REference Point or REquired input of some kind, usually to do with definitions, terms, cited authors, theory, etc. (either explicitly referred to or strongly implied). GREen denotes GREmlins, which are subtle signals one might easily miss, or a ‘GREEN Light’ that gives a hint on how to proceed, or where to place the emphasis in answers. Another popular method while studying is to use the PEE method; Point, evidence and explain, reason being, this helps the student break down exam questions allowing them to maximize their marks/grade during the exam. Many Schools will encourage practicing the P.E. BEing method prior to an exam.


title: Study skills

text: Spacing, also called distributed learning by some; helps individuals remember at least as much if not more information for a longer period of time than using only one study skill. Using spacing in addition to other study methods can improve retention and performance on tests. Spacing is especially useful for retaining and recalling new material. The theory of spacing allows students to split that a single long session to a few shorter sessions in a day, if not days apart, instead of cramming all study materials into one long study session that lasts for hours. Studying will not last longer than it would have originally, and one is not working harder but this tool gives the user the ability to remember and recall things for a longer time period. Spacing effect is not only beneficial for memorization, but spaced repetition can also potentially improve classroom learning. The science behind this; according to Jost's Law from 1897 “If two associations are of equal strength but of different age, a new repetition has a greater value for the older one”. This means that if a person were to study two things once, at different times, the one studied most recently will be easier to recall.


title: Study skills

text: Blocking is studying one topic at a time. Interleaving is another technique used to enhance learning and memory; it involves practicing and learning multiple related skills or topics. For example, when training three skills A, B and C: blocking uses the pattern of AAA-BBB-CCC while interleaving uses the pattern of ABC-ABC-ABC. Research has found that interleaving is superior to blocking in learning skills and studying.


title: Study skills

text: One of the most efficient methods of learning is trying to retrieve learned information and skills. This could be achieved by leveraging the testing effect including: testing, quizzing, self-testing, problem-solving, active recall, flashcards, practicing the skills, and other.


title: Study skills

text: Often, improvements to the effectiveness of study may be achieved through changes to things unrelated to the study material itself, such as time-management, boosting motivation and avoiding procrastination, and in improvements to sleep and diet.


title: Study skills

text: Time management in study sessions aims to ensure that activities that achieve the greatest benefit are given the greatest focus. A traffic lights system is a simple way of identifying the importance of information, highlighting or underlining information in colours:


title: Study skills

text: This reminds students to start with the things which will provide the quickest benefit, while 'red' topics are only dealt with if time allows. The concept is similar to the ABC analysis, commonly used by workers to help prioritize. Also, some websites (such as FlashNotes) can be used for additional study materials and may help improve time management and increase motivation.


title: Study skills

text: In addition to time management, sleep is important; getting adequate rest improves memorisation. Students are generally more productive in the morning than the afternoon.


title: Study skills

text: In addition to time management and sleep, emotional state of mind can matter when a student is studying. If an individual is calm or nervous in class; replicating that emotion can assist in studying. With replicating the emotion, an individual is more likely to recall more information if they are in the same state of mind when in class. This also goes the other direction; if one is upset but normally calm in class it's much better to wait until they are feeling calmer to study. At the time of the test or class they will remember more.


title: Study skills

text: While productivity is greater earlier in the day, current research suggests that material studied in the afternoon or evening is better consolidated and retained. This is consistent with current memory consolidation models that student tasks requiring analysis and application are better suited toward the morning and midday while learning new information and memorizing are better suited to evenings.


title: Study skills

text: The Pomodoro Method is another effective way of increasing the productivity a set amount of time, by limiting interruptions. Invented in the 1980s, the Pomodoro Technique segments blocks of time into 30-minute sections. Each 30-minute section (called a Pomodoro) is composed of a 25-minute study or work period and a 5-minute rest period. And it is recommended that every 4 Pomodoro's, should be followed with a 15-30-minute break. Though this technique has increased in popularity, it hadn't been empirically studied until more recently. A software engineering corporation found that employees using the Pomodoro Method saw a decrease in their work flow interruptions and an increase in their satisfaction. by being mindful of wasted time during study, students can increase their learning productivity.


