title: Alex Band

text: The first single "Tonight" was released on February 15, 2010 and entered the US Adult Pop charts at thirty one, also charting in countries including Austria, Germany, and Japan.


title: Alex Band

text: His debut solo album "We've All Been There" was released on June 29, 2010, in a distribution deal with EMI Records. The album entered the US Heatseekers charts at forty-two. The album achieved success in Germany, charting at number twelve.


title: Alex Band

text: Band released three more singles; "Without You", the second single from the album, was released digitally. The European exclusive third single "Only One" (a track originally released on his self titled EP) entered the German charts at sixty-six and was featured in American TV shows "Melrose Place" and "The Vampire Diaries". The music video was directed by long time friend Jethro Rothe-Kushel. The fourth and final single "Euphoria" was released in Germany only. The music video featured home footage of Band and his former partner Kristin Blanford.


title: Alex Band

text: Band released his second EP titled "After the Storm" through the Killer Tracks label. The track "Shape of Your Heart" was featured in a Korean commercial for the Kia Sorento, and the track "Take Me Back" was featured in an episode of the Spanish Netflix show "Cable Girls".


title: Alex Band

text: During and after his time in The Calling, Band and Kamin co-wrote all of the band's songs. They also wrote songs for several other artists as well as for several movie soundtracks, most of which Band would perform on. One of the first such tracks was the single, "For You" which appeared on the "Daredevil" soundtrack. The OST peaked at number 9 on the Billboard Top 200.


title: Alex Band

text: A cover of "Keep Your Hands to Yourself" was recorded for the movie "Sweet Home Alabama". Band recorded a song "Take Hold of Me" for use in his wife's movie "Fish Without a Bicycle" in which he has a small part. He also Appeared on the "".


title: Alex Band

text: Band wrote the track "Always on My Mind" with American singer songwriter Jon McLaughlin for his second studio album "OK Now", where Band also provided backing vocals.


title: Alex Band

text: He was personally chosen by Chad Kroeger to perform on the Carlos Santana single "Why Don't You & I" in 2003. Originally, Kroeger wrote and sang on "Why Don't You & I" for Santana's "Shaman". However, when Arista Records decided to release the song as a single, Kroeger's record label refused permission, citing concerns that Kroeger appearing on a "high-profile single" that could conflict with his own newly released comeback album.


title: Alex Band

text: Band's version became extremely successful charting at number 3 on the Billboard Top 40, and number 8 on the Billboard Top 100. It was also recently named the number 5 song of the decade on the Adult Pop charts by Billboard. It reached number 1 on the AC charts and continues to be played on AC stations to this day. Band's version appears on Santana's special release album, "Ceremony: remixes & rarities" and "Ultimate Santana".


title: Alex Band

text: In 2009, Band collaborated with Brazilian singer-songwriter Yasmin Lucas on the song "In Your Heart, I'm Home". The song entered the Brazilian charts at forty-seven and was featured on the Brazilian telenova "Bela, a Feia", based on the American series "Ugly Betty".


title: Alex Band

text: In 2010, the song "Cruel One" featured Canadian singer-songwriter Chantal Kreviazuk and American actress Emmy Rossum, which features as a bonus track to Band's solo album "We've All Been There".


title: Alex Band

text: Band was featured on the season one finale of the reality TV series "Flex & Shanice", where he collaborated with Shanice on a track. The episode, titled "It's My Party...", aired December 20, 2014. The track, however, has not been released.


title: Alex Band

text: In October 2016, Band was featured as a guest artist for the song "Donde Quiera Que Vayas Yo Iré" (a Spanish version to the hit song "Wherever You Will Go") by Venezuelan actress Gabriela Spanic. The song was released digitally on October 28, 2016.


title: Alex Band

text: Band also appeared on the "" episode "", which aired January 14, 2009. Band played a drugged-out musician who is the suspect in a murder case. The songs he performed were his own (as did fellow guest star Bonnie McKee). He has said there will be more acting in the future.


title: Alex Band

text: Band has worked with several charities. After an illness his ex-wife dealt with, Band became a supporter of organ donation, working closely with the charity Donate Life America. Annually, he performs at "Alex Band's Donate Life Rocks Concert" to raise money and awareness for the cause.


title: Alex Band

text: Each year Debbie Hagerman, who ran his official fan site, organized a birthday charity project in Band's name, asking that, in lieu of gifts, fans donate to a charity instead. In addition, a calendar was produced each year showcasing Band in concert. All proceeds went to the Alex Band Education Fund for Donate Life America. The projects have raised over $30,000 in honor of Band.


title: Alex Band

text: Band is also active in promoting awareness and involvement in The Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Disease. He himself was diagnosed in 2012 with young onset Parkinson's, which he announced during a benefit show performed on Stageit from Ryan Cabrera's home on March 23, 2013.


title: Alex Band

text: Band married actress Jennifer Sky, on July 25, 2004. The couple split in 2009. In February 2010, he became engaged to Kristin Blanford. She appeared in music videos for his songs "Tonight" and "Euphoria". They married on May 1, 2011 and divorced in April 2012.


title: Alex Band

text: Band married his girlfriend, Shayna Weber, in October 2013, which was confirmed on the Twitter account of each. Via Twitter, he confirmed in early 2016 that they were expecting their first child in the summer. Their son, Max Bowie Band, was born on September 3, 2016.


title: Alex Band

text: Band was abducted on August 18, 2013 by two men who robbed him, beat him severely and dumped him on the train tracks in Lapeer, Michigan. He was taken to an emergency room at a nearby hospital, where he was treated and released.


title: United States declaration of war on Japan

text: On December 8, 1941, the United States Congress declared war () on the Empire of Japan in response to that country's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor and declaration of war the prior day. The Joint Resolution Declaring that a state of war exists between the Imperial Government of Japan and the Government and the people of the United States and making provisions to prosecute the same was formulated an hour after the "Infamy Speech" of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Following the U.S. declaration, Japan's allies, Germany and Italy, declared war on the United States, bringing the United States fully into World War II.


text: The attack on Pearl Harbor took place before a declaration of war by Japan had been delivered to the United States. It was originally stipulated that the attack should not commence until thirty minutes after Japan had informed the U.S. that it was withdrawing from further peace negotiations, but the attack began before the notice could be delivered. Tokyo transmitted the 5,000-word notification – known as the "14-Part Message" – in two blocks to the Japanese Embassy in Washington. However, because of the very secret nature of the message, it had to be decoded, translated and typed up by high embassy officials, who were unable to do these tasks in the available time. Hence, the ambassador did not deliver it until after the attack had begun. Even if it had been, the notification was worded so that it actually neither declared war nor severed diplomatic relations; it was therefore not a proper declaration of war as required by diplomatic traditions. Japan formally declared war on the US and the British Empire on 7 December 1941.


text: The United Kingdom declared war on Japan nine hours before the U.S. did, partially due to Japanese attacks on the British colonies of Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong; and partially due to Winston Churchill's promise to declare war "within the hour" of a Japanese attack on the United States.


text: President Roosevelt formally requested the declaration in his Infamy Speech, addressed to a joint session of Congress and the nation at 12:30 p.m. on December 8. The declaration was quickly brought to a vote; it passed the Senate, and then passed the House at 1:10 p.m. The vote was 82–0 in the Senate and 388–1 in the House. Roosevelt signed the declaration at 4:10 p.m the same day.


text: The first woman elected to Congress, Jeannette Rankin, a Montana Republican and outspoken pacifist, cast the only vote against the declaration, eliciting hisses from some of her peers. In 1917, Rankin was among 56 members of Congress to vote against the declaration that triggered America’s entry into World War I. Now alone in her position, several of Rankin’s congressional colleagues pressed her to change her vote to make the resolution unanimous—or at least to abstain—but she refused, saying "As a woman, I can't go to war, and I refuse to send anyone else." Rankin was one of ten women holding Congressional seats at the time. After the vote, reporters followed her into the Republican cloakroom, where she refused to make any comments and took refuge in a telephone booth until United States Capitol Police cleared the cloakroom. Two days later, a similar war declaration against Germany and Italy came to vote; Rankin abstained.


title: Upcycling

text: Upcycling, also known as creative reuse, is the process of transforming by-products, waste materials, useless, or unwanted products into new materials or products perceived to be of greater quality, such as artistic value or environmental value.


title: Upcycling

text: Upcycling is the opposite of downcycling, which is the other part of the recycling process. Downcycling involves converting materials and products into new materials, sometimes of lesser quality. Most recycling involves converting or extracting useful materials from a product and creating a different product or material.


title: Upcycling

text: The terms upcycling and "downcycling" were first used in print in an article in SalvoNEWS by Thornton Kay quoting Reiner Pilz and published in 1994.


title: Upcycling

text: "Upsizing" was the title of the German edition of a book about upcycling first published in English in 1998 by Gunter Pauli and given the revised title of "Upcycling" in 1999. The German edition was adapted to the German language and culture by Johannes F. Hartkemeyer, then Director of the Volkshochschule in Osnabrück. The concept was later incorporated by William McDonough and Michael Braungart in their 2002 book "". They state that the goal of upcycling is to prevent wasting potentially useful materials by making use of existing ones. This reduces the consumption of new raw materials when creating new products. Reducing the use of new raw materials can result in a reduction of energy usage, air pollution, water pollution and even greenhouse gas emissions.


title: Upcycling

text: This is a significant step towards regenerative design culture where the end products are cleaner, healthier, and usually have a better value than the material inputs. For example, during the recycling process of plastics other than those used to create bottles, many different types of plastics are mixed, resulting in a hybrid. This hybrid is used in the manufacturing of plastic lumber applications. However, unlike the engineered polymer ABS which hold properties of several plastics well, recycled plastics suffer phase-separation that causes structural weakness in the final product.


