title: Misato Katsuragi

text: In "" (2012), set fourteen years after the previous one, Misato plays the role of head of an organization named Wille, which was created to destroy the Nerv, as well as captain of a flying ship called "AAA Wunder". She maintains a cold attitude towards Shinji to keep him from getting close to his father again and from piloting an Evangelion unit. In the final feature film of the saga, "" (2021), Misato travels with the crew of "AAA Wunder" to Antarctica, the epicenter of the Second Impact, to attempt to neutralize a unit called Eva-13. Here, Shinji asks Misato to pilot the Eva-01 to stop the antagonist, Commander Ikari; a member of the Wille Sakura Suzuhara tries to shoot Shinji but Misato covers him. Misato reconciles with her subordinate, and remains alone on board "AAA Wunder", sacrificing herself to stop Gendo's plans. In the course of the story, it is also revealed her partner Kaji died to stop the Third Impact and in the interval between "2.0" and "3.0", she gave birth to their son, also named Kaji, who grows up without knowing his mother by her own will.


title: Misato Katsuragi

text: In a scene in the last episode of the animated series, a parallel universe with a different backstory than all previous episodes is presented; in the alternative reality, Misato is a teacher of Asuka's and Shinji's class. Second Impact did not occur so she also does not appear to have undergone a childhood trauma or been to the South Pole. A similar version is presented in some spin-offs of "Neon Genesis Evangelion", such as "" and "", which are set in the alternative reality of the last episode; "" and the ONA "", a parody of the original animated series. In "Petit Eva", Misato teaches Japanese literature and lives alone rather than being Shinji's roommate. In addition to video games based on the original animated series, Misato is also used in media outside the "Neon Genesis Evangelion" franchise, such as the video games "Monster Strike", "Super Robot Wars", "Tales of Zestiria", "Puzzle & Dragons", "Keri hime sweets", "Summons Board", "Pazudora", "Puyopuyo!! Quest", "The Battle Cats", and in an episode of the anime "Shinkansen Henkei Robo Shinkalion".


title: Misato Katsuragi

text: Misato wears several social masks and has a dual personality; one as a lively, superficial young woman and the other as a resolute, stubborn, professional woman. She presents herself with a cheerful, optimistic, exuberant, and frivolous character. In her private life, Misato is sloppy and untidy; her apartment is always chaotic and disorganized, and is full of beer cans and car magazines. At work, however, she shows seriousness, demonstrating emotional coldness. Her affectionate personality sometimes makes her prioritize human feelings over her duty as a Nerv employee, and her job position arouses internal conflict and leads her to make difficult choices. Despite her open, spontaneous character, Misato hides her true feelings; voice actress Mitsuishi described her as an insecure, lonely woman who tries to hide "the loneliness and darkness deep within her heart". Hideaki Anno wanted to portray Misato as an eternal teenager who, despite childhood traumas and a difficult experience, begins a process of inner analysis through which she builds her own psychologically acceptable reality, in which the fears of the past coexist with everyday life. Moreover, according to Anno himself, Misato's psychology would lead mentally infantile people to identify with her.


title: Misato Katsuragi

text: Misato adopts an older-sister-like attitude to Shinji, trying to deal with his problems in a frank and serene way. When Shinji arrives at Nerv's headquarters, Misato immediately sees his potential as a pilot, a selfish consideration that later causes her a strong sense of guilt. At the beginning of their relationship she tries to show herself as casual and carefree, in an attempt to convey to him a certain maternal attitude and human warmth.. This rough attitude initially irritates Shinji. After the initial embarrassment, however, Shinji understands Misato's true motives; she shows him her helpless, rough side because she trusts him and considers him a member of her family. With time, they become emotionally closer. In the twelfth episode, Misato tells Shinji about the bitter relationship she had with her father and her reasons for joining Nerv, identifying with Shinji and his relationship with his father Gendo. A relationship of mutual esteem grows between Misato and Shinji, and she develops an attachment to him.


title: Misato Katsuragi

text: Misato's relationship with Shinji has been compared to that between a mother and her son; an older sister and a younger brother; an adult and a child; a superior and a subordinate; and between two lovers. According to Kazuya Tsurumaki, assistant director of "Neon Genesis Evangelion", in early episodes Misato and Shinji talk while maintaining a detached, laconic attitude without looking at each other; Misato speaks to Shinji without entering his room "like they [are] looking through a slightly opened door, but not connecting". Yūichirō Oguro, co-editor of home video editions of the series, noted how in "Evangelion" the characters tend to avoid making eye contact in the early episodes, including Misato and Ritsuko, while in the second episode Shinji and Misato make direct eye contact several times.


title: Misato Katsuragi

text: Shinji Higuchi, a staff member of the series, described Shinji's and Misato's relationship as "a temporary relationship that could fade away at any time". In an interview, Hideaki Anno said he was unsure whether Kaji is the person Misato loves the most; Misato, in his opinion, could not be happy staying with Kaji and "could fall in love with Shinji". In a scene in the twenty-third episode, Misato enters Shinji's bedroom after the death of his classmate Rei Ayanami. Misato tries to touch his hand and comfort him but he shrugs off her touch; according to the filmbooks of the series, she may be about to offer him sex to comfort him and compensate for her loneliness. According to an official pamphlet of "The End of Evangelion", Misato is in many ways Shinji's "first woman". In the film "The End of Evangelion", Misato and Shinji say goodbye for the last time; Misato kisses Shinji on the lips and gives him her cross-shaped pendant. Oguro noted in the penultimate episode of the series Misato is laying naked and the reasons for her lively, action-oriented behavior are revealed, while in "The End of Evangelion" she again becomes the focus of the action but dies in an attempt to save Shinji and with an opposite portrayal to that of the classic series finale. For Oguro, as for Anno, Misato would be accustomed to superficial interpersonal relationships, but according to Oguro in the finale she may have tried for the first time "to get involved with others".


title: Misato Katsuragi

text: Like other characters in "Neon Genesis Evangelion", Misato has a difficult past, a complicated relationship with her separated parents, relationship difficulties, and emotional trauma. Her suffering and torments are rooted in her relationship with her father Dr. Katsuragi, who neglected his wife's needs and those of his daughter but sacrificed himself to save Misato's life. The disappearance of her father caused her psychic trauma, leading her to become mute for several years and to act in an unhealthy manner towards other men. While trying not to live in her father's shadow, Misato finds herself following his life path; once she overcomes her aphasia, Misato enters the Nerv trying to destroy the Angels, which she accuses of having killed her father, to take her personal revenge and dispel what she calls her father's "curse". Her professionalism and apparent playfulness conceal a troubled personality that is in constant conflict, and even her constant search for relief through erotic gratification magnifies her dissatisfaction with herself.


title: Misato Katsuragi

text: Misato's attitude has been attributed to an Electra complex, a psychological concept Carl Gustav Jung formulated; she unconsciously looks for her father in the figure of Kaji to fill the void caused by the disappearance of her parent. After being in a relationship for two years, noticing the unconscious motives behind her attitudes and intimidated by the similarity between the two men, she decides to leave Kaji with an excuse. In the twenty-fifth episode, Misato issues a long inner monologue, during which her internal conflicts and repressed memories resurface. During her childhood, she tried to be, in her own words, a "good girl" and to help her mother, who was also neglected by her father, but once she became an adult she felt disgust at her servile behavior. This led her to want to "get dirty" through her close sexual relationship with Kaji, the only person to whom she seems to genuinely show herself. Although she rejects Human Instrumentality, through which the souls of all human beings would unite into one complete being, she yearns for "peace", seeking refuge in the figure of Kaji.


title: Misato Katsuragi

text: In the third episode of the series, Misato discusses Arthur Schopenhauer's hedgehog's dilemma with her friend Ritsuko Akagi, highlighting her views on human relationships and communication, according to which growing up is a constant attempt to get closer and further away from each other. She and Shinji hurt each other like Schopenhauer's hedgehogs but continue to need each other to avoid suffocating in loneliness. Both characters are gripped by torments, fears and social difficulties. Misato, herself a victim of the dilemma, is unable to openly express her feelings and during the fourth episode she rejects Shinji. In the final sequence of the episode, however, the two characters seem to become closer without hurting each other, overcoming Schopenhauer's dilemma.


title: Misato Katsuragi

text: Anthony Gramuglia of Anime Feminist, analyzing Misato's characterization and lifestyle, made a parallelism with the so-called Japanese lost generation and millennials or Generation Y, who after the bursting of the Japanese asset price bubble had difficulty finding housing and tend to be underpaid for the amount of work they do. Fifth Wall Renaissance's Alexander Greco compared Misato, with an impulsive and sentimental character, to the right hemisphere of the brain and Ritsuko—cold and rational—to the left one. Italian researcher Fabio Bartoli noted the same dichotomy, associating Misato to the Nietzschean Dionysian spirit, to the sephirah Cochkmah and to the father—her parental figure of reference—and Ritsuko to the Apollonian spirit, to Binah and the mother, to whom she seems to be more attached. According to the book "Neon Genesis Evangelion: The Unofficial Guide", Misato's name contains the Japanese word , which can be translated as "mass", a possible reference to her dark clothing and the cross-shaped pendant she wears around her neck.


title: Misato Katsuragi

text: Critics have also associated character traits of Shinji and Misato with borderline personality disorder; Misato is impulsive, sexually promiscuous, and is frightened of being abandoned, much like a person with the mood disorder. Misato is also the focus of some epistemological reflections already present in earlier Gainax works. In the seventh and twelfth episodes, Misato is optimistic about the potential of humans, emphasizing the limits of science and probabilistic predictions. Her philosophical position is summarized in one of her mottoes; "The value of a miracle becomes real only after the miracle has been performed" which, in addition to rejecting a fatalistic and resigned attitude, refers to her personal experience, having been miraculously saved by her father at the South Pole. Equivalent expressions can be found in the sixth episode of "Gunbuster" and in the twenty-first episode of "", both of which Anno directed. For writer Dennis Redmond, Misato is based on Nadia Arwol from "Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water" while Akio Nagatomi of The Animé Café and writer Dani Cavallaro compared her to Kazumi Amano from "Gunbuster". The theme of conflict with paternal figures is also present in Anno's previous works.


