title: Anti-psychiatry

text: Stuart A. Kirk has argued that psychiatry is a failed enterprise, as mental illness has grown, not shrunk, with about 20% of American adults diagnosable as mentally ill in 2013.


title: Anti-psychiatry

text: According to a 2014 meta-analysis, psychiatric treatment is no less effective for psychiatric illnesses in terms of treatment effects than treatments by practitioners of other medical specialties for physical health conditions. The analysis found that the effect sizes for psychiatric interventions are, on average, on par with other fields of medicine.


title: Anti-psychiatry

text: Szasz has since (2008) re-emphasized his disdain for the term anti-psychiatry, arguing that its legacy has simply been a "catchall term used to delegitimize and dismiss critics of psychiatric fraud and force by labeling them "antipsychiatrists"". He points out that the term originated in a meeting of four psychiatrists (Cooper, Laing, Berke and Redler) who never defined it yet "counter-label[ed] their discipline as anti-psychiatry", and that he considers Laing most responsible for popularizing it despite also personally distancing himself. Szasz describes the deceased (1989) Laing in vitriolic terms, accusing him of being irresponsible and equivocal on psychiatric diagnosis and use of force, and detailing his past "public behavior" as "a fit subject for moral judgment" which he gives as "a bad person and a fraud as a professional".


title: Anti-psychiatry

text: Daniel Burston, however, has argued that overall the published works of Szasz and Laing demonstrate far more points of convergence and intellectual kinship than Szasz admits, despite the divergence on a number of issues related to Szasz being a libertarian and Laing an existentialist; that Szasz employs a good deal of exaggeration and distortion in his criticism of Laing's personal character, and unfairly uses Laing's personal failings and family woes to discredit his work and ideas; and that Szasz's "clear-cut, crystalline ethical principles are designed to spare us the agonizing and often inconclusive reflections that many clinicians face frequently in the course of their work". Szasz has indicated that his own views came from libertarian politics held since his teens, rather than through experience in psychiatry; that in his "rare" contacts with involuntary mental patients in the past he either sought to discharge them (if they were not charged with a crime) or "assisted the prosecution in securing [their] conviction" (if they were charged with a crime and appeared to be prima facie guilty); that he is not opposed to consensual psychiatry and "does not interfere with the practice of the conventional psychiatrist", and that he provided "listening-and-talking ("psychotherapy")" for voluntary fee-paying clients from 1948 until 1996, a practice he characterizes as non-medical and not associated with his being a psychoanalytically trained psychiatrist.


title: Anti-psychiatry

text: The gay rights or gay liberation movement is often thought to have been part of anti-psychiatry in its efforts to challenge oppression and stigma and, specifically, to get homosexuality removed from the American Psychiatric Association's (APA) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. However, a psychiatric member of APA's Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Issues Committee has recently sought to distance the two, arguing that they were separate in the early 70s protests at APA conventions and that APA's decision to remove homosexuality was scientific and happened to coincide with the political pressure. Reviewers have responded, however, that the founders and movements were closely aligned; that they shared core texts, proponents and slogans; and that others have stated that, for example, the gay liberation critique was "made possible by (and indeed often explicitly grounded in) traditions of antipsychiatry".


title: Anti-psychiatry

text: In the clinical setting, the two strands of anti-psychiatry—criticism of psychiatric knowledge and reform of its practices—were never entirely distinct. In addition, in a sense, anti-psychiatry was not so much a demand for the end of psychiatry, as it was an often self-directed demand for psychiatrists and allied professionals to question their own judgements, assumptions and practices. In some cases, the suspicion of non-psychiatric medical professionals towards the validity of psychiatry was described as anti-psychiatry, as well the criticism of "hard-headed" psychiatrists towards "soft-headed" psychiatrists. Most leading figures of anti-psychiatry were themselves psychiatrists, and equivocated over whether they were really "against psychiatry", or parts thereof. Outside the field of psychiatry, however—e.g. for activists and non-medical mental health professionals such as social workers and psychologists—'anti-psychiatry' tended to mean something more radical. The ambiguous term "anti-psychiatry" came to be associated with these more radical trends, but there was debate over whether it was a new phenomenon, whom it best described, and whether it constituted a genuinely singular movement. In order to avoid any ambiguity intrinsic to the term anti-psychiatry, a current of thought that can be defined as critique of the basis of psychiatry, radical and unambiguous, aims for the complete elimination of psychiatry. The main representative of the critique of the basis of psychiatry is an Italian physician, Giorgio Antonucci, the founder of the non-psychiatric approach to psychological suffering, who posited that the "essence of psychiatry lies in an ideology of discrimination".


title: Anti-psychiatry

text: In the 1990s, a tendency was noted among psychiatrists to characterize and to regard the anti-psychiatric movement as part of the past, and to view its ideological history as flirtation with the polemics of radical politics at the expense of scientific thought and enquiry. It was also argued, however, that the movement contributed towards generating demand for grassroots involvement in guidelines and advocacy groups, and to the shift from large mental institutions to community services. Additionally, community centers have tended in practice to distance themselves from the psychiatric/medical model and have continued to see themselves as representing a culture of resistance or opposition to psychiatry's authority. Overall, while antipsychiatry as a movement may have become an anachronism by this period and was no longer led by eminent psychiatrists, it has been argued that it became incorporated into the mainstream practice of mental health disciplines. On the other hand, mainstream psychiatry became more biomedical, increasing the gap between professionals.


title: Anti-psychiatry

text: Henry Nasrallah claims that while he believes anti-psychiatry consists of many historical exaggerations based on events and primitive conditions from a century ago, "antipsychiatry helps keep us honest and rigorous about what we do, motivating us to relentlessly seek better diagnostic models and treatment paradigms. Psychiatry is far more scientific today than it was a century ago, but misperceptions about psychiatry continue to be driven by abuses of the past. The best antidote for antipsychiatry allegations is a combination of personal integrity, scientific progress, and sound evidence-based clinical care".


title: Anti-psychiatry

text: A criticism was made in the 1990s that three decades of anti-psychiatry had produced a large literature critical of psychiatry, but little discussion of the deteriorating situation of the mentally troubled in American society. Anti-psychiatry crusades have thus been charged with failing to put suffering individuals first, and therefore being similarly guilty of what they blame psychiatrists for. The rise of anti-psychiatry in Italy was described by one observer as simply "a transfer of psychiatric control from those with medical knowledge to those who possessed socio-political power".


title: Anti-psychiatry

text: Critics of this view, however, from an anti-psychiatry perspective, are quick to point to the industrial aspects of psychiatric treatment itself as a primary causal factor in this situation that is described as "deteriorating". The numbers of people labeled "mentally ill", and in treatment, together with the severity of their conditions, have been going up primarily due to the direct efforts of the mental health movement, and mental health professionals, including psychiatrists, and not their detractors. Envisioning "mental health treatment" as violence prevention has been a big part of the problem, especially as you are dealing with a population that is not significantly more violent than any other group and, in fact, are less so than many.


title: Anti-psychiatry

text: On October 7, 2016, the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) at the University of Toronto announced that they had established a scholarship for students doing theses in the area of antipsychiatry. Called "The Bonnie Burstow Scholarship in Antipsychiatry", it is to be awarded annually to an OISE thesis student. An unprecedented step, the scholarship should further the cause of freedom of thought and the exchange of ideas in academia. The scholarship is named in honor of Bonnie Burstow, a faculty member at the University of Toronto, a radical feminist, and an antipsychiatry activist. She is also the author of "Psychiatry and the Business of Madness" (2015).


title: Anti-psychiatry

text: Some components of antipsychiatric theory have in recent decades been reformulated into a critique of "corporate psychiatry", heavily influenced by the pharmaceutical industry. A recent editorial about this was published in the "British Journal of Psychiatry" by Moncrieff, arguing that modern psychiatry has become a handmaiden to conservative political commitments. David Healy is a psychiatrist and professor in psychological medicine at Cardiff University School of Medicine, Wales. He has a special interest in the influence of the pharmaceutical industry on medicine and academia.


title: Anti-psychiatry

text: In the meantime, members of the psychiatric consumer/survivor movement continued to campaign for reform, empowerment and alternatives, with an increasingly diverse representation of views. Groups often have been opposed and undermined, especially when they proclaim to be, or when they are labelled as being, "anti-psychiatry". However, as of the 1990s, more than 60 percent of ex-patient groups reportedly support anti-psychiatry beliefs and consider themselves to be "psychiatric survivors". Although anti-psychiatry is often attributed to a few famous figures in psychiatry or academia, it has been pointed out that consumer/survivor/ex-patient individuals and groups preceded it, drove it and carried on through it.


title: Anti-psychiatry

text: A schism exists among those critical of conventional psychiatry between radical abolitionists and more moderate reformists. Laing, Cooper and others associated with the initial anti-psychiatry movement stopped short of actually advocating for the abolition of coercive psychiatry. Thomas Szasz, from near the beginning of his career, crusaded for the abolition of forced psychiatry. Today, believing that coercive psychiatry marginalizes and oppresses people with its harmful, controlling, and abusive practices, many who identify as anti-psychiatry activists are proponents of the complete abolition of non-consensual and coercive psychiatry.


title: Anti-psychiatry

text: Critics of antipsychiatry from within psychiatry itself object to the underlying principle that psychiatry is by definition harmful. Most psychiatrists accept that issues exist that need addressing, but that the abolition of psychiatry is harmful. Nimesh Desai concludes: "To be a believer and a practitioner of multidisciplinary mental health, it is not necessary to reject the medical model as one of the basics of psychiatry." and admits "Some of the challenges and dangers to psychiatry are not so much from the avowed antipsychiatrists, but from the misplaced and misguided individuals and groups in related fields."


title: Jon B.

text: Jonathan David Buck (born November 11, 1974) is an American R&B singer, songwriter, and record producer. His debut album, "Bonafide" (1995), went platinum.


title: Jon B.

text: Born in Providence, Rhode Island, United States and raised in Altadena, California, Buck comes from a musical family; with his father David, a professor of music, his mother Linda, a concert pianist and his siblings Deborah, a violinist and his brother Kevin, a cellist. His mother is Jewish and his father is Puerto Rican. In 1992, Jon B. was shopping demos when he caught the attention of Tracey Edmonds, then-president and CEO of Yab-Yum Records.


title: Jon B.