title: Study skills

text: Journaling can help students increase their academic performance principally through reducing stress and anxiety. Much of students’ difficulty or aversion to analytic subjects such as math or science, is due to a lack of confidence or belief that learning is reasonably within their abilities. Therefore, reducing the stress of learning new and/or complex material is paramount to helping them succeed. Students without access to an outside source of support can use journaling to simulate a similar environment and effect. For example, Frattaroli, et al., studied students that were preparing to take graduate study entrance exams, such as the GRE, LSAT, and MCAT. They found that students’ journal entries recorded immediately before taking these historically stress-inducing tests followed a similar logical flow; where during the beginning of writing, participants would express fear or concern toward the test. However, through the course of writing their experiences down, participants would encourage themselves and ultimately cultivate hope in upcoming exams. As a result of this, those who journaled immediately before these tests reported a lower amount of anxiety, and a better test result.


title: Study skills

text: Studying can also be more effective if one changes their environment while studying. For example: the first time studying the material, one can study in a bedroom, the second time one can study outside, and the final time one can study in a coffee shop. The thinking behind this is that as when an individual changes their environment the brain associates different aspects of the learning and gives a stronger hold and additional brain pathways with which to access the information. In this context environment can mean many things; from location, to sounds, to smells, to other stimuli including foods. When discussing environment in regards to its effect on studying and retention Carey says “a simple change in venue improved retrieval strength (memory) by 40 percent.” Another change in the environment can be background music; if people study with music playing and they are able to play the same music during test time they will recall more of the information they studied. According to Carey “background music weaves itself subconsciously into the fabric of stored memory.” This “distraction” in the background helps to create more vivid memories with the studied material.