title: Misato Katsuragi

text: The character of Misato has been ranked in several popularity polls, in different categories, placing among the most popular "Neon Genesis Evangelion" characters. After the conclusion of the series, Misato ranked eighth among the most-popular female characters of the moment in the 1996 Anime Grand Prix, a large annual survey conducted by the Japanese magazine "Animage". In the next two Anime Grand Prix, she stayed in the top twenty; in 1997 she remained in eighth place, while in 1998 she dropped to thirteenth. Misato also remained in the magazine's monthly rankings throughout 1997, consistently placing among the thirty most-popular characters. In 1998, the magazine placed her twenty-seventh among the twenty most-popular anime characters. Moreover, according to "Animerica" magazine, Misato's popularity led her to become the most-popular female character in the series in the United States, surpassing Rei Ayanami and Asuka.


title: Misato Katsuragi

text: Critics have been generally positive about Misato's character. Several reviewers praised the characterisation and psychology of the character. According to writer Kazuhisa Fujie, she is "the most elaborately described character in "Evangelion"". Japanese website Niconico ranked her first among animated characters that are most suited to the role of big sister, appreciating both her messy, affectionate, homely attitude and her military skills. Crunchyroll's Kara Dennison called her an extremely "under-appreciated" character while the website Autostraddle lauded her brilliance and intelligence, deeming her one of the most-realistic characters to ever appear in a "shōnen" anime. The website Urban Cinefile described her as a "daring, decisive, innovative" character. The websites Screen Rant and Comic Book Resources ranked Misato among the best characters in the series. According to Ritwik Mitra of Screen Rant; "One of the important women in Shinji's life and a great character in her own right, Misato is ... one of the more intriguing characters in the entire show, and a treat to watch during some of the more impactful moments in "Neon Genesis Evangelion"".


title: Misato Katsuragi

text: Other reviewers expressed criticism for her characterization. Anime News Network reviewer Kenneth Lee found her characterization ineffective, writing about the lack of convincing explanations about Misato's emergence from her years of aphasia. Comic Book Resources's Theo Kogod criticized her decision to take Asuka and Shinji into custody. Further criticism was aimed at some scenes in the twentieth episode, in which Misato has sexual intercourse with Kaji, and some of her sexually implied approaches to fourteen-year-old Shinji. Emily Auten of Nerdmuch.com and Brittany Vincenti of Geek.com, on the other hand, expressed positive opinions of her relationship with Kaji. VG Culture HQ's Morgan Lewis also praised her relationship with Shinji and her humane approach to him, describing her as the best character in the series. Comic Book Resources' Ajay Aravind noted the kiss between Shinji and Misato as one of the scenes that forever changed Japanese animation; his colleague Devin Meenan described it as "one of the most beautiful" of "The End of Evangelion". For 25 Years Later's Alex Boruff, the relationship between Shinji and Misato is "Evangelion" most important, and it "doesn’t fit into any conventional archetypes of relationships"; according to Boruff, "part of what makes their dynamic so fascinating is the ambiguity of it".


title: Misato Katsuragi

text: Misato's role in the "Rebuild of Evangelion" saga also drew criticism and praise from reviewers. For Comic Book Resources's Angelos Delos Trinos, her characterization in "Rebuild" is minimal when compared "to her depth and nuance" in the classic series. Japan Cinema also criticized the drastic changes to the character and the lack of explanations. "Anime Reign" magazine also expressed a negative opinion, deeming her role underexplored and shadowy. The website "Japanator" expresses a contrary opinion, saying it is "fascinating to see Misato unchained from the shackles of Nerv", emphasizing the consistency of the changes and finding them relevant to the spirit of "Rebuild of Evangelion". The reception of Misato's role in the last installment of the saga "" (2021) was more positive. For "IGN" Hanrique Padula, Misato and the show's other characters would, in the film, gain facets never seen before, reaching points never reached in the original series. Comic Book Resources' Reuben Baron also welcomed the revelations presented in the feature film, saying; ""3.0+1.01" also fills in enough details about Misato's experiences during the time skip [in "3.0"] to give her a more convincing emotional arc".


title: Misato Katsuragi

text: Misato's character has been used for merchandising items, such as toys, collectible models, action figures, alcohol, eyewear, gun holsters and clothing items. In June 2009, Bandai Namco Entertainment and Cellius released a program called "The Misato Katsuragi News Project", in which the character Misato announced the most important news of the day via a voice simulator. The program remained active until June of the following year. Misato was also used in advertising campaigns for the Japan Racing Association and for features on the 500 Type Eva, a high-speed train dedicated to "Neon Genesis Evangelion".


title: Misato Katsuragi

text: Misato is parodied in the manga "Jujutsu Kaisen", which has a reference to the photograph she gives Shinji in the first episode of the series. Actor Natsuki Kato has paid homage to Misato by cosplaying her; in 2015, she dressed as Misato during an official announcement by the Hakuto team of a space mission to send a miniature replica of Longinus' spear to the Moon. Hiroyasu Ishida, director of "Penguin Highway", cited Misato as one of the influences for Aoyama's older sister, the feature film's protagonist. According to Kazuya Tsurumaki, Sadamoto may have initially thought of Misato for the conception of "FLCL" Haruko Haruhara. "Attack on Titan" author Hajime Isayama drew Mikasa Ackerman's name from the warship of the same name, thinking of Misato's surname or those of Ritsuko or Yuki Nagato from "The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya", all af which came from warships, with the idea similar names would bring success to the characters. Critics have found similarities to Misato in later female anime characters, including Talho Yūki from "Eureka Seven" by her way of drinking beer and Haruka Shitow from "RahXephon" for her maternal attitude toward the series' protagonist, Kamina. Anime News Network' Gabriella Ekens compared Misato to Chain Sumeragi from "Blood Blockade Battlefront", as both sensual, career women with comic moments; she also noticed that Kazuki Kuwanomi from "Plastic Memories" is "often framed in ways that resemble Misato". Her colleague Jason Green similarly traced Misato's influence on the characterization of Yoko Littner from "Gurren Lagann", particularly in the use of "Gainax bounce" fan service.


title: Ahmed II

text: Ahmed II ( "Aḥmed-i sānī") (25 February 1643 or 1 August 1642 – 6 February 1695) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1691 to 1695.


title: Ahmed II

text: Ahmed II was born on 25 February 1643 or 1 August 1642, the son of Sultan Ibrahim and Muazzez Sultan. On 21 October 1649, Ahmed, along with his brothers Mehmed and Suleiman were circumcised.


title: Ahmed II

text: During the reigns of his older brothers, Ahmed was imprisoned in Kafes, and he stayed there almost 43 years.


title: Ahmed II

text: During his reign, Ahmed II devoted most of his attention to the wars against the Habsburgs and related foreign policy, governmental and economic issues. Of these, the most important were the tax reforms and the introduction of the lifelong tax farm system ("malikâne"). Following the recovery of Belgrade under his predecessor, Suleiman II, the military frontier reached a rough stalemate on the Danube, with the Habsburgs no longer able to advance south of it, and the Ottomans attempting, ultimately unsuccessfully, to regain the initiative north of it.


title: Ahmed II

text: Among the most important features of Ahmed's reign was his reliance on Köprülüzade Fazıl Mustafa Pasha. Following his accession to the throne, Ahmed II confirmed Fazıl Mustafa Pasha in his office as grand vizier. In office from 1689, Fazıl Mustafa Pasha was from the Köprülü family of grand viziers, and like most of his Köprülü predecessors in the same office, was an able administrator and military commander. Like his father Köprülü Mehmed Pasha (grand vizier, 1656–61) before him, Fazıl Mustafa Pasha ordered the removal and execution of dozens of corrupt state officials of the previous regime and replaced them with men loyal to himself. He overhauled the tax system by adjusting it to the capabilities of the taxpayers affected by the latest wars. He also reformed troop mobilization and increased the pool of conscripts available for the army by drafting tribesmen in the Balkans and Anatolia. In October 1690, Fazıl Mustafa Pasha recaptured Belgrade, a key fortress that commanded the confluence of the rivers Danube and Sava; in Ottoman hands since 1521, the fortress had been conquered by the Habsburgs in 1688.


title: Ahmed II

text: Fazıl Mustafa Pasha's victory at Belgrade was a major military achievement that gave the Ottomans hope that the military debacles of the 1680s—which had led to the loss of Hungary and Transylvania, an Ottoman vassal principality ruled by pro-Istanbul Hungarian princes—could be reversed. However, the Ottoman success proved ephemeral. On 19 August 1691, Fazıl Mustafa Pasha suffered a devastating defeat at the Battle of Slankamen at the hands of Louis William, the Habsburg commander in chief in Hungary, nicknamed “Türkenlouis” (Louis the Turk) for his victories against the Ottomans. In the confrontation, recognized by contemporaries as “the bloodiest battle of the century,” the Ottomans suffered heavy losses: 20,000 men, including the grand vizier. With him, the sultan lost his most capable military commander and the last member of the Köprülü family, who for the previous half century had been instrumental in strengthening the Ottoman military.


title: Ahmed II

text: Under Fazıl Mustafa Pasha's successors, the Ottomans suffered further defeats. In June 1692 the Habsburgs conquered Oradea, the seat of an Ottoman governor () since 1660. In 1694, they attempted to recapture Oradea, but to no avail. On 12 January 1695, they surrendered the fortress of Gyula, the center of an Ottoman sanjak (subprovince) since 1566. With the fall of Gyula, the only territory still in Ottoman hands in Hungary was to the east of the River Tisza and to the south of the river Maros, with its center at Timișoara. Three weeks later, on 6 February 1695, Ahmed II died in Edirne Palace.


title: Ahmed II

text: In addition to his daughters, Ahmed II was deeply attached to his niece Ümmügülsüm Sultan, daughter of his half-brother Mehmed IV, so much so that he treated her as if she were his own daughter.


title: Issac Ryan Brown

text: Issac Ryan Brown (born July 12, 2005) is an American actor and singer. He is best known for his portrayal of Booker in the Disney Channel sitcom "Raven's Home", which earned him a nomination at the 48th Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Principal Performance in a Children's Program, and his role as the voice of Augustus "Gus" Porter in "The Owl House".


title: Issac Ryan Brown

text: Brown was born in Detroit, Michigan. At the age of six, he auditioned for "America's Got Talent", performing songs such as Michael Jackson's "One More Chance", but did not advance to the quarter-finals.


title: Issac Ryan Brown

text: Brown made his onscreen debut on the Nickelodeon series "Sam & Cat". He portrayed Young Dre in various episodes of "Black-ish". In the live-action television movie adaptation of the animated series "Kim Possible", he portrayed the teenage computer genius Wade.


title: Issac Ryan Brown

text: Brown also works as a voice-over artist. He voiced the lead character, Bingo, in the Disney Junior series "Puppy Dog Pals". Additional roles include Goby in "Bubble Guppies" and Haruna Kitumba in "Miles from Tomorrowland". He voiced Stinky in "The Stinky & Dirty Show", replacing Jaden Betts. In November 2019, it was announced that Brown would voice Gus Porter in Disney's "The Owl House".


