title: ITV Studios

text: ITV Studios Australia is the Australian division of ITV Studios, based at Fox Studios Australia in Sydney. The company has its origins in production company Artist Services, a company formed in 1989 by a group of investors including Steve Vizard, producing many classic shows. Half of the company was sold to John Fairfax Holdings in 1995 for 9 million, at a time when the company was generating about $50 million per year. In 1998, the entire company was acquired by Granada for 25 million.


title: ITV Studios

text: The company rebranded as ITV Studios Australia in January 2013, with the first program carrying the new branding being the second season of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation comedy news program "Shaun Micallef's Mad as Hell".


title: ITV Studios

text: ITV Studios Germany productions include "Ich bin ein Star – Holt mich hier raus!" (the local version of "I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!"), "Star Duell" and "Deutschlands Beste Doppelgänger" ("Stars And Their Doubles") for RTL; and East-West German comedy "Ei Verbibbsch" for Sat.1. ITV Studios Germany was previously known as Granada Germany.


title: ITV Studios

text: At the start of October 2008, ITV acquired a 51.2% controlling stake in German television production company Imago TV, founded in 1999 by journalists Andrea Schönhuber-Majewski and Fabian Sabo. This deal gave ITV exclusive international rights to distribute and exploit content, format and series rights retained by Imago.


title: ITV Studios

text: Bildergarten Entertainment was launched by ITV Studios on 19 May 2021 as the replacement for Talpa Germany, the company originally founded by John de Mol and co-owned by Axel Springer SE until 2015. Bildergarten Entertainment is responsible for "Dickes Deutschland" and the German version of "Lange Leve de Liefde" ("The Cabins") on RTL Zwei, "The Voice of Germany" for ProSieben/SAT.1 and "Sing Meinen Song" on VOX.


title: ITV Studios

text: Armoza Formats is an Israeli unscripted television Formats company founded in 2005 by Avi Armoza that is best known for "", "La'uf al HaMillion" (the original version of "Who's Still Standing?") and "I Can Do That". At the end of July 2019, ITV Studios acquired Armoza and integrated it into their Creative Network division.


title: ITV Studios

text: Home to a richly diverse slate of programming ranging from primetime entertainment, talent competitions and daily magazine shows to comedy, drama and documentary, ITV Studios France creates content for major broadcasters throughout France. The division has successfully adapted hit international formats for French audiences including "4 Mariages Pour 1 Lune de Miel" (a French version of "Four Weddings") and "" (a French version of "The Voice") for TF1 and "" (a French version of "5 Gold Rings") for France 2 and also produces popular original programming such as daily magazine show "Je t’aime etc" for France 2, comedy series "Importantissime" for Canal+ and drama feature "Quand je serai grande je te tuerai" (a French remake of the two-part British thriller television miniseries "Undeniable") for TF1.


title: ITV Studios

text: At the end of February 2017, ITV Studios acquired a majority stake in independent production group Tetra Media Studio, which participates in the fields of fiction (mainly television dramas such as "A French Village" which is the company is known for producing), documentaries, magazine series, live entertainment, animation, new media, music and distribution; however, Tetra will continue to operate independently from ITV Studios France.


title: ITV Studios

text: Tetra Media Studio is a French independent television group founded in 1990 by directors Miguel Courtois, Gilles de Maistre and Jérôme Cornuau. The company participates in the fields of fiction (mainly television dramas such as "A French Village" which is the company is known for producing), documentaries, magazine series and live entertainment. The group consists of:


title: ITV Studios

text: ITV Studios Nordic is the division of ITV Studios in the Nordic countries, operating through five units: ITV Studios Norway, ITV Studios Finland, ITV Studios Sweden (including Elk Production) and two companies in Denmark named United Productions and Apple Tree Productions respectively.


title: ITV Studios

text: ITV Studios Netherlands is the Dutch division of ITV Studios, created on 11 October 2018. On 1 October 2019, it absorbed Talpa Netherlands (including Talpa Global, Talpa Productions and Fictie) and also MasMedia and Vorst Media as part of ITV Studios' restructuring. ITV Studios Netherlands produces shows on both RTL 4 and SBS6, including "Lang Leve de Liefde" (also known as "Let Love Rule" or "The Cabins"), a format exported to the UK, Belgium, Sweden and Portugal.


title: ITV Studios

text: Talpa Media was a Dutch global television production company owned by ITV Studios and before that Talpa Network which was well known for creating the successful worldwide music reality competition franchise "The Voice". The company comprised Talpa Netherlands (which consisted of Talpa Content and Talpa Productions) and Talpa Global. On 1 October 2019, founder John de Mol left Talpa when ITV Studios began restructuring.


title: ITV Studios

text: Talpa Global comprised divisions in North America, the Middle East and Germany, although other partnerships were vested in the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Portugal, the Nordic countries, Australia and Sub-Saharan Africa. The North American division was based in Los Angeles, California, the United States, while the Middle East division was based in Dubai, the United Arab Emirates and the German division has offices in Berlin and Hamburg. When ITV started restructuring on 1 October 2019, Talpa's German division was absorbed into ITV Studios Germany and the Middle East division was renamed ITV Studios Middle East.


title: ITV Studios

text: In addition to its production labels, ITV Studios is the worldwide distributor of programming produced by ITV's production teams, as well as independent producers. Known until 2020 as ITV Studios Global Entertainment, ITVS has distributed programmes and films like "Brief Encounter", and the "Carry On..." films. Also a part of this collection is the ITC Entertainment feature film library, including "The Eagle Has Landed", "The Return of the Pink Panther", and "On Golden Pond". ITV also owns the rights to the film catalogues of The Rank Organisation (except for Ealing Studios productions) and Alexander Korda (pre-1945). These films are currently distributed theatrically by Janus Films and Park Circus, in conjunction with Westchester Films, whose parent company Shout! Factory signed a North American theatrical, television, and home video distribution deal with the ITV library in March 2018. This deal covers over a hundred films and series.


title: ITV Studios

text: The television library features programming by most of the major ITV network companies (except for Thames Television which is divided between Fremantle for general entertainment and Boat Rocker Media for children's programming; Television South (TVS) which currently belongs to Disney, and Southern Television which until recently belonged to Endemol Australia); including titles such as "Prime Suspect", "Doctor Zhivago" (2002 miniseries), "The Forsyte Saga" (2002), and "Agatha Christie's Poirot", plus children's shows, TV movies (e.g. 2005's "Pope John Paul II"), wildlife documentaries, and other factual programming. The library also includes hit series such as "Bodyguard" (produced by World Productions), which has been picked up by Netflix outside the UK.


title: ITV Studios

text: Independent productions distributed by ITV include programming produced by Wall to Wall: ("Ancient Egyptians", "The Story Of Us"), Darlow Smithson Productions: ("Seconds From Disaster"), Wark Clements: ("A Mother's Journey"), Aardman Animations: ("Creature Comforts"), Ragdoll Productions: ("Rosie and Jim", "Tots TV"), Optimum Television: ("Old Bear Stories"), Honeycomb Animation: ("Grizzly Tales for Gruesome Kids"), Chorion: ("Agatha Christie's Marple and Poirot"), Carnival Films: ("Rosemary & Thyme"), and Red Productions: ("Bob and Rose", "Second Coming"). ITV also handled non-Spanish, Portugese and Italian distribution rights to "Pocoyo" from the show's premiere in 2005 until 2011, when ITV and Zinkia Entertainment ended their distribution agreement.


title: ITV Studios

text: The company also incorporates ITV Studios Home Entertainment and a publishing and consumer licensing division, responsible for merchandising rights of ITV Productions and third-party programmes (including CBeebies' "Numberjacks").


title: Body odor

text: Body odor or body odour (BO) is present in all animals and its intensity can be influenced by many factors (behavioral patterns, survival strategies). Body odor has a strong genetic basis, but can also be strongly influenced by various diseases and physiological conditions. Though body odor has played an important role (and continues to do so in many life forms) in early humankind, it is generally considered to be an unpleasant odor amongst many human cultures.


title: Body odor

text: In humans, the formation of body odors is caused by factors such as diet, sex, health, and medication, but the major contribution comes from bacterial activity on skin gland secretions. Humans have three types of sweat glands: eccrine sweat glands, apocrine sweat glands and sebaceous glands. Eccrine sweat glands are present from birth, while the latter two become activated during puberty. Among the different types of human skin glands, body odor is primarily the result of the apocrine sweat glands, which secrete the majority of chemical compounds that the skin flora metabolize into odorant substances. This happens mostly in the axillary (armpit) region, although the gland can also be found in the areola, anogenital region, and around the navel. In humans, the armpit regions seem more important than the genital region for body odor, which may be related to human bipedalism. The genital and armpit regions also contain springy hairs which help diffuse body odors.


title: Body odor

text: The main components of human axillary odor are unsaturated or hydroxylated branched fatty acids with E-3M2H (E-3-methylhex-2-enoic acid) and HMHA (3-hydroxy-3-methylhexanoic acid), sulfanylalkanols and particularly 3M3SH (3-methyl-3-sulfanylhexan-1-ol), and the odoriferous steroids androstenone (5α-androst-16-en-3-one) and androstenol (5α-androst-16-en-3α-ol). E-3M2H is bound and carried by two apocrine secretion odor-binding proteins, ASOB1 and ASOB2, to the skin surface.