title: Study skills

text: Analogies can be a highly effective way to increase the efficiency of coding and long-term memory. Popular uses of analogies are often forming visual images that represent subject matter, linking words or information to one's self, and either imagining or creating diagrams that display the relationship between elements of complex concepts. A 1970 study done by Bower and Winzez found that as participants created analogies that had sentimentality or relevance to themselves as a unique individual, they were better able to store information as well as recall what had been studied. This is referred to as the Self-reference Effect. Adding to this phenomenon, examples that are more familiar an individual or that are more vivid or detailed are even more easily remembered. However, analogies that are logically flawed and/or are not clearly described can create misleading or superficial models in learners.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: My Cousin Rachel is a 2017 romance-drama film, written and directed by Roger Michell, and based upon the 1951 novel "My Cousin Rachel" by Daphne du Maurier. It stars Rachel Weisz, Sam Claflin, Iain Glen, Holliday Grainger, and Pierfrancesco Favino. Shot in Italy and England in Spring 2016, the film is about a young man in Cornwall who meets the widow of his older cousin, suspecting her of being responsible for his death.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: The film was released in the United States and United Kingdom on June 9, 2017 by Fox Searchlight Pictures. Weisz received positive reviews for her performance as the title character.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: In the 1830s, a young orphan named Philip is adopted by his older cousin Ambrose, who raises him as a son on his large estate in Cornwall. Despite societal beliefs of the necessity of motherhood, Philip grows up with a nearly complete absence of women in the household, before Ambrose leaves the estate for the sunnier climate of Florence to pursue better health. Now a young man, Philip is left in the care of his godfather Nick Kendall, and learns through correspondence that Ambrose has wed their widowed, distant cousin Rachel in Florence. Later, Ambrose begins sending letters indicating distrust of the medical care he is receiving in Florence. Concerned, Philip travels to Italy, only to be informed Ambrose has died and Rachel has left. Though Ambrose's will left the entire estate to Philip pending his 25th birthday, Philip is convinced Rachel is guilty of murder and threatens her friend Rainaldi with revenge.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: Philip returns to Cornwall, and later learns Rachel has followed. She arrives at the estate, and, while he vows to confront her, he meets her in her boudoir, and he becomes infatuated by the older woman's beauty as they share tea. They accompany each other on riding excursions, and, no longer suspecting her of foul play, he throws an accusatory letter on a campfire. The two cousins conflict over Rachel's intentions to return to Florence and live independently, but Rachel indicates she is not angry with him, and they kiss. Rachel also reveals that Ambrose had fallen out of love with her after she had a miscarriage.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: Rachel stays for Christmas celebrations. Nick learns that she drastically has overdrawn her accounts and warns Philip that Rachel was notorious in Florence for her extravagance and lust. Despite this, Philip intends to turn over much of the estate's wealth to Rachel, as soon as he can legally dispose of it after his 25th birthday, as she was left with very little from Ambrose's estate. His birthday arrives, and, when Rachel realizes what he has done for her, she's very grateful. While out in nature, the two have sex. At a dinner with friends, Philip declares he and Rachel are engaged, but Rachel fervently denies this. In private, she tells him she had sex with him merely as a form of thanks, and does not return his feelings. They get into a violent argument, after which Rachel professes fear of him.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: Sometime after, Philip falls ill. As he recovers, he becomes suspicious of Rachel again and starts refusing her "special herbal tea," which she also made for Ambrose. One day, he suggests that she ride along the same sea path that he used to ride and from which you can see seals sunning themselves down below, on rocks; once, Phillip nearly died in a riding accident on that path. She's excited by the opportunity to see the seals, and leaves on horseback, Phillip watching her go.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: He and Nick's daughter, Louise, begin searching through Rachel's belongings for incriminating evidence, only to find out that Rainaldi was gay and was not having an affair with Rachel as everyone's believed. Philip begins to re-think if he's misjudged Rachel, and realizes that he directed her to the path upon which he had the accident. He sets out in search of her, but finds that she indeed has had a fatal accident while riding on the same cliff-side path he directed her toward.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: Years later, Philip, now married to Louise and a father of two, is tormented by Rachel's memory and the fact that he will never know whether she was innocent of his suspicions. He suffers horrific migraines and is sensitive to bright and loud stimuli. All of his symptoms can be traced from the time of Rachel's death.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: The film is one of several recent adaptations of Daphne du Maurier's work. In January 2015, Fox Searchlight secured Roger Michell to direct the film and write the screenplay. It is the first cinematic adaptation of "My Cousin Rachel" since the 1952 film of the same name.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: While writing the screenplay, Michell estimated du Maurier intended the story to be set in the 1830s based on the absence of railways and presence of canals, and considered he had previously explored the time period with his "Persuasion" (1995), based on Jane Austen's work. A difference would be du Maurier's story involved more sex than Austen's.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: In September 2015, it was announced Rachel Weisz was in talks to star in the film. She took the role, and envisioned the character as "sexually liberated". The same month, Sam Claflin joined the cast, stating he was interested because Philip was an ordinary, immature character, who was virginal until discovering Rachel.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: In February 2016, Holliday Grainger joined the cast, followed by Iain Glen in March. Glen said that when he received the screenplay, he could see Michell had structured the mystery so that Kendall would believe one thing until another piece of evidence arose, and developed his performance accordingly.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: Principal photography began on April 4, 2016, and lasted through the spring in England and Italy. With production designer Alice Normington, Michell selected filming locations in South Devon, Oxfordshire and Surrey, combining shots to create an idealistic setting. In Surrey, photography took place at West Horsley Place, a 16th-century building owned by Bamber Gascoigne. Michell said they selected the house for "the spirit of the place", which he described as "so alive and raw". The Flete estate in Devon was used for beach and riding scenes and shots of cliffs.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: Weisz was costumed by Dinah Collin, who aimed for a fashion foreign to Cornwall, and consulted portraits to create an authentic classy appearance. The pearls used in the story were also made for the film, based on an 1835 painting. The crew decided on only two main dresses for the Rachel character, since she was not at home in Cornwall.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: For the part, Weisz had to learn to ride a horse side-saddle, a feat made more challenging given her costume. The horse, previously used on the television production "Game of Thrones", fell to the ground when it felt Weisz pull on its rein, as it had been trained to do for television, causing Weisz to fear for her safety.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: In May 2016, two images from the film were released, featuring Claflin and Weisz. A trailer was released in January 2017, using a cover version of the song "Wicked Game" by Chris Isaak. The film was scheduled for a limited release on May 5, 2017. However, the date was pushed back to July 14, and later moved up to June 9, 2017.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: In the U.S. on that date, it was released in 500 places. Filming location West Horsley Place also hosted a showing of the film in June, to support efforts to turn the building into an arts centre. In Region 1, 20th Century Fox released the film on DVD and Blu-ray in August, with commentary and documentary shorts.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: "My Cousin Rachel" grossed $2.7 million in North America and $6.4 million in other territories, for a worldwide gross of $9.2 million.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: In its first weekend, "My Cousin Rachel" made £638,000 in 467 U.K. theatres, performing strongly in independently owned outlets. By July 3, "My Cousin Rachel" made £2.27 million in the U.K. In the U.S., it made $954,000 from 523 theatres in its first weekend.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 76% based on 123 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Excellent cinematography and Rachel Weisz's entrancing performance keep "My Cousin Rachel" alluring despite a central mystery that's rather easily unlocked." On Metacritic, the film has average score of 63 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favourable reviews".