text: Jon B's early influences as a musician include: Duran Duran, INXS, Marvin Gaye, Michael Jackson, Babyface, Prince, and Sade. He spent the summer after high school writing, producing and recording 40 songs and began making his rounds to all major record labels.


title: Jon B.

text: Jon B., before his rise to fame, used to be a songwriter and wrote songs for After 7, Toni Braxton, Michael Jackson, Color Me Badd, the Spice Girls and others. Jon B.'s popularity began in the mid-1990s, he released his debut studio album in 1995 titled "Bonafide"; the album spawned the popular hit and Grammy-nominated single "Someone to Love", which featured the Grammy Award-winning artist Babyface. The album was a commercial success as it went platinum, selling over 1 million copies.


title: Jon B.

text: He released his second studio album "Cool Relax" in 1997, the album spawned the top 10 single "They Don't Know" and two other top 20 hits, including Are U Still Down featuring Tupac Shakur. "Cool Relax" received generally positive reviews from music critics, and it is his most successful album commercially; it has been certified as double platinum by the RIAA.


title: Jon B.

text: While on tour promoting "Cool Relax", he formed a group with two of his back-up singers, Dominiquinn and Silky Deluxe, named Jack Herrera collectively. A full album, titled "Retro Futuristo", was put together, but never officially released.


title: Plumb bob

text: A plumb bob, plumb bob level, or plummet, is a weight, usually with a pointed tip on the bottom, suspended from a string and used as a vertical reference line, or plumb-line. It is a precursor to the spirit level and used to establish a vertical datum. It is typically made of stone, wood, or lead, but can also be made of other metals. If it is used for decoration, it may be made of bone or ivory.


title: Plumb bob

text: The instrument has been used since at least the time of ancient Egypt to ensure that constructions are "plumb", or vertical. It is also used in surveying, to establish the nadir with respect to gravity of a point in space. It is used with a variety of instruments (including levels, theodolites, and steel tapes) to set the instrument exactly over a fixed survey marker or to transcribe positions onto the ground for placing a marker.


title: Plumb bob

text: The "plumb" in "plumb bob" derives from Latin "plumbum" ('lead'), the material once used for the weighted "bob" at the end. The adjective "plumb" developed by extension, as did the noun "aplomb", from the notion of "standing upright".


title: Plumb bob

text: Until the modern age, plumb bobs were used on most tall structures to provide vertical datum lines for the building measurements. A section of the scaffolding would hold a plumb line, which was centered over a datum mark on the floor. As the building proceeded upward, the plumb line would also be taken higher, still centered on the datum. Many cathedral spires, domes and towers still have brass datum marks inlaid into their floors, which signify the center of the structure above.


title: Plumb bob

text: A plumb bob and line alone can determine only a vertical reference. However, if they are mounted on a suitable scale the instrument may also be used as an inclinometer to measure angles to the vertical.


title: Plumb bob

text: Ancient Egyptians used a plumb line attached to the top outer part of a tool resembling a letter "E"; when placed against a wall, the plumb line would indicate a vertical line. An A-frame level with a plumb line hung from the vertex was also used to find horizontal; these were used in Europe until the mid–19th century. A variation of this tool has the plumb line hung from the top of an inverted "T" shape.


title: Plumb bob

text: A plumb bob may be in a container of water (when conditions are above freezing temperatures), molasses, very viscous oils or other liquids to dampen any swinging movement, functioning as a shock absorber.


title: Plumb bob

text: Students of figure drawing will also make use of a plumb line to find the vertical axis through the center of gravity of their subject and lay it down on paper as a point of reference. The device used may be purpose-made plumb lines, or simply makeshift devices made from a piece of string and a weighted object, such as a metal washer. This plumb line is important for lining up anatomical geometries and visualizing the subject's center of balance.


title: Boggart

text: A boggart is a creature in English folklore, either a household spirit or a malevolent "genius loci" (that is, a geographically-defined spirit) inhabiting fields, marshes, or other topographical features. Other names of this group include "bug", "bugbear", "bugaboo" or "bug-a-boo", "bogey", "bogun", "bogeyman", "bogle", etc., presumably all derived from (or related to) Old English "pūcel", and related to the Irish "púca" and the "pwca" or "bwga" of Welsh mythology.


title: Boggart

text: The household form causes mischief and things to disappear, milk to sour, and dogs to go lame. The boggarts inhabiting marshes or holes in the ground are often attributed more serious evildoing, such as the abduction of children.


title: Boggart

text: Always malevolent, the household boggart will follow its family wherever they flee. It is said that the boggart crawls into people's beds at night and puts a clammy hand on their faces. Sometimes he strips the bedsheets off them. Sometimes a boggart will also pull on a person's ears. Hanging a horseshoe on the door of a house and leaving a pile of salt outside your bedroom are said to keep a boggart away.


title: Boggart

text: In some areas, such as Northumberland, it was believed that helpful household sprites, "silkies" or "brownies", could turn into malevolent boggarts if offended or ill-treated.


title: Boggart

text: In Northern England, at least, there was the belief that the boggart should never be named, for when the boggart was given a name, it would not be reasoned with nor persuaded, but would become uncontrollable and destructive (see True name). Within the folklore of North-West England, boggarts can cause mischief in homes but tend to live outdoors, in marshland, holes in the ground, under bridges and on dangerous sharp bends on roads. The book "Lancashire Folklore" of 1867, makes a distinction between "House boggarts" and other types. In Lancashire, a skittish or runaway horse was said to have "took boggarts"—that is, been frightened by a, usually invisible, boggart. When a person got lost in a marsh and was never seen again, the people were sure that a boggart had caught the poor unfortunate and devoured him. The name of at least one Lancashire boggart was recorded, "Nut-Nan", who flitted with a shrill scream among hazel bushes in Moston near Manchester. In Yorkshire, boggarts also inhabit outdoor locations, one is said to haunt Cave Ha, a limestone cavern at Giggleswick near Settle.


title: Boggart

text: The recorded folklore of boggarts is remarkably varied as to their appearance and size. Many are described as relatively human-like in form, though usually uncouth, very ugly and often with bestial attributes. T. Sternberg's 1851 book "Dialect and Folk-lore of Northhamptonshire" describes a certain boggart as "a squat hairy man, strong as a six year old horse, and with arms almost as long as tacklepoles".


title: Boggart

text: Other accounts describe boggarts as having more completely beast-like forms. The "Boggart of Longar Hede" from Yorkshire was said to be a fearsome creature the size of a calf, with long shaggy hair and eyes like saucers. It trailed a long chain after itself, which made a noise like the baying of hounds. The "Boggart of Hackensall Hall" in Lancashire had the appearance of a huge horse.


title: Boggart

text: At least one Lancashire boggart was said to sometimes take the forms of various animals, or indeed more fearful creatures. The boggarts of Lancashire were said to have a leader, or master, called 'Owd Hob', who had the form of a satyr or archetypical devil: horns, cloven hooves and a tail.


title: Boggart

text: A piece of folklore concerning a Lancashire boggart was published in 1861; the author had a conversation with an elderly couple one evening about their local boggart. They maintained that the boggart was buried at a nearby bend in the road under an ash tree, along with a cockerel with a stake driven through it. Despite being buried, the boggart was still able to create trouble. A farmer's wife, the old couple claimed, just two weeks earlier had heard doors banging in her farmhouse at night, then loud laughter; she looked out to see three candles casting blue light and a creature with red burning eyes leaping about. The following morning many marks of cloven hooves were seen outside the house. The couple claimed that the boggart had unhitched their own horse and overturned their cart on occasion. "Never name it [the boggart]" the old man repeated, and stated that he would never dig near its grave.


title: Boggart

text: In one old tale, said to originate from the village of Mumby in the Lincolnshire countryside, the boggart is described as being rather squat, hairy, and smelly. In the story, a farmer offers a deal to a boggart inhabiting his land; the boggart may choose either the part of the crop that grows above the ground or the part below it. When the boggart chooses the part below the ground, the farmer plants barley; at harvest time, the boggart is left with only stubble. The boggart then demands the part above ground instead, so the farmer plants potatoes. Once again left with nothing to show for his efforts, the enraged boggart leaves the area.


title: Boggart

text: An alternative telling includes a third episode where the farmer and the boggart are to harvest the crop (wheat) from either side of the field, each getting what he harvests. However the farmer plants iron rods in the boggart's half before the reaping, blunting his scythe, and allowing the farmer to harvest almost the entire field.


title: Boggart

text: This story is identical to the European fable "The Farmer and the Devil", cited in many seventeenth-century French works. (See Bonne Continuation, Nina M. Furry et Hannelore Jarausch)


title: Boggart

text: There is a large municipal park called Boggart Hole Clough, which is bordered by Moston and Blackley in Manchester, England. Clough is a northern dialect word for a steep-sided, wooded valley; a large part of Boggart Hole Clough is made up of these valleys and is said to be inhabited by boggarts. The clough is the setting for many boggart stories, including one of how a local farmer, George Cheetham, and his family were forced to leave their home due to the torment inflicted by a boggart. However, as they were taking their possessions away in a cart, the voice of the boggart was heard issuing from a milk-churn on the cart. Unable to escape the boggart, they returned to their farm.


title: Boggart

text: There is a Boggart Stones overlooking the place where the Moors Murderers, Ian Brady and Myra Hindley, buried the bodies of Lesley Ann Downey and Pauline Reade, children they had abducted. The children's bodies were buried just below the location, and in sight of, Boggart Stones (OS Map 1864).


title: Boggart

text: There is a Boggart Bridge in Burnley, Lancashire, where tradition says that whoever crosses the bridge must give a living thing to the boggart or forfeit his or her soul.


title: Boggart

text: Boggarts Roaring Holes are a group of potholes on the moors of Newby Moss near Clapham in the Yorkshire Dales. Legend has it that these potholes are the dwelling place of grotesque flesh-eating boggarts whose angry growls have allegedly been heard reverberating from the depths of the dark caverns beneath (hence the name).


title: Boggart

text: In the Seacroft area of Leeds in West Yorkshire there is a council estate named Boggart Hill; Boggart Hill Drive, Boggart Hill Gardens and Boggart Hill were all given the name of the estate area.


title: Boggart

text: Halfway between Scarborough and Whitby, on Robin Hood's Bay, there is a place called Boggle Hole. In the local mythology, a boggle is the local name for a hobgoblin, mischievous "little people" who were thought to live in caves along the coast. Boggle Hole is a natural cave formed by wave action where smugglers used to land their contraband in past times.