title: Body odor

text: Body odor is influenced by the actions of the skin flora, including members of "Corynebacterium", which manufacture enzymes called lipases that break down the lipids in sweat to create smaller molecules like butyric acid. Greater bacteria populations of "Corynebacterium jeikeium" are found more in the armpits of men, whereas greater population numbers of "Staphylococcus haemolyticus" are found in the armpits of women. This causes male armpits to give off a rancid/cheese-like smell, whereas female armpits give off a more fruity/onion-like smell. "Staphylococcus hominis" is also known for producing thioalcohol compounds that contribute to odors. These smaller molecules smell, and give body odor its characteristic aroma. Propionic acid (propanoic acid) is present in many sweat samples. This acid is a breakdown product of some amino acids by propionibacteria, which thrive in the ducts of adolescent and adult sebaceous glands. Because propionic acid is chemically similar to acetic acid, with similar characteristics including odor, body odors may be identified as having a vinegar-like smell by certain people. Isovaleric acid (3-methyl butanoic acid) is the other source of body odor as a result of actions of the bacteria "Staphylococcus epidermidis", which is also present in several types of strong cheese.


title: Body odor

text: Factors such as food, drink, gut microbiome and diseases can affect body odor, as can lifestyle and genetics.


title: Body odor

text: In many animals, body odor plays an important survival function. Strong body odor can be a warning signal for predators to stay away (such as porcupine stink), or it can also be a signal that the prey animal is unpalatable. For example, some animals species, who feign death to survive (like opossums), in this state produce a strong body odor to deceive a predator that the prey animal has been dead for a long time and is already in the advanced stage of decomposing. Some animals with strong body odor are rarely attacked by most predators, although they can still be killed and eaten by birds of prey, which are tolerant of carrion odors.


title: Body odor

text: Body odor is an important feature of animal physiology. It plays a different role in different animal species. For example, in some predator species that hunt by stalking (such as big and small cats), the absence of body odor is important, and they spend plenty of time and energy to keep their body free of odor. For other predators, such as those that hunt by visually locating prey and running for long distances after it (such as dogs and wolves), the absence of body odor is not critical. In most animals, body odor intensifies in moments of stress and danger.


title: Body odor

text: In humans, body odor serves as a means of chemosensory signal communication between members of the species. These signals are called pheromones and they can be transmitted through a variety of mediums. The most common way that human pheromones are transmitted is through bodily fluids. Human pheromones are contained in sweat, semen, vaginal secretions, breast milk, and urine. The signals carried in these fluids serve a range of functions from reproductive signaling to infant socialization. Each person produces a unique spread of pheromones that can be identified by others. This differentiation allows the formation of sexual attraction and kinship ties to occur.


title: Body odor

text: Sebaceous and apocrine glands become active at puberty. This, as well as many apocrine glands being close to the sex organs, points to a role related to mating. Sebaceous glands line the human skin while apocrine glands are located around body hairs. Compared to other primates, humans have extensive axillary hair and have many odor producing sources, in particular many apocrine glands. In humans, the apocrine glands have the ability to secrete pheromones. These steroid compounds are produced within the peroxisomes of the apocrine glands by enzymes such as mevalonate kinases.


title: Body odor

text: Pheromones are a factor seen in the mating selection and reproduction in humans. In women, the sense of olfaction is strongest around the time of ovulation, significantly stronger than during other phases of the menstrual cycle and also stronger than the sense in males. Pheromones can be used to deliver information about the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). The MCH in humans is referred to as the Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA). Each type has a unique scent profile that can be utilized during the mating selection process. When selecting mates, women tend to be attracted to those that have different HLA-types than their own. This is thought to increase the strength of the family unit and increase the chances of survival for potential offspring.


title: Body odor

text: Studies have suggested that people might be using odor cues associated with the immune system to select mates. Using a brain-imaging technique, Swedish researchers have shown that homosexual and heterosexual males' brains respond in different ways to two odors that may be involved in sexual arousal, and that homosexual men respond in the same way as heterosexual women, though it could not be determined whether this was cause or effect. When the study was expanded to include lesbian women, the results were consistent with previous findings – meaning that lesbian women were not as responsive to male-identified odors, while responding to female odors in a similar way as heterosexual males. According to the researchers, this research suggests a possible role for human pheromones in the biological basis of sexual orientation.


title: Body odor

text: Humans can olfactorily detect blood-related kin. Mothers can identify by body odor their biological children, but not their stepchildren. Preadolescent children can olfactorily detect their full siblings, but not half-siblings or step-siblings, and this might explain incest avoidance and the Westermarck effect. Babies can recognize their mothers by smell while mothers, fathers, and other relatives can identify a baby by smell. This connection between genetically similar family members is due to the habituation of familial pheromones. In the case of babies and mothers, this chemosensory information is primarily contained within breastmilk and the mother's sweat. When compared to that of strangers, babies are observed to have stronger neural connections with their mothers. This strengthened neurological connection allows for the biological development and socialization of the infant by their mother. Using these connections, the mother transmits olfactory signals to the infant which are then perceived and integrated.


title: Body odor

text: In terms of biological functioning, olfactory signaling allows for functional breastfeeding to occur. In cases of effective latching, breastfed infants are able to locate their mother's nipples for feeding using the sensory information enclosed in their mother's body odor. While no specific human breast pheromones have been identified, studies compare the communication to that of the rabbit mammary pheromone 2MB2.The perception and integration of these signals is an evolutionary response that allows newborns to locate their source of nutrition. Signaling contains a level of precision that allows babies to differentiate their mother's breasts from that of other women. Once the baby recognizes the familiar olfactory signal, the behavioral response of latching follows. Over time the infant becomes habituated to their mother's breast pheromones which increases latch efficiency.


title: Body odor

text: Beyond a biological function, a mother's body odor plays a role in developing a baby's social capabilities. The ability of an infant to evaluate the properties of human faces stems from the olfactory cues given from their mother. Frequent exposure to the pheromones exuded by their mother allows the connection between vision and smell to form in infants. This type of connection is only found between mothers and babies and overtime it socializes the ability to recognize the features that distinguish human faces from inanimate objects.


title: Body odor

text: The connection between olfactory and visual cues has also been observed outside of familial relationships. Evolutionarily, body odor has been used to communicate messages about potentially dangerous stimuli in the environment. Body odor produced during particularly stressful situations can produce a cascade of reactions in the brain. Once the olfactory system is activated by a threatening stimuli, heightened activity in the amygdala and occipital cortex is triggered. This chain reaction serves to help assess the nature of the threat and increase chance of survival.


title: Body odor

text: Humans have few olfactory receptor cells compared to dogs and few functional olfactory receptor genes compared to rats. This is in part due to a reduction of the size of the snout in order to achieve depth perception as well as other changes related to bipedalism. However, it has been argued that humans may have larger brain areas associated with olfactory perception compared to other species.


title: Body odor

text: Body odor is largely influenced by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. These are genetically determined and play an important role in immunity of the organism. The vomeronasal organ contains cells sensitive to MHC molecules in a genotype-specific way.


title: Body odor

text: Experiments on animals and volunteers have shown that potential sexual partners tend to be perceived more attractive if their MHC composition is substantially different. Married couples are more different regarding MHC genes than would be expected by chance. This behavior pattern promotes variability of the immune system of individuals in the population, thus making the population more robust against new diseases. Another reason may be to prevent inbreeding.


title: Body odor

text: The ABCC11 gene determines axillary body odor and the type of earwax. The loss of a functional ABCC11 gene is caused by a 538G>A single-nucleotide polymorphism, resulting in a loss of body odor in people who are specifically homozygous for it. Firstly, it affects apocrine sweat glands by reducing secretion of odorous molecules and its precursors. The lack of ABCC11 function results in a decrease of the odorant compounds 3M2H, HMHA, and 3M3SH via a strongly reduced secretion of the precursor amino-acid conjugates 3M2H–Gln, HMHA–Gln, and Cys–Gly–(S) 3M3SH; and a decrease of the odoriferous steroids androstenone and androstenol, possibly due to the reduced levels and secretion of DHEAS and DHEA (possibly bacterial substrates for odoriferous steroids). Secondly, it is also associated with a strongly reduced/atrophic size of apocrine sweat glands and a decreased protein (such as ASOB2) concentration in axillary sweat.


title: Body odor

text: The non-functional ABCC11 allele is predominant among East Asians (80–95%), but very low in other ancestral groups (0–3%). Most of the world's population has the gene that codes for the wet-type earwax and average body odor; however, East Asians are more likely to inherit the allele associated with the dry-type earwax and a reduction in body odor. The hypothesized reduction in body odor may be due to adaptation to colder climates by their ancient Northeast Asian ancestors.


title: Body odor

text: However, research has observed that this allele is not solely responsible for ethnic differences in scent. A 2016 study analyzed differences across ethnicities in volatile organic compounds (VOCs), across racial groups and found that while they largely did not differ significantly qualitatively, they did differ quantitatively. Of the observed differences, they were found to vary with ethnic origin, but not entirely with ABCC11 genotype.


title: Body odor

text: One large study failed to find any significant differences across ethnicity in residual compounds on the skin, including those located in sweat. If there were observed ethnic variants in skin odor, one would find sources to be much more likely in diet, hygiene, microbiome, and other environmental factors.


title: Body odor

text: Research has indicated a strong association between people with axillary osmidrosis and the ABCC11-genotypes GG or GA at the SNP site (rs17822931) in comparison to the genotype AA.


title: Body odor

text: Body odor may be reduced or prevented or even aggravated by using deodorants, antiperspirants, disinfectants, underarm liners, triclosan, special soaps or foams with antiseptic plant extracts such as ribwort and liquorice, chlorophyllin ointments and sprays topically, and chlorophyllin supplements internally. Although body odor is commonly associated with hygiene practices, its presentation can be affected by changes in diet as well as the other factors. Skin spectrophotometry analysis found that males who consumed more fruits and vegetables were significantly associated with more pleasant smelling sweat, which was described as "floral, fruity, sweet and medicinal qualities".


