title: QWERTZ

text: The layout of the Swiss keyboard is established by the national standard SN 074021:1999. It is designed to allow easy access to frequently used accents of the French, German and Italian languages and major currency signs. It was designed from the beginning for usage with multiple languages, also beyond Swiss languages, in mind. The difference between the Swiss German () and the Swiss French () layout is that the German variety has the German umlauts (ä, ö, ü) accessible in the unshifted state, while the French version has some French accented characters (é, à, è) accessible in the unshifted state. The actual keyboards have the keys engraved for both variations; the difference is only in the driver (software) settings. In the latest versions of Windows there are also separately listed driver settings for Swiss Italian and Swiss Romansh, but they correspond to the Swiss French and Swiss German layout, respectively. In Mac OS X 10.6 and Linux, only Swiss French and Swiss German are available, and on iPadOS, the only layout is Swiss German. (The Swiss German layout is not available for anything else.)


title: QWERTZ

text: On Windows, Swiss German does not include the esszett (ß) ligature, which is only used in Germany and Austria, meaning that that letter is unimportant in Switzerland, and is therefore not found on the keyboard. Linux typically assigns ß to .


title: QWERTZ

text: On Windows, Swiss French does not include the ù accent, which is only used in France and Belgium, meaning that that letter is unimportant in Switzerland, and is therefore not found on the keyboard. Mac typically assigns ù to .


title: QWERTZ

text: While the German keyboard uses German labels for its keys (e.g. instead of ), Swiss keyboards use the English abbreviations as a "neutral" solution, as they are used for all the national languages of Switzerland.


title: QWERTZ

text: Luxembourg does not have a keyboard layout of its own. Public education and administration use the Swiss-French keyboard which also represents the Microsoft Windows standard keyboard layout for Luxembourg, while some of the private sector prefer the Belgian layout . Other places may use the US layout. Liechtenstein, which mostly speaks Swiss German and the Liechtenstein German dialect, also use the Swiss German layout without an ß character.


title: Peugeot 405

text: The Peugeot 405 is a large family car released by the French automaker Peugeot in July 1987, and which continues to be manufactured under licence outside France, having been discontinued in Europe in 1997. It was voted European Car of the Year for 1988 by the largest number of votes in the history of the contest. About 2.5 million vehicles have been sold worldwide, both in LHD and RHD, as a saloon and estate. Inearly 2020, the 33-year production run of the Peugeot 405 was counted as the twentieth most long-lived single generation car in history."


title: Peugeot 405

text: Its appearance is similar to the Alfa Romeo 164, launched the same year and also styled by Pininfarina. While the 405 shares its floorpan with the Citroën BX, it does not have that car's hydropneumatic suspension except 4x4 version on the rear axle (SRix4, Mi16x4 and T16) . As with the BX, the 405 used TU/XU petrol and XUD diesel engines. The 405 was the last Peugeot vehicle sold in the United States, on sale between 1988 and 1991, including the Mi16.


title: Peugeot 405

text: The 405 has been available in LHD, and RHD versions, as a saloon and estate, in front wheel, and four wheel drive. No coupé model was ever offered to the public, unlike the 504 and later 406: only two examples of the purpose-built 405 Turbo 16 (not to be confused with 405 T16) were made.


title: Peugeot 405

text: In July 1987, Peugeot announced the 405 as four door sedan only body style, and sales began soon after on the left-hand drive continental markets. It succeeded the long-running Peugeot 305.


title: Peugeot 405

text: It went on sale on the right hand drive market in the United Kingdom in January 1988, with right hand drive versions being produced at the former plant of Rootes/Chrysler at Ryton near Coventry, and left hand drive production taking place at Sochaux in France.


title: Peugeot 405

text: Four cylinder petrol engines ranging from were available. In 1988, naturally aspirated and turbocharged diesel engines were added to the range. An estate model was also introduced during 1988. The 500,000th 405 was produced during 1989, followed by the one millionth 405 to leave the Sochaux factory in 1990. This was also when the BE1 transmission was replaced by the BE3.


title: Peugeot 405

text: In 1991, there were updates to the dashboard, steering wheel, and soundproofing, but for 1992, the Phase II model arrived with a new boot with better ingress, new rear lights and boot design and a new dashboard. 405 production had reached over 1,500,000 by this time.