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: Mark Kermode awarded the film four stars in "The Guardian", crediting Weisz for challenging the 1952 film's star Olivia de Havilland as the definitive Rachel and Michell for his period direction. In "The Hollywood Reporter", Sheri Linden praised it as "Handsome and richly atmospheric". Kenneth Turan highlighted Weisz's performance and the romantic mystery of the adaptation in "The Los Angeles Times". Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of "The A.V. Club" wrote that Michell was "making a welcome return to interesting movies" with this "mordant and fittingly morbid British film with a superbly cast Rachel Weisz." In "Variety", Peter Debruge wrote Weisz's performance is "pure pleasure to watch". "The Washington Post"s Kristen Page-Kirby noted the film's emotions and the common experience of Philip's feelings of sexual entitlement. For "The New York Times", Manohla Dargis wrote the scenery, cinematography and direction were consistently beautiful, but the film did not realize its full potential.


title: My Cousin Rachel (2017 film)

text: In June 2017, Fox Searchlight Pictures and Create Advertising London shared a Golden Trailer Award for Best Foreign Romance for the trailer. At the British Independent Film Awards 2017, Dinah Collin was nominated for Best Costume Design.


title: Dennis Haskins

text: Dennis Haskins (born November 18, 1950) is an American actor known for his role as Principal Richard Belding in the teen sitcom "Saved by the Bell", which ran from 1989 to 1993 on NBC. He then went on to star in "", which aired from 1993 to 2000. He also portrayed the role as a regular in "Good Morning, Miss Bliss".


title: Dennis Haskins

text: He was born in Chattanooga, Tennessee. Haskins is an alumnus of Our Lady of Perpetual Help as well as Notre Dame High School in Chattanooga and of the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. He played basketball at UTC after failing to make the team at the University of Tennessee. He was also a member of the cheerleading squad. Haskins is a member of the Kappa Sigma fraternity. Dennis Haskins currently splits his time between Los Angeles and Winthrop, Massachusetts.


title: Dennis Haskins

text: Before breaking into acting, Haskins was a contestant on the TV game shows "Press Your Luck" and "Scrabble".


title: Dennis Haskins

text: Before his role on "Saved by the Bell", Haskins appeared in several episodes of "The Dukes of Hazzard" in different roles. In the pilot episode, he plays a Boar's Nest patron whom Daisy thrashes after he attempts to grope her while she's working as a waitress.