title: Boggart

text: On Puck, a moon of Uranus, there is a crater named Bogle, in deference to the system of nomenclature on this satellite, whose features are all named after various mischievous spirits.


title: Boggart

text: Boggarts feature prominently in a number of popular fantasy novels, in various incarnations. These include the "boggles" in C. S. Lewis' "The Chronicles of Narnia", the boggart in Susan Cooper's "The Boggart" and "The Boggart and the Monster", the boggart in the Septimus Heap series, the boggarts in Joseph Delaney's "The Wardstone Chronicles", and the boggart in William Mayne's "Earthfasts," and Tasha Tudor's Corgi-related picture books. Other books, including "The Spiderwick Chronicles", and Mark Del Franco's Convergent World books feature brownies which turn into boggarts when angered.


title: Boggart

text: The boggarts in J. K. Rowling's "Harry Potter" are shape-shifters whose true form is unknown, that change shape to resemble their beholder's worst fear (possibly inspired by the clutterbumph in Paul Gallico's Manxmouse). They are unlike most boggarts of British folklore, whose appearance is fixed. Their closest parallel, in being able to change shape at will, is probably to be found in a reference to a Lancashire boggart in the book "Lancashire Folklore" of 1867.


title: Boggart

text: In the 2014 fantasy film "Seventh Son" an enormous malevolent boggart attacks the protagonists while they're on their journey to find the antagonist character. Boggarts also appear in the film's original source material, "The Spook's Apprentice".


title: Boggart

text: In the CITV children's show "The Treacle People", boggarts are furry, gremlin-like creatures that originate from the Treacle Mines. They are mischievous, frequently playfighting and causing a mess. They serve as pets, friends and pests to the townspeople. They have the ability to walk up walls and other inclined surfaces due to their feet, which resemble plungers.


title: Boggart

text: A boggart appears in Peter S. Beagle's novel "Tamsin." He is described as a humanoid creature about a meter high who resents humans moving into his house and torments them with pranks and thievery. At first it seems he can become invisible, though it is later determined that he can hide in narrow cracks (between cupboards, under bathtubs, etc). As are many magical creatures in the book, the boggart is mortally afraid of cats.


title: Boggart

text: In role-playing games, the boggart appeared as the immature form of a will-o'-wisp with shape-shifting abilities in "Dungeons & Dragons" as well as Necromancer Games.


title: Boggart

text: A boggart features in the short story written by Jake Curran-Pipe, "The Boggart of Boggart Hole Clough", in the folklore anthology "Once Upon a Winter: A Folk and Fairy Tale Anthology" published by Macfarlane Lantern Publishing.


title: Flerovium

text: Flerovium is a superheavy chemical element with symbol Fl and atomic number 114. It is an extremely radioactive synthetic element. It is named after the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia, where the element was discovered in 1998. The lab's name, in turn, honours Russian physicist Georgy Flyorov ( in Cyrillic, hence the transliteration of "yo" to "e"). IUPAC adopted the name on 30 May 2012. The name and symbol had previously been proposed for element 102 (nobelium), but was not accepted by IUPAC at that time.


title: Flerovium

text: It is a transactinide in the p-block of the periodic table. It is in period 7; the heaviest known member of the carbon group, and the last element whose chemistry has been investigated. Initial chemical studies in 2007–2008 indicated that flerovium was unexpectedly volatile for a group 14 element; in preliminary results it even seemed to exhibit properties similar to noble gases. More recent results show that flerovium's reaction with gold is similar to that of copernicium, showing it is very volatile and may even be gaseous at standard temperature and pressure, that it would show metallic properties, consistent with being the heavier homologue of lead, and that it would be the least reactive metal in group 14. Whether flerovium behaves more like a metal or a noble gas is still unresolved as of 2022; it might also be a semiconductor.


title: Flerovium

text: About 90 flerovium atoms have been seen: 58 were synthesized directly; the rest have been populated from radioactive decay of heavier elements. All these flerovium atoms have been shown to have mass number 284–290. The stablest known isotope, Fl, has a half-life of ~1.9 seconds, but the unconfirmed Fl may have a longer half-life of 19 seconds; this would be one of the longest half-lives of any nuclide in these farthest reaches of the periodic table. Flerovium is predicted to be near the centre of the theorized island of stability, and it is expected that heavier flerovium isotopes, especially the possibly magic Fl, may have even longer half-lives.


title: Flerovium

text: In the late 1940s to early 1960s, the early days of making heavier and heavier transuranic elements, it was predicted that since such elements did not occur naturally, they would have shorter and shorter spontaneous fission half-lives, until they stopped existing altogether around element 108 (now called hassium). Initial work in synthesizing the heavier actinides seemed to confirm this. But the nuclear shell model, introduced in 1949 and extensively developed in the late 1960s by William Myers and Władysław Świątecki, stated that protons and neutrons form shells within a nucleus, analogous to electron shells. Noble gases are unreactive due to a full electron shell; similarly, it was theorized that elements with full nuclear shells – those having "magic" numbers of protons or neutrons – would be stabilized against decay. A doubly magic isotope, with magic numbers of both protons and neutrons, would be especially stabilized. Heiner Meldner calculated in 1965 that the next doubly magic isotope after Pb was Fl with 114 protons and 184 neutrons, which would be the centre of an "island of stability". This island of stability, supposedly from copernicium ("Z" = 112) to oganesson ("Z" = 118), would come after a long "sea of instability" from mendelevium ("Z" = 101) to roentgenium ("Z" = 111), and the flerovium isotopes in it were speculated in 1966 to have half-lives over 10 years. These early predictions fascinated researchers, and led to the first attempt to make flerovium, in 1968 with the reaction Cm(Ar,xn). No flerovium atoms were detected; this was thought to be because the compound nucleus Fl only has 174 neutrons instead of the supposed magic 184, and this would have significant impact on the reaction cross section (yield) and half-lives of nuclei produced. It was then 30 more years before flerovium was first made. Later work suggests the islands of stability around hassium and flerovium occur because these nuclei are respectively deformed and oblate, which make them resistant to spontaneous fission, and that the true island of stability for spherical nuclei occurs at around unbibium-306 (122 protons, 184 neutrons).


title: Flerovium

text: Flerovium was first made in December 1998 by a team of scientists at Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR), Dubna, Russia, led by Yuri Oganessian, who bombarded a target of plutonium-244 with accelerated nuclei of calcium-48:


title: Flerovium

text: This reaction had been tried before, without success; for this 1998 attempt, JINR had upgraded all of its equipment to detect and separate the produced atoms better and bombard the target more intensely. One atom of flerovium, alpha decaying with lifetime 30.4 s, was detected. The decay energy measured was 9.71 MeV, giving an expected half-life of 2–23 s. This observation was assigned to Fl and was published in January 1999. The experiment was later repeated, but an isotope with these decay properties was never observed again, so the exact identity of this activity is unknown. It may have been due to the isomer Fl, but because the presence of a whole series of longer-lived isomers in its decay chain would be rather doubtful, the most likely assignment of this chain is to the 2n channel leading to Fl and electron capture to Nh, which fits well with the systematics and trends of flerovium isotopes, and is consistent with the low beam energy chosen for that experiment, though further confirmation would be desirable via synthesis of Lv in a Cm(Ca,2n) reaction, which would alpha decay to Fl. The RIKEN team reported possible synthesis of isotopes Lv and Fl in 2016 in a Cm(Ca,2n) reaction, but the alpha decay of Lv was missed, alpha decay of Fl to Cn was observed instead of electron capture to Nh, and the assignment to Lv instead of Lv and decay to an isomer of Cn was not certain.


title: Flerovium

text: Glenn T. Seaborg, a scientist at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory who had been involved in work to make such superheavy elements, had said in December 1997 that "one of his longest-lasting and most cherished dreams was to see one of these magic elements"; he was told of the synthesis of flerovium by his colleague Albert Ghiorso soon after its publication in 1999. Ghiorso later recalled:


title: Flerovium

text: In March 1999, the same team replaced the Pu target with Pu, to make other flerovium isotopes. Here, two atoms of flerovium were produced, alpha-decaying with half-life 5.5 s. They were assigned as Fl. This activity has not been seen again either, and it is unclear what nucleus was produced. It is possible that it was the isomer Fl or from electron capture by Fl, leading to Nh and Rg.


title: Flerovium

text: The now-confirmed discovery of flerovium was made in June 1999 when the Dubna team repeated the first reaction from 1998. This time, two atoms of flerovium were produced; they alpha decayed with half-life 2.6 s, different from the 1998 result. This activity was initially assigned to Fl in error, due to the confusion regarding the previous observations that were assumed to come from Fl. Further work in December 2002 finally allowed a positive reassignment of the June 1999 atoms to Fl.


title: Flerovium

text: In May 2009, the Joint Working Party (JWP) of IUPAC published a report on the discovery of copernicium in which they acknowledged discovery of the isotope Cn. This implied the discovery of flerovium, from the acknowledgement of the data for the synthesis of Fl and Lv, which decay to Cn. The discovery of flerovium-286 and -287 was confirmed in January 2009 at Berkeley. This was followed by confirmation of flerovium-288 and -289 in July 2009 at Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Germany. In 2011, IUPAC evaluated the Dubna team's 1999–2007 experiments. They found the early data inconclusive, but accepted the results of 2004–2007 as flerovium, and the element was officially recognized as having been discovered.


title: Flerovium

text: While the method of chemical characterization of a daughter was successful for flerovium and livermorium, and the simpler structure of even–even nuclei made confirmation of oganesson ("Z" = 118) straightforward, there have been difficulties in establishing the congruence of decay chains from isotopes with odd protons, odd neutrons, or both. To get around this problem with hot fusion, the decay chains from which terminate in spontaneous fission instead of connecting to known nuclei as cold fusion allows, experiments were done in Dubna in 2015 to produce lighter isotopes of flerovium by reaction of Ca with Pu and Pu, particularly Fl, Fl, and Fl; the last had previously been characterized in the Pu(Ca,5n)Fl reaction at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in 2010. Fl was more clearly characterized, while the new isotope Fl was found to undergo immediate spontaneous fission instead of alpha decay to known nuclides around the "N" = 162 shell closure, and Fl was not found. This lightest isotope may yet conceivably be produced in the cold fusion reaction Pb(Ge,n)Fl, which the team at RIKEN in Japan has considered investigating: this reaction is expected to have a higher cross-section of 200 fb than the "world record" low of 30 fb for Bi(Zn,n)Nh, the reaction which RIKEN used for the official discovery of element 113 (nihonium). The Dubna team repeated their investigation of the Pu+Ca reaction in 2017, observing three new consistent decay chains of Fl, another decay chain from this nuclide that may pass through some isomeric states in its daughters, a chain that could be assigned to Fl (likely from Pu impurities in the target), and some spontaneous fissions of which some could be from Fl, though other interpretations including side reactions involving evaporation of charged particles are also possible.