title: Upcycling

text: In 2009, Belinda Smith from Reuters wrote that upcycling had increased in the rich countries but observed that upcycling was a necessity in poorer ones: Supporters of the environmentally friendly practice of upcycling say people in developing countries have effectively been upcycling for years, using old packaging and clothing in new ways, although more out of need than for the environment. But upcycling is now taking off in other countries, reflecting an increased interest in eco-friendly products, particularly ones that are priced at an affordable level and proving profitable for the manufacturers. "If upcycling is going to become mainstream, then the corporate world needs to see that it can be profitable," said Albe Zakes, spokesman of U.S. company TerraCycle which specializes in finding new uses for discarded packaging. A growing number of companies are focusing on upcycling although the trend is still in its infancy with industry-wide figures yet to be produced.


title: Upcycling

text: Upcycling has shown significant growth across the United States and the World. For example, the number of products on Etsy, Pinterest or Upcycle Studio tagged with the word "upcycled" increased from about 7,900 in January 2010 to nearly 30,000 a year later . , that number stood at 263,685


title: Upcycling

text: Material downcycling occurs when it is either not possible or uneconomic to restore materials to their original quality, for example, when wrought aluminium alloys are melted to produce lower-grade casting alloys. Material "upcycling", in the thermodynamic sense, is only possible if even more energy is added to upgrade the material quality. Two guiding questions to ask when assessing recovering for waste materials or products are: How much energy is required to restore the recovered material back to the desired material or product?, and, How does this quantity compare with obtaining the desired material or product from virgin or primary sources? In some cases, little energy is required to reuse a discarded product, for example, secondhand clothing. In other cases, the energy required to recover the materials is more than the energy required to process virgin material.


title: Upcycling

text: Upcycle Art or sometimes known as Recycled Art or Recycl’Art is the transformation of waste or used materials and objects into art pieces.


title: Upcycling

text: While recycle usually means the materials are remade into their originally form e.g. recycle plastic bottles into plastic polymers which then produce plastic bottles through manufacturing process, upcycle adds more value to the materials as the name suggested. According to Watson & Wolfe "Upcycling, also known as creative reuse, is the process of transforming by-products, waste materials, useless, or unwanted products into new materials or products perceived to be of greater quality, such as artistic value or environmental value."


title: Upcycling

text: Similarly recycle art may refer to art pieces using used materials in their original form while upcycle art may involve transformation process such as breaking down, reforming, reassemble and the likes.


title: Upcycling

text: The tradition of reusing found objects ("objet trouvé") in mainstream art came of age sporadically through the 20th century, although it has long been a means of production in folk art. The Amish quilt, for example, came about through reapplication of salvaged fabric. Simon Rodia's Watts Towers (1921–1954) in Los Angeles exemplifies upcycling of scrap metal, pottery and broken glass on a grand scale; it consists of 17 structures, the tallest reaching over 30 meters into the Watts skyline.


title: Upcycling

text: Intellectually, upcycling bears some resemblance to the ready-made art of Marcel Duchamp and the Dadaists. Duchamp's "Bicycle Wheel" (1913), a front wheel and fork attached to a common stool, is among the earliest of these works, while "Fountain" (1917), a common urinal purchased at a hardware store, is arguably his best-known work. Pablo Picasso's "Bull's Head" (1942), a sculpture made from a discarded bicycle saddle and handlebars, is the Spanish painter's sly nod to the Dadaists. Throughout the mid-century, the artist Joseph Cornell fabricated collages and boxed assemblage works from old books, found objects and ephemera. Robert Rauschenberg collected trash and disused objects, first in Morocco and later on the streets of New York, to incorporate into his art works.


title: Upcycling

text: The idea of consciously raising the inherent value of recycled objects as a political statement, however, rather than presenting recycled objects as a reflection or outcome from the means of production, is largely a late 20th-century concept. Romuald Hazoumé, an artist from the West African Bénin, was heralded in 2007 for his use of discarded plastic gasoline and fuel canisters to resemble traditional African masks at Documenta 12 in Kassel, Germany. Hazoumé has said of these works, "I send back to the West that which belongs to them, that is to say, the refuse of consumer society that invades us every day." Jeff Wassmann, an American artist who has lived in Australia for the past 25 years, uses items found on beaches and junk stores in his travels to create the early Modern works of a fictional German relative, Johann Dieter Wassmann (1841–1898). In "Vorwarts (Go Forward)" (pictured), Wassmann uses four simple objects to depict a vision of modern man on the precarious eave of the 20th century: an early optometry chart as background, a clock spring as eye, a 19th-century Chinese bone opium spoon from the Australian gold fields as nose and an upper set of dentures found on an Australian beach as mouth. Wassmann is unusual among artists in that he does not sell his work, rather they are presented as gifts; by not allowing these works to re-enter the consumer cycle, he averts the commodification of his end product.


title: Upcycling

text: Max Zorn is a Dutch tape artist who creates artwork from ordinary brown packaging tape and hangs pieces on street lamps as a new form of street art at night. By adding and subtracting layers of tape on acrylic glass with a surgical scalpel, the artwork can only be visible when light is placed behind it, mimicking the effects similar to stained glass window methods. His technique with pioneering upcycling with street art has been featured at Frei-Cycle 2013, the first design fair for recycling and upcycling in Freiburg, Germany.


title: Upcycling

text: A prominent example is the Recycled Orchestra of Cateura in Paraguay. The instruments of the orchestra are made from materials taken from the landfill of Asunción, whose name comes from the Cateura lagoon in the area. A limited part of its real history is narrated in the film "Landfill Harmonic".


title: Upcycling

text: Many industrial processes, like plastic, paint, and electronic fabrication, rely on the consumption of finite resources. Furthermore, the waste may have an environmental impact and can affect human health. Within this context, upcycling describes the use of available and future technologies to reduce waste and resource consumption by creating a product with a higher value from waste or byproduct streams.


title: Upcycling

text: In consumer electronics, the process of re-manufacturing or refurbishment of second-hand products can be seen as upcycling because of the reduced energy and material consumption in contrast to new manufacturing. The re-manufactured product has a higher value than disposing or downcycling it. The use of Brewer's spent grain, a waste product of brewing processes, as a substrate in biogas processes eliminates the need for disposal and can generate significant profit to the overall brewing process. Depending on the substrate's price, a profit of approximately 20% of the operational costs is possible. In this process, the biogas plant acts as an "upcycler".


title: Upcycling

text: Designers have begun to use both industrial textile waste and existing clothing like as the base material for creating new fashions. Upcycling has been known to use either pre-consumer or post-consumer waste or possibly a combination of the two. Pre-consumer waste is made while in the factory, such as fabric remnants left over from cutting out patterns. Post-consumer waste refers to the finished product when it’s no longer useful to the owner, such as donated clothes. Textile upcycling has an official certification process called UPMADE®. Fashion designers such as Ksenia Schnaider and Reet Aus have applied upcycling philosophy by designing entire collections from scraps.


title: Upcycling

text: Often, people practice linear economy where they are content to buy, use, then throw away. This system contributes to millions of kilos of textile waste being thrown away. While most textiles produced are recyclable, around 85% end-up in landfills in the USA alone. To live a sustainable life, clothing options opposite to the "throw away" attitude encouraged by fast fashion are needed. Upcycling can help with this, as it puts into practice a more circular economy model. A Circular Economy is where resources are used for as long as possible, getting the most value out of them while in use, then restored and repurposed when their use is over. Popularized by McDonough and Braungart, this has also been known as the "cradle-to-cradle" principle. This principle states a product should be designed either to have multiple life cycles or be biodegradable.


title: Upcycling

text: Billions of pounds of food are wasted every year around the world, but there are ways that people reuse food and find a way to upcycle. One common method is to feed it to animals because many animals, such as pigs, will eat all the scraps given. Food waste can be donated and restaurants can save all the food customers don't eat. Donations can also be made by contacting local agricultural extension offices to find out where to donate food waste and how often and how much one can donate.


title: Upcycling

text: Another form of upcycling food is to break it down and use it as energy. Engineers have found a way to break the food down into a reusable bio-fuel by pressure cooking it and then they are able to make methane out of the remains which can be used to produce electricity and heat. When the food isn't used in those ways, another way is to just break it down and use it in compost, which will improve the soil. Many types of food waste, such as fruits, vegetables, egg shells, nuts, and nut shells, can be used in compost to enrich soil. A 2019-founded non-profit, The Upcycled Food Association, established certification standards and a logo that allows consumers to be confident of the upcycled food being consumed. Whole Foods named upcycling one of the ten food trends of 2021.


title: Upcycling

text: Tonnes of wastes are produced every day in our cities, and some educators are attempting to raise citizens' awareness, especially the youth. To redefine the concept of recycling previously confined to trash categorization, groups of young designers have attempted to transform "trash" into potentially marketable products such as backpacks made of waste plastic bags and area rugs created by reusing hides. One relevant book published by Community Museum Project in Hong Kong in 2010, was the first experiment on upcycling systems design. Spanning across material collecting, upcycling design, local production and public dissemination, it provides proposals towards a sustainable system that will cast impact on our strategies of waste handling and energy saving.


title: Upcycling

text: Hong Kong local inventor Gary Chan is actively involved in designing and making 'upcycling' bikes by making use of waste materials as parts for his bikes. He invented at least 8 bikes using wastes as a majority of the materials. Gary and his partners at Wheel Thing Makers regularly collect useful wastes such as leather skin from sofas, hardwood plates of wardrobes, or rubber tires from vehicle repair stores in the waste collection station on streets.


