title: Jealous Guy

text: Lennon's recording of "Jealous Guy" was released on the "Imagine" album in 1971. It was not released as a single until November 1985, five years after Lennon's murder, and four-and-a-half years after Roxy Music had taken their cover of the song to number one. Accompanied on the B-side by "Going Down on Love", a track from "Walls and Bridges" (1974), the single reached number 65 in the UK charts.


title: Jealous Guy

text: In the United States, the single reached number 80 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in November 1988, in conjunction with the release of the film "". "Jealous Guy" also peaked at number 22 on the Hot Adult Contemporary chart.


title: Jealous Guy

text: A promotional video was made for the song in 1971. It showed, mostly in a continuous overhead shot by helicopter, John and Yoko travelling in a hearse from their Tittenhurst Park mansion to a nearby lake, where they were then shown getting into a row boat.


title: Jealous Guy

text: "Jealous Guy" has been recorded by many musicians including Aslan, Joe Cocker, Roberto Bellarosa, Donny Hathaway, Claudine Longet, the Faces, Frankie Miller, Roxy Music, Belinda Carlisle, Peter Criss, Deftones, and indie-band Spector. Lou Reed covered the song for a 2001 Lennon tribute concert. Jazz musician Jimmy Scott covered "Jealous Guy" on his 1998 album "Holding Back the Years". The rock band the Black Crowes released a live cover of "Jealous Guy" on the 30th anniversary release of their 1990 album "Shake Your Money Maker".


title: Jealous Guy

text: Following Lennon's murder in 1980, Roxy Music added a version of the song to their set while touring in Germany, which they recorded and released in February 1981. The single was released by Polydor with "To Turn You On" as the B-side, with catalogue number "ROXY 2". The song was the only UK No. 1 hit for Roxy Music, topping the charts for two weeks in March 1981.


title: Jealous Guy

text: "To Turn You On" later appeared on the 1982 album "Avalon", although it was slightly remixed. Roxy Music's cover of "Jealous Guy" features on many Bryan Ferry/Roxy Music collections and 1980s music compilations, though not always in its full-length version. As of 1982, the single had sold 91,000 copies in Australia.


title: Jealous Guy

text: A music video was filmed for the song, which mainly consisted of Bryan Ferry singing to camera before whistling and playing on a Sequential Circuits Prophet-5 synthesizer during the coda. Guitarist Phil Manzanera and saxophonist Andy Mackay also appear in the video during their respective solos.


title: Jealous Guy

text: In 2012, Belgian singer of Italian origin Roberto Bellarosa recorded "Jealous Guy" after winning the first season of "The Voice Belgique". It was released as a single on 4 April 2012 and included on his debut album "Ma voie". The single reached number 4 in Belgium.


title: Start-Up (film)

text: Start-Up () is a 2019 South Korean comedy-drama film written and directed by Choi Jung-yeol. Based on the webtoon "Start" by Jo Geum-san, the film stars Ma Dong-seok, Park Jung-min, Jung Hae-in, Yum Jung-ah and Choi Sung-eun. It was released on December 18, 2019.


title: Start-Up (film)

text: Against his mother's advice, Go Taek-il leaves home and ends up working at a Chinese restaurant run by a huge man named Geo-seok. At the same time, his friend Woo Sang-pil starts working for a private loan business. The two young men experience the ups and downs of being adults.


title: Start-Up (film)

text: Taek-il, a rebel who only deviates from day to day. That day too, was caught by the police station for riding without a helmet with his best friend Sangpil, who bought a second-hand motorcycle by paying the school fees for the GED. Taek-il, who was slapped by his mother Jeong-hye who ran after receiving her call, left the house impulsively the next day and headed for Gunsan. He had nothing to do, so he stopped by a nearby Chinese restaurant to eat, but when he saw the short-haired chef Megaseok, he felt unusual energy.


title: Start-Up (film)

text: Afterward, when he sees a job posting at a Chinese restaurant asking for a delivery man, he immediately enters the store and volunteers to write for him. As soon as he saw the option, the president noticed that he was a child who left home at once, and said that it would be difficult for him to run away for a longer period of time. After that, Taek-il lives with the president's house, and he gets close to mega-seok as well.


title: Start-Up (film)

text: Meanwhile, Sang-pil, who lives with his grandmother with dementia, desperately needs a job and finds a job with the help of his acquaintance brother, Dong-hwa Kim. That job is loan business. At first, I expected that Dong-hwa would make a lot of money with just a little effort because the work was done so peacefully. However, when he went to a butcher's shop to collect money, he was beaten nice by the boss and became sick, and when he found out that among the customers who had borrowed money from the company, Taek-il's mother Jeong-hye changed the situation.


title: Start-Up (film)

text: In addition, the toast shop that Jeong-hye opened while using her debt was ordered to be demolished because it was an illegal building. Taek-il, who learned of this after a while, rushed to the store, but was helpless by the tyranny of the loan sharks.


title: Start-Up (film)

text: Yoon Min-sik of "The Korea Herald" said that "the film initially felt like unoriginal, unfunny film, but it does a good job of creating likeable characters". However, "outside of the characters, the film doesn’t really offer much" as "the story is never sufficiently developed enough to be appealing" and "a lot of the jokes fall flat." Kim Boram of "Yonhap" gave a similar review, mentioning a story which "loses humor and becomes discursive and distracted as the film tries to deal with too many social issues" and a "corny and formulaic plot" with "not-so-flashy action scenes [that] will disappoint those who expect a big blockbuster."


title: A Thousand Words (film)

text: A Thousand Words is a 2012 American comedy-drama film directed by Brian Robbins from a script by Steve Koren and starring Eddie Murphy. It was released in theaters on March 9, 2012, four years after it was filmed, to negative reviews from critics, receiving a 0% rating on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes. It was a box office bomb, having grossed just $22 million worldwide on a $40 million budget.


title: A Thousand Words (film)

text: Literary agent Jack McCall uses his "gift of gab" to get various book deals, and he is not afraid to stretch the truth to get them. While he is trying to get a deal from New Age self-help guru Dr. Sinja, he sees through Jack's deceit and agrees to the deal, only to later deliver a five-page book.


title: A Thousand Words (film)

text: That night, a Bodhi Tree appears in Jack's backyard. Dr. Sinja goes to his house and they discover that for every word Jack speaks, a leaf falls off of the tree. When the tree runs out of leaves, it will die, as will Jack. He finds that even written words and gestures towards words count towards his limit; plus anything that happens to the tree also affects him. When Jack tries to cut it down with an axe, a wound appears on him. When squirrels climb the tree, it tickles him. When a gardener tries to poison it with DDT, Jack gets high on the fumes and when the gardener tries to water it, Jack starts to sweat and perspire profusely.


title: A Thousand Words (film)

text: With Jack forced to choose his words carefully, communication becomes difficult and full of misunderstandings. These cost him two book deals, his job, his wife Caroline and his son, Tyler. She walks out on him when she thinks his sudden silence is due to him not loving her anymore. When he tries to explain the tree to her, she doesn't believe him. Only Jack's assistant Aaron Weisberger realizes he is telling the truth, and goes to his house to keep track of how many leaves remain. Jack tries to break the curse by being a better person by giving food to the homeless, and donating some of his money to charity, but that plan fails. Jack drinks a lot of alcohol in the night, causing him to sing a lot, thus making the tree lose most of its leaves. Only when Aaron confronts him and tackles him to the ground does he stop speaking and fall asleep.


title: A Thousand Words (film)

text: With his life falling apart and the tree running out of leaves, Jack confronts Dr. Sinja and asks how to end the curse. The guru tells him to make peace in all of his relationships. With just one branch of leaves left, Jack tries to reconcile with his wife, but she remains hesitant. He visits his mother Annie, who lives in an assisted-living center and has dementia. Annie tells Jack, who she thinks is his late father Raymond, that she wishes Jack would stop being angry at his father for walking out on them when he was a kid. Realizing this is the relationship that needs the most mending, he goes to visit his father's grave. Jack expends the last three leaves of the tree with the words "I forgive you". With no leaves remaining, he suffers a heart attack in a storm and appears to die. Aaron then calls Jack on his cell phone. Still alive, Jack answers his phone. Aaron tells him the tree's leaves have magically reappeared and Jack can now talk freely again.


title: A Thousand Words (film)

text: Jack and Caroline get back together, with him buying the family-friendly house Caroline had asked for, with the tree in their front yard. Although he does not get his job back (Aaron was promoted to Jack's old position), he writes a book about his experience, called "A Thousand Words", and gets Aaron to make the deal. Unfortunately for Aaron, the promotion causes him to be like Jack was, thus he gets his own smaller office Bodhi Tree.


title: A Thousand Words (film)

text: "A Thousand Words" was filmed in August 2008 in Los Angeles, California and was supposed to be released in 2009, but was repeatedly delayed after being caught up in the separation of DreamWorks Pictures from Paramount Pictures and Viacom. During an interview for "", director Brian Robbins stated that the film would be released in 2011. Reshoots were done on the film early in 2011.


title: A Thousand Words (film)

text: The film was then scheduled for a January 2012 release, but after Murphy was announced as the host of the 2012 Oscar ceremony (he later stepped down), the film was given a date of March 23, 2012; this was later pushed to April 20, 2012, before being pushed up to its eventual release date of March 9, 2012.


title: A Thousand Words (film)

text: Plans for a British release date of June 8, 2012, were cancelled due to unidentified difficulties, and the film was instead released direct-to-DVD in the UK on July 16, 2012.


title: A Thousand Words (film)

text: "A Thousand Words" grossed $18,450,127 in North America, along with $3,594,150 in other countries, for a worldwide total of $22,044,277, against an estimated production budget of $40 million.


title: A Thousand Words (film)

text: In the United States. The film along with "John Carter" and "Silent House" was expected to gross $5 million on its opening weekend. The film made $1.9 million on Friday and it ended up debuting at sixth with a $6.1 million on its opening weekend.


title: A Thousand Words (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 0% based on 57 reviews, with an average rating of 3.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Dated jokes ("A Thousand Words" was shot in 2008) and removing Eddie Murphy's voice – his greatest comedic asset – dooms this painful mess from the start." The site also gave the film their "Moldy Tomato" award for the worst-reviewed film of 2012. On Metacritic, the film has a score of 26 out of 100, based on 18 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: A Thousand Words (film)

text: Frank Scheck of "The Hollywood Reporter" calls the film another example of "how the talented performer’s poor choice of material continually undercuts him". Although Scheck praises Murphy's efforts he concludes "The formulaic script by Steve Koren doesn't manage to exploit the absurd premise with any discernible wit or invention, and the star is left floundering." Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film 1.5 out of 4 and wrote: "The poster art for A Thousand Words shows Eddie Murphy with duct tape over his mouth, which as a promotional idea ranks right up there with Fred Astaire in leg irons." Ebert is also critical of the plot because it "never explains the rules".


title: A Thousand Words (film)

text: Justin Chang of Variety wrote: "Alas, even Murphy's largely wordless, physically adroit performance can't redeem this tortured exercise in high-concept spiritualist hokum."


title: A Thousand Words (film)

text: Andrew Pulver of "The Guardian" commented, "Everyone, it seems, is united by "A Thousand Words" awfulness."