title: Body odor

text: As many as 90% of Americans and 92% of teenagers use antiperspirants or deodorants. In 2014, the global market for deodorants was estimated at US$13.00 billion with a compound annual growth rate of 5.62% between 2015 and 2020.


title: Body odor

text: Osmidrosis or bromhidrosis is defined by a foul odor due to a water-rich environment that supports bacteria, which is caused by an abnormal increase in perspiration (hyperhidrosis). This can be particularly strong when it happens in the axillary region (underarms). In this case, the condition may be referred to as axillary osmidrosis. The condition can also be known medically as apocrine bromhidrosis, ozochrotia, fetid sweat, body smell, or malodorous sweating.


title: Body odor

text: Trimethylaminuria (TMAU), also known as fish odor syndrome or fish malodor syndrome, is a rare metabolic disorder where trimethylamine is released in the person's sweat, urine, and breath, giving off a strong fishy odor or strong body odor.


title: Japanese Instrument of Surrender

text: The Japanese Instrument of Surrender was the written agreement that formalized the surrender of the Empire of Japan, marking the end of hostilities in World War II. It was signed by representatives from the Empire of Japan and from the Allied nations: the United States of America, the Republic of China, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the Commonwealth of Australia, the Dominion of Canada, the Provisional Government of the French Republic, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and the Dominion of New Zealand. The signing took place on the deck of in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945.


title: Japanese Instrument of Surrender

text: The date is sometimes known as Victory over Japan Day, although that designation more frequently refers to the date of Emperor Hirohito's "Gyokuon-hōsō" (Imperial Rescript of Surrender), the radio broadcast announcement of the acceptance of the terms of the Potsdam Declaration at noon Japan Standard Time on 15 August.


title: Japanese Instrument of Surrender

text: General Douglas MacArthur's staff, headed by Colonel LeGrande A. Diller, were tasked to prepare the draft of the Instrument of Surrender. This was a challenge given resources were limited in war-torn Manila. Nevertheless, an enterprising staff member found rare parchment in a basement of a monastery, and this was given to MacArthur's printer.


title: Japanese Instrument of Surrender

text: The ceremony aboard the deck of the "Missouri" lasted 23 minutes and was broadcast throughout the world. It occurred at in Tokyo Bay. The instrument was first signed by the Japanese foreign minister Mamoru Shigemitsu "By Command and on behalf of the Emperor of Japan and the Japanese Government" (9:04 a.m.). General Yoshijirō Umezu, Chief of the Army General Staff, then signed the document "By Command and on behalf of the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters" (9:06 a.m.).


title: Japanese Instrument of Surrender

text: At 9:08 a.m., American General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, the Commander in the Southwest Pacific and Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, accepted the surrender on behalf of the Allied Powers and signed in his capacity as Supreme Commander.


title: Japanese Instrument of Surrender

text: After MacArthur, the following representatives signed the instrument of surrender on behalf of each of the Allied Powers:


title: Japanese Instrument of Surrender

text: The UK invited Dominion governments to send representatives to the ceremony as subordinates to its own. MacArthur supported the government of Australia's demand to attend and sign separately from the UK, although Australia objected to his recommendation that Canada, the Netherlands, and France also sign the document.


title: Japanese Instrument of Surrender

text: On 6 September, Colonel Bernard Theilen took the document and an imperial rescript to Washington, D.C., and presented them to President Harry S. Truman in a formal White House ceremony the following day. The documents were then exhibited at the National Archives.


title: Japanese Instrument of Surrender

text: The deck of the "Missouri" was furnished with two American flags. A commonly heard story is that one of the flags had flown over the White House on the day Pearl Harbor was attacked. However, Captain Stuart Murray of USS "Missouri" explained:


title: Japanese Instrument of Surrender

text: That special flag on the veranda deck of the "Missouri" had been flown from Commodore Matthew Perry's flagship in 1853–54 when he led the U.S. Navy's Far East Squadron into Tokyo Bay to force the opening of Japan's ports to foreign trade. MacArthur was a direct descendant of the New England Perry family and cousin of Commodore Matthew Perry.


title: Japanese Instrument of Surrender

text: Photographs of the signing ceremony show that this flag is displayed reverse side showing (stars in the upper right corner). This was because American flags on the right of an object plane, ship, or person have the stars on the upper right corner, to look like the flag is heading into as if attached to a pole and someone is carrying it. Stars in the upper left of a flag displayed on the right side of the object could make the flag look like it were going away from battle. The cloth of the historic flag was so fragile that the conservator at the U.S. Naval Academy Museum directed that a protective backing be sewn on it, leaving its "wrong side" visible; and this was how Perry's 31-star flag was presented on this unique occasion.


title: Japanese Instrument of Surrender

text: A replica of this historic flag can be seen today on the Surrender Deck of the Battleship "Missouri" Memorial in Pearl Harbor. This replica is also placed in the same location on the bulkhead of the veranda deck where it had been initially mounted on the morning of 2 September 1945, by Chief Carpenter Fred Miletich. The original flag is still on display at the Naval Academy Museum, as is the table and tablecloth upon which the instrument of surrender was signed, and the original bronze plaque marking the location of the signing (which was replaced by two replicas in 1990). However, it is not certain that the table is the actual one used as the deck had been cleaned and items returned to storage before anyone thought to save it.


title: Japanese Instrument of Surrender

text: The Allied copy of the Instrument is at the United States National Archives Building in Washington, D.C. The Japanese copy is at the Diplomatic Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan in Tokyo, and was last publicly displayed in 2015, as part of an exhibition marking the 70th anniversary of the signing. A replica version of the Japanese copy can be viewed at the archive's gallery, and at the Edo-Tokyo Museum in Tokyo.


title: Japanese Instrument of Surrender

text: Gen. MacArthur originally had 11 full-sized facsimiles made of the Instrument of Surrender, but later increased this for distribution among the Allied nations present during the signing. Two of the copies which were given to Col. LeGrande A. Diller and MGen. Basilio Valdes for the Philippines are now displayed at The International Museum of World War II in Natick, Massachusetts.


title: Japanese Instrument of Surrender

text: As witnesses, American general Jonathan Wainwright, who had surrendered the Philippines, and British lieutenant-general Arthur Percival, who had surrendered Singapore, received two of the six pens used by General MacArthur to sign the instrument. Another pen went to the West Point military academy, and one to MacArthur's aide. All of the pens used by MacArthur were black, except the last, which was bright red and went to his wife. A replica of it, along with copies of the instrument of surrender, is in a case on "Missouri" by the plaque marking the signing spot. The model of USS "Missouri" in the National Museum of the United States Navy at the Washington Navy Yard, has a scale replica of the signing table in the correct location.


title: AIDA Cruises

text: AIDA Cruises is a German cruise line founded in the early 1960s and organized as a wholly owned subsidiary of Carnival Corporation & plc since 2003. Based in Rostock, Germany, AIDA Cruises caters primarily to the German-speaking market; as seagoing "club resorts", AIDA ships have on-board amenities and facilities designed to attract younger, more active vacationers. As of January 2022, the cruise line operates 14 ships.


title: AIDA Cruises

text: The company was founded as Deutsche Seereederei (German Shipping Company) with a ship called "Völkerfreundschaft" ("Peoples' Friendship"), and entered the cruise industry in the 1960s. After the reunification of Germany in the early 1990s Deutsche Seereederei was privatised and became DSR. DSR acquired Seetours of Bremen and cruises were marketed under the Seetours brand. On 1 January 1998, DSR split their operations into cargo and tourism, with a new company Arkona Touristik taking over the cruise business. Then during 2000 a company was formed, known as AIDA Cruises; with P&O Cruises acquiring a 51% stake in the new organisation, and Arkona Touristik retaining the other 49%.


title: AIDA Cruises

text: associated with Seetours International. In 2003, P&O Princess merged with Carnival Corporation, to form Carnival Corporation & plc, the world's largest cruise holiday company.


title: AIDA Cruises

text: Following the merger, executive control of AIDA Cruises was transferred to Costa Cruises Group, one of the main operating companies of Carnival Corporation & plc, with responsibility for the group's European brands. AIDA Cruises is now one of ten brands owned by Carnival Corporation & plc, based at Miami, Florida, accounting for 6.5% of its share of revenue and has been led by President Felix Eichhorn since 1 September 2015.


title: AIDA Cruises

text: In October 2017, "AIDAcara" departed from Hamburg on the company's first World Cruise. After a 116-day sailing, the ship returned to Hamburg on 10 February 2018. The ship visited Southampton, Lisbon, Madeira, Rio de Janeiro, Ushuaia, Easter Island, Tahiti, Singapore, and the Maldives, among other destinations. On 8 October 2018 "AIDAaura" left Hamburg on the company's second World Cruise, the 117-day voyage visited 41 ports in 20 countries on four continents. Several of the destinations were new to the company, including South Africa, Namibia, Melbourne, Tasmania, Fiji, Samoa and New Caledonia.


title: AIDA Cruises

text: In December 2018, AIDA debuted "AIDAnova," the first cruise ship to be fully powered by liquefied natural gas (LNG). Earlier, in May 2016, "AIDAprima" and "AIDAsol" had become the first two ships in the AIDA fleet to be simultaneously powered by LNG. In August 2019, AIDA signed an agreement with Corvus Energy to install battery storage systems for the electrification of their ships. In October 2019, AIDA announced that it would test a new fuel-cell technology for large-scale cruise ships aboard the "AIDAnova" as early as 2021.


title: Project Management Professional

text: Project Management Professional (PMP) is an internationally recognized professional designation offered by the Project Management Institute (PMI). As of 31 July 2020, there are 1,036,368 active PMP-certified individuals and 314 chartered chapters across 214 countries and territories worldwide.