title: Peugeot 405

text: In the autumn of 1995, the 405's replacement, the 406 was introduced and the 405 saloon was discontinued. An airbag had been available on the 405 since 1994, and standard on the left hand drive Mi16 and T16. At the beginning of 1997, the estate version of the 406 was launched, marking the end of European production of the 405 after 10 years.


title: Peugeot 405

text: The 405 was one of Europe's best selling larger family cars, particularly in France and Britain. It was the eighth best selling car in Britain in 1992 and 1993.


title: Peugeot 405

text: The 405 range included three petrol engines and two diesel engines, all four cylinders, in a variety of states of tune and specification. The range was tailored to suit different export markets. The 1.6 litre saloon featured a low drag co efficient of , with other models varying up to . The 1.4 litre (1,360 cc) engine was fitted with a four speed manual gearbox. It produced at 5,600 rpm.


title: Peugeot 405

text: The 1.6 litre (1,580 cc) engine was fitted with a five speed manual gearbox and produced at 6,000 rpm. The 1.9 litre (1,905 cc) engine was available with a five speed manual gearbox, with an option of an automatic in the lower powered version.


title: Peugeot 405

text: The eight valve version of the engine was available in two levels of tune; or . A 16 valve version was available with the Mi16 model and this produced at 6,500 rpm and could reach a top speed of . In 1992, the range was facelifted.


title: Peugeot 405

text: While the changes were deep, including a modified bottom plate and chassis structure, the design was almost indistinguishable from the pre facelift model.


title: Peugeot 405

text: The windscreens were now bonded; all of these changes increased torsional rigidity considerably while still allowing a deeper opening for the bootlid of the sedan. The taillights were also redesigned and the trim piece between them removed, all in the image of the bigger 605. The interior was also redone, with an all new dashboard and door trim, inheriting many detail parts as well as the overall appearance from the 605.


title: Peugeot 405

text: In April 1993, the T16 was introduced to celebrate the successes of the competition model, with a 2.0 litre 16 valve turbocharged XU10J4TE engine with water cooled chargecooler, constant four wheel drive with 53/47% power distribution and self regulating hydraulic rear axle. It was never built in a right hand drive model.


title: Peugeot 405

text: The T16 produced at (normal boost) or at (overboost) which lasts for 45 seconds. 1,061 examples were built, 60 of them for the French Police. The diesel engine options included a 1.9 litre (1,905 cc) unit producing at 4,600 rpm or a turbocharged 1.8 litre (1,769 cc) unit producing .


title: Peugeot 405

text: At launch in January 1988, the 405 was available with a choice 1.6, and 1.9 carbureted engines, and an injected 1.9. Both diesel and petrol engines were available at launch.


title: Peugeot 405

text: Other engines included 1.4, 1.6, and 1.8. Other styles included the GE, GL, GLx4, GLD, GLDT, GR, GTXi, GTXDT, Le Mans, LX, Mi, Style D, Style DT, Quasar, SRi, SRDT, STi, and STDT.


title: Peugeot 405

text: Three versions of the 405 saloon were sold in North America from the end of 1988; the 1.9 () DL and S, and the Mi16 (). The DL and S were available in estate form called Sportswagon. Peugeot withdrew from the markets in the United States and Canada after the model year of 1991.


title: Peugeot 405

text: Iran Khodro also produces several models derived from the 405. The Peugeot Pars, also known as the Peugeot Persia, is a facelifted 405 with a redesigned front end including clear lamp lenses and a revised rear. The Peugeot RD is a rear wheel drive car which has a 405 body and mechanical parts from the Paykan. Since 2006, it has been sold in certain markets in the Middle East as the Peugeot ROA.


title: Peugeot 405

text: The Samand, which was designed to be a "national car" for Iran, is also based on the 405 platform. It replaced the long running Paykan which was itself based on the Hillman Hunter, an ancestor (in corporate ownership and model positioning terms) of the 405, having been produced by the Rootes Group and Chrysler UK from 1963 until 1979, the year that Peugeot purchased Chrysler's European operations.


title: Peugeot 405

text: The motorsport version of the 405, the rallying 405 Turbo 16 GR, was very different from the road going 405. It was built in a coupé body style in mid-engine configuration, had constant four wheel drive with electronically adjustable center differential like the 205 T16, as it was based on the same technology. At least four were produced, competing in hill climbs and the Paris-Dakar rally.


title: Peugeot 405

text: Racing 405s much closer in specification to the road going models were campaigned for several years in European touring car racing during the early to mid 1990s, most notably in the British Touring Car Championship and the French Supertourisme Championship. In Britain, the 405 did not achieve much success, but the car won the French series in both 1994 and 1995, in the hands of Laurent Aïello.