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: Hydrangea macrophylla is a species of flowering plant in the family Hydrangeaceae, native to Japan. It is a deciduous shrub growing to tall by broad with large heads of pink or blue flowers in summer and autumn. Common names include bigleaf hydrangea, French hydrangea, lacecap hydrangea, mophead hydrangea, penny mac and hortensia. It is widely cultivated in many parts of the world in many climates. It is not to be confused with "H. aspera" 'Macrophylla'.


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: The term "macrophylla" means large- or long-leaved. The opposite leaves can grow to in length. They are simple, membranous, orbicular to elliptic and acuminate. They are generally serrated.


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: The inflorescence of "Hydrangea macrophylla" is a corymb, with all flowers placed in a plane or hemisphere, or even a whole sphere in cultivated forms. Two distinct types of flowers can be identified: central, non-ornamental, pentamerous ones, and peripheral, ornamental, tetramerous ones. The latter have sterile pistils with fertile stamen. The four sepals of decorative flowers have colors ranging from pale pink to red fuchsia purple to blue. The non-decorative flowers have five small greenish sepals and five small petals. Flowering begins in early summer and lasts until early winter. The fruit is a subglobose capsule.


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: "Hydrangea macrophylla" is native to East Asia. It is reported from seaside habitats as well as mountains in Japan, from Honshu southwards. This species has naturalized in China, Korea, Siberia, New Zealand and the Americas. It is an invasive species in the Azores and Madeira archipelagos.


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: "Hydrangea macrophylla" blooms can be blue, red, pink, light purple, or dark purple. The color is affected by soil pH. An acidic soil (pH below 7) will usually produce flower color closer to blue, whereas an alkaline soil (pH above 7) will produce flowers more pink.This is caused by a color change of the flower pigments in the presence of aluminium ions which can be taken up into hyperaccumulating plants.


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: In climates where "Hydrangea macrophylla" flowers, place in a mixed shrub border or at the back of a flower bed. Its rich foliage and large size make it a wonderful background for white or light colored flowers, even tall growing perennials and annuals. In warm climates "H. macrophylla" is good for adding a splash of early summer color to shady areas and woodland gardens. Minimal pruning is recommended for most prolific flowering. Flowers are easily air dried and are long lasting.


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: While "Hydrangea macrophylla" is not considered a particularly difficult plant to grow, it may fail to flower. This may be due to cold winter damage to the flower buds, not getting enough sunlight, too much nitrogen fertilizer, or pruning at the wrong time of year.


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: "H. macrophylla" forms flower buds in late summer. As a result, pruning in late summer, fall or winter could remove potential flowers.


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: Phyllodulcin, hydrangenol, and their 8-O-glucosides, and thunberginols A and F can be found in "H. macrophylla". Thunberginol B, the dihydroisocoumarins thunberginol C, D and E, the dihydroisocoumarin glycosides thunberginol G 3'-O-glucoside and (−)-hydrangenol 4'-O-glucoside and four kaempferol and quercetin oligoglycosides can be found in "Hydrangeae Dulcis Folium", the processed leaves of "H. macrophylla" var. "thunbergii". The leaves also contain the stilbenoid hydrangeic acid.


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: The various colors, such as red, mauve, purple, violet and blue, in "H. macrophylla" are developed from one simple anthocyanin, delphinidin 3-glucoside (myrtillin), which forms complexes with metal ions called metalloanthocyanins.


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: Lunularic acid, lunularin, 3,4′-dihydroxystilbene and a glycoside of lunularic acid have been found in the roots of "H. macrophylla".


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: Hydrangine is another name for the coumarin umbelliferone, and may be responsible for the possible toxicity of the plant.


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: Amacha is a Japanese beverage made from fermented leaves of "Hydrangea macrophylla" var. "thunbergii".


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: "Hydrangeae Dulcis Folium" is a drug made from the fermented and dried leaves of "H. macrophylla var. thunbergii" with possible antiallergic and antimicrobial properties. It also has a hepatoprotective activity by suppression of D-galactosamine-induced liver injury in vitro and in vivo.


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: "Hydrangea macrophylla" is included in the Tasmanian Fire Service's list of low flammability plants, indicating that it is suitable for growing within a building protection zone.


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: Leaf extracts of "Hydrangea macrophylla" are being investigated as a possible source of new chemical compounds with antimalarial activity. Hydrangeic acid from the leaves is being investigated as a possible anti-diabetic drug as it significantly lowered blood glucose, triglyceride, and free fatty acid levels in laboratory animals.


title: Hydrangea macrophylla

text: Some popular hydrangea cultivars (those marked have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit) include:


title: Blackheart

text: Blackheart is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is usually depicted as an adversary to the superhero Ghost Rider. Created by writer Ann Nocenti and artist John Romita Jr., Blackheart first appeared in "Daredevil" #270 (September 1989).


title: Blackheart

text: The character has also appeared in other media, such as the 2000 video game "", and in the 2007 film "Ghost Rider", in which he was portrayed by actor Wes Bentley.


title: Blackheart

text: The character was created by Ann Nocenti and John Romita Jr. and first appeared in "Daredevil" #270 (September 1989).


title: Blackheart

text: Centuries of murder in a locale named Christ's Crown, New York, draws the attention of a Hell-lord, Mephisto, who creates a "son," Blackheart, from the energy of the accumulated evil. Blackheart explores the nature of evil under his father's tutelage, clashing with and failing to corrupt Daredevil and Spider-Man. Mephisto draws Daredevil, Brandy Ash, the genetically engineered Number Nine and the Inhumans Gorgon, Karnak and Ahura into Hell, where Blackheart tries to tempt them. However, he is impressed by humanity's free will and concludes that evil cannot hope to win out against good. When Mephisto learns of Blackheart's change of mind, he banishes him to Earth, warning him that if he ever uses his power again, he will be driven mad.


title: Blackheart

text: Later, in an attempt to be free of captivity, Blackheart makes contact with Misha from the group Warheads and becomes the source of her pre-cognitive visions. Eventually Misha's squad, Kether Troop, invades Hell itself and frees Blackheart, who was temporarily in disguise.


title: Blackheart

text: Blackheart returns to Christ's Crown and lures Ghost Rider, Punisher and Wolverine to the town, hoping to recruit them in his war against Mephisto. When they all refuse, Blackheart brainwashes the entire town and kidnaps a young girl all three men had befriended. The group follows Blackheart and the girl back into his own realm and defeats him. As Mephisto forewarned, the usage of his powers in this attempt drives him to madness. He again attempts to commission the services of the three heroes; however, he is shut down by the Ghost Rider who deems him no better than his father. Unexpectedly, the young girl runs to the defeated Blackheart and offers him forgiveness. Not knowing how to respond, Blackheart lays on the ground as he weeps. It is later revealed that Blackheart did not actually need her, just her blood, when Mephisto appears to him offering his aid in defeating them. Brandishing a dagger tipped in a small portion of her blood, Blackheart claims he has fulfilled a prophecy as he plunges the dagger into Mephisto; supposedly destroying him. Blackheart is then shown having taken over his portion of Hell.


title: Blackheart

text: Blackheart creates a group of Spirits of Vengeance in order to oppose the Ghost Rider, Noble Kale. Blackheart tricks Kale and tries to make him as a member of his group of Spirits of Vengeance, promising Kale the power to rule in Hell alongside him. The Ghost Rider double-crosses Blackheart and seemingly kills him, freeing the other Spirits of Vengeance, and gaining rule over Blackheart's portion of Hell.


title: Blackheart

text: Blackheart survived this encounter and would confront other heroes over the next few years, such as X-Force and the Fantastic Four. He would be relegated to "meeting scenes over the next few years," seen briefly in meetings with other lords of the underworld (including his father Mephisto, returned to power) such as Satannish, Hela and Dormammu.


title: Blackheart

text: Blackheart later concocts a scheme to bring Hell to Earth and steal the souls of the planet's residents. As part of the plan, he takes human form and runs an operation in Las Vegas that sees him create several clones of X-23 and bond them to genetically created symbiotes. After Ghost Rider accidentally transports Hell to Las Vegas, Blackheart is confronted by the Ghost Rider, Venom, Red Hulk, and X-23, and summons four creatures that represent the antitheses of the four and sets them against the heroes.


title: Blackheart

text: Blackheart was later seen in Chicago where he posed as the Mayor of Chicago at the time when Falcon and Patriot are dealing with the gang violence. He later tried to corrupt the Champions, but was defeated when those he had under his control managed to overcome their self-doubts, and Mephisto pulled him back to Hell for punishment.