title: Project Management Professional

text: The exam is one of eight credentials offered by PMI and is based on the ECO PMP Examination Content Outline. Most of the questions reference the Exam Content Outline "PMP Examination Content Outline" (also known as the E.C.O ).


title: Project Management Professional

text: The PMP exam is based on Exam Content Outline (ECO). The ECO is revised every 4-5 years by PMI. Since January 2021, the exam is tested on three different domains:


title: Project Management Professional

text: Prior to January 2021, the exam was based on tasks from five "performance domains" or "process groups," encompassing a total of 49 processes"." The "PMP Examination Specification" weighted these groups as follows:


title: Project Management Professional

text: The exam consists of 180 multiple choice questions written against the PMBOK specification and the PMP Code of Ethics. The exam is closed-book; no reference materials are allowed. Five of the 180 questions on the exam are "sample" questions used to fine-tune the degree of difficulty and precision of the exam and as such are not counted for or against a test taker. These questions are placed randomly throughout the exam. The test taker is only graded on their proficiency on 175 questions. The numbers in parentheses describe the percentage of questions for each domain.


title: Project Management Professional

text: The processes of these knowledge areas are described by their inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs. The PMBOK also emphasizes the interaction and interdependence between different process groups. For example, the outputs from one process may be used by one or more other processes as inputs.


title: Project Management Professional

text: Announced in June 2019, the "PMP Examination Content Outline" will undergo significant re-categorization, effective January 2021, which prescribe three all-new "performance domains":


title: Project Management Professional

text: Government, commercial and other organizations employ PMP-certified project managers in an attempt to improve the success rate of projects in all areas of knowledge, by applying a standardized and evolving set of project management principles as contained in PMI's PMBOK Guide.


title: Project Management Professional

text: In December 2005, the PMP credential was number 7 of ZDNet's "10 best IT certifications". In 2012 the PMP credential was ranked as a top certification by CIO. In 2015, the PMP credential was ranked as the #4 certification by Global Knowledge, behind 3 Security certifications.


title: Project Management Professional

text: The global network of Pearson VUE testing centers provides the PMP exam as a computer-based test. They also offer a paper-based option for locations with no nearby Prometric testing centers. The exam consists of 180 questions ("items"). Five are pre-release items, which are not included in exam scoring. Prometric calculates the score based on the other 175 items. Each multiple-choice item has one correct answer and three incorrect answers.


title: Project Management Professional

text: Candidates who take the computer-based test receive their results (passed or not passed) immediately upon completion. PMI also evaluates proficiency levels in each project management process group in 4 levels: "Above Target", "Target", "Below Target", and "Needs Improvement". Examiners provide these results to the candidate on a score report after the examination. Candidates who take paper-based tests receive their test results and score reports typically within 4 weeks.


title: Project Management Professional

text: PMI conducts application audits to confirm the experience and/or education documented on certification applications. The purpose of the audit is to enhance the credibility of the certification program and of the certification holders. For each certification, a specified percentage of applications are randomly selected for audit.


title: Project Management Professional

text: Item writing is an ongoing process at PMI, and they periodically add new four-choice questions ("items") and remove others. Item writers use the "PMP Examination Specification" to identify item contents and references (project management texts or standards) to verify correctness. Individuals who are active in the field of PMP exam preparation (such as trainers, courseware developers, and book authors) may not participate in item writing.


title: Project Management Professional

text: Candidates must meet the prerequisites in one of the following groups to be eligible for PMP Certification:


title: Project Management Professional

text: Continuous credential requirements are also called CCRs. To maintain the PMP qualification, 60 professional development units (PDUs) must be earned over a three-year cycle, from activities such as researching, authoring articles, speaking on project management-related topics, or being engaged full-time in project management.


title: Project Management Professional

text: Credential holders may earn PDUs towards the maintenance of their credential through formal academic courses or courses offered by a provider (R.E.P. or Component). However, these are only two of the five categories of PDU earning opportunities in which a credential holder may participate.


title: Project Management Professional

text: Effective 1 December 2015, CCRs were updated to align with the employer-identified skills depicted in the PMI Talent Triangle, a combination of technical, leadership, and strategic and business management expertise, to ensure credential holders are equipped with skills relevant in a continually changing business environment.


title: Project Management Professional

text: The US Department of Education and the National Science Foundation have deemed all United States professional certifications to be at level 50 in the Mapping The World of Education, Comparable Database System (Volume Two: Codes for Program Completion Awards by Country). The Level 50 code addresses "Postsecondary Programs and Awards of No More Than 2 Years. Programs and awards that are designed to represent no more than 2 years of study; constitute postsecondary education as operationally defined in CDS; and are not second (graduate-level) programs and awards."


title: Project Management Professional

text: PRINCE2 certifications could be seen as a competitor of Project Management Professional (PMP). In general, the US and American countries prefer PMP, and UK, Australia and Europe prefer PRINCE2. Asia, Africa and the Middle East area have no strong preference for one or the other. The organizations behind these two certifications acknowledge each other's existence in their advertising material and attempt to position themselves as complementary products – PRINCE2 as a methodology, and the subject of the PMP certification (such as the PMBOK Guide) as a guide or standard – which can be used alongside each other. In practice, companies and practitioners choose one system or both due to the project environment, their geographical location and costs involved.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Critical pedagogy is a philosophy of education and social movement that developed and applied concepts from critical theory and related traditions to the field of education and the study of culture.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: It insists that issues of social justice and democracy are not distinct from acts of teaching and learning. The goal of critical pedagogy is emancipation from oppression through an awakening of the critical consciousness, based on the Portuguese term "conscientização". When achieved, critical consciousness encourages individuals to effect change in their world through social critique and political action in order to self-actualize.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Critical pedagogy was founded by the Brazilian philosopher and educator Paulo Freire, who promoted it through his 1968 book, "Pedagogy of the Oppressed". It subsequently spread internationally, developing a particularly strong base in the United States, where proponents sought to develop means of using teaching to combat racism, sexism, and oppression. As it grew, it incorporated elements from fields like the Human rights movement, Civil rights movement, Disability rights movement, Indigenous rights movement, postmodern theory, feminist theory, postcolonial theory, and queer theory.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Critical Pedagogy is believed to have its roots in the critical theory of the Frankfurt School, which was established in 1923. As an outgrowth of critical theory, critical pedagogy is intended to educate and work towards a realization of the emancipatory goals of critical pedagogy. The theory is influenced by Karl Marx who believed that inequality is a result of socioeconomic differences and that all people need to work toward a socialized economy. More recently, critical pedagogy can also be traced back to Paulo Freire's best-known 1968 work, "The Pedagogy of the Oppressed". Freire, a professor of history and the philosophy of education at the Federal University of Pernambuco in Brazil, sought in this and other works to develop a philosophy of adult education that demonstrated a solidarity with the poor in their common struggle to survive by engaging them in a dialog of greater awareness and analysis. Although his family had suffered loss and hunger during the Great Depression, the poor viewed him and his formerly middle-class family "as people from another world who happened to fall accidentally into their world". His intimate discovery of class and their borders "led, invariably, to Freire's radical rejection of a class-based society".


title: Critical pedagogy

text: While prominent figures within Critical Pedagogy include Paulo Freire, Henry Giroux, Peter McLaren, bell hooks, and others, it is important to note that their work on critical pedagogy varies in focus. For example, some approach critical pedagogy from a Marxist perspective with a focus on socioeconomic class. Paulo Freire, on the other hand, writes about how critical pedagogy can lead to liberty and freedom of the oppressed and marginalized. bell hooks applies a feminist perspective to critical pedagogy and Ira Shor, for example, advocates for the need of moving the theoretical framework of critical pedagogy to a more practical one.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: The influential works of Freire made him arguably the most celebrated critical educator. He seldom used the term "critical pedagogy" himself when describing this philosophy. His initial focus targeted adult literacy projects in Brazil and later was adapted to deal with a wide range of social and educational issues. Freire's pedagogy revolved around an anti-authoritarian and interactive approach aimed to examine issues of relational power for students and workers. The center of the curriculum used the fundamental goal based on social and political critiques of everyday life. Freire's praxis required implementation of a range of educational practices and processes with the goal of creating not only a better learning environment but also a better world. Freire himself maintained that this was not merely an educational technique but a way of living in our educative practice.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Freire endorses students' ability to think critically about their education situation; this method of thinking is thought by practitioners of critical pedagogy to allow them to "recognize connections between their individual problems and experiences and the social contexts in which they are embedded". Realizing one's consciousness ("conscientization", ""conscientização"") is then a needed first step of "praxis", which is defined as the power and know-how to take action against oppression while stressing the importance of liberating education. "Praxis involves engaging in a cycle of theory, application, evaluation, reflection, and then back to theory. Social transformation is the product of praxis at the collective level."