title: Dennis Haskins

text: Haskins, who auditioned seven times for the role of Mr. Belding, first appeared as the character in 1988's "Good Morning, Miss Bliss" on the Disney Channel. After a year the show was retooled as "Saved by the Bell" on NBC, with Haskins being the only adult member of the regular cast. Known for the catchphrase "Hey, hey, hey, what is going on here?", he continued the role on the spinoff "Saved by the Bell: The New Class" until 2000. He had a brief cameo as himself in the 2006 film "Boys & Girls Guide To Getting Down".


title: Dennis Haskins

text: As a guest on the March 4, 2010 episode of Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, Haskins boasted he was capable of bench pressing 150 pounds as a senior member of Notre Dame men's varsity basketball team.


title: Dennis Haskins

text: On February 4, 2015, Haskins reunited with Mark-Paul Gosselaar, Elizabeth Berkley, Mario Lopez and Tiffani Thiessen on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon" where they appeared in a "Saved by the Bell" sketch with Fallon.


title: Dennis Haskins

text: He appeared in the 2014 film "A Million Ways to Die in the West" as a snake oil salesman at the fair.


title: Dennis Haskins

text: On August 31, 2009, Haskins released his first music album called "Karaoke with Your Favorite Principal Dennis." On the album, he sings everything from "Piano Man" to "Mustang Sally", the latter being a duet with Hulk Hogan's daughter Brooke Hogan. The CD was recorded in the summer of 2009 at Mikron Studios in South Pittsburg, Tennessee, with Mike Headrick. Cody McCarver produced the project, and Mike Yarworth financed it. More recently, in 2010, Haskins appeared in the video for "See You in Shell" by experimental metalcore band Iwrestledabearonce, which parodied "Saved by the Bell" and films by John Hughes.


title: Dennis Haskins

text: Haskins is also a fan of professional wrestling and WWE. He has appeared in multiple episodes of "Z! True Long Island Story", a YouTube series by WWE professional wrestler Zack Ryder. He is also friends with former Los Angeles Dodgers pitching coach Rick Honeycutt.


title: Dennis Haskins

text: On July 14, 2016, Haskins performed on stage with the 90s themed band, Saved by the 90s, in Toledo, Ohio at a Toledo Mud Hens minor league baseball game.


title: Dennis Haskins

text: Haskins appears in the music video for Dirty Heads' "Vacation". He is seen in an empty high school lip syncing to the entire track.


title: Dennis Haskins

text: Haskins also appears in the music video for Khalid's "Young Dumb & Broke" where he plays a principal making an end of year announcement over the school's intercom.