title: Upcycling

text: The worldwide plastic production was 280 million tons in 2011 and production levels are growing every year. Its haphazard disposal causes severe environmental damage, such as the creation of the Great Pacific garbage patch. In 2018, global annual plastic consumption grew to over 320 million tons. In order to solve this problem, the employment of modern technologies and processes to reuse the waste plastic as a cheap substrate is under research. The goal is to bring this material from the waste stream back into the mainstream by developing processes, which will create an economic demand for them.


title: Upcycling

text: One approach in the field involves the conversion of waste plastics (like LDPE, PET, and HDPE) into paramagnetic, conducting microspheres or into carbon nano-materials by applying high temperatures and chemical vapor deposition. On a molecular level, the treatment of polymers like polypropylene or thermoplastics with electron beams (doses around 150 kGy) can increase material properties like bending strength and elasticity and provides an eco-friendly and sustainable way to upcycle them. Active research is being carried out for the biotransformation upcycling of plastic waste (e.g., polyethylene terephthalate and polyurethane) into PHA bioplastic using bacteria. PET could be converted into the biodegradable PHA by using a combination of temperature and microbial treatment. First it gets pyrolized at 450 °C and the resulting terephthalic acid is used as a substrate for microorganisms, which convert it finally into PHA. Similar to the aforementioned approach is the combination of nano-materials like carbon nanotubes with powdered orange peel as a composite material. This might be used to remove synthetic dyes from wastewater.


title: Upcycling

text: Biotechnology companies have recently shifted focus towards the conversion of agricultural waste, or biomass, to different chemicals or commodities. One company in particular, BioTork, has signed an agreement with the State of Hawaii and the USDA to convert the unmarketable papayas in Hawaii into fish feed. As part of this Zero Waste Initiative put forth by the State of Hawaii, BioTork will upcycle the otherwise wasted biomass into fish feed.


title: Sodium borohydride

text: Sodium borohydride, also known as sodium tetrahydridoborate and sodium tetrahydroborate, is an inorganic compound with the formula NaBH. This white solid, usually encountered as an aqueous basic solution, is a reducing agent that finds application in papermaking and dye industries. It is also used as a reagent in organic synthesis.


title: Sodium borohydride

text: The compound was discovered in the 1940s by H. I. Schlesinger, who led a team seeking volatile uranium compounds. Results of this wartime research were declassified and published in 1953.


title: Sodium borohydride

text: Sodium borohydride is an odorless white to gray-white microcrystalline powder that often forms lumps. It can be purified by recrystallization from warm (50 °C) diglyme. Sodium borohydride is soluble in protic solvents such as water and lower alcohols. It also reacts with these protic solvents to produce H; however, these reactions are fairly slow. Complete decomposition of a methanol solution requires nearly 90 min at 20 °C. It decomposes in neutral or acidic aqueous solutions, but is stable at pH 14.


title: Sodium borohydride

text: NaBH is a salt, consisting of the tetrahedral [BH] anion. The solid is known to exist as three polymorphs: "α", "β" and "γ". The stable phase at room temperature and pressure is "α"-NaBH, which is cubic and adopts an NaCl-type structure, in the "Fmm" space group. At a pressure of 6.3 GPa, the structure changes to the tetragonal "β"-NaBH (space group "P42c") and at 8.9 GPa, the orthorhombic "γ"-NaBH (space group "Pnma") becomes the most stable.


title: Sodium borohydride

text: For commercial NaBH production, the Brown-Schlesinger process and the Bayer process are the most popular methods. In the Brown-Schlesinger process sodium borohydride is industrially prepared from sodium hydride (produced by reacting Na and H) and trimethyl borate at 250–270 °C:


title: Sodium borohydride

text: Millions of kilograms are produced annually, far exceeding the production levels of any other hydride reducing agent. It can also be produced from inorganic borates, including borosilicate glass and borax (NaBO):


title: Sodium borohydride

text: NaBH reduces many organic carbonyls, depending on the precise conditions. Most typically, it is used in the laboratory for converting ketones and aldehydes to alcohols. It efficiently reduces acyl chlorides, anhydrides, α-hydroxylactones, thioesters, and imines at room temperature or below. It reduces esters slowly and inefficiently with excess reagent and/or elevated temperatures, while carboxylic acids and amides are not reduced at all. NaBH reacts with water and alcohols, with evolution of hydrogen gas and formation of the corresponding borate, the reaction being especially fast at low pH.


title: Sodium borohydride

text: Nevertheless, an alcohol, often methanol or ethanol, is generally the solvent of choice for sodium borohydride reductions of ketones and aldehydes. The mechanism of ketone and aldehyde reduction has been scrutinized by kinetic studies, and contrary to popular depictions in textbooks, the mechanism does not involve a 4-membered transition state like alkene hydroboration, or a six-membered transition state involving a molecule of the alcohol solvent. Hydrogen-bonding activation is required, as no reduction occurs in an aprotic solvent like diglyme. However, the rate order in alcohol is 1.5, while carbonyl compound and borohydride are both first order, suggesting a mechanism more complex than one involving a six-membered transition state that includes only a single alcohol molecule. It was suggested that the simultaneous activation of the carbonyl compound and borohydride occurs, via interaction with the alcohol and alkoxide ion, respectively, and that the reaction proceeds through an open transition state.


title: Sodium borohydride

text: α,β-Unsaturated ketones tend to be reduced by NaBH in a 1,4-sense, although mixtures are often formed. Addition of cerium chloride improves the selectivity for 1,2-reduction of unsaturated ketones (Luche reduction). α,β-Unsaturated esters also undergo 1,4-reduction in the presence of NaBH.


title: Sodium borohydride

text: The NaBH-MeOH system, formed by the addition of methanol to sodium borohydride in refluxing THF, reduces esters to the corresponding alcohols. Mixing water or an alcohol with the borohydride converts some of it into unstable hydride ester, which is more efficient at reduction, but the reductant eventually decomposes spontaneously to produce hydrogen gas and borates. The same reaction can also occur intramolecularly: an α-ketoester converts into a diol, since the alcohol produced attacks the borohydride to produce an ester of the borohydride, which then reduces the neighboring ester.


title: Sodium borohydride

text: Oxidation with iodine in tetrahydrofuran gives borane–tetrahydrofuran, which can reduce carboxylic acids.


title: Sodium borohydride

text: BH is a ligand for metal ions. Such borohydride complexes are often prepared by the action of NaBH (or the LiBH) on the corresponding metal halide. One example is the titanocene derivative:


title: Sodium borohydride

text: In the presence of metal catalysts, sodium borohydride hydrolyzes with release of hydrogen. Exploiting this reactivity, sodium borohydride has been used in prototypes of the direct borohydride fuel cell.


title: Sodium borohydride

text: The dominant application of sodium borohydride is the production of sodium dithionite from sulfur dioxide: Sodium dithionite is used as a bleaching agent for wood pulp and in the dyeing industry.


title: Sodium borohydride

text: Sodium borohydride reduces aldehydes and ketones to give the related alcohols. This reaction is used in the production of various antibiotics including chloramphenicol, dihydrostreptomycin, and thiophenicol. Various steroids and vitamin A are prepared using sodium borohydride in at least one step.


title: Sodium borohydride

text: Sodium borohydride has been considered as a way to store hydrogen for hydrogen-fueled vehicles, as it is safer (being stable in dry air) and more efficient on a weight basis than most other alternatives. The hydrogen can be released by simple hydrolysis of the borohydride. However, this solution would need a cheap and efficient method to recycle the hydrolysis product, sodium metaborate, back to the borohydride. No such process was available as of 2007.


title: Sodium borohydride

text: Although practical temperatures and pressures for hydrogen storage have not been achieved, in 2012 a core–shell nanostructure of sodium borohydride was used to store, release and reabsorb hydrogen under moderate conditions.


title: Sodium borohydride

text: Skilled professional conservator/restorer have used sodium borohydride to minimize or reverse foxing in old books and documents.