title: Blackheart

text: Blackheart is a powerful demon created by Mephisto. He possesses vast inherent supernatural powers, including superhuman strength, speed and endurance which are magical in nature. He also has telekinetic and telepathic powers and can levitate, teleport inter-dimensionally, change his size and physical form, enter and leave different planes of existence and dimensions at will, heal himself at the sub-molecular level and has the ability to generate various forms of energies for destructive purposes, such as powerful concussive blasts of black energy. He also possesses very high intelligence. Blackheart has demonstrated the ability to call forth armies from the pits of Hell. He has no soul, making him invulnerable to the Ghost Rider's Penance Stare.


title: Blackheart

text: Devil worshippers, looking to give Satan the perfect son, began the Blackheart Project. They mated some of the vilest individuals in different combinations, hoping to find the right mix to breed the Antichrist. They finally succeeded, but in doing so, they caught the eye of Zadkiel – a betrayer of and usurper of Heaven. Zadkiel wanted to slay the Antichrist so the apocalypse would never come to pass and he would remain forever. The Black Host made quick work of his enemies and just about every man, woman and child were massacred except for his intended target.


title: Blackheart

text: Kid Blackheart settled in New York, but he could not stay hidden forever. Subjected to another assassination attempt, he would have perished if not for Jaine Cutter and her Breathing Gun. Jaine and the Antichrist fled but were again trapped by a group of mindless minions. Hellstorm, also tracking the boy so that he might kill him, ended up having no choice but to defend him from his attackers. Kid Blackheart ran, but did not get far before encountering Daniel Ketch. Snatching the boy from the streets and delivering him back to his saviors, Ketch was not surprised to see his brother, Johnny Blaze, and his Caretaker already in their company. Ketch explained how he made a deal with the devil to keep the boy safe in exchange for the keys to Heaven to stop Zadkiel.


title: Blackheart

text: The group split up and the Antichrist played along, staying close to Sara, the Caretaker. When Jaine Cutter and Hellstorm were assaulted by Madcap and Scarecrow, he and Sara became separated from them. Taking refuge in a defiled church, Kid Blackheart decided to reveal his true goal. Master Pandemonium ambushed Sara, knocking her unconscious, so she could be chained and bound. The Antichrist then said a few words in an unintelligible language and exposed Sara for what she truly was – a gateway to Heaven. Kid Blackheart, seeking to destroy Heaven for his father, led a horde of demons through her and into the shining city. However, once he arrived in Heaven, there was an army of Ghost Riders waiting on the other side. His troops did not stand a chance and he was forced to flee, but not before suffering a few blows from Knuckles O'Shaugnessy. Kid Blackheart met with Master Pandemonium and Blackout for some rest and relaxation before they made another go at conquering the world for Satan.


title: Blackheart

text: Blackheart appears in "Ghost Rider", portrayed by Wes Bentley. This version primarily assumes and maintains a human form with pale skin and black hair, though he displays traces of his demonic facial features at varying points in the film. Additionally, he is stated to have all of his father, Mephistopheles', powers along with a "lethal touch" that he can use to kill people, an immunity to holy objects and places since he was born in hell, and no soul, which makes him immune to the Ghost Rider's Penance Stare. Blackheart seeks to obtain the Contract of San Venganza, which grants its owner access to the power of a thousand evil souls. Upon learning of his son's search, Mephistopheles transforms Johnny Blaze into the Ghost Rider and tasks him with killing Blackheart. Despite Blaze's best efforts, Blackheart succeeds in obtaining the contract and fuses with the souls to become Legion, gaining regenerative capabilities in the process. However, the souls make him susceptible to the Penance Stare, which Blaze exploits to kill Blackheart. Mephistopheles then takes possession of Blackheart's lifeless body and departs from Earth.


title: Hukou

text: Hukou () is a system of household registration used in mainland China. The system itself is more properly called ""huji"" (), and has origins in ancient China; "hukou" is the registration of an individual in the system ("kou" literally means "mouth", which originates from the practise of regarding family members as "mouths to feed", similar to the phrase "per head" in English). A household registration record officially identifies a person as a permanent resident of an area and includes identifying information such as name, parents, spouse and date of birth. A "hukou" can also refer to a family register in many contexts since the household register () is issued per family, and usually includes the births, deaths, marriages, divorces, and moves, of all members in the family.


title: Hukou

text: The system descends in part from ancient Chinese household registration systems. The hukou system also influenced similar systems within the public administration structures of neighboring East Asian countries, such as Japan (koseki) and Korea (hoju), as well as the Southeast Asian country Vietnam (hộ khẩu). In South Korea, the hoju system was abolished in January 2008. While unrelated in origin, propiska in the Soviet Union and resident registration in Russia had a similar purpose and served as a model for modern China's hukou system.


title: Hukou

text: Due to its connection to social programs provided by the government, which assigns benefits based on agricultural and non-agricultural residency status (often referred to as rural and urban), the hukou system is sometimes likened to a form of caste system. It has been the source of much inequality over the decades since the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, as urban residents received benefits that ranged from retirement pension to education to health care, while rural citizens were often left to fend for themselves. In recent years, the central government has begun to reform the system in response to protests and a changing economic system, while some Western experts question whether these changes have been of substance.


title: Hukou

text: The formal name for the system is "huji". Within the "huji" system, a "hukou" is the registered residency status of a particular individual in this system. However, the term "hukou" is used colloquially to refer to the entire system, and it has been adopted by English-language audiences to refer to both the "huji" system and an individual's "hukou".


title: Hukou

text: The hukou system has origins in China that date back to ancient times, but the system in its current form came into being with the 1958 "People's Republic of China Hukou Registration Regulation". Until very recently, each citizen was classified in an agricultural or non-agricultural hukou (commonly referred to as rural or urban) and further categorized by location of origin. This two-fold organization structure was linked to social policy, and those residents who held non-agricultural (i.e. urban) hukou status received benefits not available to their rural counterparts. Internal migration was also tightly controlled by the central government, and only in the past few decades have these restrictions been loosened. While this system has played a major role in China's fast economic growth, hukou has also promoted and aggravated social stratification and contributed significantly to the deprivation of many of China's rural workers. In recent years, steps have been taken to alleviate the inequalities promulgated by the hukou system, with the most recent major reforms announced in March and July 2014, which included a provision that eliminated the division between agricultural and non-agricultural hukou status.


title: Hukou

text: In its original legislation, the hukou system was justified as created to“...maintain social order, protect the rights and interests of citizens and to be of service to the establishment of socialism". The central government asserted that because rural areas had greater capacity to absorb and use excess labor, the majority of the population should be concentrated in these regions. Furthermore, free movement of people was considered dangerous, as it would lead to overpopulation of cities and could threaten agricultural production. Under the hukou system, the rural population was structured to serve as support for urban industrialization, both in agricultural production and workers for state owned businesses.


title: Hukou

text: In reality, the hukou system served other motives as well. After establishing the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party enacted policies based on the notions of stability and rapid modernization, and the hukou system was no exception. Urban areas have historically been where authoritarian regimes are most vulnerable: to combat this, the central government gave preferential treatment to city residents, hoping to prevent uprisings against the state, particularly in the early years when it was especially susceptible to rebellion. The structure of the hukou system also bolstered the power of the central government over its urban citizens: by making city residents dependent upon the government for all aspects of daily life, the central government could force obedience from problematic individuals.


title: Hukou

text: The central government's efforts to contain migration has been a major factor in the rapid development of the Chinese economy. Their tight check on migration into urban areas has helped prevent the emergence of a number of problems faced by many other developing countries. For example, the appearance of slums outside of urban areas due to a massive influx of individuals searching for work has not been an issue, nor have poor health conditions due to high population density. And regardless of its other imperfections, the hukou system's ability to maintain stability has contributed to China's economic rise.


title: Hukou

text: Human rights activists state that the hukou system has also been used to systematically deny Uyghurs and Tibetans from moving out of Xinjiang or Tibet by disallowing them from renting or buying housing in more eastern parts of China, and that any who do manage to leave are commonly forced to return through the system.


title: Hukou

text: The legacy of the Chinese hukou system may be traced back to the pre-dynastic era, as early as the 21st century BC. In its early forms, the household registration system was used primarily for the purposes of taxation and conscription, as well as regulating migration. Two early models of the hukou system were the xiangsui and baojia systems. The xiangsui system, established under the Western Zhou Dynasty (circa 11th-8th centuries BC) was used as a method of organizing and categorizing urban and rural land. The function of the baojia system, propagated by Lord Shang Yang of the 4th century BC, was to create a system of accountability within groups of citizens: if one person within the group violated the strict rules in place, everyone in the group suffered. This structure was later utilized and expanded upon during the Qin Dynasty (221-207 BCE) for the purposes of taxation, population control, and conscription.


title: Hukou

text: According to the "Examination of Hukou" in Wenxian Tongkao published in 1317, there was a minister for population management during the Zhou Dynasty named Simin (), who was responsible for recording births, deaths, emigrations and immigrations. The Rites of Zhou notes that three copies of documents were kept in different places. The administrative divisions in Zhou Dynasty were a function of the distance to the state capital. The top division nearest the capital was named Dubi (), top division in more distant areas were named Xiang () and Sui (). Families were organized under the Baojia system.


title: Hukou

text: Guan Zhong, Prime Minister of the Qi state 7th century BCE, imposed different taxation and conscription policies on different areas. In addition, Guan Zhong also banned immigration, emigration, and separation of families without permission. In the Book of Lord Shang, Shang Yang also described his policy restricting immigrations and emigrations.


title: Hukou

text: Xiao He, the first Chancellor of the Han Dynasty, added the chapter of "Hu" (, "Households Code") as one of the nine basic law codes of Han (), and established the "hukou" system as the basis of tax revenue and conscription.


title: Hukou

text: The first formal codification of the hukou system arose at the end of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) with the 1911 Huji Law. Although movement was nominally free under this statute, registration of individuals with the government was required, and it was used by the government to pursue communist forces and as a basis for taxation for the funding of wars. The law also expanded upon the baojia system, and was intended to establish a sense of stability.