title: Dennis Haskins

text: Haskins was honored with The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga's Most Distinguished Alumni of 2000 award and has a regional high school academic decathlon named after him, The Dennis Haskins Open, now in its eleventh year.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Gabrielle Émilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil, Marquise du Châtelet (; 17 December 1706 – 10 September 1749) was a French natural philosopher and mathematician from the early 1730s until her death due to complications during childbirth in 1749. Her most recognized achievement is her translation of and commentary on Isaac Newton's 1687 book "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" containing basic laws of physics. The translation, published posthumously in 1756, is still considered the standard French translation. Her commentary includes a contribution to Newtonian mechanics—the postulate of an additional conservation law for total energy, of which kinetic energy of motion is one element. This led to her conceptualization of energy as such, and to derive its quantitative relationships to the mass and velocity of an object.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Her philosophical magnum opus, "Institutions de Physique" (Paris, 1740, first edition; "Foundations of Physics"), circulated widely, generated heated debates, and was republished and translated into several other languages within two years of its original publication. She participated in the famous "vis viva" debate, concerning the best way to measure the force of a body and the best means of thinking about conservation principles. Posthumously, her ideas were heavily represented in the most famous text of the French Enlightenment, the "Encyclopédie" of Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert, first published shortly after du Châtelet's death. Numerous biographies, books and plays have been written about her life and work in the two centuries since her death. In the early 21st century, her life and ideas have generated renewed interest.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: In addition to producing famous translations of works by authors such as Bernard Mandeville and Isaac Newton, Du Châtelet wrote a number of significant philosophical essays, letters and books that were well known in her time.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Because of her well-known collaboration and romantic involvement with Voltaire, which spanned much of her adult life, for generations Du Châtelet has been known as mistress and collaborator to her much better known intellectual companion. Her accomplishments and achievements have often been subsumed under his and, as a result, even today she is often mentioned only within the context of Voltaire's life and work during the period of the early French Enlightenment. The ideals of her works spread from the ideals of individual empowerment to issues of the social contract.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Recently, however, professional philosophers and historians have transformed the reception of Du Châtelet. Historical evidence indicates that Du Châtelet's work had a very significant influence on the philosophical and scientific conversations of the 1730s and 1740s – in fact, she was famous and respected by the greatest thinkers of her time. Francesco Algarotti styled the dialogue of "Il Newtonianismo per le dame" based on conversations he observed between Du Châtelet and Voltaire in Cirey.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Du Châtelet corresponded with renowned mathematicians such as Johann II Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler, early developers of calculus. She was also tutored by Bernoulli's prodigy students, Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis and Alexis Claude Clairaut. Frederick the Great of Prussia, who re-founded the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, was her great admirer, and corresponded with both Voltaire and Du Châtelet regularly. He introduced Du Châtelet to Leibniz's philosophy by sending her the works of Christian Wolff, and Du Châtelet sent him a copy of her "Institutions."


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Her works were published and republished in Paris, London, and Amsterdam; they were translated into German and Italian; and, they were discussed in the most important scholarly journals of the era, including the "Memoires des Trévoux", the "Journal des Sçavans", the "", and others. Perhaps most intriguingly, many of her ideas were represented in various sections of the "Encyclopédie" of Diderot and D'Alembert, and some of the articles in the "Encyclopédie" are a direct copy of her work (this is an active area of current academic research - the latest research can be found at Project Vox, a Duke University research initiative).