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Critical pedagogue Ira Shor, who was mentored by and worked closely with Freire from 1980 until Freire's death in 1997, defines critical pedagogy as:


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Critical pedagogy explores the dialogic relationships between teaching and learning. Its proponents claim that it is a continuous process of what they call "unlearning", "learning", and "relearning", "reflection", "evaluation", and the effect that these actions have on the students, in particular students whom they believe have been historically and continue to be disenfranchised by what they call "traditional schooling".


title: Critical pedagogy

text: The educational philosophy has since been developed by Henry Giroux and others since the 1980s as a praxis-oriented "educational movement, guided by passion and principle, to help students develop a consciousness of freedom, recognize authoritarian tendencies, and connect knowledge to power and the ability to take constructive action". Freire wrote the introduction to his 1988 work, "Teachers as Intellectuals: Toward a Critical Pedagogy of Learning." Another leading critical pedagogy theorist who Freire called his "intellectual cousin", Peter McLaren, wrote the foreword. McLaren and Giroux co-edited one book on critical pedagogy and co-authored another in the 1990s. Among its other leading figures in no particular order are bell hooks (Gloria Jean Watkins), Joe L. Kincheloe, Patti Lather, Myles Horton, Antonia Darder, Gloria Ladson-Billings, Peter McLaren, Khen Lampert, Howard Zinn, Donaldo Macedo, , Sandy Grande, Michael Apple, and Stephanie Ledesma. Educationalists including Jonathan Kozol and Parker Palmer are sometimes included in this category. Other critical pedagogues known more for their Anti-schooling, unschooling, or deschooling perspectives include Ivan Illich, John Holt, Ira Shor, John Taylor Gatto, and Matt Hern.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Critical pedagogy has several other strands and foundations. Postmodern, anti-racist, feminist, postcolonial, queer, and environmental theories all play a role in further expanding and enriching Freire's original ideas about a critical pedagogy, shifting its main focus on social class to include issues pertaining to religion, military identification, race, gender, sexuality, nationality, ethnicity, and age. Much of the work also draws on anarchism, György Lukács, Wilhelm Reich, postcolonialism, and the discourse theories of Edward Said, Antonio Gramsci, Gilles Deleuze (rhizomatic learning) and Michel Foucault. "Radical Teacher" is a magazine dedicated to critical pedagogy and issues of interest to critical educators. Many contemporary critical pedagogues have embraced Postmodern, anti-essentialist perspectives of the individual, of language, and of power, "while at the same time retaining the Freirean emphasis on critique, disrupting oppressive regimes of power/knowledge, and social change".


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Like critical theory itself, the field of critical pedagogy continues to evolve. Contemporary critical educators, such as bell hooks and Peter McLaren, discuss in their criticisms the influences of many varied concerns, institutions, and social structures, "including globalization, the mass media, and race/spiritual relations", while citing reasons for resisting the possibilities to change. McLaren has developed a social movement based version of critical pedagogy that he calls revolutionary critical pedagogy, emphasizing critical pedagogy as a social movement for the creation of a democratic socialist alternative to capitalism.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Curry Malott and Derek R. Ford's first collaborative book, "Marx, Capital, and Education" built on McLaren's revolutionary pedagogy by connecting it to the global class struggle and the history of the actually-existing workers' movements. As Curry Malott noted, "Critical pedagogy was created as a break from the Marxism of Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed and Bowles and Gintis’ Schooling in Capitalist America. Even though it is true that critical pedagogy has become increasingly domesticated and watered down, it's birth was an act of counterrevolution itself." In particular, they argued for a critical pedagogy that simultaneously pursued communism and national liberation. Malott and Ford were the first authors to bring Harry Haywood's work into critical pedagogy. They believed that critical pedagogy had been divorced from its radical roots. Yet when Malott went to re-investigate those roots, he decided that they were not revolutionary at all. In fact, he argued that they were permeated by anti-communism and hostility to any actually-existing struggles of oppressed peoples. As a result, both Malott and Ford moved away from critical pedagogy. Ford developed a "political" pedagogy that built on McLaren's revolutionary critical pedagogy but took "a distanced and expository position" to link the project more explicitly to communism. Yet he later abandoned that as a starting point and instead turned his attention to educational "forms".


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Joe L. Kincheloe and Shirley R. Steinberg have created the Paulo and Nita Freire Project for International Critical Pedagogy at McGill University. In line with Kincheloe and Steinberg's contributions to critical pedagogy, the project attempts to move the field to the next phase of its evolution. In this second phase, critical pedagogy seeks to become a worldwide, decolonizing movement dedicated to listening to and learning from diverse discourses of people from around the planet. Kincheloe and Steinberg also embrace Indigenous knowledges in education as a way to expand critical pedagogy and to question educational hegemony. Joe L. Kincheloe, in expanding on the Freire's notion that a pursuit of social change alone could promote anti-intellectualism, promotes a more balanced approach to education than postmodernists.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: One of the major texts taking on the intersection between critical pedagogy and Indigenous knowledge(s) is Sandy Grande's, "Red Pedagogy: Native American Social and Political Thought" (Rowman and Littlefield, 2004). In agreement with this perspective, Four Arrows, aka Don Trent Jacobs, challenges the anthropocentrism of critical pedagogy and writes that to achieve its transformative goals there are other differences between Western and Indigenous worldview that must be considered. Approaching the intersection of Indigenous perspectives and pedagogy from another perspective, critical pedagogy of place examines the impacts of place.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Critical pedagogy has often ignored the implications of sanism in education and excluded Mad persons' knowledges from informing curriculum and pedagogy. Castrodale has stated a greater need to identify ableist and sanist ideals shaping educational paradigms by drawing on the fields of critical disability studies and Mad Studies to advance inclusive enabling approaches to teaching and learning


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Ira Shor, a professor at the City University of New York, provides for an example of how critical pedagogy is used in the classroom. He develops these themes in looking at the use of Freirean teaching methods in the context of the everyday life of classrooms, in particular, institutional settings. He suggests that the whole curriculum of the classroom must be re-examined and reconstructed. He favors a change of role of the student from object to active, critical subject. In doing so, he suggests that students undergo a struggle for ownership of themselves. He states that students have previously been lulled into a sense of complacency by the circumstances of everyday life and that through the processes of the classroom, they can begin to envision and strive for something different for themselves.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Of course, achieving such a goal is not automatic nor easy, as he suggests that the role of the teacher is critical to this process. Students need to be helped by teachers to separate themselves from unconditional acceptance of the conditions of their own existence. Once this separation is achieved, then students may be prepared for critical re-entry into an examination of everyday life. In a classroom environment that achieves such liberating intent, one of the potential outcomes is that the students themselves assume more responsibility for the class. Power is thus distributed amongst the group and the role of the teacher becomes much more mobile, not to mention more challenging. This encourages the growth of each student's intellectual character rather than a mere "mimicry of the professorial style."


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Teachers, however, do not simply abdicate their authority in a student-centered classroom. In the later years of his life, Freire grew increasingly concerned with what he felt was a major misinterpretation of his work and insisted that teachers cannot deny their position of authority.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: And due to the student-centeredness that critical pedagogy insists upon, there are inherent conflicts associated with the "large collections of top-down content standards in their disciplines". Critical pedagogy advocates insist that teachers themselves are vital to the discussion about Standards-based education reform in the United States because a pedagogy that requires a student to learn or a teacher to teach externally imposed information exemplifies the banking model of education outlined by Freire where the structures of knowledge are left unexamined. To the critical pedagogue, the teaching act must incorporate social critique alongside the cultivation of intellect.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Joe L. Kincheloe argues that this is in direct opposition to the epistemological concept of positivism, where "social actions should proceed with law-like predictability". In this philosophy, a teacher and their students would be served by Standards-based education where there is "only be one correct way to teach" as "[e]veryone is assumed to be the same regardless of race, class, or gender". Donald Schön's concept of "indeterminate zones of practice" illustrates how any practice, especially ones with human subjects at their center, are infinitely complex and highly contested, which amplify the critical pedagogue's unwillingness to apply universal practices.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Furthermore, bell hooks, who is greatly influenced by Freire, points out the importance of engaged pedagogy and the responsibility that teachers, as well as students, must have in the classroom:


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Students sometimes resist critical pedagogy. Student resistance to critical pedagogy can be attributed to a variety of reasons. Student objections may be due to ideological reasons, religious or moral convictions, fear of criticism, or discomfort with controversial issues. Kristen Seas argues: "Resistance in this context thus occurs when students are asked to shift not only their perspectives, but also their subjectivities as they accept or reject assumptions that contribute to the pedagogical arguments being constructed." Karen Kopelson asserts that resistance to new information or ideologies, introduced in the classroom, is a natural response to persuasive messages that are unfamiliar.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Resistance is often, at the least, understandably protective: As anyone who can remember her or his own first uneasy encounters with particularly challenging new theories or theorists can attest, resistance serves to shield us from uncomfortable shifts or all-out upheavals in perception and understanding-shifts in perception which, if honored, force us to inhabit the world in fundamentally new and different ways.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Kristen Seas further explains: "Students [often] reject the teacher's message because they see it as coercive, they do not agree with it, or they feel excluded by it." Karen Kopelson concludes "that many if not most students come to the university in order to gain access to and eventual enfranchisement in 'the establishment,' not to critique and reject its privileges." To overcome student resistance to critical pedagogy, teachers must enact strategic measures to help their students negotiate controversial topics.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: The rapidly changing demographics of the classroom in the United States has resulted in an unprecedented amount of linguistic and cultural diversity. In order to respond to these changes, advocates of critical pedagogy call into question the focus on practical skills of teacher credential programs. "[T]his practical focus far too often occurs without examining teachers' own assumptions, values, and beliefs and how this ideological posture informs, often unconsciously, their perceptions and actions when working with linguistic-minority and other politically, socially, and economically subordinated students." As teaching is considered an inherently political act to the critical pedagogue, a more critical element of teacher education becomes addressing implicit biases (also known as implicit cognition or implicit stereotypes) that can subconsciously affect a teacher's perception of a student's ability to learn.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Advocates of critical pedagogy insist that teachers, then, must become learners alongside their students, as well as students "of" their students. They must become experts beyond their field of knowledge, and immerse themselves in the culture, customs, and lived experiences of the students they aim to teach.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Critical pedagogy has been the subject of varied debates inside and outside the field of education. Philosopher John Searle characterized the goal of Giroux's form of critical pedagogy "to create political radicals", thus highlighting the antagonistic moral and political grounds of the ideals of citizenship and "public wisdom." These varying moral perspectives of what is right are to be found in what John Dewey has referred to as the tensions between traditional and progressive education. Searle argued that critical pedagogy's objections to the Western canon are misplaced and/or disingenuous:


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Precisely by inculcating a critical attitude, the "canon" served to demythologize the conventional pieties of the American bourgeoisie and provided the student with a perspective from which to critically analyze American culture and institutions. Ironically, the same tradition is now regarded as oppressive. The texts once served an unmasking function; now we are told that it is the texts which must be unmasked.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: In 1992, Maxine Hairston took a hard line against critical pedagogy in the first year college composition classroom and argued, "everywhere I turn I find composition faculty, both leaders in the profession and new voices, asserting that they have not only the right, but the duty, to put ideology and radical politics at the center of their teaching." Hairston further confers,


title: Critical pedagogy

text: When classes focus on complex issues such as racial discrimination, economic injustices, and inequities of class and gender, they should be taught by qualified faculty who have the depth of information and historical competence that such critical social issues warrant. Our society's deep and tangled cultural conflicts can neither be explained nor resolved by simplistic ideological formulas.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Sharon O'Dair (2003) said that compositionists "focus [...] almost exclusively on ideological matters", and further argues that this focus is at the expense of proficiency of student writing skills in the composition classroom. To this end, O'Dair explained that "recently advocated working-class pedagogies privilege activism over "language instruction." Jeff Smith argued that students want to gain, rather than to critique, positions of privilege, as encouraged by critical pedagogues.


title: Critical pedagogy

text: Scholars who have worked in the field of critical pedagogy have also critiqued the movement from various angles. In 2016, Curry Stephenson Malott, who had written several books about critical pedagogy and identified as a critical pedagogue, renounced and critiqued his previous work. In "History and Education: Engaging the Global Class War", he writes about his "long journey of self-reflection and de-indoctrination" that culminated in the break. Malott writes that "the term critical pedagogy was created by Henry Giroux (1981) as an attempt to dismiss socialism and the legacy of Karl Marx." During the same period, Derek R. Ford also broke with critical pedagogy, claiming that it was "at a dead end." While Ford is not concerned with "proficiency" like O'Dair, he agrees that the focus on critique at the expense of imagination and actual political engagement serves to produce the critical pedagogue as "the enlightened and isolated researcher that reveals the truth behind the curtain." Both Malott and Ford, however, note exceptions to their critiques within the field, such as the work of Peter McLaren.


title: Whitsun

text: Whitsun (also Whitsunday or Whit Sunday) is the name used in Britain, and throughout the world among Catholics, Anglicans and Methodists, for the Christian High Holy Day of Pentecost. It is the seventh Sunday after Easter, which commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon Christ's disciples (as described in Acts 2). In England it took on some characteristics of Beltane, which originated from the pagan celebration of Summer's Day, the beginning of the summer half-year, in Europe. Whitsuntide, the week following Whitsunday, was one of three holiday weeks for the medieval villein; on most manors he was free from service on the lord's demesne this week, which marked a pause in the agricultural year. Whit Monday, the day after Whitsun, remained a holiday in Britain until 1971 when, with effect from 1972, it was replaced with the Spring Bank Holiday on the last Monday in May. Whit was the occasion for varied forms of celebration.


title: Whitsun

text: In the North West of England, church and chapel parades called whit walks still take place at this time (sometimes on Whit Friday, the Friday after Whitsun). Typically, the parades include brass bands and choirs; girls attending are dressed in white. Traditionally, Whit fairs (sometimes called Whitsun ales) took place. Other customs, such as Morris dancing, were associated with Whitsun, although in most cases they have been transferred to the Spring bank holiday. Whaddon, Cambridgeshire has its own Whitsun tradition of singing a unique song around the village before and on Whit Sunday itself.


title: Whitsun

text: The name is a contraction of "White Sunday", attested in "the Holy Ghost, whom thou didst send on Whit-sunday" in the Old English homilies, and parallel to the mention of in the early 13th-century "Ancrene Riwle". Walter William Skeat noted that the Anglo-Saxon word also appears in Icelandic "hvitasunnu-dagr", but that in English the feast was called "Pentecoste" until after the Norman Conquest, when "white" () began to be confused with "wit" or understanding. According to one interpretation, the name derives from the white garments worn by catechumens, those expecting to be baptised on that Sunday. Moreover, in England white vestments, rather than the more usual red, were traditional for the day and its octave. A different tradition is that of the young women of the parish all coming to church or chapel in new white dresses on that day. However, Augustinian canon John Mirk (c. 1382–1414), of Lilleshall Abbey, Shropshire, had another interpretation:


title: Whitsun

text: Goode men and woymen, as ȝe knowen wele all, þys day ys called Whitsonday, for bycause þat þe Holy Gost as þys day broȝt wyt and wysdome ynto all Cristes dyscyples.


title: Whitsun

text: Thus, he thought the root of the word was "wit" (formerly spelt "wyt" or "wytte") and Pentecost was so-called to signify the outpouring of the wisdom of the Holy Ghost on Christ's disciples.


title: Whitsun

text: The following day is Whit Monday, a name coined to supersede the form "Monday in Whitsun-week" used by John Wycliffe and others. The week following Whit Sunday is known as "Whitsuntide" or "Whit week".


title: Whitsun

text: As the first holiday of the summer, Whitsun was one of the favourite times in the traditional calendar, and Whit Sunday, or the following week, was a time for celebration. This took the form of fêtes, fairs, pageants and parades, with Whitsun ales and Morris dancing in the south of England and Whit walks, Club Days and wakes in the north. A poster advertising the Whitsun festivities at Sunbury, Middlesex in 1778 listed the following attractions:


title: Whitsun

text: On Whit Monday, in the morning, will be a punting match...The first boat that comes in to receive a guinea...In the afternoon a gold-laced hat, worth 30s. to be cudgell'd for... On Whit Tuesday, in the morning, a fine Holland smock and ribbons, to be run for by girls and young women. And in the afternoon six pairs of buckskin gloves to be wrestled for.


title: Whitsun

text: In Manchester during the 17th century the nearby Kersal Moor Whit races were the great event of the year when large numbers of people turned the area into a giant fairground for several days. With the coming of industrialisation it became convenient to close down whole towns for a week in order to clean and maintain the machinery in the mills and factories. The week of closure, or wakes week, was often held at Whitsuntide. A report in John Harlan and T.T. Wilkinson's "Lancashire Folk lore" (1882) reads:


title: Whitsun

text: It is customary for the cotton mills etc., to close for Whitsuntide week to give the hands a holiday; the men going to the races etc. and the women visiting Manchester on Whit-Saturday, thronging the markets, the Royal Exchange and the Infirmary Esplanade, and other public places: And gazing in at the shop windows, whence this day is usually called 'Gaping Sunday'.


title: Whitsun

text: Whit Monday was officially recognised as a bank holiday in the UK in 1871, but lost this status in 1972 when the fixed Spring Bank Holiday was created.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: Shrapnel shells were anti-personnel artillery munitions which carried many individual bullets close to a target area and then ejected them to allow them to continue along the shell's trajectory and strike targets individually. They relied almost entirely on the shell's velocity for their lethality. The munition has been obsolete since the end of World War I for anti-personnel use; high-explosive shells superseded it for that role. The functioning and principles behind Shrapnel shells are fundamentally different from high-explosive shell fragmentation. Shrapnel is named after Lieutenant-General Henry Shrapnel (1761–1842), a British artillery officer, whose experiments, initially conducted on his own time and at his own expense, culminated in the design and development of a new type of artillery shell.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: Usage of term "shrapnel" has changed over time to also refer to fragmentation of the casing of shells and bombs. This is its most common modern usage, which strays from the original meaning.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: In 1784, Lieutenant Shrapnel of the Royal Artillery began developing an anti-personnel weapon. At the time artillery could use "canister shot" to defend themselves from infantry or cavalry attack, which involved loading a tin or canvas container filled with small iron or lead balls instead of the usual cannonball. When fired, the container burst open during passage through the bore or at the muzzle, giving the effect of an oversized shotgun shell. At ranges of up to 300 m canister shot was still highly lethal, though at this range the shots’ density was much lower, making a hit on a human body less likely. At longer ranges, solid shot or the common shell—a hollow cast-iron sphere filled with black powder—was used, although with more of a concussive than a fragmentation effect, as the pieces of the shell were very large and sparse in number.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: Shrapnel's innovation was to combine the multi-projectile shotgun effect of canister shot, with a time fuze to open the canister and disperse the bullets it contained at some distance along the canister's trajectory from the gun. His shell was a hollow cast-iron sphere filled with a mixture of balls and powder, with a crude time fuze. If the fuze was set correctly then the shell would break open, either in front of or above the intended human objective, releasing its contents (of musket balls). The shrapnel balls would carry on with the "remaining velocity" of the shell. In addition to a denser pattern of musket balls, the retained velocity could be higher as well, since the shrapnel shell as a whole would likely have a higher ballistic coefficient than the individual musket balls (see external ballistics).


title: Shrapnel shell

text: The explosive charge in the shell was to be just enough to break the casing rather than scatter the shot in all directions. As such his invention increased the effective range of canister shot from to about .