title: NetApp

text: NetApp, Inc. is an American hybrid cloud data services and data management company headquartered in San Jose, California. It has ranked in the Fortune 500 from 2012–2021. Founded in 1992 with an IPO in 1995, NetApp offers cloud data services for management of applications and data both online and physically.


title: NetApp

text: NetApp was founded in 1992 by David Hitz, James Lau, and Michael Malcolm as Network Appliance, Inc. At the time, its major competitor was Auspex Systems. In 1994, NetApp received venture capital funding from Sequoia Capital. It had its initial public offering in 1995. NetApp thrived in the internet bubble years of the mid 1990s to 2001, during which the company grew to $1 billion in annual revenue. After the bubble burst, NetApp's revenues quickly declined to $800 million in its fiscal year 2002. Since then, the company's revenue has steadily climbed.


title: NetApp

text: In 2008, Network Appliance officially changed its legal name to NetApp, Inc., reflecting the nickname by which it was already well-known.


title: NetApp

text: In May 2018 NetApp announced its first End to End NVMe array called All Flash FAS A800 with release of ONTAP 9.4 software. NetApp claims over 1.3 million IOPS at 500 microseconds per high-availability pair.


title: NetApp

text: NetApp competes in the computer data storage hardware industry. In 2009, NetApp ranked second in market capitalization in its industry behind EMC Corporation, now Dell EMC, and ahead of Seagate Technology, Western Digital, Brocade, Imation, and Quantum. In total revenue of 2009, NetApp ranked behind EMC, Seagate, Western Digital, and ahead of Imation, Brocade, Xyratex, and Hutchinson Technology. According to a 2014 IDC report, NetApp ranked second in the network storage industry "Big 5's list", behind EMC (Dell), and ahead of IBM, HP and Hitachi. According to Gartner's 2018 Magic Quadrant for Solid-State Arrays, NetApp was named a leader, behind Pure Storage Systems. In 2019, Gartner named NetApp as #1 in Primary Storage.


title: NetApp

text: NetApp's OnCommand management software controls and automates data-storage. ActiveIQ comes to NetApp with the acquisition of SolidFire. ActiveIQ is SaaS portal with built-in monitoring, prediction, recommendations for optimizing configurations and performance for NetApp storage systems based on machine-learning capabilities and artificial intelligence. Later ONTAP Analytics and Telemetry Service (OATS) product, which can be installed in AWS cloud and on-premise, was renamed to Active IQ Performance Analytics Services (ActiveIQ PAS).


title: NetApp

text: NetApp's FAS (Fabric-Attached Storage), AFF (All-Flash FAS), and ASA (All SAN Array) storage systems are the company's flagship products. Such products are made up of storage controllers, and one or more enclosures of hard disks, known as shelves. In entry-level systems, the drives may be physically located in the same chassis as storage controller(s).


title: NetApp

text: In the early 1990s, NetApp's storage systems initially offered NFS and SMB protocols based on standard local area networks (LANs), whereas block storage consolidation required storage area networks (SANs) implemented with the Fibre Channel (FC) protocol.


title: NetApp

text: In 2002, in an attempt to increase market share, NetApp added block-storage access as well, supporting the Fibre Channel and iSCSI protocols. NetApp systems support Fibre Channel, iSCSI, Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE) and the FC-NVMe protocol.


title: NetApp

text: Many of NetApp's products use the company's proprietary ONTAP data management operating system, under continuous development since 1992 which includes code from Berkeley Net/2 BSD Unix, Spinnaker Networks technology and other operating systems. There are three ONTAP platforms: FAS/AFF systems, software on commodity servers (ONTAP Select) as virtual machine or in the cloud (Cloud Volumes ONTAP). All ONTAP systems are using WAFL file systems which provide basis for snapshots and other snapshot-based and data protection technologies. Key IP from ONTAP is also used in NetApp Astra, a newer data management-as-a-service system built for Kubernetes.


title: NetApp

text: Previously known as Riverbed SteelStor before its acquisition by NetApp, this product was later renamed to AltaVault and then to Cloud Backup. Cloud Backup was initially available in three forms: as a hardware appliance, virtual appliance, and cloud appliance. Later NetApp announced the end of sale for hardware and virtual appliances. Data placed on NAS share on Cloud Backup deduplicated, compressed, encrypted and transferred with Object Protocols to object storage systems like Amazon S3, Azure Blob Storage or StorageGRID; thus Cloud Backup appears as a transparent gateway for archiving data to a private or public cloud.


title: NetApp

text: NetApp Hyper-converged infrastructure (HCI) or sometimes referred by NetApp as Hybrid Cloud Infrastructure, NetApp HCI is based on commodity blade and rack servers, NetApp Element software and VMware vSphere. NetApp HCI includes a web-based GUI with installation wizard called NetApp Deployment Engine (NDE) for configuring vCenter, IP addresses, login and password, and storage nodes. NetApp HCI is different from conventional HCI designs because it has dedicated storage nodes, while other HCI systems like Dell EMC VxRail or vSAN do not have dedicated storage nodes and utilize disk drives installed in each server. Dedicated storage nodes allow the cluster to grow or decrease storage capacity and performance separately from compute nodes. Minimum NetApp HCI configuration requires two compute blade server nodes and additionally, Element software requires a minimum of 4 storage nodes but is available to customers as four physical storage nodes or two physical storage nodes and two nodes as a virtual machine playing witness role on compute nodes.


title: NetApp

text: Each storage node drive set consists of 6 SSD drives directly connected to a dedicated storage node and installed in front of the blade chassis. Each storage and compute blade nodes have 25 Gigabit Ethernet ports which could be used as 10Gbit/s ports as well as dedicated 1Gb ports for management purposes. Network switches were not included, and in NetApp HCI with Element software release 11 NetApp announced H-Series Switch as part of HCI, so all hardware components must be bought from NetApp. ONTAP Select available as SDS on NetApp HCI for customers interested in NAS protocols. The self-service portal allows automating common provisioning and management tasks without involving the IT team. NetApp Kuberneties Service will support NetApp HCI with the acquisition of Stackpoint. NetApp SolidFire storage and NetApp HCI can be expanded & mixed in a single cluster. At the NetApp Insight 2018 conference in Las Vegas NetApp presented two new compute nodes: H410C and H610C, where H610C includes additional GPU cards which can be used in VDI environments. Starting with Element OS version 11, automatically detected and enabled by default with the upgrade, HCI has "Protection Domains" functionality to provide resiliency into HCI chassis. In the case of maintenance or chassis failure, helix algorithm spans data blocks workload will automatically fail-over to another operational chassis.


title: NetApp

text: SolidFire storage system uses OS called NetApp Element Software (formally SolidFire Element OS) based on Linux and designed for SSDs and scale-out architecture with the ability to expand up to 100 nodes and provide access to data through SAN protocols iSCSI natively and Fiber Channel with two gateway nodes. Element OS provides a REST-based API for storage automation, configuration, management, and consumption. SF node H610S has 12 2.5" NVMe SSD drives and can install only Element version 10.4, while previous models have 10 SSD drives. Element SW version 11, will not support FC. SolidFire uses iSCSI login redirection to distribute reads and writes across the cluster using helix algorithm. This architecture does not have disk shelves like traditional storage systems and expands with adding nodes to the cluster. Each node has pre-installed SSD drives. Each node can have only one type of SSD drives with the same capacity. Each SolidFire cluster can have a mix of different node models & generations. Element X uses the replication factor of 2, where blocks of data spread across the cluster which has no performance impact but require more space in contrary to Erasure Coding technology. Such architecture allows users to expand performance and capacity separately as needed. Also, SolidFire has the ability to set three types of QoS for its LUNs: minimum, maximum and burst. Burst is used as credits which were not used by the LUN while it was not received its maximums. Element X available as software-only on commodity servers. SolidFire systems using S3 protocol could backup data to an Object storage systems like StorageGRID. SolidFire could replicate data with SnapMirror protocol to ONTAP systems and starting with Element OS 11 to Cloud Volumes ONTAP. VEEAM backup & Replication 9.5 Update 4 will implement seamless integration with NetApp HCI and Solidfire provide application consistent storage snapshot capabilities, Instant VM Recovery, and Single Item Restore for some applications. CommVault Simpana also provides application-consistent storage snapshot capability for NetApp HCI and Solidfire. All HCI configurations require at least 4 10/25 Gbit/s ports for connections until Element OS 11, where two ports are enough.


title: NetApp

text: StorageGRID is a software-defined storage system which provides access to data via object IP-based protocols like S3 and OpenStack Swift. It is available in the form of hardware or as software. A node in a StorageGRID cluster is an appliance, virtual machine or docker container. StorageGRID is a geo-dispersed namespace clustered storage system, also known as "the grid", with an ability to make and store multiple copies (replicas) of objects (also known as Replication Factor) or in Erasure Coding (EC) manner among cluster storage nodes with object granularity based on configured policies for data availability and durability purposes. StorageGRID stores metadata separately from the objects and allows users to configure Information Lifecycle Management (ILM) policies on a per-object level to automatically satisfy and confirm changes in the cluster once changes introduced to the cluster like the cost of network usage, storage media usage changes a node was added or removed, etc. ONTAP, Cloud Backup, SANtricity, and Element X can replicate data to StorageGRID systems. SG6060 is optimized for high transactional throughput, MA, AI, and FabricPool.


title: NetApp

text: Solution Deployment of StorageGRID on NetApp HCI can be deployed in three forms: Fully contained; High performance and scale; NetApp HCI and StorageGRID appliance.


title: NetApp

text: Previously known as LSI Engenio RDAC after NetApp acquisition the product renamed to NetApp E-Series. It is a general-purpose enterprise storage system with two controllers for SAN protocols such as Fibre Channel, iSCSI, SAS and InfiniBand (includes SRP, iSER, and NVMe over Fabrics protocol). NetApp E-Series platform uses proprietary OS SANtricity and proprietary RAID called Dynamic Disk Pool (DDP) alongside traditional RAIDs like RAID 10, RAID 6, RAID 5, etc. In DDP pool each D-Stripe works similar to traditional RAID-4 and RAID-6 but on block level instead of entire disk level, therefore, have no dedicated parity drives. DDP compare to traditional RAID groups restores data from lost disk drive to multiple drives which provide a few times faster reconstruction time while traditional RAIDs restores lost disk drive to a dedicated parity drive. Starting with SANtricity 11.50 E-Series systems EF570 and E5700 support NVMe over Ethernet (RoCEv2) with 100Gbit/s Ethernet ports and NVMe over InfiniBand. Starting with EF600 systems are end-to-end NVMe and capable of NVMe/FC in addition to NVMe/RoCE & NVMe/InfiniBand. Sync and async mirroring are supported with SANtricity 11.50. SANtricity Unified Manager is a web-based manager that supports up to 500 EF/E-Series arrays and supports LDAP, RBAC, CA & SSL for authorization & authentication. In August 2019 NetApp announced E600 with support for NVMe/IB, NVMe/RoCE, NVMe/FC protocols, up to 44GBps of bandwidth and full-function embedded REST API.