title: Cricket World Cup hosts

text: The International Cricket Council's executive committee votes for the hosts of the tournament after examining the bids made by the nations keen to hold a Cricket World Cup. All the World Cup events so far have been held in nations in which cricket is a popular sport. Most of the tournaments have been jointly hosted by nations from the same geographical region, such as South Asia in 1987, 1996, and 2011, Australasia in 1992 and 2015, Southern Africa in 2003 and West Indies in 2007.


title: Cricket World Cup hosts

text: England have hosted the most World Cups – a total of 5 (including the first three World Cups). They hosted it in 1975, 1979, 1983, 1999 and 2019. England are also the only nation to have hosted a World Cup alone, doing it in 1975 and 1979. In 1983 & 1999, despite being regarded as the only host for the tournament, some matches were played in Ireland, Netherlands, Scotland and Wales. The West Indies hosted the tournament in 2007 but are not considered as sole hosts because the West Indies represents a sporting confederation of 15 mainly English-speaking Caribbean countries, British dependencies and non-British dependencies.


title: Cricket World Cup hosts

text: England hosted the first three competitions. The ICC decided that England should host the first tournament because it was ready to put the resources needed in organising the inaugural event. India proposed that it should host the third Cricket World Cup, but most ICC members believed England was a more suitable venue because longer period of daylight in June. This meant that a match could be completed in one day.


title: Cricket World Cup hosts

text: The first competition hosted outside England was the 1987 Cricket World Cup, which was jointly held in India and Pakistan. A change in location led to a reduction in the number of overs from sixty to fifty in each innings because of the shorter duration of daylight.


title: Cricket World Cup hosts

text: The World Cup was awarded to the West Indies via the International Cricket Council's rotational policy. It was the first time the Cricket World Cup had been held in the Caribbean despite the fact that the West Indies cricket team had been the second most successful team in past World Cups. Bermuda and the United States unsuccessfully bid for the right to host matches.


title: Cricket World Cup hosts

text: The ICC originally announced its decision which countries would host the 2011 World Cup on 30 April 2006. Australia and New Zealand's bid for the tournament was the only bid for 2011 delivered to ICC headquarters in Dubai ahead of the 1 March deadline.


title: Cricket World Cup hosts

text: ICC President Ehsan Mani said the extra time taken by the Asian bloc to hand over its bid compliance book had harmed the four-nation bid. However, when the time came to vote, Asia won the hosting rights by ten votes to three. The Pakistan Cricket Board revealed that it was the vote of the West Indies Cricket Board that swung the matter, as the Asian bid had the support of the four bidding countries along with South Africa and Zimbabwe. It was reported in Pakistani newspaper Dawn that the Asian countries promised to hold fund-raising events for West Indian cricket during the 2007 World Cup, which may have influenced the vote. However, chairman of the Monitoring Committee of the Asian bid, I. S. Bindra, said it was their promise of extra profits in the region of US$400 million that swung the vote, that there "was no quid pro quo for their support", and that playing the West Indies had "nothing to do with the World Cup bid".


title: Cricket World Cup hosts

text: After missing out on 2011, Australia and New Zealand were awarded the 2015 World Cup. England was awarded the 2019 event as part of rotational policy.


title: Cricket World Cup hosts

text: World cup moved out of Pakistan by the ICC on 17 April 2009 due to ongoing concerns about the "uncertain security situation" prevailing in the country, especially in the aftermath of the 2009 attack on the Sri Lanka national cricket team in Lahore


title: Cricket World Cup hosts

text: On 9 April 2009, PCB chairman Ijaz Butt revealed that they had issued a legal notice to oppose ICC decision. However, the ICC claims that PCB is still a co-host and they have only shifted the matches out of Pakistan. Pakistan had proposed that South Africa host the 2015 World Cup and Australia/New Zealand host 2011, however this option did not find favour with their co-hosts and hence didn't materialise.


title: Cricket World Cup hosts

text: On 16 November 2021, ICC published the name of the hosts for ICC events to be played between 2024 to 2031 cycle. The hosts for the 50-over World Cup including T20 World Cup and Champions Trophy were selected through a competitive bidding process overseen by a sub-committee chaired by Sourav Ganguly, former president of the BCCI, Ricky Skerritt, president of Cricket West Indies and Martin Snedden.