title: Flerovium

text: Per Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements, flerovium is sometimes called "eka-lead". In 1979, IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called "ununquadium" (symbol "Uuq"), a systematic element name as a placeholder, until the discovery of the element is confirmed and a permanent name is decided on. Most scientists in the field called it "element 114", with the symbol of "E114", "(114)" or "114".


title: Flerovium

text: After IUPAC recognized the discovery of flerovium and livermorium on 1 June 2011, IUPAC asked the discovery team at JINR to suggest permanent names for the two elements. The Dubna team chose the name "flerovium" (symbol Fl), after Russia's Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions (FLNR), named after Soviet physicist Georgy Flyorov (also spelled Flerov); earlier reports claim the element name was directly proposed to honour Flyorov. In accordance with the proposal received from the discoverers, IUPAC officially named flerovium after Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions, not after Flyorov himself. Flyorov is known for writing to Joseph Stalin in April 1942 and pointing out the silence in scientific journals in the field of nuclear fission in the United States, Great Britain, and Germany. Flyorov deduced that this research must have become classified information in those countries. Flyorov's work and urgings led to the development of the USSR's own atomic bomb project. Flyorov is also known for the discovery of spontaneous fission with Konstantin Petrzhak. The naming ceremony for flerovium and livermorium was held on 24 October 2012 in Moscow.


title: Flerovium

text: In a 2015 interview with Oganessian, the host, in preparation to ask a question, said, "You said you had dreamed to name [an element] after your teacher Georgy Flyorov." Without letting the host finish, Oganessian repeatedly said, "I did."


title: Flerovium

text: Very few properties of flerovium or its compounds have been measured; due to its extremely limited and expensive production and the fact that it decays very quickly. A few singular properties have been measured, but for the most part, properties of flerovium remain unknown and only predictions are available.


title: Flerovium

text: The basis of the chemical periodicity in the periodic table is the electron shell closure at each noble gas (atomic numbers 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, 86, and 118): as any further electrons must enter a new shell with higher energy, closed-shell electron configurations are markedly more stable, hence the inertness of noble gases. Protons and neutrons are also known to form closed nuclear shells, so the same happens at nucleon shell closures, which happen at specific nucleon numbers often dubbed "magic numbers". The known magic numbers are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, and 82 for protons and neutrons; also 126 for neutrons. Nuclei with magic proton and neutron numbers, such as helium-4, oxygen-16, calcium-48, and lead-208, are "doubly magic" and are very stable. This stability is very important for superheavy elements: with no stabilization, half-lives would be expected by exponential extrapolation to be nanoseconds at darmstadtium (element 110), because the ever-increasing electrostatic repulsion between protons overcomes the limited-range strong nuclear force that holds nuclei together. The next closed nucleon shells (magic numbers) are thought to denote the centre of the long-sought island of stability, where half-lives to alpha decay and spontaneous fission lengthen again.


title: Flerovium

text: Initially, by analogy with neutron magic number 126, the next proton shell was also expected at element 126, too far beyond the synthesis capabilities of the mid-20th century to get much theoretical attention. In 1966, new values for the potential and spin–orbit interaction in this region of the periodic table contradicted this and predicted that the next proton shell would instead be at element 114, and that nuclei in this region would be relatively stable against spontaneous fission. The expected closed neutron shells in this region were at neutron number 184 or 196, making Fl and Fl candidates for being doubly magic. 1972 estimates predicted a half-life of around 1 year for Fl, which was expected to be near an island of stability centered near Ds (with a half-life around 10 years, comparable to Th). After making the first isotopes of elements 112–118 at the turn of the 21st century, it was found that these neutron-deficient isotopes were stabilized against fission. In 2008 it was thus hypothesized that the stabilization against fission of these nuclides was due to their oblate nuclei, and that a region of oblate nuclei was centred on Fl. Also, new theoretical models showed that the expected energy gap between the proton orbitals 2f (filled at element 114) and 2f (filled at element 120) was smaller than expected, so element 114 no longer appeared to be a stable spherical closed nuclear shell. The next doubly magic nucleus is now expected to be around Ubb, but this nuclide's expected short half-life and low production cross section make its synthesis challenging. Still, the island of stability is expected to exist in this region, and nearer its centre (which has not been approached closely enough yet) some nuclides, such as Mc and its alpha- and beta-decay daughters, may be found to decay by positron emission or electron capture and thus move into the centre of the island. Due to the expected high fission barriers, any nucleus in this island of stability would decay exclusively by alpha decay and perhaps some electron capture and beta decay, both of which would bring the nuclei closer to the beta-stability line where the island is expected to be. Electron capture is needed to reach the island, which is problematic because it is not certain that electron capture is a major decay mode in this region of the chart of nuclides.


title: Flerovium

text: Experiments were done in 2000–2004 at Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna studying the fission properties of the compound nucleus Fl by bombarding Pu with accelerated Ca ions. A compound nucleus is a loose combination of nucleons that have not yet arranged themselves into nuclear shells. It has no internal structure and is held together only by the collision forces between the two nuclei. Results showed how such nuclei fission mainly by expelling doubly magic or nearly doubly magic fragments such as Ca, Sn, Pb, or Bi. It was also found that Ca and Fe projectiles had a similar yield for the fusion-fission pathway, hence possible future use of Fe projectiles in making superheavy elements. It has also been suggested that a neutron-rich flerovium isotope can be formed by quasifission (partial fusion followed by fission) of a massive nucleus. Recently it has been shown that multi-nucleon transfer reactions in collisions of actinide nuclei (such as uranium and curium) might be used to make neutron-rich superheavy nuclei in the island of stability, though production of neutron-rich nobelium or seaborgium is more likely.


title: Flerovium

text: Theoretical estimates of alpha decay half-lives of flerovium isotopes, support the experimental data.


title: Flerovium

text: The fission-survived isotope Fl, long expected to be doubly magic, is predicted to have alpha decay half-life ~17 days. Making Fl directly by a fusion–evaporation pathway is currently impossible: no known combination of target and stable projectile can give 184 neutrons for the compound nucleus, and radioactive projectiles such as Ca (half-life 14 s) cannot yet be used in the needed quantity and intensity. One possibility for making the theorized long-lived nuclei of copernicium (Cn and Cn) and flerovium near the middle of the island, is using even heavier targets such as Cm, Bk, Cf, and Es, that when fused with Ca would yield isotopes such as Mc and Fl (as decay products of Uue, Ts, and Lv), which may have just enough neutrons to alpha decay to nuclides close enough to the centre of the island to possibly undergo electron capture and move inward to the centre. However, reaction cross sections would be small and little is yet known about the decay properties of superheavies near the beta-stability line. This may be the current best hope to synthesize nuclei in the island of stability, but it is speculative and may or may not work in practice. Another possibility is to use controlled nuclear explosions to get the high neutron flux needed to make macroscopic amounts of such isotopes. This would mimic the r-process where the actinides were first produced in nature and the gap of instability after polonium bypassed, as it would bypass the gaps of instability at Fm and at mass number 275 (atomic numbers 104 to 108). Some such isotopes (especially Cn and Cn) may even have been synthesized in nature, but would decay far too quickly (with half-lives of only thousands of years) and be produced in far too small quantities (~10 the abundance of lead) to be detectable today outside cosmic rays.


title: Flerovium

text: Flerovium is in group 14 in the periodic table, below carbon, silicon, germanium, tin, and lead. Every previous group 14 element has 4 electrons in its valence shell, hence valence electron configuration nsnp. For flerovium, the trend will continue and the valence electron configuration is predicted as 7s7p; flerovium will be similar to its lighter congeners in many ways. Differences are likely to arise; a large contributor is spin–orbit (SO) interaction—mutual interaction between the electrons' motion and spin. It is especially strong in superheavy elements, because the electrons move faster than in lighter atoms, at speeds comparable to the speed of light. For flerovium, it lowers the 7s and the 7p electron energy levels (stabilizing the corresponding electrons), but two of the 7p electron energy levels are stabilized more than the other four. The stabilization of the 7s electrons is called the inert pair effect, and the effect "tearing" the 7p subshell into the more and less stabilized parts is called subshell splitting. Computational chemists see the split as a change of the second (azimuthal) quantum number from 1 to and for the more stabilized and less stabilized parts of the 7p subshell, respectively. For many theoretical purposes, the valence electron configuration may be represented to reflect the 7p subshell split as 7s7p. These effects cause flerovium's chemistry to be somewhat different from that of its lighter neighbours.


title: Flerovium

text: Because the spin–orbit splitting of the 7p subshell is very large in flerovium, and both of flerovium's filled orbitals in the 7th shell are stabilized relativistically; the valence electron configuration of flerovium may be considered to have a completely filled shell. Its first ionization energy of should be the second-highest in group 14. The 6d electron levels are also destabilized, leading to some early speculations that they may be chemically active, though newer work suggests this is unlikely. Because the first ionization energy is higher than in silicon and germanium, though still lower than in carbon, it has been suggested that flerovium could be classed as a metalloid.


title: Flerovium

text: Flerovium's closed-shell electron configuration means metallic bonding in metallic flerovium is weaker than in the elements before and after; so flerovium is expected to have a low boiling point, and has recently been suggested to be possibly a gaseous metal, similar to predictions for copernicium, which also has a closed-shell electron configuration. Flerovium's melting and boiling points were predicted in the 1970s to be around 70 and 150 °C, significantly lower than for the lighter group 14 elements (lead has 327 and 1749 °C), and continuing the trend of decreasing boiling points down the group. Earlier studies predicted a boiling point of ~1000 °C or 2840 °C, but this is now considered unlikely because of the expected weak metallic bonding and that group trends would expect flerovium to have low sublimation enthalpy. Preliminary 2021 calculations predicted that flerovium should have melting point −73 °C (lower than mercury at −39 °C and copernicium, predicted 10±11 °C) and boiling point 107 °C, which would make it a liquid metal. Like mercury, radon, and copernicium, but not lead and oganesson (eka-radon), flerovium is calculated to have no electron affinity.