title: Hukou

text: In the period following the fall of the Qing Dynasty, China was ruled by various actors, each of which employed some system of household or personal identification. During the Japanese occupation, the Japanese employed a system used to identify those under their rule and to fund their war effort. Similarly, the Kuomintang utilized the system to monitor the activities of their opponents, the Chinese Communist Party, and the Chinese Communist Party in turn used a system called lianbao, which bundled families into groups of five to aid tracking and impede counterrevolutionaries.


title: Hukou

text: At the time of its founding in 1949, the People's Republic of China was a highly agricultural nation. About 89% of its citizens lived in rural areas – about 484 million resided in the countryside, versus about 58 million in the city. However, as efforts to industrialize increased and Soviet help (156 projects), more and more rural residents flocked to the cities in search of better economic opportunities: between 1957 and 1960, there was a 90.9% increase in the urban labor force.


title: Hukou

text: A major objective of the hukou system implemented by the central government was thus to control the stream of resources moving away from the agricultural sector. The instability and high rates of movement that characterized the years following the establishment of the nation impeded the central government's plan for society and the economy. Although the hukou system in its current form was not officially brought into being until 1958, the years preceding its establishment were characterized by growing efforts by the Chinese Communist Party to assert control over its populace. In 1950, the Minister of Public Security, Luo Ruiqing, published a statement detailing his vision for the implementation of the hukou system in the new era. By 1954, rural and urban citizens had been registered with the state, and rigorous regulations on the conversion of hukou status had already been implemented. These required that applicants have paperwork that documented employment, acceptance to a university, or immediate family relations in the city to be eligible. In March of the same year, the Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of Labor issued the Joint Directive to Control Blind Influx of Peasants into Cities, which proclaimed that henceforth, all employment of rural workers in city firms would be controlled entirely by local labor bureaus.


title: Hukou

text: On 9 January 1958, the People's Republic of China Hukou Registration Regulation was signed into law. This divided the populace into non-gmin (non-citizen), with an agricultural hukou, and shimin (citizen), with a non-agricultural hukou, and grouped all citizens by locality. The key difference, however, lay in the distinction between agricultural and non-agricultural hukou status. Because the central government prioritized industrialization, state welfare programs, which were tied to hukou status, heavily favored urban residents; holders of agricultural hukous were unable to access these benefits and were saddled with inferior welfare policies. Furthermore, transfer of hukou status was highly restricted, with official quotas at 0.15-0.2% per year and actual conversion rates at about 1.5%. In the following years, government oversight over the movement of people was expanded. In 1964, greater limits were imposed on migration to big cities, particularly major ones like Beijing and Shanghai, and in 1977 these regulations were furthered. Throughout this era, the hukou system was used as an instrument of the command economy, helping the central government implement its plan for industrializing the nation.


title: Hukou

text: From the establishment of the People's Republic of China until Chairman Mao's death in 1976, the central government tightened its control over migration, and by 1978, intranational movement was controlled entirely by the government. Because living "outside the system" was virtually impossible, nearly all movement of people was state-sponsored.


title: Hukou

text: However, with Deng Xiaoping's rise to power in 1978 came the initiation of reforms that steadily began to alleviate some of the disparity between agricultural and non-agricultural hukou holders. Restrictions have been loosened on movement from rural areas to smaller cities, although migration to large cities such as Beijing and Tianjin is still heavily regulated. Greater autonomy has also been ceded to local governments in deciding quotas and eligibility criteria for converting hukou status. Legislation has been enacted that allow migrant workers to obtain temporary residency permits, although these permits do not allow them access to the same benefits as possessed by urban residents. However, with living outside the system now much more practical than it used to be, a number of migrant workers do not acquire the temporary residency permits – primarily because they do not have the resources or concrete employment offers to do so – and as such live in danger of being forced to return to the countryside. In 2014, the central government announced reform that among other things eliminated the division between agricultural and non-agricultural hukou status.


title: Hukou

text: Under the hukou system implemented by the central government in 1958, while holders of the non-agricultural hukou status were given ration cards for everyday necessities, including food and textiles, rural residents were forced to produce everything themselves. Whereas the state provided housing in the city, individuals had to construct their own homes. The state invested in education, arranged employment, and provided retirement benefits for city residents, and provided none of these services for their rural citizens. These disparities have left the rural populace highly disadvantaged, and tragedies such as the famine of the Great Leap Forward primarily ravaged rural Chinese citizens.


title: Hukou

text: During the Great Chinese Famine from 1958 to 1962, having an urban versus a rural hukou could mean the difference between life and death. During this period, nearly all of the approximately 600 million rural hukou residents were collectivized into village communal farms, where their agricultural output - after state taxes - would be their only source of food. With institutionalized exaggeration of output figures by local Communist leaders and massive declines in production, state taxes during those years confiscated nearly all food in many rural communes, leading to mass starvation and the deaths of more than 65 million Chinese people.


title: Hukou

text: The 100 million urban hukou residents, however, were fed by fixed food rations established by the central government, which declined to an average of 1500 calories per day at times but still allowed survival for almost all during the famine. An estimated 95% or higher of all deaths occurred among rural hukou holders. With the suppression of news internally, many city residents were not aware that mass deaths were occurring in the countryside at all. This was essential to preventing organized opposition to Mao's policies.


title: Hukou

text: During China's transition from state socialism to market socialism (1978-2001), migrants, most of whom were women, worked in newly created export-processing zones in city suburbs under sub-standard working conditions. There were restrictions upon the mobility of migrant workers that forced them to live precarious lives in company dormitories or shanty towns where they were exposed to abusive treatment.


title: Hukou

text: The impact of the "hukou" system upon migrant labourers became onerous in the 1980s after hundreds of millions were ejected from state corporations and cooperatives. Since the 1980s, an estimated 200 million Chinese live outside their officially registered areas and under far less eligibility to education and government services, living therefore in a condition similar in many ways to that of illegal immigrants or to black people living in "white" regions under Apartheid. The millions of peasants who have left their land remain trapped at the margins of the urban society. They are often blamed for rising crime and unemployment and under pressure from their citizens, the city governments have imposed discriminatory rules. For example, the children of farm workers () are not allowed to enroll in the city schools, and even now must live with their grandparents or other relatives to attend school in their hometowns. They are commonly referred to as the home-staying children. There are around 130 million such home-staying children, living without their parents, as reported by Chinese researchers.


title: Hukou

text: As rural workers provide their workforce in the urban areas, which also profit from the respective taxes, while their families use public services in the rural areas (e.g. schools for their children, health care for the elderly), the system leads to a wealth transfer to the wealthier urban regions from the poorer regions on the public sector level. Intra-family payments from the working-age members to their relatives in the rural areas counteract that to some extent.


title: Hukou

text: With the loosening of restrictions on migration in the 1980s came a large influx of rural residents seeking better opportunities in the cities. However, these migrant workers have had to confront a number of challenges in their pursuit of financial security. Urban residents received priority over migrants when it came to employment opportunities, and when migrant workers did find jobs, they tend to be positions with little potential for growth. While urban workers were supported by employment benefits and laws that favored them over their employers in case of disputes, rural hukou holders were not privy to such substantial protections. And because city officials' performance was evaluated based on the prosperity of local residents and the local economy, they had little incentive to improve the quality of life of migrant workers.


title: Hukou

text: In 2008, the central government passed the Labor Contract Law, which guaranteed equal access to jobs, established a minimum wage, and required employers to provide contracts to full-time employees that included employment benefits. However, a 2010 study revealed that rural workers earned 40% less than urban workers, and only 16% receive employment benefits. Migrant workers' labor rights are also frequently violated – they work excessively long hours in poor conditions, and face physical and psychological harassment.


title: Hukou

text: Migrant workers are also disproportionately affected by wage arrears, which occurs when employers either fail to pay employees on time or in full. Although such incidences are technically illegal and punishable by seven years' jail time, wage arrears still occur, and labor contracts and pensions may be disregarded. In a study conducted at the end of the 1990s, 46% of migrant workers were missing three or more months of pay, and some workers had not been paid in a decade. Fortunately, over the past couple of decades the prevalence of wage arrears have decreased, and in a study conducted from 2006 to 2009, it was found that 8% of migrant workers had experienced wage arrears.


title: Hukou

text: Following Mao's death in 1976 came economic reforms that caused a surge in demand in the labor market. Rural residents rushed to fill this void, but without the support of hukou status-based government social programs, many of them were forced to leave their families behind. Economic growth throughout the years has maintained a high demand for labor in the cities that continues to be filled by migrant workers, and in 2000, the Fifth National Population Census revealed that 22.9 million children between the ages of 0-14 were living without either one or both of their parents. In 2010, that number had gone up to 61 million, equal to 37.7% of rural children and 21.88% of all Chinese children. These children are usually cared for by their remaining parent and/or their grandparents, and although there is a 96% school enrolment rate among left behind children, they are susceptible to a number of developmental challenges. Left behind children are more likely to resist authority and experience problems interacting with their peers; they are more likely to exhibit unhealthy behaviors such as foregoing breakfast and smoking, and have an increased likelihood of developing mental health issues, including loneliness and depression. And although left behind children may have greater academic opportunities due to their parents' expanded financial capacity, they are also often under greater pressure to perform academically and thus are more vulnerable to school-related stress.


title: Hukou

text: Children of rural workers who do migrate with their parents also face challenges. Without a local, non-agricultural hukou, migrant children have limited access to public social infrastructure. For example, urban students' educational opportunities are far superior to that of their migrant student counterparts. The central government reformed the education system in 1986 and then again in 1993, yielding greater autonomy to local governments in the regulation of their education system. Limited space and the desire to protect local interests in turn induced local governments to avoid enrolling migrant children in their public schools. Furthermore, because the central government subsidized public schools based on enrolment rates of children with local hukous, migrant children were required to pay higher fees if they wanted to attend. Consequentially, many migrant families elect instead to send their children to private schools that specifically cater to migrants. However, to lower enrolment and attendance fees, these institutions must cut spending in other areas, resulting in a lower quality of education. School facilities are often in poor condition, and many teachers are unqualified.