title: Cricket World Cup hosts

text: Since the 1983 World Cup in England, an unofficial rotation system was introduced so that each cricket playing region of the world would have the opportunity to host World Cup after every twenty years. However, according to the "Sydney Morning Herald", "The Age" and Cricinfo, owing to the increasing power and role of the Asian nations, particularly India, this convention has not been strictly adhered to. For example, according to the rotation system, Australia and New Zealand should have been hosts for the event in 2011. But, the subcontinent won the bid because it would fetch additional US$ 400 million in profit.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: The Fifth Fleet is a numbered fleet of the United States Navy. It has been responsible for naval forces in the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Arabian Sea, and parts of the Indian Ocean since 1995 after a 48-year hiatus. It shares a commander and headquarters with U.S. Naval Forces Central Command ("NAVCENT") in Bahrain. Fifth Fleet/NAVCENT is a component command of, and reports to, U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM).


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: Established in 1944, the Fifth Fleet conducted extensive operations against Japanese forces in the Central Pacific during World War II. World War II ended in 1945, and the Fifth Fleet was deactivated in 1947. It remained inactive until 1995, when it was reactivated and assumed its current responsibilities.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: The Fifth Fleet was initially established during World War II on 26 April 1944 from the Central Pacific Force under the command of Admiral Raymond Spruance. Central Pacific Force was itself part of Pacific Ocean Areas. The ships of the Fifth Fleet also formed the basis of the Third Fleet, which was the designation of the "Big Blue Fleet" when under the command of Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr. Spruance and Halsey would alternate command of the fleet for major operations, allowing the other admiral and his staff time to prepare for the subsequent one. A secondary benefit was confusing the Japanese into thinking that they were actually two separate fleets as the fleet designation flipped back and forth. Under Admiral Spruance, the Fifth Fleet was by June 1944 the largest combat fleet in the world, with 535 warships.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: While operating under Spruance's command as the Fifth Fleet, the fleet took part in the Mariana Islands campaign of June–August 1944, the Iwo Jima campaign of February–March 1945, and the Okinawa campaign of April–June 1945. During the course of these operations, it conducted Operation Hailstone (a major raid against the Japanese naval base at Truk) in February 1944, defeated the Imperial Japanese Navy in the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, and blunted the Japanese Operation Ten-Go – sinking the Japanese battleship "Yamato" in the process – in April 1945.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: The British Pacific Fleet operated as part of the Fifth Fleet from March to May 1945 under the designation Task Force 57. Halsey then relieved Spruance of command and the British ships, like the rest of the Fifth Fleet, were resubordinated to the Third Fleet, in which the British Pacific Fleet operated as Task Force 37 through the end of the war in August 1945.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: The Fifth Fleet's next major combat operation would have been Operation Olympic, the invasion of Kyushu in the Japanese Home Islands, scheduled to begin on 1 November 1945, during which it would have operated simultaneously with the Third Fleet for the first time. The end of the war made this operation unnecessary, and the Fifth Fleet did not return to combat after May 1945, its ships remaining under the Third Fleet's operational control through the end of hostilities.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: The commanders of Fifth Fleet during this era were Admirals Spruance (26 April 1944 – 8 November 1945), John Henry Towers (8 November 1945 – 18 January 1946), Frederick C. Sherman (18 January 1946 – 3 September 1946), and Alfred E. Montgomery (5 September 1946 – 1 January 1947).