title: Flerovium

text: A 2010 study published calculations predicting a hexagonal close-packed crystal structure for flerovium due to spin–orbit coupling effects, and a density of 9.928 g/cm, though this was noted to be probably slightly too low. Newer calculations published in 2017 expected flerovium to crystallize in face-centred cubic crystal structure like its lighter congener lead, and calculations published in 2022 predicted a density of 11.4±0.3 g/cm, similar to lead (11.34 g/cm). These calculations found that the face-centred cubic and hexagonal close-packed structures should have nearly the same energy, a phenomenon reminiscent of the noble gases. These calculations predict that hexagonal close-packed flerovium should be a semiconductor, with a band gap of 0.8±0.3 eV. (Copernicium is also predicted to be a semiconductor.) These calculations predict that the cohesive energy of flerovium should be around −0.5±0.1 eV; this is similar to that predicted for oganesson (−0.45 eV), larger than that predicted for copernicium (−0.38 eV), but smaller than that of mercury (−0.79 eV). The melting point was calculated as 284±50 K (11±50 °C), so that flerovium is probably a liquid at room temperature, although the boiling point was not determined.


title: Flerovium

text: The electron of a hydrogen-like flerovium ion (Fl; remove all but one electron) is expected to move so fast that its mass is 1.79 times that of a stationary electron, due to relativistic effects. (The figures for hydrogen-like lead and tin are expected to be 1.25 and 1.073 respectively.) Flerovium would form weaker metal–metal bonds than lead and would be adsorbed less on surfaces.


title: Flerovium

text: Flerovium is the heaviest known member of group 14, below lead, and is projected to be the second member of the 7p series of elements. Nihonium and flerovium are expected to form a very short subperiod corresponding to the filling of the 7p orbital, coming between the filling of the 6d and 7p subshells. Their chemical behaviour is expected to be very distinctive: nihonium's homology to thallium has been called "doubtful" by computational chemists, while flerovium's to lead has been called only "formal".


title: Flerovium

text: The first five group 14 members show a +4 oxidation state and the latter members have increasingly prominent +2 chemistry due to onset of the inert pair effect. For tin, the +2 and +4 states are similar in stability, and lead(II) is the most stable of all the chemically well-understood +2 oxidation states in group 14. The 7s orbitals are very highly stabilized in flerovium, so a very large sp orbital hybridization is needed to achieve a +4 oxidation state, so flerovium is expected to be even more stable than lead in its strongly predominant +2 oxidation state and its +4 oxidation state should be highly unstable. For example, the dioxide (FlO) is expected to be highly unstable to decomposition into its constituent elements (and would not be formed by direct reaction of flerovium with oxygen), and flerovane (FlH), which should have Fl–H bond lengths of 1.787 Å, is predicted to be more thermodynamically unstable than plumbane, spontaneously decomposing to flerovium(II) hydride (FlH) and H. The tetrafluoride FlF would have bonding mostly due to "sd" hybridizations rather than "sp" hybridizations, and its decomposition to the difluoride and fluorine gas would be exothermic. The other tetrahalides (for example, FlCl is destabilized by about 400 kJ/mol) decompose similarly. The corresponding polyfluoride anion should be unstable to hydrolysis in aqueous solution, and flerovium(II) polyhalide anions such as and are predicted to form preferentially in solutions. The "sd" hybridizations were suggested in early calculations, as flerovium's 7s and 6d electrons share about the same energy, which would allow a volatile hexafluoride to form, but later calculations do not confirm this possibility. In general, spin–orbit contraction of the 7p orbital should lead to smaller bond lengths and larger bond angles: this has been theoretically confirmed in FlH. Still, even FlH should be relativistically destabilized by 2.6 eV to below Fl+H; the large spin–orbit effects also break down the usual singlet–triplet divide in the group 14 dihydrides. FlF and FlCl are predicted to be more stable than FlH.


title: Flerovium

text: Due to relativistic stabilization of flerovium's 7s7p valence electron configuration, the 0 oxidation state should also be more stable for flerovium than for lead, as the 7p electrons begin to also have a mild inert pair effect: this stabilization of the neutral state may bring about some similarities between the behavior of flerovium and the noble gas radon. Due to flerovium's expected relative inertness, diatomic compounds FlH and FlF should have lower energies of dissociation than the corresponding lead compounds PbH and PbF. Flerovium(IV) should be even more electronegative than lead(IV); lead(IV) has electronegativity 2.33 on the Pauling scale, though the lead(II) value is only 1.87. Flerovium could be a noble metal.


title: Flerovium

text: Flerovium(II) should be more stable than lead(II), and halides FlX, FlX, , and (X = Cl, Br, I) are expected to form readily. The fluorides would undergo strong hydrolysis in aqueous solution. All flerovium dihalides are expected to be stable; the difluoride being water-soluble. Spin–orbit effects would destabilize the dihydride (FlH) by almost . In aqueous solution, the oxyanion flerovite () would also form, analogous to plumbite. Flerovium(II) sulfate (FlSO) and sulfide (FlS) should be very insoluble in water, and flerovium(II) acetate (FlCHO) and nitrate (Fl(NO)) should be quite water-soluble. The standard electrode potential for reduction of Fl ion to metallic flerovium is estimated to be around +0.9 V, confirming the increased stability of flerovium in the neutral state. In general, due to relativistic stabilization of the 7p spinor, Fl is expected to have properties intermediate between those of Hg or Cd and its lighter congener Pb.


title: Flerovium

text: Flerovium is currently the last element whose chemistry has been experimentally investigated, though studies so far are not conclusive. Two experiments were done in April–May 2007 in a joint FLNR-PSI collaboration to study copernicium chemistry. The first experiment used the reaction Pu(Ca,3n)Fl; and the second, Pu(Ca,4n)Fl: these reactions give short-lived flerovium isotopes whose copernicium daughters would then be studied. Adsorption properties of the resultant atoms on a gold surface were compared to those of radon, as it was then expected that copernicium's full-shell electron configuration would lead to noble-gas like behavior. Noble gases interact with metal surfaces very weakly, which is uncharacteristic of metals.


title: Flerovium

text: The first experiment found 3 atoms of Cn but seemingly also 1 atom of Fl. This was a surprise; transport time for the product atoms is ~2 s, so the flerovium should have decayed to copernicium before adsorption. In the second reaction, 2 atoms of Fl and possibly 1 of Fl were seen. Two of the three atoms showed adsorption characteristics associated with a volatile, noble-gas-like element, which has been suggested but is not predicted by more recent calculations. These experiments gave independent confirmation for the discovery of copernicium, flerovium, and livermorium via comparison with published decay data. Further experiments in 2008 to confirm this important result detected 1 atom of Fl, and supported previous data showing flerovium had a noble-gas-like interaction with gold.


title: Flerovium

text: Empirical support for a noble-gas-like flerovium soon weakened. In 2009 and 2010, the FLNR-PSI collaboration synthesized more flerovium to follow up their 2007 and 2008 studies. In particular, the first three flerovium atoms made in the 2010 study suggested again a noble-gas-like character, but the complete set taken together resulted in a more ambiguous interpretation, unusual for a metal in the carbon group but not fully like a noble gas in character. In their paper, the scientists refrained from calling flerovium's chemical properties "close to those of noble gases", as had previously been done in the 2008 study. Flerovium's volatility was again measured through interactions with a gold surface, and provided indications that the volatility of flerovium was comparable to that of mercury, astatine, and the simultaneously investigated copernicium, which had been shown in the study to be a very volatile noble metal, conforming to its being the heaviest known group 12 element. Still, it was pointed out that this volatile behavior was not expected for a usual group 14 metal.


title: Flerovium

text: In experiments in 2012 at GSI, flerovium's chemistry was found to be more metallic than noble-gas-like. Jens Volker Kratz and Christoph Düllmann specifically named copernicium and flerovium as being in a new category of "volatile metals"; Kratz even speculated that they might be gases at standard temperature and pressure. These "volatile metals", as a category, were expected to fall between normal metals and noble gases in terms of adsorption properties. Contrary to the 2009 and 2010 results, it was shown in the 2012 experiments that the interactions of flerovium and copernicium respectively with gold were about equal. Further studies showed that flerovium was more reactive than copernicium, in contradiction to previous experiments and predictions.


title: Flerovium

text: In a 2014 paper detailing the experimental results of the chemical characterization of flerovium, the GSI group wrote: "[flerovium] is the least reactive element in the group, but still a metal." Nevertheless, in a 2016 conference about chemistry and physics of heavy and superheavy elements, Alexander Yakushev and Robert Eichler, two scientists who had been active at GSI and FLNR in determining flerovium's chemistry, still urged caution based on the inconsistencies of the various experiments previously listed, noting that the question of whether flerovium was a metal or a noble gas was still open with the known evidence: one study suggested a weak noble-gas-like interaction between flerovium and gold, while the other suggested a stronger metallic interaction. The longer-lived isotope Fl has been considered of interest for future radiochemical studies.


title: Flerovium

text: New experiments published in 2022 suggest that flerovium is a metal, exhibiting lower reactivity towards gold than mercury, but higher reactivity than radon. The experiments could not identify if the adsorption was due to elemental flerovium (considered more likely), or if it was due to a flerovium compound such as FlO that was more reactive towards gold than elemental flerovium, but both scenarios involve flerovium forming chemical bonds.


title: Potosí

text: Potosí, known as Villa Imperial de Potosí in the colonial period, is the capital city and a municipality of the Department of Potosí in Bolivia. It is one of the highest cities in the world at a nominal . For centuries, it was the location of the Spanish colonial silver mint. A considerable amount of the city's colonial architecture has been preserved in the historic center of the city, which - along with the globally important Cerro Rico de Potosí - are part of a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site.


title: Potosí

text: Potosí lies at the foot of the "Cerro de Potosí" —sometimes referred to as the "Cerro Rico" ("rich mountain")— a mountain popularly conceived of as being "made of" silver ore that dominates the city. The Cerro Rico is the reason for Potosí's historical importance since it was the major supply of silver for the Spanish Empire until Guanajuato in Mexico surpassed it in the 18th century.