title: Hukou

text: In subsequent years, the central government has enacted a number of reforms, with limited impact. In 2001, it asserted that public schools should be the primary form of education for the nation's children, but did not specify how it would financially support schools in enrolling more migrant children, resulting in little change. Similarly, in 2003, the government called for lower fees for migrant children, but again failed to detail how it would help schools pay for this. And in 2006, the government created the New Compulsory Education Act with asserted equal rights to education and ceded responsibility for enrolling migrant children to provincial governments. However, this too failed to improve the lot of migrant children. Students with non-local hukou had to pay inflated admission fees of 3,000 – 5,000 yuan – out of an average annual household income of 10,000 yuan – and are required to take The National College Entrance Examination ("Gaokao") at their hukou locality, where it is often harder to get into college. Since 2012, some regions began to relax the requirements and allow some children of migrants to take College Entrance Exam in the regions. By 2016 Guangdong's policies are the most relaxed. A child of migrants can take Entrance Exam in Guangdong if he or she has attended 3 years of high school in the province, and if the parent(s) have legal jobs and have paid for 3 years of social insurance in the province.


title: Hukou

text: The difficulties faced by migrant children cause many to drop out, and this is particularly common in the middle school years: in 2010, only 30% of migrant children were enrolled in secondary education. Migrant children also disproportionately deal with mental health issues – 36% versus 22% among their local hukou counterparts – and 70% experience academic anxiety. They frequently face stigmatization and discrimination based on differences in how they dress and speak, and have difficulty interacting with other students.


title: Hukou

text: Not only has the mass exodus of rural residents from the countryside in search of work impacted the children of migrant workers, it has also affected the elderly left behind. With the institution of the one-child policy in the 1970s, the average age in China has undergone an upward shift: 82% of migrant workers were between the ages of 15–44 in 2000. This has called into question the traditional custom of filial piety, and while retired urban workers are supported by government retirement programs, rural workers must rely on themselves and their families. It appears that the effects of migration on left behind elderly is ambiguous: while parents of migrant children are often better off financially and are happy with their economic situation, they also tend to report lower life satisfaction than do elderly without migrant children. Like the children of migrant workers, parents are known to experience psychological issues such as depression and loneliness, and those who take care of their grandchildren may feel burdened by this responsibility.


title: Hukou

text: Over the past few decades since the economic reform in 1978, the state of the People's Republic of China has taken steps toward reforming the hukou system by implementing a variety of reform policies. 1979-1991 can be identified as the first reform period. Specifically, in October 1984, the state issued a document called "A Document on the Issue of Peasants Settling Down in Cities", which required local governments to integrate rural migrants as part of their urban population and to enable rural migrants to register in their migrant cities. In 1985, the state also implemented a policy called "Interim Provisions on the Management of Transient Population in Cities", which allowed rural migrants to stay in their migrant cities even if they had neither changed their hukou status nor returned to their original rural residency. In the same year, the state also published a document called "The Regulations on Resident Identity Card", which enabled rural migrants to work in cities even if they did not carry an identity card of urban status. However, what followed these policies was not only a 30 million rural-to-urban migration, but also a phenomenon in which many false urban identity cards were sold to rural migrants for gaining urban benefits. It hence stimulated the state to implement another policy, "A Notice on Strictly Controlling Excessive Growth of 'Urbanization,’” in 1989 for regulating rural-to-urban migration. Under this policy, rural migrants were monitored again.


title: Hukou

text: 1992-2013 can be identified as the second hukou reform period. There were various kinds of reform implemented by the state. Beginning in the late 1980s, one was to offer a "lan yin", or "blue stamp", hukou to those who possessed professional skills and/or ability to make some sort of investments (at least 100 million Renminbi yuan) in specific cities (usually the big cities such as Shanghai), allowing them to live in cities and enjoy urban welfare entitlements. This "blue stamp hukou" was then conducted by many other big cities (including Nanjing, Tianjin, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen) in 1999. The second kind was not applied to big cities but to certain selected towns and small cities. In 1997, the state implemented a policy that granted urban hukou to the rural migrants who had a stable job in their newly resided towns and small cities. Meanwhile, according to two 1997 government documents, the "Pilot Scheme for Reform of the Hukou System in Small Towns" and "Instructions on Improving the Management of Rural Hukou System", rural migrant workers could register as permanent residents with equal access to urban privileges in certain small towns. These policies were then made official in 2012 with the state document "Notice on Actively Yet Prudently Pushing Forward the Reform of Hukou System Management." Moreover, in 1999, the state also allowed more groups of people to gain urban hukou, including children whose parent(s) had urban hukou, and the elderly whose child(ren) had been granted urban hukou. The third kind was applied to the special economic zones and districts that were established particularly for economic growth (such as Shenzhen). Specifically, in 1992, the state allowed all people living in the special economic zones and districts to carry two hukous: Their original hukou and another hukou related to their job in the special zones and districts. This policy hence made it easier for rural migrants to gain access to different urban opportunities in the special zones and districts. However, in 2003, state published the "Administrative Permit Laws", which sent rural migrants back to their original residency in rural areas. Under this policy, rural migrants' life chances were once again determined by their hukou status.


title: Hukou

text: The third reform period began in 2014, in which the state published and implemented the "National New-type Urbanization Plan (2014-2020)” in March to tackle various problems derived from China's fast urbanization process. For instance, the plan aims to shorten the 17.3% gap between urban residents who live in cities but do not carry urban hukou and urban residents with urban hukou in 2012 by 2% by 2020. Meanwhile, the plan also intends to offer welfare entitlements to people who have rural hukou (from rural migrants to urban residents who carry rural hukou), including education, welfare housing, and health care to at least 90% (about 100 million) of migrants by 2020. In fact, with this plan, the state has been putting effort into achieving their goals. For instance, the state has granted many left-behind children the right to attend urban schools so that they can reunite with their rural migrant parents; it has also offered many rural migrants job training. Moreover, in July of the same year, the government also published "Opinions on Further Promoting the Reform of the Hukou System" to abolish the hukou restrictions in towns and small cities, to gradually remove the restrictions middle-sized cities, to relax the restrictions in big cities—but to maintain the restrictions in the very large cities. As a result, according to an announcement of the Ministry of Public Security, by 2016, the state has already issued urban hukou to about 28.9 million rural migrants. Furthermore, in 2016, the local government of Beijing announced that they would abolish the official distinction between urban hukou and non-urban hukou within Beijing, meaning that all residents living in Beijing would be identified as Beijing residents regardless of their original hukou status. Having said that, in November 2017, the government of Beijing implemented a 40-day "clean-up" campaign which was claimed as a way of getting rid of the unsafe structures and shantytowns in the city (where at least 8.2 million rural migrants lived). However some saw the campaign as intended to send millions of rural migrants back to their original rural areas.


title: Hukou

text: It has been brought into question whether the reforms mentioned above apply to the majority of rural-to-urban migrants. Specifically, many reform policies, especially those during the first and second periods, appear to require rural migrants to possess some sort of capital, either human capital (such as professional skills and titles) or property-related capital (such as the ability to become an urban homeowner) or both. Some scholars hence also call some reform policies as ways of "selling" hukou. Meanwhile, many migrants have claimed that their lack of social networks (part of what is called “guan xi”)—which in some sense is also accumulated with wealth—also has made it harder for them to find a stable job, let alone a lucrative job. Hence, if wealth is a precondition to change from rural hukou to urban hukou, many rural migrants indeed are unable to gain that access, as many are "unskilled" (because many's skills, such as farming, are not categorized as professional skills) and poor. However, in some large cities, even if a rural migrant does carry certain professional skills, it is not a guarantee that one will be granted with urban hukou. This situation is particularly revealed from many highly educated migrants. Despite their education background, many would not be granted with urban hukou unless they become a homeowner. However, given the high price of real estate in many large cities (such as Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou), many are unable to do so even if some cities do offer housing subsidies to migrants. Given their lack of urban hukou, many not only face the difficulty of purchasing an apartment—let alone purchasing a house—but also the disadvantage of being a renter. Because of the lack of rent control in many large cities, even if one rents a room—or rarely, an apartment—one can face the possibility of being asked to leave. Many of those educated migrant youths hence are also called "yi zu", literally "a group of ants", as many do not have their own room and have to live in a tiny room with many others.


title: Hukou

text: It hence is worth asking the question whether or not the hukou system has been sufficiently improved to a more people-centered system. In fact, many large cities are still strict about granting rural migrants with urban hukou and about using the hukou system to determine whether or not one should be granted with welfare entitlements. Even if the "National New-type Urbanization Plan (2014-2020)” and the "Opinions on Further Promoting the Reform of the Hukou System" implemented in the third reform period intend to create a more people-centered system, they claim that larger cities should have different hukou registration systems from the smaller cities and towns; and that the hukou regulation will continue to be stricter in larger cities. However, the very large cities (such as Beijing) are usually the ones that attract rural migrants the most, given their extensive job opportunities. In this case, although the state has actively implemented many reform policies, the hukou rural/urban division still functions and represents a division system of life chances. Some scholars hence have argued that the hukou reforms indeed have not fundamentally changed the hukou system but have only decentralized the powers of hukou to local governments; and it still remains active and continues to contribute to China's rural and urban disparity. Meanwhile, others have also argued that by concentrating on cities, the hukou reforms have failed to target the poorer regions, where social welfare such as education and medical care are often not offered to the residents. Still, others seem excited, remarking that some cities have been offering a condition that encourages more migrant parents to bring their children along. In short, the majority of rural migrants thus are still largely overlooked due to their lack to urban hukou, which is often seen as starting point for gaining access to life well-being.