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: The Fifth Fleet was deactivated in January 1947. The position of Commander, Fifth Fleet, became Commander, First Task Fleet. Montgomery became Commander, First Task Fleet, upon the deactivation of the Fifth Fleet.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: Prior to the first Gulf War in 1990–1991, U.S. naval operations in the Persian Gulf region were directed by the Commander, Middle Eastern Force (COMMIDEASTFOR). Since this organization was considered insufficient to manage large-scale combat operations during the Gulf War, the Seventh Fleet — primarily responsible for the Western Pacific and Indian Ocean and normally based in Japan – was given the temporary task of managing the force during the period. However, no numbered fleet existed permanently within the USCENTCOM area of responsibility. In 1995, John Scott Redd proposed and founded the only new U.S. Navy Fleet in half a century, serving as the first Commander, Fifth Fleet (COMFIFTHFLT) since World War II.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: After a 48-year hiatus, the Fifth Fleet was reactivated, replacing COMMIDEASTFOR, and it now directs operations in the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and Arabian Sea. Its headquarters are at NSA Bahrain located in Manama, Bahrain.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: For the early years of its existence, its forces normally consisted of an Aircraft Carrier Battle Group (CVBG), an Amphibious Ready Group (ARG), surface combatants, submarines, maritime patrol and reconnaissance aircraft, and logistics ships. However, with the War on Terrorism, the naval strategy of the U.S. has changed. The regular deployments of the Cold War are now a thing of the past. Consequently, the policy of always maintaining a certain number of ships in various parts of the world is also over. However, its usual configuration now includes a Carrier Strike Group (CSG), Amphibious Ready Group or Expeditionary Strike Group (ESG), and other ships and aircraft with almost 15,000 people serving afloat and 1,000 support personnel ashore.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: Carrier Strike Group Three formed the core of the naval power during the initial phase of Operation Enduring Freedom in 2001. Commander, Carrier Group Three, Rear Admiral Thomas E. Zelibor, arrived in the Arabian Sea on 12 September 2001 and was subsequently designated Commander Task Force 50 (CTF 50), commanding multiple carrier strike groups and coalition forces. The Task Force conducted strikes against Al-Qaeda and Taliban forces in Afghanistan. Task Force 50 comprised over 59 ships from six nations including six aircraft carriers, stretching over 800 nautical miles.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: Naval operations in the Middle East were the subject of DOD Exercise Millennium Challenge 2002, during which unanticipated maneuvers by opposing forces director Lieutenant General Paul Van Riper USMC (retd.) led to heavy losses to the 'imaginary' exercise U.S. fleet.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: Fifth Fleet forces peaked in early 2003, when five USN aircraft carriers (CV and CVNs), six USN amphibious assault ships (LHAs and LHDs) and their embarked USMC air ground combat elements, their escorting and supply vessels, and over 30 Royal Navy vessels were under its command.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: In the Persian Gulf, United States Coast Guard surface ships attached to the Fifth Fleet were under Commander, Destroyer Squadron 50 (CDS-50) commanded by Captain John W. Peterson of the Navy. Coast Guard cutters "Boutwell", "Walnut", and the four patrol boats were part of this group. The shore detachments, MCSD and Patrol Forces Southwest Asia also operated under the command of CDS-50. For actual operations, the Coast Guard forces were part of two different task forces. The surface units were part of Task Force 55 (CTF-55). Command of CTF-55 actually shifted during OIF. Initially, Rear Admiral Barry M. Costello, Commander of the Constellation Battle Group, commanded CTF-55. The surface forces were designated Task Group 55.1 (TG-55.1) with Commander Destroyer Squadron 50 (CDS-50) as the task group commander. In mid-April, the Constellation Battle Group left the NAG and the Destroyer Squadron 50 staff commanded TF-55 for the remainder of OIF major combat operations. In the aftermath of the fall of Baghdad in April 2003, the very large force of ships was quickly drawn down.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: On 3 January 2012, following the end of the ten-day Velayat 90 naval maneuvers by the Iranian Navy in the Strait of Hormuz, the Iranian Army chief of staff, General Ataollah Salehi, was quoted by the state news agency IRNA as warning the United States to not deploy back to the Persian Gulf. On 4 January 2011, Fars News Agency reported that a bill was being prepared for the Iranian Parliament to bar foreign naval vessels from entering the Persian Gulf unless they receive permission from the Iranian navy, with Iranian lawmaker Nader Qazipour noting: "If the military vessels and warships of any country want to pass via the Strait of Hormuz without coordination and permission of Iran's navy forces, they should be stopped by the Iranian armed forces." Also, Iranian Defense Minister Ahmad Vahidi reiterated that "transnational forces" have no place in the Persian Gulf region. On 6 January 2012, armed Iranian speedboats reportedly harassed two U.S. naval vessels, the amphibious transport dock and the Coast Guard cutter , as they transited the Strait of Hormuz into the Persian Gulf.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: On 9 January 2012, Carrier Strike Group One, led by the carrier , joined Carrier Strike Group Three in the North Arabian Sea, with Carrier Strike Group Nine, led by the carrier , en route to the Arabian Sea amid rising tension between the United States and the Islamic Republic of Iran over U.S. naval access to the Strait of Hormuz. On 19 January 2012, Carrier Strike Group Nine entered the Fifth Fleet's area of responsibility (AOR) and relieved Carrier Strike Group Three. That same day during an interview on the "Charlie Rose" program, Mohammad Khazaee, Iran's ambassador to the United Nations, stated that Iran would consider closing the Strait of Hormuz if Iran's security was endangered.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: For December 2012 and January 2013, Carrier Strike Group Three was the only carrier strike group operating with the U.S. Fifth Fleet until relieved by the Carrier Strike Group Ten. This is because of the temporary two-month rotation of the Carrier Strike Group Eight back to the United States in order to resurface the flight deck of that group's flagship, the carrier . "Dwight D. Eisenhower", Carrier Air Wing Seven, and the guided-missile cruiser returned to base on 19 December 2012, and the guided missile destroyers , , and were scheduled to return to base in March 2013.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: In September 2016, Commander Amphibious Task Group, Commodore Andrew Burns, set off from the UK with , along with helicopters from 845 Naval Air Squadron, No. 662 Squadron AAC and No. 27 Squadron RAF, , and element of 3 Commando Brigade HQ Royal Marines, RFA "Mounts Bay" and MV "Eddystone Point" under his flag. This deployment was known as the Joint Expeditionary Force (Maritime) 2016. The Amphibious Task Group was planned to sail to the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, where Burns was to assume command of the United States Fifth Fleet Task Force 50 until March 2017.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: On 1 December 2018, Commander, Fifth Fleet, Vice Admiral Scott A. Stearney was found dead in his residence in Bahrain. No foul play was suspected. Deputy commander Rear Admiral Paul J. Schlise assumed command in his place. Vice Admiral Jim Malloy flew to Bahrain to provide support. Malloy was formally nominated to succeed Stearney on 4 December and quickly confirmed by voice vote of the full United States Senate on 6 December. Vice Adm. Malloy assumed command on 7 December.