title: Potosí

text: The silver was taken by llama and mule train to the Pacific coast, shipped north to Panama City, and carried by mule train across the isthmus of Panama to Nombre de Dios or Portobelo, whence it was taken to Spain on the Spanish treasure fleets. Some of the silver also made its way east to Buenos Aires, via the Rio de la Plata. Some of the silver was also transported to Acapulco, Mexico where they were sent via the Manila Galleons to buy Asian products. Cerro de Potosí's peak is above sea level.


title: Potosí

text: Today, Potosí continues to be an important mining center, and is the largest urban center in the Department of Potosí. A growing city, Potosí is now famous for its well-preserved colonial architecture, and unusual geographic setting as the one of the highest cities in the world. It features a rare cold highland climate, and is marked by its long dry period, and short but strong wet season. While famous for its dominance as a mining center in early Spanish colonial history, Potosí still sits at one of the largest silver deposit systems in the world.


title: Potosí

text: Located in the Bolivian Tin Belt, Cerro Rico de Potosí is the world's largest silver deposit and has been mined since the sixteenth century, producing up to 60,000 tonnes by 1996. Estimates are that much silver still remains in the mines. Potosí became the second largest city, and the site of the first mint, in the Americas. By 1891, low silver prices prompted the change to mining tin, which continued until 1985. At peak production in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the ore contained up to 40% silver.


title: Potosí

text: The ore deposits reside in veins present in the dacite volcanic dome. The hill is "honeycombed" with underground workings, reaching from the summit to depths of . The conical hill has a reddish-brown gossan cap of iron-oxides and quartz, with grayish-blue altered dacite and many mine dumps below.


title: Potosí

text: Basement rocks consist of Ordovician clastic sediments consisting of phyllite with some sandstone interbedding. At about 13.8 Ma, the dome was extruded. During the explosive process, the Venus breccia formed when the ascending dacite magma reacted with groundwater to produce a phreatic eruption. The released pressure allowed the formation of the Caracoles tuff ring on top of the breccia. The magma then extruded outward from a dike to form a volcanic dome over the tuff. The dacite dome is by at the surface and narrows down to the wide dike at depth. Hydrothermal circulation and fracturing soon followed, altering the dacite and depositing ore minerals and gangue in the veins.


title: Potosí

text: Founded in 1545 as a mining town, it soon produced fabulous wealth, and the population eventually exceeded 200,000 people. The city gave rise to a Spanish expression, still in use: "valer un Potosí" ("to be worth a Potosí"), meaning "to be of great value". The rich mountain, Cerro Rico, produced an estimated 60% of all silver mined in the world during the second half of the 16th century.


title: Potosí

text: Potosí miners at first mined the rich oxidized ores with native silver and silver chloride (cerargyrite) that could be fed directly into smelting furnaces. Especially successful were the small clay "flower pot" furnaces called "guayras", which had been used by the Incas. But by 1565, the miners had exhausted the direct-smelting ore, and silver production plummeted. Silver production was revived by the introduction of the patio process, invented in Mexico in 1554. The patio process used mercury amalgamation to extract silver from lower-grade ores, and those containing silver sulfide (argentite), as was typical of the unoxidized ores found deeper in the mountain. In 1609, another mercury amalgamation method, the pan amalgamation process was invented in Potosí, and proved better-adapted to the conditions at Potosí.


title: Potosí

text: Spanish American mines were the world's most abundant sources of silver during this time period. Spanish America's ability to supply a great amount of silver and China's strong demand for this commodity which the Spanish supplied via Latin American trade with the Philippines using the Manila Galleons, resulted in a spectacular mining boom. The true champion of this boom in the silver industry was indeed the Spanish crown. By allowing private-sector entrepreneurs to operate mines under license and placing high taxes on mining profits, the Spanish empire was able to extract the greatest benefits. An example of a tax that was levied includes the "quinto", a 20% severance tax on gross value. From the raw materials extracted from the mines, coins called pieces of eight were fashioned at the Potosí mint.


title: Potosí

text: For Europeans, Peru–Bolivia was located in the Viceroyalty of Peru and was known as "Alto Perú" before becoming independent as part of Bolivia. Potosí was a mythical land of riches, it is mentioned in Miguel de Cervantes' famous novel, "Don Quixote" (second part, chap. LXXI) as a land of "extraordinary richness". One theory holds that the mint mark of Potosí (the letters "PTSI" superimposed on one another) is the origin of the dollar sign.


title: Potosí

text: The urban complex in the remote Andes was important enough to be designated a "Villa Imperial" in the hierarchy of Spanish urban settlements. Although in mountainous terrain, the core of Potosí was laid out in the standard Spanish grid pattern, where by 1610 some 3,000 Spaniards and 35,000 creoles, mostly male, were resident. Indigenous settlements outside the core were more haphazard. The villa was governed by a Spanish corregidor and town council. Some 40 notaries documented and recorded commercial transactions as well as last wills and testaments. Since Potosí was of such economic importance to the Spanish Empire, the crown bureaucracy was a significant presence. Large churches, lavishly decorated inside, were built, and friars from the Dominican, Franciscans, Augustinians, Mercederians, and Jesuits were present, but no convent for women. There was an ecclesiastical court for legal issues regarding the clergy.


title: Potosí

text: Indigenous laborers were required to work in Potosí's silver mines through the Spanish "mita" system of forced labor, based on an analogous "mit'a" system traditional to pre-Hispanic Andean society (though the "mit'a" directed labor for public works and collective agricultural projects). Laborers were drawn from the native population of an area that encompassed almost 200,000 square miles. Thirteen thousand men were conscripted each year, constituting about one out of every seven adult males in the indigenous population. These "mitayos" faced harsh conditions in the mines, where they were often given the least desirable jobs. While more skilled laborers extracted the ore, "mitayos" were tasked with carrying it back to the surface in baskets, leather bags, or cloth sacks. These loads often weighed between 100 and 300 lbs, and the workers had to carry them up rickety ladders in steep, narrow shafts lit only by a candle tied to their foreheads. Many of them died or were seriously injured due to falls, accidents, and the harsh conditions of the mine life. Illness was another danger: at such a high altitude, pneumonia was always a concern, especially given the extreme and rapid changes of temperature experienced by workers climbing from the heat of the deep shafts to the freezing elements of the surface at 16,000 feet, and mercury poisoning took the lives of many involved in the refining process.


title: Potosí

text: The Potosí "mita" caused dramatic demographic shifts in the local indigenous population as wives and children moved with workers to Potosí while thousands more fled their traditional villages, forfeiting their "ayllu" land rights in order to escape the labor draft. By the late 17th century, upper Peru had lost nearly 50% of its indigenous population compared to a little over a century earlier. This only increased the burden on the remaining natives, and at some point in the 1600s, up to half of the eligible male population might find themselves working at Potosí. Nevertheless, the number of "mitayos" dropped to about 4,000 by 1689, prompting the Viceroy Duke of Palata to raise the number again through a new census and inclusion of new populations not subject to the mita ("forasteros"). The reform failed, and the Duke's successor set the official number to 4,108 mitayos (1,367 active each week). In reality, the number of "mitayos" was even lower due to the increasing practice of buying oneself out of the obligation. For the remaining mita workforce, however, conditions remained harsh. Mine and mill owners notoriously ignored official regulations on provisions and especially withheld the money the Indians should receive as recompensation for their travel. Just the cost of traveling to Potosí and back could be more than a "mitayo" was paid in a year, and so many of them chose to remain in Potosí as wage workers when their "mita" was finished. Former "mitayos" living in Potosí were not only exempt from the draft, but usually earned considerably more due to the valuable skills they had gained in permanent services.


title: Potosí

text: According to historian Noble David Cook, "A key factor in understanding the impact of the Potosi mita on the Indians is that mita labor was only one form of work at the mines. A 1603 report stated that of 58,800 Indians working at Potosi, 5100 were "mitayos", or fewer than one in ten. In addition to the mitayos there were 10,500 "mingas" (contractual workers) and 43,200 free wage earners." However, historian Peter Bakewell emphasizes the role of mita labor in Potosí to a greater extent. According to his research, though as few as 4500 "mitayos" were actively laboring in the mines at any given time, this was due to the "mita ordinaria" system, in which the up to 13,500 men conscripted per year were divided into three parts, each working one out of every three weeks. In addition, many of the remaining "mingas" and wage workers were either "mita ordinaria" workers on their off weeks or former "mitayos" who remained in Potosí.


title: Potosí

text: Potosí was a multiracial society, with native Andeans, Spanish settlers, and black slaves. The largest sector of the population were native men, forced to labor underground mining the silver ore, but there were considerable opportunities for merchants and native traders, who became wealthy. Suppliers of food as well as holders of urban and rural real estate prospered in Potosí. Women, particularly widows, held property, since they were guaranteed a portion of their husband's estate under Spanish law. Small-scale female vendors dominated street markets and stalls, selling food, coca leaves, and chicha (maize beer). A portion of the female population were sex workers, which is a typical phenomenon in mining towns generally.


title: Potosí

text: By the early 17th century, Basques were well established in the city and made up for a substantial number of the inhabitants in Potosí. They gathered in a confederation opposed to another one, the "Vicuñas", a melting pot of natives and non-Basque Spanish and Portuguese colonists, fighting for control over ore extraction from the mines and its management. Eventually, tension among both factions came to a head, resulting in the eruption of overt armed conflict starting 1622 up to 1625. The Spanish Crown intervened, siding at one point with the Basques. Finally, both factions reached a settlement sealed with a wedding between the son and daughter of the leaders in either side, the Basque Francisco Oyanume and the Vicuña general Castillo. One of the most famous Basque residents in Potosí (1617–19) was Catalina de Erauso, a nun who escaped her convent and dressed as a man, becoming a driver of llamas and a soldier.


title: Potosí

text: During the Bolivian War of Independence (1809–1825), Potosí frequently passed between the control of Royalist and Patriot forces. Major leadership mistakes came when the First Auxiliary Army arrived from Buenos Aires (under the command of Juan José Castelli), which led to an increased sense that Potosí required its own independent government.


title: Potosí

text: Later, the Second Auxiliary Army (under the command of Manuel Belgrano) was forced to retreat, Belgrano made the decision to blow up the Casa de la Moneda. The natives undid the fuse, as many refused to evacuate and would have lost their lives. Two more expeditions from Buenos Aires would seize Potosí.