title: NetApp

text: FlexPod, nFlex and ONTAP AI are commercial names for Converged Infrastructure (CI). Converged Infrastructures are joint products of a few vendors and consists from 3 main hardware components: computing servers, switches (in some cases switches are not necessary) and NetApp storage systems:


title: NetApp

text: Converged Infrastructures have tested and validated design configurations from vendors available to end users and typically include popular infrastructure software like Docker Enterprise Edition (EE), Red Hat OpenStack Platform, VMware vSphere, Microsoft Servers and Hyper-V, SQL, Exchange, Oracle VM and Oracle DB, Citrix Xen, KVM, OpenStack, SAP HANA etc. and might include self-service portals PaaS or IaaS like Cisco UCS Director (UCSD) or others. FlexPod, nFlex and ONTAP AI allows an end user to modify validated design and add or remove some of the components of the Converged Infrastructure while not all of the other Converged Infrastructures from competitors allows modification.


title: NetApp

text: There are few FlexPod types: FlexPod Datacenter, FlexPod Select, FlexPod Express (Small, Medium, Large and UCS-managed), and FlexPod SF.


title: NetApp

text: FlexPod Datacenter usually uses Nexus switches like 5000, 7000 & 9000; Cisco UCS Blade Servers; Mid-Range or High-End NetApp FAS or AFF systems. FlexPod Select often used with BigData framework software like Hortonworks, Cloudera, or more recently, Confluent. FlexPod SF has in its architecture Nexus 9000 switches, Cisco UCS Blade servers and NetApp SolidFire storage based on Cisco UCS rack servers. Cisco UCS Director used as the orchestrator for FlexPod for a self-service portal, workflow automation and billing platform to build PaaS & IaaS. FlexPod systems supported under the cooperative center of competence.


title: NetApp

text: NetApp "Converged Systems Advisor" (CSA) is a software-as-a-service (SaaS) platform that consists of an on-premises agent and a cloud-based portal.


title: NetApp

text: Multi-Pod is a FlexPod Datacenter solution with a FAS or AFF system leveraging MetroCluster technology for stretching storage system between two sites. NetApp and Cisco looking to incorporate NetApp MAX Data product into FlexPod solutions once persistent memory technology will be available in UCS servers.


title: NetApp

text: FlexPod Datacenter has the biggest variety of designed and validated by Cisco and NetApp architectures and applications including:


title: NetApp

text: Converged infrastructure solution based on Cisco Nexus 3000 or Mellanox Spectrum switches with 100Gbit/s ports, NetApp AFF storage systems, Nvidia DGX supercomputer servers. DGX servers interconnected with each other over RDMA over RoCE, and developed for Deep Learning based on Docker containers with NetApp Docker Plugin Trident. DGX servers connected to the storage with Ethernet connection and consume space over NFS protocol. With SnapMirror ONTAP AI solution can deliver data between edge computing, on-prem & the cloud as part of Data Fabric vision. ONTAP AI tested & validated for use with NFS & FlexGroup technologies. Combined technical support provided to the customers to all the architecture components.


title: NetApp

text: OnCommand Insight (OCI) is data center management software, capacity management, infrastructure analytics, centralized view into historical trends to forecast performance and capacity requirements and workload placement. OCI works with all NetApp storage systems and with competitor storage systems and in public cloud. Licensed server-based software.


title: NetApp

text: NetApp MAX Data for short, MAX Data is a proprietary Linux file system with auto-tiering from PMEM to SSD and data protection features for businesses. NetApp officially announced MAX Data's availability at NetApp Insight 2018 in October, supported by a number of server brands. MAX Data came from the acquisition of Plexistor in May 2017.


title: NetApp

text: MAX Data consists of two tiers: Tier 1 and Tier 2, where cold data destaged to Tier 2 from Tier 1 or promoted from Tier 2 to Tier 1 when accessed, by MAX Data tiering algorithm, transparently to the applications. Currently, NetApp has recommended ratio for MAX Data as 1 to 25 for Tier 1 and Tier 2 respectively. MAX Data according to NetApp will have two modes: to use MAX Data as a POSIX-compatible (the internal name is M1FS) file system or as API memory extension. Usage of MAX Data as POSIX FS does not require application modifications while API memory extension requires applications to be modified in order to utilize this functionality. MAX Data installed on Linux hosts to utilize ultra-low latency with persistent memory such as the Optane DC persistent memory (Optane DCPMM), NVDIMM or DRAM (when persistence not needed, for example for testing purposes) memory for Tier 1 and a NetApp AFF storage system for Tier 2. Optane DCPMM is the Intel brand name of products that use 3D XPoint technology and supported starting with MAX Data version 1.3. MAX FS is a Persistent Memory-based Filesystem (PM-based FS) that doesn't require application modification but also can be a Direct Access enabled File system (DAX-enabled FS) for applications with optimization for Persistent Memory using SPDK. DAX is the mechanism that enables direct access to files stored in persistent memory arrays without the need to copy the data through the page cache. MAX data have a per-server license and do not depend on CPU, Memory or storage capacity. MAX Data has two different licensing tiers: Basic and Advanced.


title: NetApp

text: "Cloud Central" is a web-based GUI interface that provides a multi-cloud interface based on Qstack for NetApp's cloud products like Cloud Volumes Service, Cloud Sync, Cloud Insights, Cloud Volumes ONTAP, SaaS Backup in multiple public cloud providers.


title: NetApp

text: "Cloud Manager" is a service for high-level management of ONTAP-based systems on-premise and in the cloud: CVO, CVS, ONTAP Select, FAS, and AFF. Cloud Manager allow setup SnapMirror data protection replication between systems through the GUI interface with drag-and-drop.


title: NetApp

text: It is a storage system installed on-premises in a customer's data center and available to the customer as service. All work for updates & technical support provided by NetApp while the customer consumes space from the storage using web-based GUI or API and performs data backup and replication if needed.


title: NetApp

text: Formally ONTAP Cloud. Cloud Volumes ONTAP (CVO) is software-defined (SDS) version of ONTAP available in some public cloud providers like AWS, Azure, Google Cloud, and IBM Cloud. Cloud Volumes ONTAP is a virtual machine which is using commodity equipment and running ONTAP software as a service.


title: NetApp

text: Cloud Volumes Service is a service in Amazon AWS & Google Cloud - it is public cloud provider based on NetApp All-Flash FAS systems and ONTAP software, allowing for synchronizing data between cloud and on-premises NetApp systems.


title: NetApp

text: NetApp Private Storage (NPS) is based on Equinix partner provided colocation service in its data centers for NetApp Storage Systems with 10 Gbit/s direct connection to public cloud providers like Azure and AWS etc. NPS storage could be connected to a few cloud providers or on-premise infrastructure, thus in case of switching between clouds does not require data migration between them.


title: NetApp

text: Astra is NetApp's Kubernetes cloud service for consistent application-consistent backups, Data Cloning, and data mobility across clouds and on-premises. Astra can deploy and maintain data-rich applications across Amazon Web Services, Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud and on-premises datacenters, enabling easily backup and restoring data or migrating the applications from one Kubernetes cluster to another in a multi-cloud environment.


title: NetApp

text: NetApp SaaS Backup (Previously Cloud Control) is back up and recovery service for SaaS Microsoft Office 365 and Salesforce which provide extended, granular and custom retention capabilities of backup and recovery process compare to native cloud backup. NetApp planning to extend SaaS Backup and recovery service for Google Workspace (formerly G Suite and Google Apps for Work), Slack and ServiceNow.


title: NetApp

text: Cloud Sync is service for synchronizing any NAS storage system with another NAS storage, an Object Storage like Amazon S3 or NetApp Storage GRID using an object protocol.


title: NetApp

text: Cloud Insights is an SaaS application for monitoring infrastructure application stack for customers consuming cloud resources and also build for the dynamic nature of microservices and web-scale infrastructures. Cloud Insights uses similar to OnCommand Insight front-end API but different technology on the back-end. Cloud Insights available as a preview and will have three editions: Free, Standard and Premium.


title: NetApp

text: Cloud Secure is a SaaS security tool that identifies malicious data access and compromised users, in other words, user behavior analytics. Cloud Secure uses machine learning algorithms to identify unusual patterns, and can identify if users have been infected with ransomware, and prevent them from encrypting the files.


title: NetApp

text: Currently supported data repositories include NetApp Cloud Volumes, NetApp ONTAP, NetApp StorageGRID, OneDrive, AWS, Google Suite, HPE, DELLEMC Isilon, Dropbox, Box, @workspace and Office 365.


title: NetApp

text: NetApp Data Availability Services (NDAS) provides data protection in the cloud GUI. This cloud service is located only in AWS but can be copied to other clouds. NDAS is for backup, data protection and disaster recovery purposes from ONTAP storage. ONTAP systems starting with ONTAP 9.5 have a built-in proxy application that converting NetApp snapshots with WAFL data & metadata into the S3 format unlike FabricPool technology, which stores only data in the object storage. NDAS is one of the Data Fabric manifestations.


title: NetApp

text: Often referred as to "Data Fabric Story," the variety of integrations between NetApp's products and data mobility is considered by NetApp to be its "Data Fabric vision" . Data Fabric defines the NetApp technology architecture for hybrid cloud and includes:


title: NetApp

text: NetApp provides a variety of automation services directly to its products with HTTP protocol or through middle-ware software.


title: NetApp

text: NetApp Trident software provides a persistent volume plugin for Docker containers with both orchestrators Kubernetes and Swarm and supports ONTAP, SolidFire, E-Series, Azure NetApp Files (ANF), Cloud Volumes and NetApp Kubernetes Service in Cloud.


title: NetApp

text: Also, NetApp with Cisco sells CI architectures which incorporate the Trident plugin: FlexPod Datacenter with Docker Enterprise Edition and ONTAP AI.