title: Sodium borohydride

text: Many derivatives and analogues of sodium borohydride exhibit modified reactivity of value in organic synthesis.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The 2014 Commonwealth Games (), officially known as the XX Commonwealth Games and commonly known as Glasgow 2014, (; ), was an international multi-sport event celebrated in the tradition of the Commonwealth Games as governed by the Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF). It took place in Glasgow, Scotland, from 23 July to 3 August 2014.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: Glasgow was selected as the host city on 9 November 2007 during CGF General Assembly in Colombo, Sri Lanka, defeating Abuja, Nigeria. It was the largest multi-sport event ever held in Scotland with around 4,950 athletes from 71 different nations and territories competing in 18 different sports, outranking the 1970 and 1986 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh. Over the last 10 years, however, Glasgow and Scotland had staged World, Commonwealth, European, or British events in all sports proposed for the 2014 Commonwealth Games, including the World Badminton Championships in 1997.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The Games received acclaim for their organisation, attendance, and the public enthusiasm of the people of Scotland, with CGF chief executive Mike Hooper hailing them as "the standout games in the history of the movement". Held in Scotland for the third time, the Games were notable for the successes of the Home Nations of the United Kingdom, with England, Wales and hosts Scotland achieving their largest ever gold medal hauls and overall medal hauls at a Commonwealth Games. England finished top of the medal table for the first time since the 1986 Commonwealth Games, also held in Scotland. Kiribati also won its first ever medal at a Commonwealth Games, a gold in the 105 kg men's weightlifting competition.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: Scotland was the first country to consider hosting the 2014 Commonwealth Games in 2004, with Scottish cities being invited by the Commonwealth Games Council for Scotland to consider making a bid. In September 2004, Glasgow was announced as the Scottish candidate city over Edinburgh (which hosted the Games in 1970 and 1986, and the inaugural Commonwealth Youth Games in 2000) following a cost-benefit analysis by the Commonwealth Games Council for Scotland. The Scottish Executive under then First Minister of Scotland, Jack McConnell, with the support of the United Kingdom government and all main parties in the Scottish Parliament, formally announced Glasgow's intention to host the games on 16 August 2005.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: In March 2006, the bidding process began, with the Glasgow Bidding team presenting their case to the Commonwealth Games Federation at the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne, along with the other confirmed candidate cities; the Nigerian capital, Abuja and Halifax in Canada. In October 2006, the first voting delegates arrived in Glasgow, to inspect the city's existing and proposed amenities and facilities. Glasgow announced on 16 January 2007, the 17 sports to be included should its bid be successful. Halifax later withdrew its bid on 8 March 2007, following the withdrawal of funding from the municipal government.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: That left Abuja and Glasgow as the remaining bidders, with Abuja seen as a likely favourite due to the basis of its campaign that an African nation has never before hosted the Commonwealth Games. The deadline for formal submission of bids to the Commonwealth Games Federation, in the form of a Candidate City File, was set for May 2007. Both bids were highly recommended, though Glasgow's bid team had made use of extensive benchmarking against the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester and the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne and as a result, its bid was deemed technically superior according to the CGF Evaluation Report that was released in September 2007. The Commonwealth Games Evaluation Commission concluded that: "Glasgow has shown it has the ability to stage the 2014 Commonwealth Games to a standard which would continue to enhance the image and prestige of the Games." This put Glasgow ahead in terms of the technical comprehensiveness of its bid.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The final decision on the host city of the 2014 Commonwealth Games was held in Colombo, Sri Lanka on 9 November 2007 at the Commonwealth Games Federation General Assembly, attended by all 71 Commonwealth Games member associations. Each bid city made a presentation to the General Assembly, the order of which was determined by drawing lots. Glasgow's delegation was led by Louise Martin, chair of the Commonwealth Games Council for Scotland, First Minister Alex Salmond, athlete Jamie Quarry and Leader of Glasgow City Council Steven Purcell. The presentation also included a promotional film narrated by Sean Connery. Abuja's delegation was led by General Yakubu Gowon, head of the Abuja 2014 Commonwealth Games bid team.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The CGF members later voted for their preferred candidate in a secret ballot. As there were only two bids, the winner was announced by the CGF President, Mike Fennel, after the first round of voting, with the winner only requiring a simple majority. The results of the bidding process were as follows:


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The Glasgow 2014 Organising Committee was responsible for organising and delivering the Games. It was established as a limited company whose members included the Scottish Government, Glasgow City Council and Commonwealth Games Scotland. The Glasgow City Council was responsible for delivering a number of the venues and lasting benefits from the Games for the city and people of Glasgow. The Scottish Government was the third organisation in the partnership and was the main funder of the Games. Lord Robert Smith was the chairman of the Glasgow 2014 Organising Committee.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: Celtic Park hosted for the opening ceremony of the Games. The Commonwealth Arena and Sir Chris Hoy Velodrome precinct, situated at Parkhead in the East End of the city, hosted the Badminton as well as Track cycling. Glasgow Green was the starting point for the free Athletics (Marathon), Cycling (Road Race) and Cycling (Time Trial) events. Glasgow Green was the venue for Field hockey and saw the construction of a new Glasgow Green Hockey Centre. Tollcross International Swimming Centre, was the venue for Swimming events. It already had one Olympic standard 50 metre swimming pool, which was extensively upgraded, and a second 50-metre pool was added for the Games as a warm-up facility. The existing permanent seating capacity was increased by 1,000. Combined with additional temporary seating the venue had over 5,000 seats for the Games.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: Ibrox Stadium, in the South Side, was the venue for the Rugby Sevens tournament. Mountain biking was held on the Cathkin Braes in Rutherglen, the Royal Burgh neighbouring the City. Hampden Park hosted all the track and field events as well as the closing ceremony.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre, located in the West End of the city, hosted the Wrestling, Judo and Boxing, as well as the Main Press Centre and the International Broadcast Centre, benefiting from its strategic position adjacent to the headquarters of BBC Scotland and STV at Pacific Quay. The Clyde Auditorium hosted Weightlifting, whilst the new OVO Hydro was used for the Gymnastics and Netball events. Kelvingrove Park, also in the city's West End, was the venue for Bowls and has five bowling greens installed for competitive use. A comprehensive upgrade and refurbishment of the park was completed ahead of the Games. Scotstoun Leisure Centre hosted Table tennis and Squash.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The Shooting competitions took place at the Ministry of Defence full-bore rifle and clay target ranges at Barry Buddon, near Dundee, which were also used in the 1986 Commonwealth Games. There were temporary ranges built for the small-bore rifle and pistol events. Diving was held at the Royal Commonwealth Pool in Edinburgh, located 45 miles (72 km) to the east, which held the annual Edinburgh Festival at the same time as the 2014 Commonwealth Games. Strathclyde Country Park, beside Hamilton and Motherwell, hosted the Triathlon event.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The Athletes Village for the 2014 Commonwealth Games was situated on a site, in Dalmarnock, Glasgow. The whole project was designed by RMJM. Primarily the site was used as accommodation for the athletes competing in the games as well as team officials from every competing nation for the duration of the games. As well as accommodation, the athletes' village also housed a retail zone, dining hall, medical facilities, gym, religious centre and recreational spaces.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The countdown clock was unveiled at the Glasgow Central Station on 10 March 2014 during the Commonwealth Day. The clock was sponsored by the Swiss watchmaker Longines. A special ceremony was organized for the clock inauguration at the station which was attended by the members of the organizing committee of the Games and Scottish swimmer Michael Jamieson.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The total budget for the Games was £575.6 million. This figure included £472.3 million for Glasgow 2014 and £90 million for security. The Glasgow 2014 budget of £472.3 million was made up of £372 million of public money with the remainder coming from commercial income generated through sponsorship, ticket sales, broadcasting rights and merchandise sales. The budget included contingency of £66.1 million, which was made up of a £42.3 million general contingency and £23.8 million special reserves. In February 2015, it was reported that the Games was delivered £35.5 million under budget.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The first round of the Games ticket sales were from 19 August to 16 September 2013. Over two-thirds of tickets sold were priced at £25 or less. The ticket price ranges for the opening ceremony and the closing ceremony were £40-£250 and £30-£200 respectively. The 100m men's final event received over 100,000 applications which was the most of any event of the Games. Boxing had the most expensive ticket of any sport in the Games whose Category 1 tickets cost £120. A total of 96% of tickets were sold. Ticketmaster was the official ticket services provider of the Games.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The medals for the Games were unveiled on 14 April 2014 at the Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum in Glasgow. The medals were designed and hand-crafted by the renowned jeweller Jonathan Boyd and a team of specialist jewellery-makers from the prestigious Glasgow School of Art. The hand-turned quaichs gifted to winning athletes and the carved ceremonial podiums were all created from local woods by Glasgow-based artisan Paul Hodgkiss. Scottish designer Kerry Nixon designed the medalbearers’ dresses.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The Queen's Baton Relay began its 190,000 km journey on 9 October 2013. The baton travelled via 70 nations and territories over 288 days before opening the games on 23 July 2014. At the ceremony, 32 inspiring volunteers from across Scotland carried the baton around Celtic Park Stadium after being nominated for giving their time to developing the nation's youth through sport. The baton was then passed to Sir Chris Hoy, who delivered it to President of the Commonwealth Games Federation Prince Imran and the Queen who then declared the games open.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The Queen's Baton was designed by the Glasgow based firm 4c Design. The BBC provided coverage of the relay. Adventurer Mark Beaumont presented a series of documentaries filmed on the relay for BBC One Scotland, there were also weekly updates for BBC News and a BBC News website and blog written by Mark.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The Glasgow Airport was used to welcome and depart the athletes and officials of the Games. The main terminal building of the Glasgow Airport was upgraded at a cost of £17 million.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: During the games, spectators were encouraged to use the public transport, particularly for longer journeys as they make their way to the venues of the games. The Glasgow 2014 ticket included access to local public transport services (trains, buses and Subway) to and from the venue on the day of the event. In order to access those services, the spectators had to show the valid event ticket on request. The spectators were also encouraged to walk or use bicycles instead of motor vehicles to reach the venues in order to avoid traffic jam.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The athletes were transported in minibuses or coaches, which used, where necessary, dedicated lanes – known as the Games Route Network – to ensure they were given priority over other traffic in a similar way buses are in bus lanes. These lanes formed part of a larger dedicated Games Route Network that was also used by the people working on the Games.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: Approximately 12,500 volunteers were hired for the Games out of over 50,000 applicants which was more than the number who applied for Melbourne 2006 and Manchester 2002. The army of volunteers enlisted to help during the Games were known as Clyde-siders. The uniforms for the volunteers were created by the outdoor clothing manufacturer Trespass.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: An integrated security team which involved Police Scotland, Glasgow 2014's Security team and private sector partners, was developed to manage the security and stewarding requirements for the Games. More than 17,000 individuals were involved in this operation, where over 2,000 members were from the armed forces and the rest from the Police Scotland and 17 private sector companies. The budget for the Games security was around £90 million.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The programme, which included about 2,000 performers, featured Karen Dunbar, John Barrowman, Amy Macdonald, Rod Stewart, Susan Boyle, Nicola Benedetti, Julie Fowlis, Eric Whitacre, and Pumeza Matshikiza, as well as a message from the International Space Station. The ceremony began with a countdown and a recorded video message from Scottish actor Ewan McGregor, explaining the partnership between the Games and UNICEF. Following the arrival of the Queen there was a flypast by the Red Arrows display team. The venue featured the largest LED video screen in Europe, supplied by Sports Technology. Scotland's then First Minister Alex Salmond welcomed the participants and spectators, and introduced a moment of silence in memory of the Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 disaster. The final part of the Queen's Baton Relay was run by 32 Scottish volunteers nominated for giving their time to developing the nation's youth through sport. The baton was then passed to Sir Chris Hoy, who delivered it to President of the Commonwealth Games Federation Prince Imran and the Queen. The display of the message concealed within the baton was delayed by a difficulty in opening the device. The Games were launched in partnership with UNICEF, to save and change children's lives. The unique partnership aimed "to use the power of sport to reach every child in Scotland and benefit children in every Commonwealth nation and territory." In the culmination of a groundbreaking partnership with UNICEF, the ceremony inspired millions to text donations to our shared ‘Put Children First’ campaign, which raised £3.5 million on the night and more than £5 million to date. The ceremony was directed by David Zolkwer with David Proctor (Executive Producer) and Sarah Gardiner (Creative Producer).