title: Shrapnel shell

text: He called his device 'spherical case shot', but in time it came to be called after him; a nomenclature formalised in 1852 by the British Government.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: Initial designs suffered from the potentially catastrophic problem that friction between the shot and black powder during the high acceleration down the gun bore could sometimes cause premature ignition of the powder. Various solutions were tried, with limited if any success. However, in 1852 Colonel Boxer proposed using a diaphragm to separate the bullets from the bursting charge; this proved successful and was adopted the following year. As a buffer to prevent lead shot deforming, a resin was used as a packing material between the shot. A useful side effect of using the resin was that the combustion also gave a visual reference upon the shell bursting, as the resin shattered into a cloud of dust.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: It took until 1803 for the British artillery to adopt (albeit with great enthusiasm) the shrapnel shell (as "spherical case"). Henry Shrapnel was promoted to major in the same year. The first recorded use of shrapnel by the British was in 1804 against the Dutch at Fort Nieuw-Amsterdam in Suriname. The Duke of Wellington's armies used it from 1808 in the Peninsular War and at the Battle of Waterloo, and he wrote admiringly of its effectiveness.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: The design was improved by Captain E. M. Boxer of the Royal Arsenal around 1852 and crossed over when cylindrical shells for rifled guns were introduced. Lieutenant-Colonel Boxer adapted his design in 1864 to produce shrapnel shells for the new rifled muzzle-loader (RML) guns: the walls were of thick cast iron, but the gunpowder charge was now in the shell base with a tube running through the centre of the shell to convey the ignition flash from the time fuze in the nose to the gunpowder charge in the base. The powder charge both shattered the cast iron shell wall and liberated the bullets. The broken shell wall continued mainly forward but had little destructive effect. The system had major limitations: the thickness of the iron shell walls limited the available carrying capacity for bullets but provided little destructive capability, and the tube through the centre similarly reduced available space for bullets.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: In the 1870s William Armstrong provided a design with the bursting charge in the head and the shell wall made of steel and hence much thinner than previous cast-iron shrapnel shell walls. While the thinner shell wall and absence of a central tube allowed the shell to carry far more bullets, it had the disadvantage that the bursting charge separated the bullets from the shell casing by firing the case forward and at the same time slowing the bullets down as they were ejected through the base of the shell casing, rather than increasing their velocity. Britain adopted this solution for several smaller calibres (below 6-inch) but by World War I few if any such shells remained.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: The final shrapnel shell design, adopted in the 1880s, bore little similarity to Henry Shrapnel's original design other than its spherical bullets and time fuse. It used a much thinner forged steel shell case with a timer fuse in the nose and a tube running through the centre to convey the ignition flash to a gunpowder bursting charge in the shell base. The use of steel allowed a thinner shell wall, allowing space for many more bullets. It also withstood the force of the powder charge without shattering, so that the bullets were fired forward out of the shell case with increased velocity, much like a shotgun. This design came to be adopted by all countries and was in standard use when World War I began in 1914. During the 1880s, when both the old cast-iron and modern forged-steel shrapnel shell designs were in British service, British ordnance manuals referred to the older cast-iron design as "Boxer shrapnel", apparently to differentiate it from the modern steel design.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: The modern thin-walled forged-steel design made feasible shrapnel shells for howitzers, which had a much lower velocity than field guns, by using a larger gunpowder charge to accelerate the bullets forward on bursting. The ideal shrapnel design would have had a timer fuze in the shell base to avoid the need for a central tube, but this was not technically feasible due to the need to manually adjust the fuze before firing, and was in any case rejected from an early date by the British due to risk of premature ignition and irregular action.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: The size of shrapnel balls in World War I was based on two considerations. One was the premise that a projectile energy of about was required to disable an enemy soldier. A typical World War I field gun shell at its maximum possible range traveling at a velocity of 250 feet/second, plus the additional velocity from the shrapnel bursting charge (about 150 feet per second), would give individual shrapnel bullets a velocity of 400 feet per second and an energy of 60 foot-pounds (81 joules): this was the minimum energy of a single half-inch lead-antimony ball of approximately , or 41-42 balls = 1 pound. Hence this was a typical field gun shrapnel bullet size.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: The maximum possible range, typically beyond , was beyond useful shrapnel combat ranges for normal field guns due to loss of accuracy and the fact that at extreme range the projectiles descended relatively steeply and hence the "cone" of bullets covered a relatively small area.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: At a more typical combat range of , giving a fairly flat trajectory and hence a long "beaten zone" for the bullets, a typical 3-inch or 75-mm field gun shrapnel shell would have a velocity of approximately 900 feet/second. The bursting charge would add a possible 150 feet/second, giving a bullet velocity of 1,050 feet/second. This would give each bullet approximately 418 foot-pounds: seven times the assumed energy required to disable a man.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: For larger guns which had lower velocities, correspondingly larger balls were used so that each individual ball carried enough energy to be lethal.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: Most engagements using guns in this size range used direct fire at enemy from to distant, at which ranges the residual shell velocity was correspondingly higher, as in the table - at least in the earlier stages of World War 1.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: The other factor was the trajectory. The shrapnel bullets were typically lethal for about from normal field guns after bursting and over from heavy field guns. To make maximum use of these distances a flat trajectory and hence high velocity gun was required. The pattern in Europe was that the armies with higher-velocity guns tended to use heavier bullets because they could afford to have fewer bullets per shell.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: The important points to note about shrapnel shells and bullets in their final stage of development in World War I are:


title: Shrapnel shell

text: A firsthand description of successful British deployment of shrapnel in a defensive barrage during the Third Battle of Ypres, 1917: ... the air is full of yellow spurts of smoke that burst about 30 feet up and shoot towards the earth - just ahead of each of these yellow puffs the earth rises in a lashed-up cloud - shrapnel - and how beautifully placed - long sweeps of it fly along that slope lashing up a good 200 yards of earth at each burst.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: During the initial stages of World War I, shrapnel was widely used by all sides as an anti-personnel weapon. It was the only type of shell available for British field guns (13-pounder, 15 pounder and 18-pounder) until October 1914. Shrapnel was effective against troops in the open, particularly massed infantry (advancing or withdrawing). However, the onset of trench warfare from late 1914 led to most armies decreasing their use of shrapnel in favour of high-explosive. Britain continued to use a high percentage of shrapnel shells. New tactical roles included cutting barbed wire and providing "creeping barrages" to both screen its own attacking troops and suppressing the enemy defenders to prevent them from shooting at their attackers.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: In a creeping barrage fire was 'lifted' from one 'line' to the next as the attackers advanced. These lines were typically apart and the lifts were typically 4 minutes apart. Lifting meant that time fuzes settings had to be changed. The attackers tried to keep as close as possible (as little as 25 yards sometimes) to the bursting shrapnel so as to be on top of the enemy trenches when fire lifted beyond them, and before the enemy could get back to their parapets.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: While shrapnel made no impression on trenches and other earthworks, it remained the favoured weapon of the British (at least) to support their infantry assaults by suppressing the enemy infantry and preventing them from manning their trench parapets. This was called 'neutralization' and by the second half of 1915 had become the primary task of artillery supporting an attack. Shrapnel was less hazardous to the assaulting British infantry than high explosives - as long as their own shrapnel burst above or ahead of them, attackers were safe from its effects, whereas high-explosive shells bursting short are potentially lethal within 100 yards or more in any direction. Shrapnel was also useful against counter-attacks, working parties and any other troops in the open.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: British Expeditionary Force "GHQ Artillery Notes No. 5 Wire-cutting" was issued in June 1916. It prescribed the use of shrapnel for wirecutting, with HE used to scatter the posts and wire when cut. However, there were constraints: the best ranges for 18-pdrs were 1,800–2,400 yards. Shorter ranges meant the flat trajectories might not clear the firers' own parapets, and fuzes could not be set for less than 1,000 yards. The guns had to be overhauled by artificers and carefully calibrated. Furthermore, they needed good platforms with trail and wheels anchored with sandbags, and an observing officer had to monitor the effects on the wire continuously and make any necessary adjustments to range and fuze settings. These instructions were repeated in "GHQ Artillery Notes No. 3 Artillery in Offensive Operations", issued in February 1917 with added detail including the amount of ammunition required per yard of wire frontage. The use of shrapnel for wire-cutting was also highlighted in RA "Training Memoranda No. 2 1939".


title: Shrapnel shell

text: Shrapnel provided a useful "screening" effect from the smoke of the black-powder bursting charges when the British used it in "creeping barrages".


title: Shrapnel shell

text: One of the key factors that contributed to the heavy casualties sustained by the British at the Battle of the Somme was the perceived belief that shrapnel would be effective at cutting the barbed wire entanglements in no man's land (although it has been suggested that the reason for the use of shrapnel as a wire-cutter at the Somme was because Britain lacked the capacity to manufacture enough HE shell). This perception was reinforced by the successful deployment of shrapnel shells against Germany's barbed wire entanglements in the 1915 Battle of Neuve Chapelle, but the Germans thickened their barbed wire strands after that battle. As a result, shrapnel was later only effective in killing enemy personnel; even if the conditions were correct, with the angle of descent being flat to maximise the number of bullets going through the entanglements, the probability of a shrapnel ball hitting a thin line of barbed wire and successfully cutting it was extremely low. The bullets also had limited destructive effect and were stopped by sandbags, so troops behind protection or in bunkers were generally safe. Additionally, steel helmets, including both the German Stahlhelm and the British Brodie helmet, could resist Shrapnel bullets and protect the wearer from head injury:


title: Shrapnel shell

text: ... suddenly, with a great clanging thud, I was hit on the forehead and knocked flying onto the floor of the trench... a shrapnel bullet had hit my helmet with great violence, without piercing it, but sufficiently hard to dent it. If I had, as had been usual up until a few days previously, been wearing a cap, then the Regiment would have had one more man killed.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: A shrapnel shell was more expensive than a high-explosive one and required higher grade steel for the shell body. They were also harder to use correctly because getting the correct fuze running time was critical in order to burst the shell in the right place. This required considerable skill by the observation officer when engaging moving targets.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: An added complication was that the actual fuze running time was affected by the meteorological conditions, with the variation in gun muzzle velocity being an added complication. However, the British used fuze indicators at each gun that determined the correct fuze running time (length) corrected for muzzle velocity.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: With the advent of relatively insensitive high explosives which could be used as the filling for shells, it was found that the casing of a properly designed high-explosive shell fragmented effectively . For example, the detonation of an average 105 mm shell produces several thousand high-velocity (1,000 to 1,500 m/s) fragments, a lethal (at very close range) blast overpressure and, if a surface or sub-surface burst, a useful cratering and anti-materiel effect — all in a munition much less complex than the later versions of the shrapnel shell. However, this fragmentation was often lost when shells penetrated soft ground, and because some fragments went in all directions it was a hazard to assaulting troops.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: One item of note is the "universal shell", a type of field gun shell developed by Krupp of Germany in the early 1900s. This shell could function as either a shrapnel shell or high explosive projectile. The shell had a modified fuze, and, instead of resin as the packing between the shrapnel balls, TNT was used. When a timed fuze was set the shell functioned as a shrapnel round, ejecting the balls and igniting (not detonating) the TNT, giving a visible puff of black smoke. When allowed to impact, the TNT filling would detonate, becoming a high-explosive shell with a very large amount of low-velocity fragmentation and a milder blast. Due to its complexity it was dropped in favour of a simple high-explosive shell.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: During World War I the UK also used shrapnel pattern shells to carry "pots" instead of "bullets". These were incendiary shells with seven pots using a thermite compound.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: When World War I began the United States also had what it referred to as the "Ehrhardt high-explosive shrapnel" in its inventory. It appears to be similar to the German design, with bullets embedded in TNT rather than resin, together with a quantity of explosive in the shell nose. Douglas Hamilton mentions this shell type in passing, as "not as common as other types" in his comprehensive treatises on manufacturing shrapnel and high explosive shells of 1915 and 1916, but gives no manufacturing details. Nor does Ethan Viall in 1917. Hence the US appears to have ceased its manufacture early in the war, presumably based on the experience of other combatants.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: A new British streamlined shrapnel shell, Mk 3D, had been developed for BL 60 pounder gun in the early 1930s, containing 760 bullets. There was some use of shrapnel by the British in the campaigns in East and North East Africa at the beginning of the war, where 18-pdr and 4.5-in (114 mm) howitzers were used. By World War II shrapnel shells, in the strict sense of the word, fell out of use, the last recorded use of shrapnel being 60 pdr shells fired in Burma in 1943. In 1945 the British conducted successful trials with shrapnel shells fuzed with VT. However, shrapnel was not developed as munitions for any new British artillery models after World War I.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: Although not strictly shrapnel, a 1960s weapons project produced splintex shells for 90 and 106 mm recoilless rifles and 105 mm howitzers where it was called a "beehive" round. Unlike the shrapnel shells’ balls, the splintex shells contained flechettes. The result was the 105 mm M546 APERS-T (anti-personnel-tracer) round, first used in the Vietnam War in 1966. The shell consisted of approximately 8,000 one-half gram flechettes arranged in five tiers, a time fuze, body shearing detonators, a central flash tube, a smokeless propellant charge with a dye marker contained in the base and a tracer element. The shell functioned as follows: the time fuze fired, the flash traveled down the flash tube, the shearing detonators fired, and the forward body split into four pieces. The body and first four tiers were dispersed by the projectile's spin, the last tier and visual marker by the powder charge itself. The flechettes spread, mainly due to spin, from the point of burst in an ever-widening cone along the projectile's previous trajectory prior to bursting. The round was complex to make, but is a highly effective anti-personnel weapon — soldiers reported that after beehive rounds were fired during an overrun attack, many enemy dead had their hands nailed to the wooden stocks of their rifles, and these dead could be dragged to mass graves by the rifle. It is said that the name beehive was given to the munition type due to the noise of the flechettes moving through the air resembling that of a swarm of bees.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: Though shrapnel rounds are now rarely used, apart from the beehive munitions, there are other modern rounds, that use, or have used, the shrapnel principle. The DM 111 20 mm cannon round used for close range air defense, the flechette-filled 40 mm HVCC (40 x 53 mm HV grenade), the 35 mm cannon (35 × 228 mm) AHEAD ammunition (152 x 3.3 g tungsten cylinders), RWM Schweiz 30 × 173 mm air-bursting munition, five-inch (127 mm) shotgun projectile (KE-ET) and possibly more. Also, many modern armies have canister shot ammunition for tank and artillery guns, the XM1028 round for the 120 mm M256 tank gun being one example (approx 1150 tungsten balls at 1,400 m/s).


title: Shrapnel shell

text: At least some anti-ballistic missiles (ABMs) use shrapnel-like warheads instead of the more common blast-fragmentation types. As with a blast-frag warhead, the use of this type of warhead does not require a direct body-on-body impact, so greatly reduces tracking and steering accuracy requirements. At a predetermined distance from the incoming re-entry vehicle (RV) the warhead releases, in the case of the ABM warhead by an explosive expulsion charge, an array of mainly rod-like sub-projectiles into the RV's flight path. Unlike a blast-frag warhead, the expulsion charge is only needed to release the sub-projectiles from the main warhead, not to accelerate them to high velocity. The velocity required to penetrate the RV's casing comes from the high terminal velocity of the warhead, similar to the shrapnel shell's principle. The reason for the use of this type of warhead and not a blast-frag is that the fragments produced by a blast-frag warhead cannot guarantee penetration of the RV's casing. By using rod-like sub-projectiles, a much greater thickness of material can be penetrated, greatly increasing the potential for disruption of the incoming RV.


title: Shrapnel shell

text: The Starstreak missile uses a similar system, with three metal darts splitting from the missile prior to impact, although in the case of Starstreak these darts are guided and contain an explosive charge.


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: Historians who debate the origins of the American Civil War focus on the reasons that seven Southern states (followed by four other states after the onset of the war) declared their secession from the United States (the Union) and united to form the Confederate States (known as the "Confederacy"), and the reasons that the North refused to let them go. Proponents of the pseudo-historical Lost Cause ideology have denied that slavery was the principal cause of the secession. While historians in the 21st century agree on the centrality of the conflict over slavery—it was not just "a cause" of the war but "the cause"—they disagree sharply on which aspects of this conflict (ideological, economic, political, or social) were most important.


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: The principal political battle leading to Southern secession was over whether slavery would be permitted to expand into newly acquired Western territories destined to become states. Initially Congress had admitted new states into the Union in pairs, one slave and one free. This had kept a sectional balance in the Senate but not in the House of Representatives, as free states outstripped slave states in population. Thus, at mid-19th century, the free-versus-slave status of the new territories was a critical issue, both for the North, where anti-slavery sentiment had grown, and for the South, where the fear of slavery's abolition had grown. Another factor leading to secession and the formation of the Confederacy was the development of white Southern nationalism in the preceding decades. The primary reason for the North to reject secession was to preserve the Union, a cause based on American nationalism.


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 presidential election, even though he was not on the ballot in ten Southern states. His victory triggered declarations of secession by seven slave states of the Deep South, all of whose riverfront or coastal economies were based on cotton that was cultivated by enslaved labor. They formed the Confederate States after Lincoln was elected in November 1860 but before he took office in March 1861.


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: Nationalists in the North and "Unionists" in the South refused to accept the declarations of secession. No foreign government ever recognized the Confederacy. The U.S. government, under President James Buchanan, refused to relinquish its forts that were in territory claimed by the Confederacy. The war itself began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces bombarded Fort Sumter, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina.


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: As a panel of historians emphasized in 2011, "while slavery and its various and multifaceted discontents were the primary cause of disunion, it was disunion itself that sparked the war." Historian David M. Potter wrote: "The problem for Americans who, in the age of Lincoln, wanted slaves to be free was not simply that southerners wanted the opposite, but that they themselves cherished a conflicting value: they wanted the Constitution, which protected slavery, to be honored, and the Union, which had fellowship with slaveholders, to be preserved. Thus they were committed to values that could not logically be reconciled."


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: Other important factors were partisan politics, abolitionism, nullification versus secession, Southern and Northern nationalism, expansionism, economics, and modernization in the Antebellum period.


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: By the mid-19th century the United States had become a nation of two distinct regions. The free states in New England, the Northeast, and the Midwest had a rapidly growing economy based on family farms, industry, mining, commerce and transportation, with a large and rapidly growing urban population. Their growth was fed by a high birth rate and large numbers of European immigrants, especially from Ireland and Germany. The South was dominated by a settled plantation system based on slavery; there was some rapid growth taking place in the Southwest (e.g., Texas), based on high birth rates and high migration from the Southeast; there was also immigration by Europeans, but in much smaller number. The heavily rural South had few cities of any size, and little manufacturing except in border areas such as St. Louis and Baltimore. Slave owners controlled politics and the economy, although about 75% of white Southern families owned no slaves.


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: Overall, the Northern population was growing much more quickly than the Southern population, which made it increasingly difficult for the South to dominate the national government. By the time the 1860 election occurred, the heavily agricultural Southern states as a group had fewer Electoral College votes than the rapidly industrializing Northern states. Abraham Lincoln was able to win the 1860 presidential election without even being on the ballot in ten Southern states. Southerners felt a loss of federal concern for Southern pro-slavery political demands, and their continued domination of the federal government was threatened. This political calculus provided a very real basis for Southerners' worry about the relative political decline of their region, due to the North growing much faster in terms of population and industrial output.


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: In the interest of maintaining unity, politicians had mostly moderated opposition to slavery, resulting in numerous compromises such as the Missouri Compromise of 1820 under the presidency of James Monroe. After the Mexican–American War of 1846 to 1848, the issue of slavery in the new territories led to the Compromise of 1850. While the compromise averted an immediate political crisis, it did not permanently resolve the issue of the Slave Power (the power of slaveholders to control the national government on the slavery issue). Part of the Compromise of 1850 was the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 that required Northerners assist Southerners in reclaiming fugitive slaves, which many Northerners found to be extremely offensive.