title: NetApp

text: NetApp Jenkins Framework provides integration with ONTAP storage for DevOps, accelerating development with automation operations like provisioning and data-set cloning for test and development and leverage ONTAP for version control, create and delete checkpoints etc. Jenkins also integrate with NetApp Service Level Manager software which provides RESTful API for guarantee level of storage performance. Apprenda and CloudBees integrate and accelerate DevOps through Docker persistent volume plugin and Jenkins Framework integration. Apprenda could be integrated with OpenStack running on top of FlexPod.


title: NetApp

text: CommVault, Veeam and Veritas have integrations with ONTAP, SolidFire, Cloud Backup and E-Series leveraging storage capabilities like snapshots and cloning capabilities for testing backup copies and SnapMirror for Backup and Recovery (B&R), Disaster Recovery (DR) and Data Archiving for improving restore time and number of recovery points (see RPO/RTO). Cloud Backup integrates with nearly all B&R products for archiving capabilities since it is represented as ordinary NAS share for B&R software. Backup and recovery software from competitor vendors like IBM Spectrum Protect, EMC NetWorker, HP Data Protector, Dell vRanger, Acronis Backup and others also have some level of integrations with NetApp storage systems.


title: NetApp

text: NetApp systems can integrate with enterprise applications for backup purposes, cloning, provisioning, and other self-service storage features. Oracle DB can be connected using Direct NFS (dNFS) client build inside database app which will provide network performance, resiliency, load balancing for NFS protocol with ONTAP systems.


title: NetApp

text: Oracle DB, Microsoft SQL, IBM DB2, MySQL, Mongo DB, SAP HANA, MS Exchange, VMware vSphere, Citrix Xen, KVM integrate with NetApp systems for provisioning, cloning and additional backup and recovery build - this includes capabilities like SnapShots, SnapVault and SnapMirror with a variety of software including NetApp's SnapCenter and SnapCreator.


title: NetApp

text: NetApp systems have integration with such open source projects as OpenStack Cinder for Block storage (SolidFire, ONTAP, E-Series, OnCommand Insight, Cloud Backup), OpenStack Manila for Shared file system (ONTAP, OnCommand Insight), Docker persistent volumes through Trident plugin (SolidFire, ONTAP, E-Series) and others.


title: NetApp

text: IBM used to OEM NetApp FAS systems under its own brand known as IBM N-series and this partnership ended May 29, 2014. Dell OEM NetApp E-Series under its own name PowerVault MD.


title: NetApp

text: September 13, 2018, Lenovo and NetApp announced its technology partnership, so Lenovo OEM Netapp products under its own name: Lenovo ThinkSystem DE (using NetApp's EF & E-Series array technology), and ThinkSystem DM uses ONTAP software with Lenovo servers and supports FC-NVMe (analog for NetApp FAS & AFF systems).


title: NetApp

text: Vector Data builds rugged and carrier-grade versions of NetApp FAS, AFF, E-Series and SolidFire products with -48V DC power and other customizations under their Vault product line.


title: NetApp

text: In November 2011, during the 2011 Syrian uprising, NetApp was named as one of several companies whose products were being used in the Syrian government crackdown. The equipment was allegedly sold to the Syrians by an authorized NetApp reseller.


title: NetApp

text: On April 7, 2014, NetApp was notified by the US Department of Commerce "that it had completed its review of this matter and determined that NetApp had not violated the U.S. export laws", and that the file on the matter had been closed.


title: NetApp

text: In September 2007, NetApp started proceedings against Sun Microsystems, claiming that the ZFS File System developed by Sun infringed its patents. The following month, Sun announced plans to countersue based on alleged misuse by NetApp of Sun's own patented technology. Several of NetApp's patent claims were rejected on the basis of prior art after re-examination by the United States Patent and Trademark Office. On September 9, 2010, NetApp announced an agreement with Oracle Corporation (the new owner of Sun Microsystems) to dismiss the suits.


title: NetApp

text: NetApp was listed amongst Silicon Valley Top 25 Corporate Philanthropists in 2013. NetApp was Named Brand of the Year by the Think Global Awards in 2019.


title: Playboy lifestyle

text: A playboy lifestyle is the lifestyle of a wealthy man with ample time for leisure, who demonstratively is a "bon vivant" who appreciates the pleasures of the world, especially the company of women. The term "playboy" was popular in the early to mid-20th century and is sometimes used to describe a conspicuous womanizer.


title: Playboy lifestyle

text: Initially the term was used in the eighteenth century for boys who performed in the theatre, and later it appears in the 1888 Oxford Dictionary to characterize a person with money who is out to enjoy himself. By the end of the nineteenth century it also implied the connotations of "gambler" and "musician". By 1907, in J. M. Synge's comedy "The Playboy of the Western World", the term had acquired the notion of a womanizer. According to Shawn Levy, the term reached its full meaning in the interwar years and early post WWII years. Postwar intercontinental travel allowed playboys to meet at international nightclubs and famous "playgrounds" such as the Riviera or Palm Beach where they were trailed by paparazzi who supplied the tabloids with material to be fed to an eager audience. Their sexual conquests were rich, beautiful, and famous. In 1953, Hugh Hefner caught the wave and created the "Playboy" magazine.


title: Playboy lifestyle

text: Porfirio Rubirosa, who died in a car crash in 1965, is an example of someone who embodied the playboy lifestyle. The diplomat claimed to have no time to work, being busy spending time with women, getting married briefly and in sequence to the two richest women in the world, drinking and gambling with his friends, playing polo, racing cars, and flying his airplane from party to party. He was linked to other famous playboys of the time Aly Khan, Jorge Guinle, "Baby" Francisco Pignatari, and later, Gunther Sachs, his acolyte, who termed himself a "homo ludens".


title: Playboy lifestyle

text: Other people who adopted the playboy lifestyle included Alfonso de Portago, Barry Sheene, Hugh Hefner, Dan Bilzerian, Julio Iglesias, George Best, Imran Khan, James Hunt, Howard Hughes, Averell Harriman, Errol Flynn, Gianni Agnelli, Silvio Berlusconi, John F. Kennedy, Alessandro "Dado" Ruspoli, Carlos de Beistegui, Count Theodore Zichy, David Frost, Bernard Cornfeld, Wilt Chamberlain, George Clooney, Maurizio Zanfanti and Mario Conde.


title: Playboy lifestyle

text: Fictional playboys include Patrick Melrose from "Patrick Melrose", Bruce Wayne from the DC Comics "Batman" franchise, Tony Stark from Marvel Entertainment, Jack Donaghy from "30 Rock", Foghorn Leghorn from "The Looney Tunes Show", and Charlie Harper from "Two and a Half Men".


title: Facial skeleton

text: The facial skeleton comprises the "facial bones" that may attach to build a portion of the skull. The remainder of the skull is the braincase.


title: Facial skeleton

text: In human anatomy and development, the facial skeleton is sometimes called the "membranous viscerocranium", which comprises the mandible and dermatocranial elements that are not part of the braincase.


title: Facial skeleton

text: Elements of the "cartilaginous viscerocranium" (i.e., splanchnocranial elements), such as the hyoid bone, are sometimes considered part of the facial skeleton. The ethmoid bone (or a part of it) and also the sphenoid bone are sometimes included, but otherwise considered part of the neurocranium. Because the maxillary bones are fused, they are often collectively listed as only one bone. The mandible is generally considered separately from the cranium.


title: Facial skeleton

text: The facial skeleton is composed of dermal bone and derived from the neural crest cells (also responsible for the development of the neurocranium, teeth and adrenal medulla) or from the sclerotome, which derives from the somite block of the mesoderm. As with the neurocranium, in Chondricthyes and other cartilaginous vertebrates, they are not replaced via endochondral ossification.


title: Facial skeleton

text: Variation in craniofacial form between humans is largely due to differing patterns of biological inheritance. Cross-analysis of osteological variables and genome-wide SNPs has identified specific genes that control this craniofacial development. Of these genes, DCHS2, RUNX2, GLI3, PAX1 and PAX3 were found to determine nasal morphology, whereas EDAR impacts chin protrusion.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: Osama bin Laden, the founder and former leader of al-Qaeda, went into hiding following the start of the War in Afghanistan in order to avoid capture by the United States and/or its allies for his role in the September 11, 2001 attacks, and having been on the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list since 1999. After evading capture at the Battle of Tora Bora in December 2001, his whereabouts became unclear, and various rumours about his health, continued role in al-Qaeda, and location were circulated. Bin Laden also released several video and audio recordings during this time.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: In the decade following his disappearance, there were many attempts made by the United States government to locate bin Laden. In December 2009, U.S. Army General Stanley McChrystal said that bin Laden would need to be "captured or killed" in order for the U.S. to "finally defeat al-Qaeda."