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The closing ceremony took a visual theme of a music festival, with performers, tents, and flags within the stadium. The ceremony began with Scottish singer Lulu welcoming the athletes of the games. Scottish band Deacon Blue performed their signature song "Dignity". During this the workers of Glasgow were recognised as they paraded along the front of the main stand at Hampden, some on foot, others in their work vehicles. Local band Prides performed their hit song "Messiah". Speeches followed, with Prince Imran telling the crowd that the games were "pure dead brilliant", a local Glaswegian term. The games were officially closed and handed over to the Gold Coast for 2018, who began their own performance with Australian singer Jessica Mauboy. Kylie Minogue then performed a seven-hit songs set list, while the volunteer cast told the story of "a typical Glasgow night out". Her costume was designed by Jean Paul Gaultier and headpiece designed by millinery designer Lara Jensen. The show ended with Dougie MacLean performing Caledonia with the other performers, and a performance of "Auld Lang Syne". The closing ceremony was directed by David Zolkwer with David Proctor (Executive Producer) and Sarah Gardiner (Creative Producer).


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: There were 71 participating nations at the 2014 Commonwealth Games with approximately 4,950 competing athletes, making it one of the largest Commonwealth Games staged to date. On 7 October 2013, The Gambia, having withdrawn from the Commonwealth five days earlier, confirmed that it would not be taking part in the games.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: A record 22 para-sport events were contested in five different sports (athletics, cycling, lawn bowls, swimming and weightlifting) and para track cycling was held for the very first time.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: Archery and tennis from the 2010 games were replaced on the sports programme with triathlon (who turned back after the 2010 absence) and judo (after eight years absence). Among sport disciplines removed from 2010 include the walking events in athletics, synchronised swimming and Greco-Roman wrestling, while mountain biking also returned after the absence in Delhi.The number of Shooting medal events also dropped from 44 in 2010 to 19. Among new disciplines on the Commonwealth Games programme for the first time were the triathlon mixed relay event, more medal chances for women at shooting and the addition of women's boxing to the programme.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: Sunset + Vine Global Television Host Broadcasting Limited (SVGTV), a joint venture between Sunset + Vine, subsidiary of Tinopolis, a Wales-based television production group and Australia-based television production company, Global Television served as the host broadcaster of the Games.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The interim logo for the Games was first used during Glasgow's bid, with the "Candidate City" section removed following 9 November 2007, when the bid was approved. The logo depicts two sprinters woven into a tartan motif, representing Scotland. The logo also vaguely resembles the Clyde Auditorium, one of Glasgow's most recognisable landmarks. The pattern, forming the Roman numerals XX, also represents the 20th edition of the Commonwealth Games. The text is more specifically Glaswegian, with its stylised Mackintosh font.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: A flag featuring the logo was used extensively during the bid process. The flag was flown above Merchant House in George Square daily.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The full Games brand identity was developed by Glasgow design studio Tangent Graphic, the lead creative agency between 2010 and 2014. Tangent's first major project was the official sport Pictograms, launched on 23 July 2011, and they continued to deliver and influence every aspect of the Glasgow 2014 identity. Tangent inherited the official logo which was designed by Marque Creative. The logo was unveiled on Commonwealth Day, 8 March 2010. It was inspired by three factors, time, data and measurement. Its rings are proportioned to represent the 20th Commonwealth Games, across 17 sports, over 11 days in 1 city. An animated version of the logo has also been produced.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: There is also a version of the logo in Scottish Gaelic. Arthur Cormack, the Chair of Bòrd na Gàidhlig, made the following official statement:


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: Bòrd na Gàidhlig welcomes the Gaelic version of the logo for the Glaschu 2014 Commonwealth Games and we have been happy to work with the Glaschu 2014 team in helping them develop their identity. Given the unique importance of Gaelic to Scotland and the many Scots in the diaspora throughout the Commonwealth, we believe it should be seen, heard and spoken as widely as possible.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: Given the worldwide interest there will be in the Games when they take place in Glasgow, a city with a large number of Gaelic speakers, we believe they offer an exciting opportunity for Gaelic to be seen and, we hope, heard and appreciated in an international setting. We hope this is just the start; we wish the Games well and look forward to working further with Glaschu 2014 to enhance the status of Gaelic within this hugely significant event.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The official website was built in phases, delivered by Dog Digital and Blonde. The Scottish art firm Artpistol were commissioned by the Glasgow 2014 Organising Committee to paint a series of murals across Glasgow to help celebrate and promote the Games.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: The Big G is a standalone stage-set that was situated in George Square, Glasgow. It was unveiled in May 2014; with Glasgow City Council leader Gordon Matheson commenting that it provided an “opportunity for everyone – residents, visitors and spectators – to be part of the Games”. British designing firm Evolve designed the Big G.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: Clyde, an anthropomorphic thistle named after the river which flows through the centre of Glasgow, was the official mascot of the 2014 Commonwealth Games. The mascot was designed by Beth Gilmour, who won a competition run by Glasgow 2014 for children to design the Mascot. Beth's drawing was then brought to life by digital agency Nerv, who turned it into a commercial character, created a full backstory, gave it a name – Clyde – and created a website for him. Clyde was finally revealed in a seven-minute animated film created by Nerv at a ceremony at BBC Scotland's headquarters in Glasgow. The organiser, Glasgow 2014, said the mascot's design was chosen because of its "Scottish symbolism and Glaswegian charm and likeability".


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: 25 life-size Clyde statues were erected at places of public interest across the city including the Glasgow Botanic Gardens, the Kelvingrove Art Gallery and at George Square. However following vandalism at a statue in the Govan area of the city, the statues were taken down. They are expected to be re-erected in secure areas. By the final day of the Games, over 50,000 Clyde mascot cuddly toys had been sold.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: Due to popularity in the city, the Clyde mascots are currently proposed official mascots of the City of Glasgow.


title: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: Nigeria's Chika Amalaha failed a doping test and was stripped of a gold medal in the women's 53 kg weightlifting. In the women's 400 metres final, Botswana's Amantle Montsho placed fourth; she was subsequently provisionally suspended pending the results of a B sample after failing a doping test. Montsho's B sample was reported as positive on 14 August 2014.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Hart Island, sometimes referred to as Hart's Island, is located at the western end of Long Island Sound, in the northeastern Bronx in New York City. Measuring approximately long by wide, Hart Island is part of the Pelham Islands archipelago, to the east of City Island.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: The island's first public use was as a training ground for the United States Colored Troops in 1864. Since then, Hart Island has been the location of a Union Civil War prison camp, a psychiatric institution, a tuberculosis sanatorium, a potter's field with mass burials, a homeless shelter, a boys' reformatory, a jail, and a drug rehabilitation center. Several other structures, such as an amusement park, were planned for Hart Island but not built. During the Cold War, Nike defense missiles were stationed on Hart Island. The island was intermittently used as a prison and a homeless shelter until 1967; the last inhabited structures were abandoned in 1977. The potter's field on Hart Island was run by the New York City Department of Correction until 2019, when the New York City Council voted to transfer jurisdiction to the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: The remains of more than one million people are buried on Hart Island, though since the first decade of the 21st century, there are fewer than 1,500 burials a year. Burials on Hart Island include individuals who were not claimed by their families or did not have private funerals; the homeless and the indigent; and mass burials of disease victims.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Access to the island was restricted by the Department of Correction, which operated an infrequent ferryboat service and imposed strict visitation quotas. Burials were conducted by inmates from the nearby Rikers Island jail. The Hart Island Project, a public charity founded by visual artist Melinda Hunt, worked to improve access to the island and make burial records more easily available. Transfer to the Parks Department in 2019 had been sought for over twenty years and was hoped to ease public access to the Island. Burials in the island's Potters' Field continued after the transfer.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: There are numerous theories about the origins of the island's place name. One theory posits that British cartographers named it "Heart Island" in 1775 due to its organ-like shape but the 'e' was dropped shortly after. A map drawn in 1777 and subsequent maps refer to the island as "Hart Island". Other names given to the island during the late 18th century were "Little Minneford Island" and "Spectacle Island", the latter because the island's shape was thought to resemble spectacles.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Another theory, based on the meaning of the English word "hart", which means "stag", is that the island was named when it was used as a game reserve. Another version holds that it was named in reference to deer that migrated from the mainland during periods when ice covered that part of Long Island Sound.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Hart Island is approximately long by wide at its widest point. It lies about off the eastern shore of City Island. The island's area is disputed; according to some sources, it is , while others state that it is . Hart Island is isolated from the rest of the city: there is no electricity and the only means of access is via ferryboat.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Before European colonization, Hart Island was occupied by the Siwanoy tribe of Native Americans, who were indigenous to the area. In 1654, English physician Thomas Pell purchased the island from the Siwanoy as part of a property. Pell died in 1669 and ownership passed to his nephew Sir John Pell, the son of British mathematician John Pell. The island remained in the Pell family until 1774, when it was sold to Oliver De Lancey. It was later sold to the Rodman, Haight, and Hunter families, in that order. According to Elliott Gorn, Hart Island had become "a favorite pugilistic hideaway" by the early 19th century. Bouts of bare-knuckle boxing held on the island could draw thousands of spectators.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: The first public use of Hart Island was training the 31st Infantry Regiment of the United States Colored Troops beginning in 1864. A steamboat called "John Romer" shuttled recruits to the island from the Battery at the southern tip of Manhattan. A commander's house and a recruits' barracks were built; the barracks included a library and a concert room; it could house 2,000 to 3,000 recruits at a time, and over 50,000 men were ultimately trained there.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: In November 1864, construction of a prisoner-of-war camp on Hart Island with room for 5,000 prisoners started. The camp was used for four months in 1865 during the American Civil War. The island housed 3,413 captured Confederate Army soldiers. Of these, 235 died in the camp and were buried in Cypress Hills Cemetery. Following the Civil War, indigent veterans were buried on the island in soldier's plots, which were separate from the potter's field and at the same location. Some of these soldiers were moved to West Farms Soldiers Cemetery in 1916 and others were removed to Cypress Hills Cemetery in 1941.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: The first burials on Hart Island were those of 20 Union Army soldiers during the American Civil War. On May 27, 1868, New York City purchased the island from Edward Hunter, who also owned nearby Hunter Island, for $75,000. City burials started shortly afterward. In 1869, a 24-year-old woman named Louisa Van Slyke, who died in Charity Hospital, was the first person to be buried in the island's public graveyard. The cemetery then became known as "City Cemetery" and "Potter's Field".