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Émilie du Châtelet was born on 17 December 1706 in Paris, the only girl amongst six children. Three brothers lived to adulthood: René-Alexandre (b. 1698), Charles-Auguste (b. 1701), and Elisabeth-Théodore (b. 1710). Her eldest brother, René-Alexandre, died in 1720, and the next brother, Charles-Auguste, died in 1731. However, her younger brother, Elisabeth-Théodore, lived to a successful old age, becoming an abbot and eventually a bishop. Two other brothers died very young. Du Châtelet also had a half-sister, Michelle, who was born of her father and Anne Bellinzani, an intelligent woman who was interested in astronomy and married to an important Parisian official.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Her father was Louis Nicolas le Tonnelier de Breteuil, a member of the lesser nobility. At the time of Du Châtelet's birth, her father held the position of the Principal Secretary and Introducer of Ambassadors to King Louis XIV. He held a weekly "salon" on Thursdays, to which well-respected writers and scientists were invited. Her mother was Gabrielle Anne de Froullay, Baronne de Breteuil.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Du Châtelet's education has been the subject of much speculation, but nothing is known with certainty.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Among their acquaintances was Fontenelle, the perpetual secretary of the French Académie des Sciences. Du Châtelet's father Louis-Nicolas, recognizing her early brilliance, arranged for Fontenelle to visit and talk about astronomy with her when she was 10 years old. Du Châtelet's mother, Gabrielle-Anne de Froulay, was brought up in a convent, at the time the predominant educational institution available to French girls and women. While some sources believe her mother did not approve of her intelligent daughter, or of her husband's encouragement of Émilie's intellectual curiosity, there are also other indications that her mother not only approved of Du Châtelet's early education, but actually encouraged her to vigorously question stated fact.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: In either case, such encouragement would have been seen as unusual for parents of their time and status. When she was small, her father arranged training for her in physical activities such as fencing and riding, and as she grew older, he brought tutors to the house for her. As a result, by the age of twelve she was fluent in Latin, Italian, Greek and German; she was later to publish translations into French of Greek and Latin plays and philosophy. She received education in mathematics, literature, and science.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Du Châtelet also liked to dance, was a passable performer on the harpsichord, sang opera, and was an amateur actress. As a teenager, short of money for books, she used her mathematical skills to devise highly successful strategies for gambling.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: On 12 June 1725, she married the Marquis Florent-Claude du Chastellet-Lomont. Her marriage conferred the title of Marquise du Chastellet. Like many marriages among the nobility, theirs was arranged. As a wedding gift, her husband was made governor of Semur-en-Auxois in Burgundy by his father; the recently married couple moved there at the end of September 1725. Du Châtelet was eighteen at the time, her husband thirty-four.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: The Marquis Florent-Claude du Chastellet and Émilie du Châtelet had three children: Françoise-Gabrielle-Pauline (30 June 1726 – 1754, married in 1743 to Alfonso Carafa, Duca di Montenero), Louis Marie Florent (born 20 November 1727), and Victor-Esprit (born 11 April 1733). Victor-Esprit died as an infant in late summer 1734, likely the last Sunday in August. On 4 September 1749 Émilie du Châtelet gave birth to Stanislas-Adélaïde du Châtelet (daughter of Jean François de Saint-Lambert). She died as a toddler in Lunéville on 6 May 1751.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: After bearing three children, Émilie, Marquise du Châtelet, considered her marital responsibilities fulfilled and reached an agreement with her husband to live separate lives while still maintaining one household. In 1733, aged 26, Du Châtelet resumed her mathematical studies. Initially, she was tutored in algebra and calculus by Moreau de Maupertuis, a member of the Academy of Sciences; although mathematics was not his forte, he had received a solid education from Johann Bernoulli, who also taught Leonhard Euler. However by 1735 Du Châtelet had turned for her mathematical training to Alexis Clairaut, a mathematical prodigy known best for Clairaut's equation and Clairaut's theorem. Du Châtelet resourcefully sought some of France's best tutors and scholars to mentor her in mathematics. On one occasion at the Café Gradot, a place where men frequently gathered for intellectual discussion, she was politely ejected when she attempted to join one of her teachers. Undeterred, she returned and entered after having men's clothing made for herself.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Du Châtelet may have met Voltaire in her childhood at one of her father's "salons"; Voltaire himself dates their meeting to 1729, when he returned from his exile in London. However, their friendship developed from May 1733 when she re-entered society after the birth of her third child.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Du Châtelet invited Voltaire to live at her country house at Cirey in Haute-Marne, northeastern France, and he became her long-time companion. There she studied physics and mathematics and published scientific articles and translations. To judge from Voltaire's letters to friends and their commentaries on each other's work, they lived together with great mutual liking and respect. As a literary rather than scientific person, Voltaire implicitly acknowledged her contributions to his 1738 "Elements of the Philosophy of Newton". This was through a poem dedicated to her at the beginning of the text and in the preface, where Voltaire praised her study and contributions. The book's chapters on optics show strong similarities with her own "Essai sur l'optique". She was able to contribute further to the campaign by a laudatory review in the "Journal des savants".


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Sharing a passion for science, Voltaire and Du Châtelet collaborated scientifically. They set up a laboratory in Du Châtelet's home in Lorraine. In a healthy competition, they both entered the 1738 Paris Academy prize contest on the nature of fire, since Du Châtelet disagreed with Voltaire's essay. Although neither of them won, both essays received honourable mention and were published. She thus became the first woman to have a scientific paper published by the Academy.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Du Châtelet's relationship with Voltaire caused her to give up most of her social life to become more involved with her study in mathematics with the teacher of Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis. He introduced the ideas of Isaac Newton to her. Letters written by Du Châtelet explain how she felt during the transition from Parisian socialite to rural scholar, from "one life to the next."