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: American intelligence officials discovered the whereabouts of Osama bin Laden by tracking one of his couriers. Information was collected from Guantánamo Bay detainees, who gave intelligence officers the courier's pseudonym as Abu Ahmed al-Kuwaiti. In 2009, U.S. officials discovered that al-Kuwaiti lived in Abbottābad, Pakistan. CIA paramilitary operatives located al-Kuwaiti in August 2010 and followed him back to the Abbottabad compound, which led them to speculate it was bin Laden's location.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: On May 1, 2011, United States Navy SEALs of the Naval Special Warfare Development Group (DevGru) carried out an assault on the compound on orders from U.S. President Barack Obama. During a 40-minute raid, bin Laden was killed by one bullet above the left eye and another to the chest. The SEALs overpowered the compound's remaining residents, killing several, and extracted bin Laden's body (which was subsequently buried at sea) as well as computer hard drives, documents, and other material.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: New information of bin Laden's location had been emerging since his death and the arrest of his wives. On the day of the 9/11 attacks, bin Laden was at the Khaldan terrorist training camp near Khost, which he left during the night with several Al Qaeda and Taliban operatives after sending his wives and children away across the Durand Line into Pakistan to hide out. Bin Laden arrived the following morning in Khandahar and lived in a Taliban-controlled safe house from September 12 to October 6, 2001. Shortly after the US-led war in Afghanistan began, bin Laden traveled from Kandahar to Kabul where he lived in another Taliban safe house until November 12 when he was believed to have traveled to Jalalabad where he spent at least five days in another safe house. From Jalalabad, he traveled to the Tora Bora region in the White Mountains where he hid out from November 17 to December 12. He is believed to have crossed the border into Pakistan sometime in January 2002 and spent time in various Al Qaeda safehouses in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan between January and April 2002.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: According to one of his wives, bin Laden was reunited with his family for first time after the 9/11 attacks in the second half of 2002 in Peshawar, the capital city of the Tribal Areas, where they lived for five months in another safe house. After this, in September 2002, bin Laden took his family into the rural mountain areas of northwest Pakistan (and very notably, not in the tribal belt where main US attention was focused). First they stayed in the Shangla district in the Swat valley, where they stayed in two safe houses for eight to nine months. In May 2003, bin Laden and his family moved to Haripur, a small town close to Islamabad, where they stayed in a rented house for two years. In June 2005, bin Laden and his family moved to Abbottabad.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: American intelligence officials discovered the whereabouts of Osama bin Laden by tracking one of his couriers. Information was collected from Guantánamo Bay detainees, who gave intelligence officers the courier's pseudonym as Abu Ahmed al-Kuwaiti, and said that he was a "protégé" of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed. In 2007, U.S. officials discovered the courier's real name and, in 2009, that he lived in Abbottābad, Pakistan. CIA paramilitary operatives located al-Kuwaiti in August 2010 and followed him back to the Abbottabad compound, which led them to speculate it was bin Laden's location.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: Using satellite photos and intelligence reports, the CIA inferred the identities of the inhabitants of the compound. In September 2010, the CIA concluded that the compound was "custom built to hide someone of significance" and that bin Laden's residence there was very likely. Officials surmised that he was living there with his youngest wife.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: To identify the occupants of the compound, the CIA worked with doctor Shakil Afridi to organize a fake vaccination program. Nurses gained entry to the residence to vaccinate the children and extract DNA, which could be compared to a sample from his sister, who died in Boston in 2010. It is unclear if the DNA samples were ever obtained.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: Built between 2003 and 2005, the three-story mansion was located in a compound about 4 km (2.5 mi.) northeast of the center of Abbottabad. While the compound was assessed by US officials at a value of US$1 million, local real-estate agents assess the property value at US$250,000. On a lot about eight times the size of nearby houses, it was surrounded by concrete walls topped with barbed wire. There were two security gates and the third-floor balcony had a privacy wall. There was no Internet or telephone service coming into the compound.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: Its residents burned their trash, unlike their neighbors, who simply set it out for collection. The compound is located at , southwest of the closest point of the sprawling Pakistan Military Academy.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: President Obama met with his national security advisors on March 14, 2011, in the first of five security meetings over six weeks. On April 29, at 8:20 a.m., Obama convened with Thomas Donilon, John O. Brennan, and other security advisers in the Diplomatic Room, where he authorized a raid of the Abbottābad compound. The government of Pakistan was not informed of this decision.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: Osama bin Laden was killed after being shot in the head and chest, during Operation Neptune Spear, with "Geronimo" as the code word for bin Laden's capture or death. The operation was a 40-minute raid by members of the United States special operations forces and Navy Seals on his safe house in Bilal Town, Abbottābad, Pakistan. It took place on May 2, 2011, around 01:00 Pakistan Standard Time (May 1, 20:00 UTC). U.S. forces then took his body to Afghanistan for identification before burying it at sea.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: Following his death new details of where he lived were learned from interrogations of his widows and surviving associates.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: According to the "Associated Press" reports based on interrogations, it was determined that he had lived in five different safehouses in Pakistan. His penultimate home was located in Haripur. It was a relatively upscale house in a neighborhood that contained other upscale homes but also bordered Afghan refugee huts. He lived there for eleven months while the Abbottabad compound was being built.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: Critics have accused Pakistan's military and security establishment of protecting bin Laden. Most believe bin Laden lived at the compound for at least six years before his death there.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: On March 29, 2012, Pakistani newspaper "Dawn" acquired a report produced by Pakistani security officials, based on interrogation of his three surviving wives, that detailed his movements while living underground in Pakistan.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: Declan Walsh, writing in the "New York Times", reported on speculation that Pakistan was planning to charge bin Laden's wives and adult daughters with immigration offenses, rather than simply deporting them, so they would be in prison and unable to offer details of Pakistani cooperation with bin Laden to neighboring country India and its intelligence agency RAW, as it would be politically embarrassing for Pakistan.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: Bin Laden's location and state of health were a continuing topic of speculation since his disappearance from Tora Bora. It has become clear that most of these rumors and speculation were not based on fact. First, rumors surfaced that bin Laden was killed or fatally injured during U.S. bombardments, most notably near Tora Bora, or that he died of natural causes. According to Gary Berntsen, in his 2005 book, "", a number of al-Qaeda detainees later confirmed that bin Laden had escaped Tora Bora into Pakistan via an eastern route through snow-covered mountains in the area of Parachinar, Pakistan. The media reported that bin Laden suffered from a kidney disorder requiring him to have access to advanced medical facilities, possibly kidney dialysis. Ayman al-Zawahiri, al-Qaeda's second-in-command and a close bin Laden associate, is a physician and may have provided medical care to bin Laden.


title: Manhunt for Osama bin Laden

text: Between 2002 and 2011, the most common suggestion from U.S. national security officials and others was that "their best intelligence suggested that bin Laden was living along the mountainous, ungoverned border of Pakistan and Afghanistan," such as in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (an area that includes Waziristan) or volatile regions in North-West Frontier Province (now known as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), where an ongoing insurgency has taken place. Several experts and former officials expressed surprise when bin Laden was instead revealed to have been hiding in the urban city of Abbottabad. Less common suggestions were that bin Laden had died (either by illness or military attack), or that he was alive and living in countries other than Pakistan, such as Afghanistan or Iran.


title: Italian fascism

text: Italian fascism (), also known as classical fascism or simply fascism, is the original fascist ideology as developed in Italy by Giovanni Gentile and Benito Mussolini. The ideology is associated with a series of two political parties led by Benito Mussolini: the National Fascist Party (PNF), which ruled the Kingdom of Italy from 1922 until 1943, and the Republican Fascist Party (PFR) that ruled the Italian Social Republic from 1943 to 1945. Italian fascism is also associated with the post-war Italian Social Movement (MSI) and subsequent Italian neo-fascist movements.


title: Italian fascism

text: Italian fascism was rooted in Italian nationalism, national syndicalism, revolutionary nationalism, and the desire to restore and expand Italian territories, which Italian Fascists deemed necessary for a nation to assert its superiority and strength and to avoid succumbing to decay. Italian Fascists also claimed that modern Italy was the heir to ancient Rome and its legacy, and historically supported the creation of an imperial Italy to provide "spazio vitale" ("living space") for colonization by Italian settlers and to establish control over the Mediterranean Sea.


title: Italian fascism

text: Italian fascism promoted a corporatist economic system, whereby employer and employee syndicates are linked together in associations to collectively represent the nation's economic producers and work alongside the state to set national economic policy. This economic system intended to resolve class conflict through collaboration between the classes.


title: Italian fascism

text: Italian fascism opposed liberalism, especially classical liberalism, which fascist leaders denounced as "the debacle of individualism". Fascism was opposed to socialism because of the latter's frequent opposition to nationalism, but it was also opposed to the reactionary conservatism developed by Joseph de Maistre. It believed the success of Italian nationalism required respect for tradition and a clear sense of a shared past among the Italian people, alongside a commitment to a modernised Italy.


title: Italian fascism

text: Originally, many Italian fascists were opposed to Nazism, as fascism in Italy did not espouse Nordicism and did not initially espouse the antisemitism inherent in Nazi ideology, although many fascists, in particular Mussolini himself, held racist ideas (specifically anti-Slavism) that were enshrined into law as official policy over the course of fascist rule. As fascist Italy and Nazi Germany grew politically closer in the latter half of the 1930s, Italian laws and policies became explicitly antisemitic due to pressure from Nazi Germany (even though antisemitic laws were not commonly enforced in Italy), including the passage of the Italian racial laws. When the fascists were in power, they also persecuted some linguistic minorities in Italy. In addition, the Greeks in Dodecanese and Northern Epirus, which were then under Italian occupation and influence, were persecuted.


title: Italian fascism

text: Italian fascism is based upon Italian nationalism and in particular seeks to complete what it considers as the incomplete project of "Risorgimento" by incorporating "Italia Irredenta" (unredeemed Italy) into the state of Italy. The National Fascist Party (PNF) founded in 1921 declared that the party was to serve as "a revolutionary militia placed at the service of the nation. It follows a policy based on three principles: order, discipline, hierarchy".


title: Italian fascism

text: It identifies modern Italy as the heir to the Roman Empire and Italy during the Renaissance and promotes the cultural identity of "Romanitas" (Roman-ness). Italian fascism historically sought to forge a strong Italian Empire as a Third Rome, identifying ancient Rome as the First Rome and Renaissance-era Italy as the Second Rome. Italian fascism has emulated ancient Rome and Mussolini in particular emulated ancient Roman leaders, such as Julius Caesar as a model for the fascists' rise to power and Augustus as a model for empire-building. Italian fascism has directly promoted imperialism, such as within the "Doctrine of Fascism" (1932), ghostwritten by Giovanni Gentile on behalf of Mussolini:


title: Italian fascism

text: Fascism emphasized the need for the restoration of the Mazzinian "Risorgimento" tradition that followed the unification of Italy, that the fascists claimed had been left incomplete and abandoned in the Giolittian-era Italy. Fascism sought the incorporation of claimed "unredeemed" territories into Italy.


title: Italian fascism

text: To the east of Italy, the fascists claimed that Dalmatia was a land of Italian culture whose Italians, including those of Italianized South Slavic descent, had been driven out of Dalmatia and into exile in Italy, and supported the return of Italians of Dalmatian heritage. Mussolini identified Dalmatia as having strong Italian cultural roots for centuries via the Roman Empire and the Republic of Venice. The fascists especially focused their claims based on the Venetian cultural heritage of Dalmatia, claiming that Venetian rule had been beneficial for all Dalmatians and had been accepted by the Dalmatian population. The fascists were outraged after World War I, when the agreement between Italy and the Entente Allies in the Treaty of London of 1915 to have Dalmatia join Italy was revoked in 1919. The fascist regime supported the annexation of Yugoslavia's region of Slovenia into Italy that already held a portion of the Slovene population, whereby Slovenia would become an Italian province, resulting in a quarter of Slovene ethnic territory and approximately 327,000 out of a total population of 1.3 million Slovenes being subjected to forced Italianization. The fascist regime imposed mandatory Italianization upon the German and South Slavic populations living within Italy's borders. The fascist regime abolished the teaching of minority German and Slavic languages in schools, German and Slavic language newspapers were shut down and geographical and family names in areas of German or Slavic languages were to be Italianized. This resulted in significant violence against South Slavs deemed to be resisting Italianization. The fascist regime supported the annexation of Albania, claimed that Albanians were ethnically linked to Italians through links with the prehistoric Italiotes, Illyrian and Roman populations and that the major influence exerted by the Roman and Venetian empires over Albania justified Italy's right to possess it. The fascist regime also justified the annexation of Albania on the basis that"—"because several hundred thousand people of Albanian descent had been absorbed into society in southern Italy already"—"the incorporation of Albania was a reasonable measure that would unite people of Albanian descent into one state. The fascist regime endorsed Albanian irredentism, directed against the predominantly Albanian-populated Kosovo and Epirus, particularly in Chameria inhabited by a substantial number of Albanians. After Italy annexed Albania in 1939, the fascist regime endorsed assimilating Albanians into Italians and colonizing Albania with Italian settlers from the Italian Peninsula to gradually transform it into an Italian land. The fascist regime claimed the Ionian Islands as Italian territory on the basis that the islands had belonged to the Venetian Republic from the mid-14th until the late 18th century.