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: By 1880, "The New York Times" described the island as "the Green-Wood of Five Points", comparing an expansive cemetery in Brooklyn with a historically poor neighborhood in Manhattan. The newspaper also said of Hart Island, "This is where the rough pine boxes go that come from Blackwell's Island", in reference to the influx of corpses being transported from the hospitals on modern-day Roosevelt Island. The potter's field on Hart Island replaced two previous potter's fields on the current sites of Washington Square Park and New York Public Library Main Branch in Manhattan. The number of burials on Hart Island exceeded 500,000 by 1958.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Hart Island was used as a quarantine station during the 1870 yellow fever epidemic. In that period, the island contained a women's psychiatric hospital called The Pavilion, which was built 1885, as well as a tubercularium. There was also an industrial school with 300 students on the island. After an 1892 investigation found the city's asylums were overcrowded, it was proposed to expand those on Hart Island from 1,100 to 1,500 beds.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: In the late 19th century, Hart Island became the location of a boys' workhouse, which was an extension of the prison and almshouse on Blackwell Island. A workhouse for men was established in 1895, and was followed by a workhouse for young boys ten years later. By the early 20th century, Hart Island housed about 2,000 delinquent boys as well as elderly male prisoners from Blackwell's penitentiary. The prison on Hart Island grew; it had its own band and a Catholic prison chapel. The cornerstone for the $60,000 chapel was laid in 1931 and it was opened the following year.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: In 1924, John Hunter sold his tract of land on Hart Island's west side to Solomon Riley, a millionaire real estate speculator from Barbados. Riley subsequently proposed to build an amusement park on Hart Island, which would have served the primarily black community of Harlem in Manhattan. It was referred to as the "Negro Coney Island" because at the time, African Americans were banned from the Rye Playland and Dobbs Ferry amusement parks in the New York City area. Riley had started building a dance hall, boardinghouses, and a boardwalk, and purchased sixty steamboats for the operation. The state government raised concerns about the proposed park's proximity to a jail and hospital, and the city condemned the land in 1925. Riley was later paid $144,000 for the seizure.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: The prison population of Hart Island was moved to Rikers Island during World War II, and Hart Island's former workhouse was used as a disciplinary barracks by the United States Armed Forces. Rikers Island soon became overcrowded with prisoners. The New York City Department of Correction reopened Hart Island as a prison following the war, but the facilities were considered inadequate. The New York City Board of Estimate approved the construction of a homeless shelter on the island in 1950; it was intended to serve 2,000 people. The homeless shelter operated from 1951 to 1954; it was also used to house alcoholics. Residents of nearby City Island opposed the inclusion of the homeless shelter. The New York City Welfare Department closed the homeless shelter and the Department of Correction regained control of the island. The Department of Correction opened an alcoholism treatment center on Hart Island in 1955. A courthouse, which ruled on cases involving the homeless, was opened on Hart Island. The island housed between 1,200 and 1,800 prisoners serving short sentences of between 10 days and two years.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: In 1956, the island was retrofitted with Nike Ajax missile silos. Battery NY-15, as the silos were known, were part of the United States Army base Fort Slocum from 1956 to 1961 and were operated by the army's 66th Antiaircraft Artillery Missile Battalion. The silos were underground and were powered by large generators. Some silos were also built on Davids Island. The integrated fire control system that tracked the targets and directed missiles was at Fort Slocum. The last components of the missile system were closed in 1974.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Construction of a new $7 million workhouse on Hart Island to replace the existing facility was announced in 1959. A baseball field was dedicated at the Hart Island prison the following year. It was named Kratter Field, after Marvin Kratter, a businessman who had donated 2,200 seats saved from the demolished Ebbets Field stadium. The seats deteriorated after being outdoors for several years, and by 2000, had been donated to various people and organizations.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: The island continued to be used as a prison until 1966, when the prison was closed due to changes in the penal code. After it closed, a drug rehabilitation center was proposed for Hart Island. The center became Phoenix House, which opened in 1967; it quickly grew into a settlement with 350 residents and a vegetable garden. Phoenix House hosted festivals that sometimes attracted crowds of more than 10,000 people. Phoenix House published a newsletter known as "The Hart Beat" and organized baseball games against other organizations such as City Island's and NBC's teams. In 1977, after regular ferry service to Hart Island ended, Phoenix House moved from the island to a building in Manhattan.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Since then, proposals to re-inhabit the island have failed. In 1972, the city considered converting it into a residential resort but the plan was abandoned. New York City mayor Ed Koch created a workhouse on the island for persons charged with misdemeanors in 1982 but not enough prisoners were sent there. Six years later, another proposal called for a homeless shelter and a workhouse to be built on Hart Island, but this plan was abandoned because of opposition from residents of City Island.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Originally, City Cemetery occupied on the northern and southern tips of Hart Island, while the center two-thirds of the island was habitable. In 1985, sixteen bodies of people who died from AIDS were buried in deep graves on a remote section of the southern tip of the island because at the time it was feared that their remains may be contagious. The first pediatric AIDS victim to die in New York City is buried in the only single grave on Hart Island with a concrete marker that reads SC (special child) B1 (Baby 1) 1985. Since then, thousands of AIDS victims have been buried on Hart Island, but the precise number of AIDS victims buried on the island is unknown.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: From 1991 to 1993, New York artist Melinda Hunt and photographer Joel Sternfeld photographed Hart Island for their book of the same name, which was published in 1998. Hunt subsequently founded the Hart Island Project organization in 1994 to help the families and friends of those buried on Hart Island. Another media work, the 2018 documentary "One Million American Dreams", documents the history of Hart Island and delves briefly into the lives of various individuals buried there.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: There is a section of old wooden houses and masonry institutional structures dating back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries that have fallen into disrepair. Military barracks from the Civil War period were used prior to the construction of workhouse and hospital facilities. In the late 2010s, the Hart Island Project and City Island Historical Society started petitioning for Hart Island to be listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). The New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation labeled the island a "site of historical significance" in 2016, given that Hart Island met three of the four criteria for being listed on the NRHP. The island was significantly affected by Hurricane Sandy in 2012, and some of the shoreline was eroded, which exposed many of the skeletons buried on the island. Following this, the city announced a restoration of the shoreline. The federal government gave $13.2 million toward the shoreline project in 2015, but the work was delayed for several years. The start of restoration was initially slated for 2020, but in August 2019, the city announced that shoreline work would begin the following month.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Control of the island passed to the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation in December 2019. Burials in the Potters' Field continued after transfer, but they were conducted by city contract workers. In June 2021, the New York City Department of Buildings issued an emergency order authorizing the demolition of eighteen buildings on the island, which the city deemed to be severely deteriorated. Sixteen of these buildings had been identified for demolition in a March 2020 report but, even then, some of these structures were also identified as being easy to repair. The New York City Department of Social Services awarded a $3.3 million contract to JPL Industries in October 2021 for the demolition of the deteriorated structures.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Hart Island contains New York City's potter's field, or public cemetery. The potter's field is variously described as the largest tax-funded cemetery in the United States, the largest-such in the world, and one of the largest mass graves in the United States. At least 850,000 have been buried on the island, though since the 2000s, the burial rate has declined to fewer than 1,500 a year. According to a 2006 "New York Times" article, there had been 1,419 burials at the potter's field during the previous year: of these, 826 were adults, 546 were infants and stillborn babies, and 47 were dismembered body parts.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: One-third of annual burials are infants and stillborn babies, which has been reduced from a proportion of one-half since the Children's Health Insurance Program began to cover all pregnant women in New York State in 1997. By the 2020s, those buried on the island came from a wider range of economic and social classes. In 2022, "The Washington Post" wrote that the island's recent interments included "a professional ballet dancer, a nurse, a software engineer, a scuba instructor and an acclaimed musical composer."