title: Hukou

text: The Floating Population Dynamic Monitoring Surveys, which have been conducted every year since 2010 by the National Health and Family Planning Commission, have reported that a significant number of migrant workers are in fact not interested in converting their hukou status. While hukou policy reform has been gradual over the years, barriers to conversion have been lowered. However, many rural residents are hesitant to give up their agricultural hukou status. As rural hukou holders, they have property rights not afforded to their urban counterparts, which allow them to use land both for agricultural production and for personal use. And with the steady expansion of cities, property values of land near cities have significantly increased. Owners of these tracts of land may elect to give up agriculture in favor of renting out their homes to migrant workers. Furthermore, with the continued process of urbanization, land owners near cities can expect the central government to buy their land for a handsome sum sometime in the future. These benefits combined with the overall improvement in rural social welfare relative to that in cities have caused many rural residents to hesitate in converting their hukou status.


title: Hukou

text: Hukou is not employed in the special administrative regions of China (Hong Kong and Macau) though identification cards are mandatory for residents there. Instead, both SARs grant right of abode to certain persons who are allowed to reside permanently in the regions.


title: Hukou

text: When a person with household registration in mainland China is settling in Hong Kong or Macau by means of a One-way Permit, they must relinquish their household registration, therefore losing citizen rights in mainland China. However, they can settle in the SARs for seven years to be eligible for permanent resident status (which is associated with citizen rights) in the SARs. Therefore, in the period before they get permanent resident status, though still a Chinese citizen, they cannot exercise citizen rights anywhere (like voting in elections, getting a passport) and are considered second-class citizens.


title: Hukou

text: The People's Republic of China (Mainland China) and the Republic of China (Taiwan) each claim the territories under the other's control as part of their respective state. Thus, legally, each treats the people on the other side's territory as their citizens. However, citizenship rights are only available to the people under their own control respectively - this is defined by law as holding household registration in Taiwan Area (in the Republic of China) or in Mainland Area (in the People's Republic of China).


title: Hukou

text: The Government of the Republic of China considers ethnic overseas Chinese as its nationals, and issues Taiwan passports to them. However, this does not grant them the right of abode or any other citizen rights in Taiwan; those rights require household registration in Taiwan. Persons without household registration are subject to immigration control in Taiwan, but after they settle in Taiwan they can establish a household registration there to become a full citizen.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: On December 14, 1993, four employees were shot and killed and a fifth employee was seriously injured at a Chuck E. Cheese's restaurant in Aurora, Colorado, United States. The perpetrator, 19-year-old Nathan Dunlap, a former employee of the restaurant, was frustrated about being fired five months prior to the shooting and sought revenge by committing the attack. He fled the scene of the shooting with stolen money and restaurant items.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: Dunlap was found guilty of four counts of first-degree murder, attempted murder, and other charges, and was sentenced to death by lethal injection on May 17, 1996. A judge initially set an execution date for him in August 2013, but Colorado Governor John Hickenlooper signed a temporary reprieve that would postpone Dunlap's execution date.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: Dunlap's death sentence was commuted to life in prison without parole in 2020 after Colorado abolished the death penalty.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: Nathan Dunlap entered the restaurant at 9:00 p.m., where he ordered a ham and cheese sandwich and played an arcade game. He then hid in a restroom at about 9:50 p.m. He exited the restroom after closing at 10:05 p.m. and shot five employees with a .25-caliber semiautomatic pistol.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: Dunlap first shot Sylvia Crowell, 19, who was cleaning the salad bar. She was hit from close range in the right ear and was mortally wounded. Ben Grant, 17, was fatally shot near the left eye as he was vacuuming. Colleen O'Connor, 17, pleaded for her life and sank to her knees, but Dunlap fatally shot her once through the top of her head. Bobby Stephens, 20, the lone survivor of the shooting, returned to the restaurant after taking a smoke break outside, thinking the noise he heard from inside the restaurant were children popping balloons nearby.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: As Stephens walked into the restaurant and unloaded utensils into the dishwasher, Dunlap came through the kitchen door, raised the handgun at him, and fired a shot that struck Stephens in the jaw. Stephens fell to the floor and played dead. Dunlap then forced Marge Kohlberg, 50, the store manager, to unlock the safe. After she opened it, Dunlap shot her in the ear. As he was taking the cash out of the safe, Dunlap fired a second fatal shot through Kohlberg's other ear after he noticed she was still moving. The manager who fired Dunlap was not present at the restaurant.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: Stephens escaped through a back door and walked to the nearby Mill Pond apartment complex, where he pounded on a door to alert someone that he and others had been shot at the restaurant. Stephens was hospitalized at Denver General Hospital in fair condition. As authorities arrived on the scene, they found two bodies in the restaurant's hallway, a third in a room off the hallway, and the fourth in the manager's office. Crowell was sent to Denver General Hospital, where she was declared brain dead. She died from her injuries the next day at Aurora Regional Medical Center.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: Dunlap fled the scene with $1,500 worth of cash and game tokens he stole from inside the restaurant. He was arrested at his mother's apartment twelve hours later.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: Dunlap was found guilty of four counts of first-degree murder, attempted murder, robbery, and burglary in 1996. On May 17 of that year, Dunlap was sentenced to death and an additional 108 years. During his sentencing he swore repeatedly in an outburst that lasted for three minutes.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: In 2008, Dunlap filed a "habeas corpus" petition with the court, arguing that his trial attorney was ineffective by not presenting a defense on his mental health issues and child abuse. In August 2010, this federal appeal was rejected. Senior U.S. District Judge John L. Kane wrote that Dunlap was fairly tried, competently represented, and justifiably sentenced to death.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: On April 16, 2012, the 10th Circuit Court of Appeals denied Dunlap's appeal of his death sentence. Dunlap's lawyers argued before the 10th Circuit that Dunlap's trial lawyers were negligent during the sentencing, by not providing evidence that Dunlap suffers from a mental illness. They argued that if the jurors heard evidence of Dunlap's mental illness, that it would spare Dunlap from being sentenced to death.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: On May 1, 2013, Judge William Sylvester announced that the execution date for Dunlap would be in mid-August 2013.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: On May 22, 2013, Dunlap's execution was put on hold, as Colorado Governor John Hickenlooper decided against executing Dunlap or granting him clemency and instead signed a "temporary reprieve" in 2013. The reprieve meant that as long as Hickenlooper was governor, Dunlap would not likely be executed. According to Hickenlooper, one of the reasons that he did not choose full clemency was because Dunlap would have to remain segregated from the rest of the prison population. Groups, including the NAACP, contacted Hickenlooper requesting the sparing of Dunlap's life, arguing that the death penalty is disproportionately imposed on African Americans and Hispanics. The reprieve also meant that unless a governor issues a new Executive Order, the status of the execution and clemency request remain on hold. Hickenlooper was constitutionally limited from running for a third term.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: On November 6, 2018, Jared Polis was elected governor. During the campaign, Polis said he intended to sign a bill repealing the death penalty in Colorado. Regarding the Dunlap case, Polis said he had no problem following the current law, and that he did not think it was appropriate to comment on a specific case during a campaign before actually becoming governor and reviewing the case to make an informed decision.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: On March 23, 2020, Polis signed a bill repealing the death penalty. Polis also commuted the sentences for all three men on death row, including Dunlap, to life without parole.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: Nathan Jerard Dunlap (born April 8, 1974) was raised by his adoptive father and biological mother, who married each other when Nathan was a few months old. He had never met his biological father. Dunlap was raised in Chicago, Illinois; Memphis, Tennessee; and Michigan, and then moved to Colorado in 1984. Dunlap's mother struggled with mental health issues and was diagnosed with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. At least twice in Dunlap's junior high school years, he attempted suicide. When Dunlap was 14, his adoptive father asked the psychologist at Overland High School to evaluate him, and testing revealed signs of hypomania. No further treatment or formal diagnostic was applied.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: He committed several armed robberies at the age of fifteen, using a golf club and then firearms. He spent time incarcerated at a juvenile detention center, and due to an erratic episode, he was sent to a psychiatric hospital. When released, he began selling drugs. Dunlap was arrested five times on misdemeanor offenses in 1993.


title: 1993 Aurora, Colorado shooting

text: Dunlap began working at the restaurant in May 1993 and was fired in July after a disagreement he had with his supervisor over schedule hours. Acquaintances of Dunlap said he was frustrated over the firing, and told a former coworker that he planned to "get even" about the termination.


title: The Walrus and the Carpenter

text: "The Walrus and the Carpenter" is a narrative poem by Lewis Carroll that appears in his book "Through the Looking-Glass", published in December 1871. The poem is recited in , by Tweedledum and Tweedledee to Alice. The poem is composed of 18 stanzas and contains 108 lines, in an alternation of iambic tetrameters and iambic trimeters. The rhyme scheme is ABCBDB, with masculine rhymes throughout. The rhyming and rhythmical scheme used, as well as some archaisms and syntactical turns, are those of the traditional English ballad.


title: The Walrus and the Carpenter

text: The Walrus and the Carpenter are the characters in the poem, which Tweedledum and Tweedledee recite to Alice. Walking upon a beach one night when both sun and moon are visible, the Walrus and Carpenter come upon an offshore bed of oysters. Groups of four are called up; the exact number is unknown. To the disapproval of the eldest oyster, many more follow them. After walking along the beach (a point is made of the fact that the oysters are all neatly shod despite having no feet), they rest on a low rock. After bringing bread, pepper, and vinegar the Walrus and the Carpenter are revealed to be predatory and eat all of the oysters. The Walrus expresses some compunction towards the oysters but eats them anyway, while the Carpenter dispassionately asks for more bread and complains that the butter is spread too thickly. After hearing the poem, the good-natured Alice attempts to determine which of the two leading characters might be the more sympathetic, but is thwarted by the twins' further interpretation:


title: The Walrus and the Carpenter

text: The characters of the Walrus and the Carpenter have been interpreted many ways both in literary criticism and popular culture. Some, including the character Loki in the film "Dogma", interpret the Walrus to be a caricature of the Buddha and the Carpenter to be a caricature of Jesus Christ. British essayist J. B. Priestley argued that the figures were political, as does Walter Russell Mead, who utilises the Walrus and the Carpenter as an allegory for the United Kingdom and the United States respectively.