title: Italian fascism

text: To the west of Italy, the fascists claimed that the territories of Corsica, Nice and Savoy held by France were Italian lands. During the period of Italian unification in 1860 to 1861, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, who was leading the unification effort, faced opposition from French Emperor Napoleon III who indicated that France would oppose Italian unification unless France was given Nice and Savoy that were held by Piedmont-Sardinia, as France did not want a powerful state having control of all the passages of the Alps. As a result, Piedmont-Sardinia was pressured to concede Nice and Savoy to France in exchange for France accepting the unification of Italy. The fascist regime produced literature on Corsica that presented evidence of the "italianità" (Italianness) of the island. The fascist regime produced literature on Nice that justified that Nice was an Italian land based on historic, ethnic and linguistic grounds. The fascists quoted Medieval Italian scholar Petrarch who said: "The border of Italy is the Var; consequently Nice is a part of Italy". The fascists quoted Italian national hero Giuseppe Garibaldi who said: "Corsica and Nice must not belong to France; there will come the day when an Italy mindful of its true worth will reclaim its provinces now so shamefully languishing under foreign domination". Mussolini initially pursued promoting annexation of Corsica through political and diplomatic means, believing that Corsica could be annexed to Italy through first encouraging the existing autonomist tendencies in Corsica and then the independence of Corsica from France, that would be followed by the annexation of Corsica into Italy.


title: Italian fascism

text: To the north of Italy, the fascist regime in the 1930s had designs on the largely Italian-populated region of Ticino and the Romansch-populated region of Graubünden in Switzerland (the Romansch are a people with a Latin-based language). In November 1938, Mussolini declared to the Grand Fascist Council: "We shall bring our border to the Gotthard Pass". The fascist regime accused the Swiss government of oppressing the Romansch people in Graubünden. Mussolini argued that Romansch was an Italian dialect and thus Graubünden should be incorporated into Italy. Ticino was also claimed because the region had belonged to the Duchy of Milan from the mid-fourteenth century until 1515, as well as being inhabited by Italian speakers of Italian ethnicity. Claim was also raised on the basis that areas now part of Graubünden in the Mesolcina valley and Hinterrhein were held by the Milanese Trivulzio family, who ruled from the Mesocco Castle in the late 15th century. Also during the summer of 1940, Galeazzo Ciano met with Hitler and Ribbentrop and proposed to them the dissection of Switzerland along the central chain of the Western Alps, which would have left Italy also with the canton of Valais in addition to the claims raised earlier.


title: Italian fascism

text: To the south, the regime claimed the archipelago of Malta, which had been held by the British since 1800. Mussolini claimed that the Maltese language was a dialect of Italian and theories about Malta being the cradle of the Latin civilization were promoted. Italian had been widely used in Malta in the literary, scientific and legal fields and it was one of Malta's official languages until 1937 when its status was abolished by the British as a response to Italy's invasion of Ethiopia. Italian irredentists had claimed that territories on the coast of North Africa were Italy's Fourth Shore and used the historical Roman rule in North Africa as a precedent to justify the incorporation of such territories to Italian jurisdiction as being a "return" of Italy to North Africa. In January 1939, Italy annexed territories in Libya that it considered within Italy's Fourth Shore, with Libya's four coastal provinces of Tripoli, Misurata, Benghazi and Derna becoming an integral part of metropolitan Italy. At the same time, indigenous Libyans were given the ability to apply for "Special Italian Citizenship" which required such people to be literate in the Italian language and confined this type of citizenship to be valid in Libya only. Tunisia that had been taken by France as a protectorate in 1881 had the highest concentration of Italians in North Africa and its seizure by France had been viewed as an injury to national honour in Italy at what they perceived as a "loss" of Tunisia from Italian plans to incorporate it. Upon entering World War II, Italy declared its intention to seize Tunisia as well as the province of Constantine of Algeria from France.


title: Italian fascism

text: To the south, the fascist regime held an interest in expanding Italy's African colonial possessions. In the 1920s, Italy regarded Portugal as a weak country that was unbecoming of a colonial power due to its weak hold on its colonies and mismanagement of them and as such Italy desired to annexe Portugal's colonies. Italy's relations with Portugal were influenced by the rise to power of the authoritarian conservative nationalist regime of Salazar, which borrowed fascist methods, though Salazar upheld Portugal's traditional alliance with Britain.


title: Italian fascism

text: In a 1921 speech in Bologna, Mussolini stated that "Fascism was born ... out of a profound, perennial need of this our Aryan and Mediterranean race". In this speech, Mussolini was referring to Italians as being the Mediterranean branch of the Aryan Race, Aryan in the meaning of people of an Indo-European language and culture. Italian fascism emphasized that race was bound by spiritual and cultural foundations and identified a racial hierarchy based on spiritual and cultural factors. While Italian fascism based its conception of race on spiritual and cultural factors, Mussolini explicitly rejected notions that biologically "pure" races were still considered a relevant factor in racial classification. He claimed that "italianità" had assimilatory capacity. It used spiritual and cultural conceptions of race to make land claims on Dalmatia and to justify an Italian sphere of influence in the Balkans based on then-present and historical Italian cultural influence in the Balkans. The fascist regime justified colonialism in Africa by claiming that the spiritual and cultural superiority of Italians as part of the white race justified the right for Italy and other white powers to rule over the black race, while asserting the racial segregation of whites and blacks in its colonies. It claimed that fascism's colonial goals were to civilize the inferior races and defend the purity of Western civilization from racial miscegenation that it claimed would harm the intellectual qualities of the white race. It claimed that the white race needed to increase its natality in order to avoid being overtaken by the black and yellow races that were multiplying at a faster rate than whites.


title: Italian fascism

text: Within Italy, the Italian Empire and territory identified as "spazio vitale" for Italy a cultural-racial hierarchy that ranked the peoples in terms of value who lived there was clearly defined by 1940, during which plans for Italy's "spazio vitale" were being formalized by the regime. The fascist regime considered Italians to be superior to other peoples of the Mediterranean region—including Latin, Slavic and Hellenic peoples—because only Italians had achieved racial unity and full political consciousness via the fascist regime. Latin, Slavic and Hellenic peoples were regarded as superior to Turkic, Semitic and Hamitic peoples. Amongst indigenous peoples of Africa, the racial hierarchy regarded indigenous North Africans as superior to indigenous people in Italian East Africa.


title: Italian fascism

text: Though believing in the racial superiority of Europeans over non-Europeans, the fascist regime displayed diplomatic courtesy to non-Europeans. The regime held an alliance with Japan within the Tripartite Pact between Germany, Italy and Japan. Indian independence movement leader Mahatma Gandhi visited Italy in 1931 and was invited by Mussolini for a personal visit, providing Gandhi full diplomatic courtesy. Fascist official Italo Balbo during his transatlantic flight from Italy to the United States in 1933 visited with leaders of the Sioux tribe and accepted the Sioux's honorary bestowing of his incorporation into the Sioux with the Sioux position and name "Chief Flying Eagle".


title: Italian fascism

text: Italian fascism strongly rejected the common Nordicist conception of the Aryan Race that idealized "pure" Aryans as having certain physical traits that were defined as Nordic such as blond hair and blue eyes. Nordicism was divisive because Italians – and especially southern Italians - had faced discrimination from Nordicist proponents in countries like the United States out of the view that non-Nordic southern Europeans were inferior to Nordics. In Italy, the influence of Nordicism had a divisive effect in which the influence resulted in Northern Italians who regarded themselves to have Nordic racial heritage considering themselves a civilized people while negatively regarding Southern Italians as biologically inferior. At least some of the stereotypes about Southern Italians were created by Cesare Lombroso, an Italian Jewish criminologist and anthropologist of Sephardic descent. For his controversial theories, Lombroso was expelled from the Italian Society of Anthropology and Ethnology in 1882. The Lombrosian doctrine is currently considered pseudoscientific.


title: Italian fascism

text: Mussolini and other fascists held antipathy to Nordicism because of what they viewed as an inferiority complex of people of Mediterranean racial heritage that they claimed had been instilled into Mediterranean people by the propagation of such theories by German and Anglo-Saxon Nordicists who viewed Mediterranean peoples as racially degenerate and thus in their view inferior. However, traditional Nordicist claims of Mediterraneans being degenerate due to having a darker colour of skin than Nordics had long been rebuked in anthropology through the depigmentation theory that claimed that lighter-skinned peoples had been depigmented from a darker skin, this theory has since become a widely accepted view in anthropology. Anthropologist Carleton S. Coon in his work "The races of Europe" (1939) subscribed to the depigmentation theory that claimed that the Nordic race's light-coloured skin was the result of depigmentation from their ancestors of the Mediterranean race. Mussolini refused to allow Italy to return again to this inferiority complex, initially rejecting Nordicism.


title: Italian fascism

text: In the early 1930s, with the rise to power of the Nazi Party in Germany with "Führer" Adolf Hitler's staunch emphasis on a Nordicist conception of the Aryan Race, strong tensions arose between the fascists and the Nazis over racial issues, as Hitler regarded Northern Italians to be strongly Aryan. The Nazis regarded the ancient Romans to have been largely a people of the Mediterranean race, though they claimed that the Roman ruling classes were Nordic, descended from Aryan conquerors from the North and that this Nordic Aryan minority was responsible for the rise of Roman civilization. The Nazis viewed the downfall of the Roman Empire as being the result of the deterioration of the purity of the Nordic Aryan ruling class through its intermixing with the inferior Mediterranean types that led to the empire's decay. In addition, racial intermixing in the population, in general, was also blamed for Rome's downfall, claiming that Italians as a whole were a hybrid of races, including black African races. Due to the darker complexion of Mediterranean peoples, Hitler regarded them as having traces of Negroid blood and therefore were not pure Aryans and inferior to those without such heritage. The Nazis ascribed the great achievements of post-Roman era northern Italians to the presence of Nordic racial heritage in such people who via their Nordic heritage had Germanic ancestors, such as Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg recognizing Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci as exemplary Nordic men of history. However, the Nazis did claim that aside from biologically Nordic people that a Nordic soul could inhabit a non-Nordic body. Hitler emphasized the role of Germanic influence in Northern Italy, such as stating that the art of Northern Italy was "nothing but pure German".