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: The dead are buried in trenches. Babies are placed in coffins, which are stacked in groups of 100, measuring five coffins deep and usually in twenty rows. Adults are placed in larger pine boxes placed according to size, and are stacked in sections of 150, measuring three coffins deep in two rows and laid out in a grid system. There are seven sizes of coffins, which range from long. Each box is labeled with an identification number, the person's age, ethnicity, and the place where the body was found, if applicable. Prior to civilian contractors doing the actual burials which began in 2020, inmates from the nearby Rikers Island jail were paid fifty cents an hour to bury bodies on Hart Island.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: The bodies of adults are frequently disinterred when families are able to locate their relatives through DNA, photographs and fingerprints kept on file at the Office of Chief Medical Examiner of the City of New York. There were an average of 72 disinterments per year from 2007 to 2009. As a result, the adults' coffins are staggered to expedite removal. Children, mostly infants, are rarely disinterred. Regulations stipulate that the coffins generally must remain untouched for 25 years, except in cases of disinterment.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Approximately half of the burials are of children under five who are identified and died in New York City's hospitals, where the mothers signed papers authorizing a "City Burial." The mothers were generally unaware of what the phrase meant. Many other interred have families who live abroad or out of state and whose relatives search extensively; these searches are made more difficult because burial records are currently kept within the prison system. An investigation into the handling of the infant burials was opened in response to a criminal complaint made to the New York State Attorney General's Office in 2009.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Burial records on microfilm at the Municipal Archives indicate that until 1913, burials of unknowns were in single plots, and identified adults and children were buried in mass graves. In 1913, the trenches became separate to facilitate the more frequent disinterment of adults. The potter's field is also used to dispose of amputated body parts, which are placed in boxes labeled "limbs". Ceremonies have not been conducted at the burial site since the 1950s. In the past, burial trenches were re-used after 25–50 years, allowing for sufficient decomposition of the remains. Since then, however, historic buildings have been demolished to make room for new burials. Because of the number of weekly interments made at the potter's field at the expense of taxpayers, these mass burials are straightforward and are conducted by Rikers Island inmates, who stack the coffins in two rows, three high and 25 across, and each plot is marked with a concrete marker. A tall, white peace monument was erected by New York City prison inmates at the top of a hill that was known as "Cemetery Hill" following World War II and was dedicated in October 1948.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Hart Island has also been used for burials of disease victims during epidemics and pandemics. During the 1980s AIDS epidemic, those who had died from AIDS were the only people to be buried in separate graves. The first AIDS victims' bodies were delivered in body bags and buried by inmate workers wearing protective jumpsuits. When it was later discovered that the corpses could not spread HIV, the city started burying AIDS victims in the mass graves. In 2008, the island was selected as a site for mass burials during a particularly extreme flu pandemic, available for up to 20,000 bodies.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, Hart Island was designated as the temporary burial site for victims of COVID-19 if deaths overwhelmed the capacity of mortuaries. At the time, deaths at home within the city had increased significantly, though the corpses were not tested for COVID-19. Preparations for mass graves began at the end of March 2020, and private contractors were hired to replace inmate labor for mass grave burials. Although several media sources reported in April 2020 that burials had begun, New York City mayor Bill de Blasio clarified that Hart Island was only being used to bury unclaimed corpses, as well as the bodies of those who chose it as a burial place. In 2021, the website "The City" published an analysis that found there was a sharp increase in the number of interments between 2019, when 846 corpses were buried on the island, and 2020, when 2,334 corpses were buried.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Many burial records were destroyed by arson in late July 1977. Remaining records of burials before 1977 were transferred to the Municipal Archives in Manhattan; while records after that date are still kept in handwritten ledgers, these are now transcribed into a digital database that is partially available online. A Freedom of Information Act (FOI) request for 50,000 burial records was granted to the Hart Island Project in 2008. A lawsuit, concerning "place of death" information redacted from the Hart Island burial records, was filed against New York City's government in July 2008 and was settled out of court in January 2009.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Those interred on Hart Island are not necessarily homeless or indigent. Many of the dead either had families who could not afford the expenses of private funerals or were not claimed by relatives within a month of death. Notable burials include the playwright, film screenwriter, and director Leo Birinski, who died alone and in poverty, and was buried there in 1951. The American novelist Dawn Powell was buried on Hart Island in 1970, five years after her death, after her remains had been used for medical studies and the executor of her estate refused to reclaim them. Academy Award winner Bobby Driscoll, who was found dead in 1968 in an East Village tenement, was buried on Hart Island because his remains could not be identified in a timely fashion. T-Bone Slim, the labor activist, songwriter, and Wobbly, was buried on Hart Island after his body was found floating in the Hudson River.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Founded by New York artist Melinda Hunt in 1994, the Hart Island Project is a nonprofit organization devoted to improving access to the island and its burial data. The organization helps families obtain copies of public burial records; arranges visits to grave sites; and operates a website to help people find relatives interred on the island. Historian Thomas Laqueur writes:


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Since 2009, the city has given burial records for the island to the Hart Island Project. In turn, the organization maintains an online database of burial records from 1980 onward. The project has led to reforms of access to Hart Island such as opening the island monthly to everyone and legislation that requires the Department of Correction to publish burial records online.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: The Hart Island Project has digitally mapped grave trenches using Global Positioning System (GPS) data. In 2014, an interactive map with GPS burial data and storytelling software "clocks of anonymity" was released as the "Traveling Cloud Museum", which collects publicly submitted stories of those who are listed in the burial records. Traveling Cloud Museum was updated in 2018 to include a map created with GeoTIFF images collected by a drone. The map displays nearly 69,000 intact burials and allows people who knew the deceased to add stories, photographs, epitaphs, songs and videos linked to a personal profile, as well as identify AIDS victims.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: In 2012, Westchester Community College hosted an art exhibition of people whose graves were located through the Hart Island Project with Hunt's help. The Hart Island Project also collaborated with British landscape architects Ann Sharrock and Ian Fisher to present a landscape strategy to the New York City Council and the Parks Department. Sharrock introduced the concept that Hart Island is a natural burial facility and outlined a growing interest in green burials in urban settings.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: On October 28, 2011, the New York City Council Committee on Fire and Criminal Justice held a hearing titled "Oversight: Examining the Operation of Potter's Field by the N.Y.C., Department of Correction on Hart Island". Legislation passed in 2013 requires the Department of Correction to make two sets of documents available on the Internet: a database of burials and a visitation policy. In April 2013, the Department of Correction published an online database of burials on the island. The database contains data about all persons buried on the island since 1977 and is composed of 66,000 entries.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: A bill to transfer jurisdiction to the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation was introduced on April 30, 2012. The Hart Island Project testified in favor of this bill on September 27, 2012, but the bill was not passed.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: The bill was reintroduced in March 2014, and Bill 0134 had a public hearing on January 20, 2016. The bill ultimately failed because neither the Parks Department nor the Department of Correction supported the move. The Parks Department stated that the operation of an active cemetery was outside its purview while the Department of Correction preferred that another city agency take control of Hart Island.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: In 2018, City Council member Ydanis Rodríguez and three colleagues re-introduced the bill a second time. In supporting the bill, Rodriguez stated that he wanted relatives of Hart Island's deceased to be able to access their loved ones' graves. The bill was passed in the New York City Council in November 2019, with most council members voting in favor of transferring jurisdiction to the Parks Department. The following month, mayor Bill de Blasio signed the legislation, as well as three other bills, including one that would allow the ferry service to be operated by the New York City Department of Transportation. In July 2021, NYC Parks finally assumed full control of the island.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: The only access to Hart Island is by ferryboat. Hart Island and the pier on Fordham Street on City Island are restricted areas under the jurisdiction of the New York City Department of Correction. Family members who wish to visit the island must request a visit ahead of time with the Department of Correction. The city government allows family members to visit the island and leave mementos at grave sites, and maintains an online and telephone system for family members to schedule grave site visits. Other members of the public are permitted to visit by prior appointment only.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: The city formerly operated a 24/7 ferry service between City and Hart islands, which ran every forty-five minutes during the day and less frequently at night. The ferries also transported corpses. By the 1960s, two ferryboats were used for the Hart Island ferry service; the "Michael Cosgrove" (built 1961) and the "Fordham" (in service 1922–1982). The service was extremely expensive to operate; in 1967, about 1,500 people per month used the service and the city spent $300,000 per year to keep it running. By 1977, the city had discontinued frequent ferry service and provided seven trips a day. The Department of Correction offered one guided tour of the island in 2000. Under legislation enacted in 2019, the New York City Department of Transportation was to operate the ferry at a higher frequency.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: The process of visiting the island has been improved due to efforts by the Hart Island Project and the New York Civil Liberties Union. An ecumenical group named the Interfaith Friends of Potter's Field and another organization called Picture the Homeless has also advocated for making the island more accessible. The Department of Correction opposed further loosening of restrictions on accessing Hart Island; a 2016 "The New York Times" article quoted a Corrections official as saying: "As long as D.O.C. runs the facility, we are going to run it with the D.O.C. mentality".