title: Potosí

text: Potosí continues to be an important administrative center, mining town, tourist attraction, and population center in modern Bolivia.


title: Potosí

text: There is no authoritative etymology for the word "Potosí". According to legend, in about 1462, Huayna Capac, the eleventh Sapa Inca of what by then was known as the Inca Empire "set out for Ccolque Porco and Andaccaua, the location of his mines from which were taken innumerable arrobas of silver" (an arroba is a Spanish unit of weight equivalent to approximately ). Before leaving there, he saw Potosí, and admiring its beauty and grandeur, he said (speaking to those of his Court):


title: Potosí

text: It is believed that "Potosí" is a Quechua word. However, in Quechua the root "p'otoj" does not refer to a thunderous noise, whereas it does in Aymara. Thus, if "Potosí" encompasses the idea of a thunderous noise, the location would have an Aymaran root rather than a Quechuan.


title: Potosí

text: The actual sharp structure of the term is contrary to the nature of both Aymara and Quechua. Another explanation, given by several Quechua speakers, is that "potoq" is an onomatopoeic word that reproduces the sound of the hammer against the ore, and oral tradition has it that the town derived its name from this word.


title: Potosí

text: Potosí features a rare climate for a city of its size, due to its extreme elevation at over 4000m. Semi-arid and with average temperatures in its warmest month sitting right on the 10 °C threshold, the city's climate straddles that of the subtropical highland climate ("Cwc", according to the Köppen climate classification), with subpolar oceanic characteristics and an alpine climate (E). Summers are cool and wet with daily highs rarely rising above 20 °C, while winters feature cooler days with much colder nights averaging −4 °C. These low temperatures are a result of the extreme precipitation deficit during the winter months with the resulting aridity leading to an increased diurnal temperature variation.


title: Potosí

text: Potosí is home to football teams Real and Nacional, which play their matches at the 32,000-capacity multi-purpose stadium Estadio Víctor Agustín Ugarte, one of the highest stadiums in the world.


title: Potosí

text: The city is served by Aeropuerto Capitán Nicolas Rojas, with commercial airline flights by Boliviana de Aviación, Bolivia's flag air carrier. There is also a railroad, the Rio Mulatos-Potosí line.


title: Potosí

text: The city of San Luis Potosí in Mexico was named after Potosí in Bolivia. In the United States, the name Potosi was optimistically given to lead-mining towns of Potosi, Wisconsin, and Potosi, Missouri, and also to the silver-mining town of Potosi, Nevada.


title: Truckee, California

text: Truckee is an incorporated town in Nevada County, California, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the population was 16,180, reflecting an increase of 2,316 from the 13,864 counted in the 2000 Census and having the 316th highest population in California and 2114th in the United States.


title: Truckee, California

text: Truckee's existence began in 1863 as Gray's Station, named for Joseph Gray's Roadhouse on the trans-Sierra wagon road. A blacksmith named Samuel S. Coburn was there almost from the beginning, and by 1866 the area was known as Coburn's Station. The Central Pacific Railroad selected Truckee as the name of its railroad station by August 1867, even though the tracks would not reach the station until a year later in 1868. It was renamed Truckee after a Paiute chief, whose assumed Paiute name was Tru-ki-zo. He was the father of Chief Winnemucca and grandfather of Sarah Winnemucca. The first Europeans who came to cross the Sierra Nevada encountered his tribe. The friendly chief rode toward them yelling, “Tro-kay!”, which is Paiute for 'Everything is all right'. The unaware travelers assumed he was yelling his name. Chief Truckee later served as a guide for John C. Frémont.


title: Truckee, California

text: The Truckee River flows from Lake Tahoe for approximately northeast to the border of the arid Great Basin of Nevada and Utah and into Pyramid Lake. This water source formed a natural, seasonal route for Native Americans. Although no particular tribe is considered to have inhabited Truckee year-round, the Washoe people occupied a large territory roughly centered in the modern day Carson City area, but Shoshone and Paiute Tribes were also present (the Paiute Tribe Reservation now encompasses Pyramid Lake). These peoples are considered to be the primary source of Native American travelers in the area. Hobart Mills, just north of Truckee on Highway 89, has a large, horizontal, circular petroglyph of the type common to travel routes in Nevada. The date of that petroglyph, as well as several etched into granite slabs on the summit west of Truckee, are not agreed upon. But those artifacts, as well as the abundance of arrowheads throughout the Truckee region, attest to a minimum of hundreds of years of Native American presence. It is possible that, like the Shoshone, Ute people and earlier Fremont tribes of Utah and Eastern Nevada, the nearby Native American populations fluctuated over the course of millennia as a result of weather cycles, food source, and possibly disease or war. Some historians date the pre-Fremont culture of Eastern Nevada to as early as 10,000 B.C. and it's likely that the Eastern side of the Sierra Nevada mountains next to Truckee, since it faces the Great Basin, had Native Americans of a hunter-gatherer culture visit at least as early as 3,000 B.C. These people were probably of a purely nomadic group since datable housing structures like those found in Nevada and Utah are not present. Like most of the modern history of the West, as the European settlers' population increased, the Native American population decreased. The Gold Rush of 1849 caused a surge in fortune-seeking settlers (although Truckee itself wasn't settled until later). It is not known exactly when the last indigenous Native Americans passed through Truckee, but there is Washoe people oral history of the Donner Party tragedy of the winter of 1846–47.


title: Truckee, California

text: The Donner Party ordeal is arguably Truckee's most famous historical event. In 1846, a group of settlers from Illinois, originally known as the Donner-Reed Party but now usually referred to as the Donner Party, became snowbound in early fall as a result of several trail mishaps, poor decision-making, and an early onset of winter that year. Choosing multiple times to take shortcuts to save distance compared to the traditional Oregon Trail, coupled with infighting, a disastrous crossing of the Utah salt flats, and the attempt to use the pass near the Truckee River (now Donner Pass) all caused delays in their journey.


title: Truckee, California

text: Finally, a large, early blizzard brought the remaining settlers to a halt at the edge of what is now Donner Lake, about below the steep granite summit of the Sierra Nevada mountains and east of their final destination, Sutter's Fort (near Sacramento). Several attempts at carting their few remaining wagons, oxen, and supplies over the summit—sometimes by pulling them up by rope—proved impossible due to freezing conditions and a lack of any preexisting trail. The party returned, broken in spirit and short of supplies, to the edge of Donner Lake. A portion of the camp members also returned to the Alder Creek campsite a few miles to the east.


title: Truckee, California

text: During the hard winter the travelers endured starvation and were later found to have practiced cannibalism. Fifteen members constructed makeshift snowshoes and set out for Sutter's Fort in the late fall but were thwarted by freezing weather and disorientation. Only seven survived: two were lost, and six died. Those who died were used as food by those who remained. The Truckee camp survivors were saved by a Reed Party member who had set out ahead after having been ejected from the party months earlier for killing another man in a violent argument. Seeing that the group never arrived at Sutter's Fort, he initiated several relief parties.


title: Truckee, California

text: Of the original 87 settlers in the Donner-Reed party, 48 survived the ordeal. The Donner Memorial State Park is dedicated to the settlers and is located at the East End of Donner Lake.


title: Truckee, California

text: Truckee grew as a railroad town originally named Coburn Station, starting with the Transcontinental Railroad. The railroad goes into downtown Truckee, and the Amtrak passenger lines still stop there on the trip from Chicago to San Francisco.


title: Truckee, California

text: Truckee's Sinophobic movement had begun during the Reconstruction Period, marked by the Trout Creek Outrage of 1876:


title: Truckee, California

text: By 1876, some 300 of the town’s residents, from workers to its most prominent citizens, had formed a local chapter of the Order of the Caucasians, also known as the Caucasian League, to drive out the Chinese. Truckee gained statewide notoriety that summer when late one night seven of the group's members, clad in black, surrounded and set fire to two cabins full of Chinese woodcutters who had refused to leave the area. The vigilantes shot at the Chinese men as they ran out of the cabin, killing forty-five-year-old Ah Ling.


title: Truckee, California

text: Charles Fayette McGlashan, local lawyer and owner/publisher of the "Truckee Republican", defended those accused in the Trout Creek Outrage and was a leader in the town's anti-Chinese movement. In 1886, the town's Chinese inhabitants, about 1,400 in number, were expelled from Truckee as part of a campaign that included a boycott of any business that did business with Chinese.


title: Truckee, California

text: In 1891, Truckee's famous lawman, Jacob Teeter, was killed in a violent gunfight with fellow lawman, James Reed (no relation to James Frazier Reed of the Donner-Reed Party). Constable Reed was among those accused of participating in the Trout Creek Outrage fifteen years prior.


title: Truckee, California

text: Truckee reportedly had one of the nation's first mechanized ski lifts at the site of the Hilltop Lodge. The historic Hilltop Lodge was converted to a restaurant in the 1940s by the Crandall Brothers, and eventually became Cottonwood Restaurant and Bar. There were possibly two rope tows and a Poma lift, which was installed in 1954. At the same location there was a ski jump constructed during the early 1900s that was designed by Lars Haugen, a seven-time Olympic ski jumping champion.


title: Truckee, California

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and (3.96%) is water, mostly Donner Lake and the Truckee River.


title: Truckee, California

text: Under the Köppen climate classification system, Truckee has either a cool-summer Mediterranean climate ("Csb") or a dry-summer continental climate ("Dsb"), depending on which variant of the system is used. Winters are chilly with regular snowfall, while summers are warm to hot and dry, with occasional periods of intense thunderstorms. Its location near the Sierra Nevada crest at provides conditions for winter storms to commonly deposit nearly a meter of snow in a 24-hour storm event and the occasional week-long storm event can deliver of snow. The National Weather Service reports that Truckee's warmest month is July with an average maximum temperature of and an average minimum temperature of . January is the coldest month with an average maximum temperature of and an average minimum temperature of . The record maximum temperature of 104 °F (40 °C) was on July 6, 2007. The record minimum temperature of was on February 27, 1962. Annually, there are an average of 8.4 days with highs of or higher and 239 with a high above . Freezing temperatures have been observed in every month of the year and there are an average of 228.4 nights with lows of or lower – seven more than Fairbanks and only eight fewer than Nome – but only 6.0 nights with lows of or lower and 15.6 days where the high does not top freezing.