title: Italian fascism

text: In the aftermath of Austrian Nazis killing Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss in 1934, an ally of Italy, Mussolini became enraged and responded by angrily denouncing Nazism. Mussolini rebuked Nazism's Nordicism, claiming that the Nazis' emphasizing of a common Nordic "Germanic race" was absurd by saying that "a Germanic race does not exist. [...] We repeat. Does not exist. Scientists say so. Hitler says so". The fact that Germans were not purely Nordic was indeed acknowledged by prominent Nazi racial theorist Hans F. K. Günther in his 1922 book "Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes" ("Racial Science of the German People"), where Günther recognized Germans as being composed of five racial types, namely Nordic, Mediterranean, Dinaric, Alpine and East Baltic while asserting that the Nordics were the highest in a racial hierarchy of the five types.


title: Italian fascism

text: By 1936, the tensions between fascist Italy and Nazi Germany reduced and relations became more amicable. In 1936, Mussolini decided to launch a racial programme in Italy and was interested in the racial studies being conducted by Giulio Cogni. Cogni was a Nordicist, but did not equate Nordic identity with Germanic identity as was commonly done by German Nordicists. Cogni had travelled to Germany where he had become impressed by Nazi racial theory and sought to create his own version of sacial theory. On 11 September 1936, Cogni sent Mussolini a copy of his newly published book "Il Razzismo" (1936). Cogni declared the racial affinity of the Mediterranean and Nordic racial subtypes of the Aryan race and claimed that the intermixing of Nordic Aryans and Mediterranean Aryans in Italy produced a superior synthesis of Aryan Italians. Cogni addressed the issue of racial differences between northern and southern Italians, declaring Southern Italians were mixed between Aryan and non-Aryan races, which he claimed was most likely due to infiltration by Asiatic peoples in Roman times and later Arab invasions. As such, Cogni viewed Southern Italian Mediterraneans as being polluted with orientalizing tendencies. He would later change his idea and claim that Nordics and Southern Italians were closely related groups both racially and spiritually, as they were generally responsible for what is the best in European civilization. Initially, Mussolini was not impressed with Cogni's work, but Cogni's ideas entered into the official fascist racial policy several years later.


title: Italian fascism

text: In 1938, Mussolini was concerned that if Italian fascism did not recognize Nordic heritage within Italians, then the Mediterranean inferiority complex would return to Italian society. Therefore, in the summer of 1938 the fascist government officially recognized Italians as having Nordic heritage and being of Nordic-Mediterranean descent in a meeting with PNF members. In June 1938 in a meeting with PNF members, Mussolini identified himself as Nordic and declared that the previous policy of focus on Mediterraneanism was to be replaced by a focus on Aryanism.


title: Italian fascism

text: The fascist regime began publication of the racialist magazine "La Difesa della Razza" in 1938. The Nordicist racial theorist Guido Landra took a major role in the early work of "La Difesa" and published the "Manifesto of Racial Scientists" in the magazine in 1938.


title: Italian fascism

text: The "Manifesto" directly addressed its conception of racism and emphasized its autonomy from German racial theories by stating:


title: Italian fascism

text: The emphasis in the "Manifesto" on a psychological model of a superior human being was in reference to the Italian antisemitic racial theorists Giovanni Papini and Paolo Orano that stated that those Jews who had associated themselves as being Italian were examples of inferior psychological types that were characterized by moral abjection, falseness and cowardice that could not be associated with the Italian community. After Article 7 of the "Manifesto", the remainder claimed that peoples of the Oriental race, African races and Jews, as not belonging to the Italian race; and in Article 10 declared that the physical and psychological characteristics of the Italian people must not be altered by crossbreeding with non-European races.


title: Italian fascism

text: The "Manifesto" received substantial criticism, including its assertion of Italians being a "pure race", as critics viewed the notion as absurd. "La Difesa" published other theories that described long-term Nordic Aryan amongst Italians, such as the theory that in the Eneolithic age Nordic Aryans arrived in Italy. Many of the writers of "La Difesa della Razza" took up the traditional Nordicist claim that the decline and fall of the Roman Empire was due to the arrival of Semitic immigrants. "La Difesa"'s writers were divided on their claims that described how Italians extricated themselves from Semitic influence.


title: Italian fascism

text: The Nordicist direction of fascist racial policy was challenged in 1938 by a resurgence of the Mediterranean faction in the PNF. By 1939, the Mediterraneanists advocated a nativist racial theory which rejected ascribing the achievements of the Italian people to Nordic peoples. This nativist racial policy was prominently promoted by Ugo Rellini. Rellini rejected the notion of large-scale invasions of Italy by Nordic Aryans in the Eneolithic age and claimed that Italians were an indigenous people descended from the Cro-Magnons. Rellini claimed that Mediterranean and later Nordic peoples arrived and peacefully intermixed in small numbers with the indigenous Italian population.


title: Italian fascism

text: In 1941, the PNF's Mediterraneanists through the influence of Giacomo Acerbo put forward a comprehensive definition of the Italian race. However, these efforts were challenged by Mussolini's endorsement of Nordicist figures with the appointment of staunch spiritual Nordicist Alberto Luchini as head of Italy's Racial Office in May 1941, as well as with Mussolini becoming interested in Julius Evola's spiritual Nordicism in late 1941. Acerbo and the Mediterraneanists in his High Council on Demography and Race sought to bring the regime back to supporting Mediterraneanism by thoroughly denouncing the pro-Nordicist "Manifesto of the Racial Scientists". The Council recognized Aryans as being a linguistic-based group and condemned the "Manifesto" for denying the influence of pre-Aryan civilization on modern Italy, saying that the "Manifesto" "constitutes an unjustifiable and undemonstrable negation of the anthropological, ethnological, and archaeological discoveries that have occurred and are occurring in our country". Furthermore, the Council denounced the "Manifesto" for "implicitly" crediting Germanic invaders of Italy in the guise of the Lombards for having "a formative influence on the Italian race in a disproportional degree to the number of invaders and to their biological predominance". The Council claimed that the obvious superiority of the ancient Greeks and Romans in comparison with the ancient Germanic tribes made it inconceivable that Italian culture owed a debt to ancient Aryan Germans. The Council denounced the "Manifesto"'s Nordicist supremacist attitude towards Mediterraneans that it claimed was "considering them as slaves" and was "a repudiation of the entire Italian civilization".


title: Italian fascism

text: In his early years as fascist leader, while Mussolini harboured negative stereotypes of Jews he did not hold a firm stance on Jews and his official stances oscillated and shifted to meet the political demands of the various factions of the fascist movement, rather than having anything concrete. Mussolini had held antisemitic beliefs prior to becoming a fascist, such as in a 1908 essay on the topic of Nietzsche's Übermensch, in which Mussolini condemned "pallid Judeans" for "wrecking" the Roman Empire; and in 1913 as editor of the Italian Socialist Party's (PSI) "Avanti!" newspaper again wrote about the Jews having caused havoc in ancient Rome. Although Mussolini held these negative attitudes, he was aware that Italian Jews were a deeply integrated and small community in Italy who were by and large perceived favourably in Italy for fighting valiantly for Italy in World War I. Of the 117 original members of the "Fasci Italiani di Combattimento" founded on 23 March 1919, five were Jewish. Since the movement's early years, there were a small number of prominent openly antisemitic fascists such as Roberto Farinacci. There were also prominent fascists who completely rejected antisemitism, such as Italo Balbo who lived in Ferrara that had a substantial Jewish community that was accepted and antisemitic incidents were rare in the city.


title: Italian fascism

text: In response to his observation of large numbers of Jews amongst the Bolsheviks and claims that the Bolsheviks and Germany (that Italy was fighting in World War I) were politically connected, Mussolini said antisemitic statements involving the Bolshevik-German connection as being an "unholy alliance between Hindenburg and the synagogue". Mussolini came to believe rumours that Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin was of Jewish descent. In an article in "Il Popolo d'Italia" in June 1919, Mussolini wrote a highly antisemitic analysis on the situation in Europe involving Bolshevism following the October Revolution, the Russian Civil War and war in Hungary involving the Hungarian Soviet Republic:


title: Italian fascism

text: This statement by Mussolini on a Jewish-Bolshevik-plutocratic connection and conspiracy was met with opposition in the fascist movement, resulting in Mussolini responding to this opposition amongst his supporters by abandoning this stance shortly afterwards in 1919. Upon abandoning this stance due to opposition to it, Mussolini no longer said his previous assertion that Bolshevism was Jewish, but warned that due to the large numbers of Jews in the Bolshevik movement the rise of Bolshevism in Russia would result in a ferocious wave of antisemitism in Russia. He then claimed that "antisemitism is foreign to the Italian people", but warned Zionists that they should be careful not to stir up antisemitism in "the only country where it has not existed".


title: Italian fascism

text: Margherita Sarfatti was an influential Jewish member of the PNF whom Mussolini had known since he and she had been members of the PSI and she had been his mistress and helped write "Dux" (1926), a biography of Mussolini. One of the Jewish financial supporters of the fascist movement was Toeplitz, whom Mussolini had earlier accused of being a traitor during World War I. Another prominent Jewish Italian fascist was Ettore Ovazza, who was a staunch Italian nationalist and an opponent of Zionism in Italy. 230 Italian Jews took part in the fascists' March on Rome in 1922. In the early 1920s, Mussolini was cautious on topics of Italian Jewish financiers that arose from time to time from antisemitic elements in the fascist movement, while he regarded them as untrustworthy he believed that he could draw them to his side. In 1932, Mussolini made his private attitude about Jews known to the Austrian ambassador when discussing the issue by saying: "I have no love for the Jews, but they have great influence everywhere. It is better to leave them alone. Hitler's antisemitism has already brought him more enemies than is necessary".


title: Italian fascism

text: On the eve of the March on Rome, the leadership of the PNF declared that "a Jewish question does not exist in our country and let us hope that there never shall be one, at least not until Zionism poses Italian Jews with the dilemma of choosing between their Italian homeland and another homeland". The relations between the regime and Jews as in those practising the religion of Judaism was affected by the fascists' accommodation of the Catholic Church beginning in the early 1920s in which it sought to remove previous provisions of equality of faiths and impose state support of the supremacy of Catholicism.