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: In July 2015, the Department of Correction instituted a new policy, wherein up to five family members and their guests were allowed to visit grave sites on one weekend per month. The first visit took place on July 19, 2015. Visits to individual graves, which take place twice a month, are restricted to individuals who had a close relationship with the deceased. Visits to Hart Island's gazebo, which occur once a month, are available to the general public. The ferry leaves from a restricted dock on City Island. In 2017, the city government increased the maximum number of visitors per month from 50 to 70. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the public was not allowed to visit Hart Island; though visits resumed in May 2021, the number of visitors allowed on each ferry trip was decreased to ten.


title: Hart Island (Bronx)

text: Even after NYC Parks took over the island, "Bloomberg" reported in October 2021 that there had been little change in the conditions for visitors. As part of the Hart Island Transportation Study, which sought to improve access to the island, NYC Parks conducted public meetings in early 2022. Four alternatives were presented: a shuttle bus service from Orchard Beach to the Fordham Street ferry pier; a shuttle bus service from the New York City Subway's Pelham Bay Park station, stopping at Orchard Beach and Fordham Street; a new ferry service from Ferry Point Park to the island; and an extension of NYC Ferry's Soundview route from Ferry Point Park to the island.


title: Blowing a raspberry

text: Blowing a raspberry, strawberry, razzing or making a Bronx cheer, is to make a noise similar to flatulence that may signify derision, real or feigned. It is also used in childhood phonemic play. It is made by placing the tongue between the lips, or alternately placing the lips against any area of skin, and blowing. When performed against the skin of another person, it is often a form of tickling.


title: Blowing a raspberry

text: A raspberry (when used with the tongue) is not used in any human language as a building block of words, apart from jocular exceptions such as phonemic play and the name of the comic-book character Joe Btfsplk. However, the vaguely similar bilabial trill (essentially blowing a raspberry with one's lips) is a regular consonant sound in a few dozen languages scattered around the world.


title: Blowing a raspberry

text: Spike Jones and His City Slickers used a "birdaphone" to create this sound on their recording of "Der Fuehrer's Face", repeatedly lambasting Adolf Hitler with: "We'll Heil! (Bronx cheer) Heil! (Bronx cheer) Right in Der Fuehrer's Face!"


title: Blowing a raspberry

text: In the terminology of phonetics, the raspberry has been described as a voiceless linguolabial trill, transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet, and as a buccal interdental trill, transcribed in the Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet.


title: Blowing a raspberry

text: The nomenclature varies by country. In most anglophone countries, it is known as a raspberry, which is attested from at least 1890, and which in the United States had been shortened to razz by 1919. In the United States it has also been called a Bronx cheer since at least the early 1920s.


title: Blowing a raspberry

text: The term "raspberry" derives from the Cockney rhyming slang "raspberry tart" for "fart" (that is, "blowing a fart").


title: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: The Corpus Juris (or Iuris) Civilis ("Body of Civil Law") is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in jurisprudence, issued from 529 to 534 by order of Justinian I, Byzantine Emperor. It is also sometimes referred to metonymically after one of its parts, the Code of Justinian.


title: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: The work as planned had three parts: the "Code" ("Codex") is a compilation, by selection and extraction, of imperial enactments to date; the "Digest" or "Pandects" (the Latin title contains both "Digesta" and "Pandectae") is an encyclopedia composed of mostly brief extracts from the writings of Roman jurists; and the "Institutes" ("Institutiones") is a student textbook, mainly introducing the "Code", although it has important conceptual elements that are less developed in the "Code" or the "Digest". All three parts, even the textbook, were given force of law. They were intended to be, together, the sole source of law; reference to any other source, including the original texts from which the "Code" and the "Digest" had been taken, was forbidden. Nonetheless, Justinian found himself having to enact further laws and today these are counted as a fourth part of the Corpus, the "Novellae Constitutiones" ("Novels", literally "New Laws").


title: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: The work was directed by Tribonian, an official in Justinian's court in Constantinople. His team was authorized to edit what they included. How far they made amendments is not recorded and, in the main, cannot be known because most of the originals have not survived. The text was composed and distributed almost entirely in Latin, which was still the official language of the government of the Eastern Roman Empire in 529–534, whereas the prevalent language of merchants, farmers, seamen, and other citizens was Greek. By the early 7th century, Greek had largely replaced Latin as the dominant language of the empire.


title: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: The "Corpus Juris Civilis" was revised into Greek, when that became the predominant language of the Eastern Roman Empire, and continued to form the basis of the empire's laws, the "Basilika" (Greek: τὰ βασιλικά, 'imperial laws'), through the 15th century. The "Basilika" in turn served as the basis for local legal codes in the Balkans during the following Ottoman period and later formed the basis of the legal code of Modern Greece. In Western Europe, the "Corpus Juris Civilis", or its successor texts like the "Basilika", did not get well established originally and was only recovered in the Middle Ages, being "received" or imitated as private law. Its public law content was quarried for arguments by both secular and ecclesiastical authorities. This recovered Roman law, in turn, became the foundation of law in all civil law jurisdictions. The provisions of the "Corpus Juris Civilis" also influenced the canon law of the Catholic Church: it was said that "ecclesia vivit lege romana" – the church lives by Roman law. Its influence on common law legal systems has been much smaller, although some basic concepts from the Corpus have survived through Norman law – such as the contrast, especially in the "Institutes", between "law" (statute) and custom. The Corpus continues to have a major influence on public international law. Its four parts thus constitute the foundation documents of the Western legal tradition.


title: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: Justinian acceded to the imperial throne in Constantinople in 527. Six months after his accession, in order to reduce the great number of imperial constitutions and thus also the number of court proceedings, Justinian arranged for the creation of a new collection of imperial constitutions ("Codex Iustinianus"). The commission in charge of the compilation process was explicitly authorized to leave out or change text and to delete what was obsolete or contradictory. Soon, in 529, the Codex was completed and was conferred the force of law in the whole empire, replacing all earlier constitutions and the "Codex Theodosianus".


title: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: A little more than a year after the enactment of the first edition of the Code, Justinian appointed a commission headed by Tribonian to compile the traditional jurists' law in a new, shortened and contemporary codification: the 'Digest or Pandects'. The traditional collection of jurists' law, Justinian believed, was so extensive that it had become unmanageable, necessitating a new compilation. The commission completed its work within three years, in 533.


title: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: Tribonian's commission surveyed the works of classical jurists who were assumed in Justinian's time to have the authority to clarify law ("ius respondendi") and whose works were still available. In total, there are excerpts from 38 jurists in the Digest.


title: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: The "Codex Justinianus", "Codex Justinianeus" or "Codex Justiniani" (Latin for "Justinian's Code") was the first part to be finished, on 7 April 529. It contained in Latin most of the existing imperial "constitutiones" (imperial pronouncements having force of law), back to the time of Hadrian. It used both the "Codex Theodosianus" and the fourth-century collections embodied in the "Codex Gregorianus" and "Codex Hermogenianus", which provided the model for division into books that were themselves divided into titles. These works had developed authoritative standing. This first edition is now lost; a second edition was issued in 534 and is the text that has survived. At least the second edition contained some of Justinian's own legislation, including some legislation in Greek. It is not known whether he intended there to be further editions, although he did envisage translation of Latin enactments into Greek.


title: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: Numerous provisions served to secure the status of Christianity as the state religion of the empire, uniting Church and state, and making anyone who was not connected to the Christian church a non-citizen. The Christianity referred to is Chalcedonian Christianity as defined by the state church, which excluded a variety of other major Christian sects in existence at the time such as the Church of the East and Oriental Orthodoxy.


title: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: The very first law in the Codex requires all persons under the jurisdiction of the Empire to hold the Christian faith. This was primarily aimed at heresies such as Nestorianism. This text later became the springboard for discussions of international law, especially the question of just what persons are under the jurisdiction of a given state or legal system.


title: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: Other laws, while not aimed at pagan belief as such, forbid particular pagan practices. For example, it is provided that all persons present at a pagan sacrifice may be indicted as if for murder.


title: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: The "Digesta" or "Pandectae", completed in 533, is a collection of juristic writings, mostly dating back to the second and third centuries. Fragments were taken out of various legal treatises and opinions and inserted in the Digest. In their original context, the statements of the law contained in these fragments were just private opinions of legal scholars – although some juristic writings had been privileged by Theodosius II's Law of Citations in 426. The Digest, however, was given full force of law.


title: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: As the "Digest" neared completion, Tribonian and two professors, Theophilus and Dorotheus, made a student textbook, called the "Institutions" or "Elements". As there were four elements, the manual consists of four books. The "Institutiones" are largely based on the "Institutiones" of Gaius. Two-thirds of the "Institutiones" of Justinian consists of literal quotes from Gaius. The new "Institutiones" were used as a manual for jurists in training from 21 November 533 and were given the authority of law on 30 December 533 along with the "Digest".


title: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: The Novellae consisted of new laws that were passed after 534. They were later re-worked into the "Syntagma", a practical lawyer's edition, by Athanasios of Emesa during the years 572–577.


title: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: The term Byzantine Empire is used today to refer to what remained of the Roman Empire in the Eastern Mediterranean following the collapse of the Empire in the West. This Eastern empire continued to practice Roman Law, and it was as the ruler of this empire that Justinian formalized Roman law in his "Corpus Juris Civilis". To account for the language shift of the Empire's administration from Latin to Greek legal codes based on the "Corpus Juris Civilis" were enacted in Greek. The most well known are:


title: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: The "Basilika" was a complete adaptation of Justinian's codification. At 60 volumes it proved to be difficult for judges and lawyers to use. There was need for a short and handy version. This was finally made by Constantine Harmenopoulos, a Byzantine judge from Thessaloniki, in 1345. He made a short version of "Basilika" in six books, called "Hexabiblos". This was widely used throughout the Balkans during the following Ottoman period, and along with the "Basilika" was used as the first legal code for the newly independent Greek state in the 1820s. Serbian state, law and culture was built on the foundations of Rome and Byzantium. Therefore, the most important Serbian legal codes: Zakonopravilo (1219) and Dušan's Code (1349 and 1354), transplanted Romano-Byzantine Law included in "Corpus Juris Civilis", "Prohiron" and "Basilika". These Serbian codes were practised until the Serbian Despotate fell to the Turkish Ottoman Empire in 1459. After the liberation from the Turks in the Serbian Revolution, Serbs continued to practise Roman Law by enacting Serbian civil code in 1844. It was a short version of Austrian civil code (called "Allgemeines bürgerliches Gesetzbuch"), which was made on the basis of "Corpus Juris Civilis".