title: The Walrus and the Carpenter

text: However, in "The Annotated Alice", Martin Gardner notes that, when Carroll gave the manuscript for "Looking Glass" to illustrator John Tenniel, he gave him the choice of drawing a carpenter, a butterfly, or a baronet, since each word would fit the poem's metre. Because Tenniel rather than Carroll chose the carpenter, the character's significance in the poem is probably not in his profession, and interpretations of the poem as a commentary on religion are likely false. Gardner cautions the reader that there is not always intended symbolism in the "Alice" books, which were made for the imagination of children and not the analysis of "mad people".


title: Reggina 1914

text: Reggina 1914 S.r.l., commonly referred to as Reggina, is an Italian football club based in Reggio Calabria. Founded in 1914, they currently play in Serie B, and play their home matches at the 27,763 seater Stadio Oreste Granillo.


title: Reggina 1914

text: They are nicknamed the "amaranto" (amaranth) after their official dark red colours. The club was formerly known as Reggina Calcio before declaring bankruptcy in 2015, as well as A.S.D. Reggio Calabria in 2015–16 season and Urbs Reggina 1914 from 2016 to 2019.


title: Reggina 1914

text: In its previous guise Reggina played in the Serie A for nine seasons between 1999 and 2009, including a seven-year consecutive spell starting in 2002. During these years, the club narrowly avoided relegation in most seasons and never finished in the top half. After failing to make a return in the first few years the club fell into financial and sporting difficulties, culminating in falling into the lower tiers of Italian football before returning to the Serie B in 2020.


title: Reggina 1914

text: The club was founded on 11 January 1914 as Unione Sportiva Reggio Calabria, and changed name many times (Società Calcistica Reggio, Reggio Foot Ball Club, Associazione Sportiva Reggina, Società Sportiva La Dominante), finally assuming the denomination Reggina Calcio in 1986.


title: Reggina 1914

text: After 2015 bankruptcy, the club had used A.S.D. Reggio Calabria as the new name of the new legal person, and then the club changed to the denomination Urbs Reggina 1914 S.r.l. in 2016. Since 2019, Reggina 1914 S.r.l..


title: Reggina 1914

text: In the late 1990s to 2000s, Reggina have been alternating between the top two levels of the Italian league system. They reached the Italian top division Serie A for the first time in 1999. Two years later, they lost a relegation playout to Verona, being consequently relegated to 2001–02 Serie B. Reggina finished third in Serie B in 2002, earning a return to Serie A. In 2003, Reggina survived a relegation playout against Atalanta. They would spend the next 7 years maintaining their Serie A status until their eventual relegation in the 2008–09 season.


title: Reggina 1914

text: They were indicted in 2006 for sporting fraud as part of the second wave of Serie A scandal investigations. Originally punished with a 15-point deduction for the 2006–07 Serie A season, then reduced to 11 points following appeal. Despite the heavy deduction of points, Reggina managed to save themselves from relegation, defeating newly crowned UEFA Champions League winners Milan on the final matchday and ending the season with 40 points (including the deduction), just one single point above the third relegation spot, occupied by Chievo. They however poorly started their 2007–08 campaign, causing head coach Massimo Ficcadenti to be sacked and replaced by Renzo Ulivieri. A third managerial change, with Ulivieri fired and replacing with team scout Nevio Orlandi, proved to be successful as Reggina improved their results and performances, escaping relegation with key wins at Catania, and home to Empoli. Orlandi was subsequently confirmed at the helm of the "amaranto" for the 2008–09 season.


title: Reggina 1914

text: Since their relegation in 2008–09 season, Reggina has become slightly inconsistent in their attempts to return to Italy's top flight. The 2009–10 season would see three coaches at the helm; Walter Novellino, Ivo Iaconi, Roberto Breda. Despite possessing Bonazzoli, Carmona, Tedesco, Brienza and home grown star Missiroli they were unable to gain a better position than 13th. Disappointing for a team just relegated from the top division. Top goal scorer for the campaign was Brienza with 12.


title: Reggina 1914

text: The 2010–11 season was regarded as one of the Amaranto's best in Serie B. Shockingly they would conduct their usual coaching merry go round, as Gianluca Atzori would lead them to a 6th-place finish and playoffs to Serie A. they would stumble at the last hurdle losing to Novara in a two legged play off. Top players include; Acerbi, Missiroli, Tedesco, Brienza, Bonazzoli (C) and Milan Loanee Adiyiah. Top goal scorer: Bonazzoli with 19 goals


title: Reggina 1914

text: The 2011–12 season was another disappointing season from the Amaranto, with a 12th-placed finish. Two coaches took charge of Reggina this season; Roberto Breda initially, before being sacked and replaced by Angelo Gregucci, only to be replaced by Breda again towards the end of the season. Unlike the previous season they did not make the play-offs. Top players in this season's squad include: Adejo, Emerson, (Ramos Borges Emerson), Missiroli, Bonazzoli (C), and Ceravolo. Top scorer was Ceravolo with 11.


title: Reggina 1914

text: The 2012–13 season would be marred with yet another controversy similar to that of 2006. Reggina were penalised for the latest match fixing scandal that hit Italian shores and were given a −4 penalty as a result. After appeal it was reduced to −2 instead. They were in contention for playoff places right until the last few rounds where poor form saw them end the season in 11th place.


title: Reggina 1914

text: The 2013–14 season ended in disaster, as Reggina won just six out of 42 games and finished second bottom, resulting in relegation to Lega Pro. The season also marked Foti's retirement from his role as president, who was handed over to Giuseppe Ranieri.


title: Reggina 1914

text: For the club's 2014–15 Lega Pro campaign, Reggina began the season with former captain Francesco Cozza as head coach. After a difficult start to the season and two coaching changes, youth team coach and former player Giacomo Tedesco was hired as head coach for the final three weeks of the season. Despite winning two of the final three matches, Reggina finished last in the league and would have to rely on an appeal of their point penalty to lift them out of the relegation zone. The appeal was successful and 2 points were returned to move them out of last place. Tedesco guided the team to survival in the playout over rivals Messina.


title: Reggina 1914

text: Despite avoiding relegation in the 2014–15 season, Reggina failed to meet the deadline to register for Lega Pro and the club declared bankruptcy. A new legal person of the club, "A.S.D. Reggio Calabria", was formed to play in Serie D for the 2015–16 season, Reggio Calabria ended the season in 4th place, losing in the first round of playoffs against Cavese. During the season the club also re-incorporated from "associazione sportiva dilettantistica" to "società sportiva dilettantistica a responsabilità limitata" legal form.


title: Reggina 1914

text: In June 2016, it was reported that the club was renamed from "S.S.D. Reggio Calabria a r.l." to "S.S.D. Urbs Sportiva Reggina 1914 a r.l.". The club was then renamed as Urbs Reggina 1914 S.r.l.


title: Reggina 1914

text: Despite finishing as the losing side of the first round of the promotion playoffs of 2015–16 Serie D, the club filed for Lega Pro (later renamed Serie C) repechage to fill one of the vacancies for the 2016–17 season and was successfully admitted. Reggina ended the season in 13th place.


title: Reggina 1914

text: In January 2019, facing a crisis with a potential player strike due to non-payment of salaries, the club was sold to Italian entrepreneur Luca Gallo.


title: Reggina 1914

text: Reggina won its Serie C group in 2020, earning a promotion back to the Serie B for the upcoming season. The team upon its Serie B return included experienced players from higher levels including Jérémy Ménez and Germán Denis.


title: Reggina 1914

text: Reggina are fierce rivals with neighbours Messina, who are just a twenty-minute ferry ride apart from each other. Twice every season they clash in the "Derby dello Stretto" (Strait of Messina Derby). In the 2014–15 season, Reggina defeated Messina in both legs of the playout to send Messina down to Serie D. There is also a major Calabrian derby between Reggina and Crotone, but both teams have not played in the same league in over five years. Reggina also has a derby with fellow Calabrian team Catanzaro, which is currently down in Serie C.


title: Reggina 1914

text: Reggina used a logo with a letter R and a football on it. Some variant of the logo, had 1986, the year of foundation of Reggina Calcio on it. Due to 2015 bankruptcy, the new owner introduced a new logo as the old design was tied to the old legal person of the club. Due to 2016 renaming, some modification was introduced, which a letter R was re-introduced in the logo. However, the design of the ball on the 2016 logo was different from the historical logo, which the 2016 logo used a leather ball. In 2019, the club reverted to use the historical design of the logo.


title: Reggina 1914

text: Reggina have had many managers and trainers throughout the history of the club, in some seasons more than one manager was in charge. Here is the chronological list of them from 1928.


title: Kim Coles

text: Kim LaShaunda Coles (born January 11, 1962) is an American actress, comedian and game show host. Coles is known for her roles as a cast member on "In Living Color" for the first season (1990-1991) and as Synclaire James-Jones on television sitcom "Living Single" (1993–1998), which both originally aired on Fox. She was the host of BET's game show "Pay It Off" in 2009.


title: Kim Coles

text: Coles was born in Brooklyn, New York City. Her father was the first Black dean of the Pratt Institute. She attended a private Lutheran school and was quiet and studious until high school, when her sense of humor emerged. She graduated from Brooklyn Technical High School.


title: Kim Coles

text: Coles has appeared on many television shows, including "Frasier" ("Dr." Mary Thomas), "Six Feet Under", "Celebrity Mole, Living Single" and "The Geena Davis Show". Early in her career, she appeared as one of the hosts of "It's Showtime at the Apollo". She was an original cast member on the sketch comedy series "In Living Color" that appeared on the FOX network. After leaving "In Living Color", she then got the role as Synclaire James on "Living Single" and won an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series. She appeared as the mother of Spirit on UPN's "One on One". Coles is a published author; her book is called "I'm Free But It Will Cost You", , Hyperion Books, 1998.