title: Truckee, California

text: Normal annual precipitation in Truckee is ; measurable precipitation ( or more) occurs on an average of 87.0 days annually. The most precipitation in one month was in December 1955, and the most precipitation in 24 hours was on February 1, 1963. The wettest calendar year has been 1997 with and the driest 1976 with , although the extremes by “rain year” are a maximum of between July 1981 and June 1982 and a low of between July 2000 and June 2001.


title: Truckee, California

text: Truckee has an average of of snow annually, which makes it the fifth-snowiest city in the United States, while snow cover usually averages in February, but has exceeded . The most snow in one month was in February 1938, and the most in a season was between July 1951 and June 1952. The maximum 24-hour snowfall was on February 17, 1990.


title: Sardar Ka Grandson

text: Sardar Ka Grandson () is a 2021 Indian Hindi-language comedy-drama film directed by Kaashvie Nair and written by Anuja Chauhan and Kaashvi Nair. The film was produced by Bhushan Kumar, Divya Khosla Kumar, Krishan Kumar, Monisha Advani, Madhu Bhojwani, Nikkhil Advani and John Abraham under the banners T-Series, Emmay Entertainment and JA Entertainment. The film features Arjun Kapoor, Neena Gupta and Rakul Preet Singh in lead roles.


title: Sardar Ka Grandson

text: Amreek resides in Los Angeles with his girlfriend Radha. Both run a movers and packers company called ‘Gently Gently’. Amreek has a laidback and carefree attitude and doesn't believe in owning up to his mistakes. This affects his work and also his relations with Radha. Fed up with his behaviour, Radha breaks up with him. Amreek is devastated. This is when his father, Gurkeerat aka Gurki calls him from his home in Amritsar. He tells Amreek that he should return immediately as his grandmother, Sardar Kaur, is sick. Sardar, aged 90, has a tumour. The doctors advise Gurki that they should take her home as operating her at this age can prove fatal. Gurki realizes Sardar doesn't have much time but he hides this fact from Sardar. Sardar, meanwhile, has a wish. She wants to go to Lahore and visit the house that she built with her husband, late Gursher Singh in 1946. A year later, during Partition, Gursher was stabbed to death while fighting the rioters. Sardar however escaped and reached India. Since then, she has been missing Gursher and the house. Hence, it's her desire to visit Pakistan so that she could see her ancestral house. Sardar tells Amreek about it. Gurki advises Sardar that she can't travel in this condition. But Amreek realizes how much this means to her. He promises her that he'll help fulfil her wish. He tries to get her visa. However, her application is rejected as she's blacklisted from visiting Pakistan. This is because a few years ago, she had attacked a Pakistani official, Saqlain Niazi when she had gone to watch an India vs Pakistan cricket match in Mohali. This is when Amreek learns that Radha has transplanted a nearly hundred-year-old tree in the USA. Amreek thus begins to learn about structural relocation and realizes that a lot of people have successfully lifted a house and transplanted it to a different location. Amreek requests help from both the government of India and Pakistan for his mission. Both decide to help him, in principle. Amreek then decides to visit Lahore. However, he hides about his plan from Sardar. He fears that if he fails in his endeavour, she'll be heartbroken. Hence, Amreek pretends to go back to Los Angeles in front of Sardar. Amreek reaches Lahore and successfully is able to find Sardar's house. But when he reaches there, he sees that the local authorities are about to demolish the structure. But he stops it and manages to convince the mayor (who is actually Saqlain Niazi, the official whom his grandmother had hit in the match) he brings back the house, thus fulfilling Sardar's wish. In the end of the film, it is revealed that Sardar dies seven years after, and divides the property in three equal shares. It is also revealed that Amreek and Radha marry and move to back to America and have two daughters and son, named after his grandmother.


title: Sardar Ka Grandson

text: The film's soundtrack is composed by Tanishk Bagchi. whereas, lyrics being written by Tanishk Bagchi, Millind Gaba, Happy Raikoti and Manoj Muntashir.


title: Sardar Ka Grandson

text: The song "Main Teri Ho Gayi" is remake version of Punjabi singer Millind Gaba's 2017 song of the same name.


title: 2011–12 Chelsea F.C. season

text: The 2011–12 season was Chelsea Football Club's 98th competitive season, their 23rd consecutive season in the top flight of English football (20th in the Premier League), and their 106th year in existence as a football club. While their sixth place in the league was their lowest domestic finish since 2001–02, they completed a cup double by winning their seventh FA Cup and their first UEFA Champions League.


title: The Sensual World

text: The Sensual World is the sixth studio album by the English art rock singer Kate Bush, released on 16 October 1989 by Columbia Records. It reached No. 2 on the UK Albums Chart. It has been certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments in excess of 300,000 in the United Kingdom, and Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in the United States.


title: The Sensual World

text: Bush drew inspiration for the title track from the modernist novel "Ulysses" by James Joyce. Bush realised that Molly Bloom's soliloquy, the closing passage of the novel, fitted the music she had created. When the Joyce estate refused to release the text, Bush wrote original lyrics that echo the original passage, as Molly steps from the pages of the book and revels in the real world. She also alluded to "Jerusalem" by William Blake in a reference to the song's gestation ("And my arrows of desire rewrite the speech"). The song includes Irish instrumentation (uilleann pipes, fiddle, whistle) under a breathy rendering of the orgasmic 'Yes' of the original text.


title: The Sensual World

text: The songs "Deeper Understanding", "Never Be Mine", and "Rocket's Tail" all feature backing vocals by the Bulgarian vocal ensemble Trio Bulgarka. "Heads We're Dancing" includes a characteristic Mick Karn fretless bassline. The song "This Woman's Work" from the romantic comedy film "She's Having a Baby" (1988) was re-edited for this album. On 27 November 2005 it was featured in the British TV drama "Walk Away and I Stumble" starring Tamzin Outhwaite. Due to that broadcast, the song reached No. 3 on the UK Singles Downloads Chart in late 2005. This song has also been used in a long-running UK television advert for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, broadcast between 2005 and 2008, and in the "Extras" Christmas Special in 2007. A version of the song was recorded by R&B artist Maxwell in 1997 for his "MTV Unplugged" EP.


title: The Sensual World

text: Released as CD players were becoming increasingly popular, the original LP ended with "This Woman's Work", whilst "Walk Straight Down the Middle" was included as a bonus track on the CD and cassette versions of the album. The gap between these two tracks is slightly longer to indicate the album was intended to finish with "This Woman's Work". "Walk Straight Down the Middle" later appeared on the compilation "The Other Sides".


title: The Sensual World

text: A video collection called "The Sensual World: The Videos" was also released. It contained videos for the title song, "Love and Anger", and "This Woman's Work" (all directed by Bush herself), as well as excerpts from an interview Bush gave to the music TV channel VH1.


title: The Sensual World

text: In May 2011, Bush released the album "Director's Cut", which featured new versions of four songs from "The Sensual World", including the title song, now called "Flower of the Mountain". Finally having received permission from the Joyce estate, Bush recorded a new vocal using Molly Bloom's soliloquy as the lyric. Additionally, she re-recorded a sparse, piano-only version of "This Woman's Work". The new version of "Deeper Understanding" was released as a single, with an accompanying video.


title: The Sensual World

text: The live version of "Never Be Mine" was included on her live album "Before the Dawn", released in 2016. Although the song had not been performed before an audience, Bush included the live version in the recording.


title: The Sensual World

text: "While Bush's famously fey voice would probably be enough to hold the disparate strands of "The Sensual World" together, the album takes its cue and colouring too from the hypnotically sinuous sway of the pipes on the title track," wrote Robert Sandall in "Q". "There are some strapping power chords to be despatched here and there, most notably on Love And Anger, but the dominant mood is of Oriental reverie, similar in feel to that achieved latterly by Japan. And in fact the last track on side one, Heads We're Dancing, reproduces that mysteriously "sproingy" bass sound favoured by Mick Karn."


title: The Sensual World

text: In 1990, Bush received two nominations at the 10th Brit Awards in the categories Best British Producer and Best British Female. At the 33rd Grammy Awards held the following year, "The Sensual World" was nominated for Best Alternative Music Performance.


title: The Sensual World

text: "Slant Magazine" ranked "The Sensual World" at No. 55 on its 2012 list of the best albums of the 1980s, writing, "Blessed with one of music's most wildly expressive voices, Bush takes each song further than she has to, resulting in an album that forms its own unique world."


title: Stateville Correctional Center

text: Stateville Correctional Center (SCC) is a maximum security state prison for men in Crest Hill, Illinois, United States, near Chicago. It is a part of the Illinois Department of Corrections.


title: Stateville Correctional Center

text: Opened in 1925, Stateville was built to accommodate 1,506 inmates. Parts of the prison were designed according to the panopticon concept proposed by the British philosopher and prison reformer, Jeremy Bentham. Stateville's "F-House" cellhouse, commonly known as a "roundhouse", has a panopticon layout which features an armed tower in the center of an open area surrounded by several tiers of cells. F-House was the only remaining "roundhouse" still in use in the United States in the 1990s. It was closed in late 2016 but the structure will remain standing due to its historical significance. A duplicate of the prison, the Presidio Modelo, opened in Cuba in 1936, but has since been abandoned.


title: Stateville Correctional Center

text: In 2009 a 40-year-old man from Chicago, Richard Conner, murdered a 37-year-old Will County man named Jameson Leezer, who had originated from Lisle and Bolingbrook. Both were inmates placed in the same solitary confinement cell together. The killing made the state of Illinois change its rules in housing two prisoners together during solitary confinement; the prison authorities now must take into account both inmates' histories of violence.


title: Stateville Correctional Center

text: Stateville Correctional Center was one of three sites in which executions were carried out by electrocution in Illinois. The electric chair was first used at Stateville in 1949. Prior to that the electric chair was housed at the Joliet Correctional Center. The state's other electrocutions were carried out at the Menard Correctional Center in Chester and at the Cook County Jail in Chicago.


title: Stateville Correctional Center

text: In July 1977, the death penalty was reinstated in Illinois. On September 8, 1983, the state adopted lethal injection as the default method of execution in Illinois, but the electric chair remained operational to replace lethal injection if needed. Eleven (11) executions were carried out by lethal injection at the Stateville Correctional Center until March 1998 when the site of executions was moved southwest to the Tamms Correctional Center in Tamms, Illinois.


title: Stateville Correctional Center

text: On March 9, 2011, Governor Pat Quinn signed into law legislation ending the death penalty in the state of Illinois.