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: In May 1748, Du Châtelet began an affair with the poet Jean François de Saint-Lambert and became pregnant. In a letter to a friend she confided her fears that she would not survive her pregnancy. On the night of 4 September 1749 she gave birth to a daughter, Stanislas-Adélaïde. Du Châtelet died on 10 September 1749 at Château de Lunéville, from a pulmonary embolism. She was 42. Her daughter died 20 months later.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: In her writing, Du Châtelet criticizes John Locke's philosophy. She emphasizes the necessity of the verification of knowledge through experience: "Locke's idea of the possibility of "thinking matter" is […] abstruse." Her critique on Locke originates in her Bernard de Mandeville commentary on "The Fable of the Bees". She confronts us with her resolute statement in favor of universal principles which precondition human knowledge and action, and maintains that this kind of law is innate. Du Châtelet claims the necessity of a universal presupposition, because if there is no such beginning, all our knowledge is relative. In that way, Du Châtelet rejects John Locke's aversion of innate ideas and prior principles. She also reverses Locke's negation of the principle of contradiction, which would constitute the basis of her methodic reflections in the "Institutions". On the contrary, she affirms her arguments in favor of the necessity of prior and universal principles. "Two and two could then make as well 4 as 6 if


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis' and Julien Offray de La Mettrie's references to Du Châtelet's deliberations on motion, free will, "thinking matter", numbers and the way to do metaphysics are a sign of the importance of her reflections. She rebuts the claim to finding truth by using mathematical laws, and argues against Maupertuis.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: In 1737 du Châtelet published a paper "Dissertation sur la nature et la propagation du feu", based upon her research into the science of fire. In it she speculated that there may be colours in other suns that are not found in the spectrum of sunlight on Earth.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: Her book "Institutions de Physique" ("Lessons in Physics") was published in 1740; it was presented as a review of new ideas in science and philosophy to be studied by her 13 year old son, but it incorporated and sought to reconcile complex ideas from the leading thinkers of the time. The book and subsequent debate contributed to her becoming a member of the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna in 1746. Du Châtelet originally preferred anonymity in her role as the author, because she wished to conceal her sex. Ultimately, however, the Institutions were convincing to salon-dwelling intellectuals in spite of the commonplace sexism.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: The Institutions discussed, refuted, and synthesized many ideas of prominent mathematicians and physicists of the time, including Newton, Descartes, and Leibniz. In chapter I, Du Châtelet included a description of her rules of reasoning, based largely on Descartes’s principle of contradiction and Leibniz’s principle of sufficient reason. In chapter II, she applied these rules of reasoning to metaphysics, discussing god, space, time, and matter. In chapters III through VI, Du Châtelet continues to discuss the role of god and his relationship to his creation. In chapter VII, she breaks down the concept of matter into three parts: the macroscopic substance available to sensory perception, the atoms composing that macroscopic material, and an even smaller constituent unit similarly imperceptible to human senses. However, she carefully added that there was no way to know how many levels truly existed. The remainder of the Institutions considered more metaphysics and classical mechanics. Interestingly, Du Châtelet discussed the concepts of space and time in a manner more consistent with modern relativity than her contemporaries. She described both space and time in the abstract as representations of the relationships between coexistent bodies rather than physical substances. This included an acknowledgement that “absolute” place is an idealization and that “relative” place was the only real, measurable quantity. Du Châtelet also presented a thorough explanation of Newton’s laws of motion and their function on earth.


title: Émilie du Châtelet

text: In 1741 du Châtelet published a book titled "Réponse de Madame la Marquise du Chastelet, a la lettre que M. de Mairan". Dortous de Mairan, secretary of the Academy of Sciences, had published a set of arguments addressed to her regarding the appropriate mathematical expression for "forces vives". Du Châtelet presented a spirited point by point rebuttal of de Mairan's arguments, causing him to withdraw from the controversy.