title: Kim Coles

text: Coles appeared on "" and was the first contestant to be eliminated. At the reunion of the show, she was one of two celebrities (the other was Michael Boatman) to correctly guess that Frederique van der Wal was the series' saboteur, Kathy Griffin was the winner, and Erik von Detten was the runner-up. Coles also joined other celebrities for a weight loss journey on the VH-1 reality show, "Celebrity Fit Club". After 16 weeks, she lost a total of 24 lbs, and dropping nearly 4 percentage points in body fat, going from 34.7% to 31%. She accomplished this with the help of her team, "Ralphie's Angels". She lost 10.2% of her body weight, dropping down to 196 lbs.


title: Kim Coles

text: Coles was a regular panelist on the 2000 revival of "To Tell the Truth" during its second season. She was also featured as a guest host on two episodes of "The View". Coles was a co-host of the syndicated daytime television show "In The Loop With iVillage" alongside "The Apprentice" winner Bill Rancic and fellow season one contestant Ereka Vetrini. She has recently joined the cast of "10 Items or Less" on TBS.


title: Kim Coles

text: On September 30, 2009, she hosted the game show "Pay It Off", lasted for one season on BET, which is similar to "Debt". In 2010, she appeared on "RuPaul's Drag Race". She appeared in an episode of TV One's series "Life After" in late 2011.


title: Kim Coles

text: Coles has also performed as a stand-up comedian, with some of her material dealing with her struggle with being overweight at times.


title: Kim Coles

text: Coles has been married twice, first to Aton Edwards from 1985 to 1995, then to Reggie Mckiver, a former SWAT police officer in the Dominican Republic, from 2015 to 2019.


title: Alaska: The Last Frontier

text: Alaska: The Last Frontier is an American reality cable television series which premiered on December 29, 2011, on the Discovery Channel. The show documents the extended Kilcher family, descendants of Swiss immigrants and Alaskan pioneers, Yule and Ruth Kilcher, at their homestead 11 miles outside of Homer. By living without modern heating, the clan chooses to subsist by farming, hunting and preparing for the long winters. The Kilcher family are relatives of the singer Jewel (with Atz being her father), who has appeared on the show. The tenth season premiered on October 25, 2020. In September 2022 an announcement was made that season 11 will begin airing in October 2022.


title: Alaska: The Last Frontier

text: In 2015, Atz Lee, his wife Jane, and a company involved in the production of the show were charged with using a helicopter as part of bear hunt while filming an episode in 2014. Using any aircraft to spot prey, or using a helicopter in any way as part of a hunt is illegal in Alaska. All three pleaded not guilty. The matter was on hold due to Atz Lee being seriously injured in a hiking accident. but eventually the charges against the Kilchers themselves were dismissed, while production company Wilma TV was fined $17,500.


title: Paregoric

text: Paregoric, or camphorated tincture of opium, also known as "tinctura opii camphorata", is a traditional patent medicine known for its antidiarrheal, antitussive, and analgesic properties.


title: Paregoric

text: According to Goodman and Gilman's 1965 edition, "Paregoric is a 4% opium tincture in which there is also benzoic acid, camphor, and anise oil. ... Paregoric by tradition is used especially for children."


title: Paregoric

text: The term "paregoric" has also been used for boiled sweets which contained the substance, in particular the Army & Navy brand.


title: Paregoric

text: The survival of paregoric through the centuries, and particularly through recent critical decades, is probably due to keen clinical observation and stubborn adherence to the clinical deduction that paregoric is useful in certain types of cough.


title: Paregoric

text: In the very early 18th century, Jakob Le Mort (1650–1718), a professor of chemistry at Leiden University, prepared an elixir for asthma and called it "paregoric". The word "paregoric" comes from the Greek word "paregoricon" which was originally applied to oratory – to speak, but, more accurately, talk over, soothe, and finally came to have the same meaning as "anodyne".


title: Paregoric

text: Le Mort's elixir, consisting of "honey, licorice, flowers of Benjamin, and opium, camphor, oil of aniseed, salt of tartar and spirit of wine," was listed as "Elixir Asthmaticum" in the London Pharmacopoeia of 1721. Its ingredients were assembled according to the humoral theory of the time. Paregoric was used in various formulations for hundreds of years.


title: Paregoric

text: Paregoric was a household remedy in the 18th and 19th centuries when it was widely used to control diarrhea in adults and children, as an expectorant and cough medicine, to calm fretful children, and to rub on the gums to counteract the pain from teething.


title: Paregoric

text: During the twentieth century its use declined as governments regulated its ingredients (opium is a controlled substance in many countries.)


title: Paregoric

text: Beginning in late 2011, there was a period in which paregoric was not being manufactured in the United States. , however, the manufacture of paregoric had resumed.


title: Paregoric

text: The early twentieth century brought increased regulation of all manner of narcotics, including paregoric, as the addictive properties of opium became more widely understood, and "patent medicines came under fire largely because of their mysterious compositions". In the United States, the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 required that certain specified drugs, including alcohol, cocaine, heroin, morphine, and cannabis, be accurately labeled with contents and dosage. Previously many drugs had been sold as patent medicines with secret ingredients or misleading labels. Cocaine, heroin, cannabis, and other such drugs continued to be legally available without prescription as long as they were labeled. It is estimated that sale of patent medicines containing opiates decreased by 33% after labeling was mandated. In 1906 in Britain and in 1908 in Canada "laws requiring disclosure of ingredients and limitation of narcotic content were instituted".


title: Paregoric

text: The Harrison Narcotics Act of 1914 restricted the manufacture and distribution of opiates, including laudanum, and coca derivatives in the United States; this was followed by France's "Loi des stupefiants" in 1916, and Britain's Dangerous Drugs Act in 1920.


title: Paregoric

text: In the United States, the Harrison Narcotics Act of 1914 regulated "opium or coca leaves, or any compound, manufacture, salt, derivative or preparation thereof", but not some medical products containing relatively low concentrations of these substances. Paregoric was classified as an "Exempt Narcotic", as were other medical products containing small amounts of opium or their derivatives.


title: Paregoric

text: Until 1970, paregoric could be purchased in the United States at a pharmacy without a medical prescription, in accordance with federal law. Federal law dictated that no more than two ounces of paregoric be dispensed by any pharmacy to the same purchaser within a 48-hour period. Purchasers were also required to sign a register or logbook, and pharmacies were technically required to request identification from any purchaser not personally known to the pharmacist. Some states further limited the sale of paregoric, or banned over-the-counter sales entirely. For example, Michigan law allowed over-the-counter (non-prescription) sale of paregoric until April 1964, but still allowed OTC sales of certain exempt cough medication preparations that contain 60 mg of codeine per fluid ounce." Even where legally permissible by law, OTC sale of paregoric was subject to the discretion of individual pharmacists.


title: Paregoric

text: In 1970, paregoric was classified as a Schedule III drug under the Controlled Substances Act (DEA #9809); however, drugs that contained a mixture of kaolin, pectin, and paregoric (e.g., Donnagel-PG, Parepectolin, and their generic equivalents) were classified as Schedule V drugs. They were available over-the-counter without a prescription in many states until the early 1990s, at which time the FDA banned the sale of anti-diarrheal drugs containing kaolin and pectin; also, Donnagel-PG contained tincture of belladonna, which became prescription-only on January 1. 1993. Paregoric is currently listed in the United States Pharmacopeia. Manufacture of the drug was discontinued for several months beginning in late 2011; however, production and distribution resumed in 2012, so the drug is still available in the United States by prescription. Thus, it is unclear as to whether the lapse in manufacture actually resulted in a shortage of the drug at any time, since prescription drugs are often still available for many months after manufacture has been discontinued. In France, paregoric was available without prescription until 1986; nowadays, it is used to wean infants born to opiate-addicted women.


title: Paregoric

text: The principal active ingredient in paregoric is powdered opium. In the United States the formula for Paregoric U.S.P. is a tincture of opium 40 ml, anise oil 4 ml, benzoic acid 4 g, camphor 4 g, glycerin 40 ml, alcohol 450 ml, purified water 450 ml, diluted with alcohol to 1000 ml, and contains the equivalent of 0.4 mg/ml of anhydrous morphine; one ounce of paregoric contains 129.6 mg (2 grains) of powdered opium, or the equivalent of 13 mg of anhydrous morphine. The average adult dose is 4 ml by mouth which corresponds to 16 mg of opium, or 1.6 mg of anhydrous morphine."


title: Paregoric

text: It is unclear when the current formula for Paregoric, U.S.P. was developed in the United States, and more research is needed. For example, one formula for "Camphorated Tincture of Opium (Paregoric Elixir)" attributed to the "United States Pharmacoepia of 1863" is: "Macerate 1 drachm each powdered opium and benzoic acid, 1 fluid drachm of anise, 2 ounces clarified honey, and 2 scruples camphor, in 2 pints diluted alcohol for 7 days, and filter through paper." A slightly different formula is given in the 1926 pharmacoepia.


title: Paregoric

text: The current formula for Paregoric, U.S.P. should not be assumed to be universal. For example, in the United Kingdom the formula for Paregoric, B.P. is tincture of opium 5 ml, benzoic acid 500 mg, camphor 300 mg, anise oil 0.3 ml, alcohol (60%) to 100 ml, and contains about 1/30th grain of anhydrous morphine in 60 minims, which is 25% stronger than Paregoric, U.S.P.


title: Paregoric

text: Paregoric is sometimes confused with Laudanum, because their chemical names are similar: Camphorated Tincture of Opium (Paregoric) vs. Tincture of Opium (Laudanum). However, Laudanum contains 10 milligrams of morphine per milliliter, 25 times more than Paregoric. Confusion between the two drugs has led to overdose and death in patients. Thus the term "Paregoric" should be used instead of "Camphorated Opium Tincture", since the latter may be confused with Laudanum.