title: United States Fifth Fleet

text: Together with Naval Forces Central Command, Fifth Fleet oversees four naval task forces monitoring maritime activity:


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The Spanish Republic (), historiographically referred to as the First Spanish Republic, was the political regime that existed in Spain from 11 February 1873 to 29 December 1874.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The Republic's founding ensued after the abdication of King Amadeo on 10 February 1873. On the next day the republic was proclaimed by a parliamentary majority made up of radicals, republicans and democrats. The period was beset by tensions between federal republicans and unitarian republicans. The period also saw the end of compulsory conscription, the regulation of child labor and the abolition of slavery in Puerto Rico. The government inherited a state of war, the so-called Third Carlist War, ongoing since 1872, and the Ten Years' War, ongoing since 1868, to which the Cantonal rebellion added up in 1873.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The January 1874 coup of Pavía ousted the government, giving way to a praetorian republic under General Serrano. In December 1874, General Arsenio Martínez Campos staged a "pronunciamiento" in Sagunto, which delivered the coup de grâce to the Republic and brought the Bourbon Restoration.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The Constituent Cortes was called upon to write a federal constitution. The radicals preferred a unitary republic, with a much lesser role for the provinces, and once the republic had been declared the two parties turned against each other. Initially, the radicals were largely driven from power, joining those who had already been driven out by the revolution of 1868 or by the Carlist War.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The first republican attempt in the history of Spain was a short experience, characterized by profound political and social instability and violence. The Republic was governed by four distinct presidents—Estanislao Figueras, Francesc Pi i Margall, Nicolás Salmerón, Emilio Castelar; then, only eleven months after its proclamation, General Manuel Pavía led a coup d'état and established a unified republic dominated by Francisco Serrano.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The period was marked by three simultaneous civil wars: the Third Carlist War, the Cantonal Revolution, the Petroleum Revolution in Alcoy; and by the Ten Years' War in Cuba. The gravest problems for the consolidation of the regime were the lack of true republicans, their division between federalists and unitarians, and the lack of popular support. Subversion in the army, a series of local cantonalist risings, instability in Barcelona, failed anti-federalist coups, calls for revolution by the International Workingmen's Association, the lack of any broad political legitimacy, and personal in-fighting among the republican leadership all further weakened the republic.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The Republic effectively ended on 3 January 1874, when the Captain General of Madrid, Manuel Pavía, pronounced against the federalist government and called on all parties except Federalists and Carlists to form a national government. The monarchists and Republicans refused, leaving the unitary Radicals and Constitutionalists as the only group willing to govern; again a narrow political base. General Francisco Serrano formed a new government and was appointed President of the Republic although it was a mere formality since the Cortes had been dissolved.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Carlist forces managed to expand the territory under their control to the greatest extent in early 1874, though a series of defeats by the republic's northern army in the second half of the year might have led to the end of the war had it not been for bad weather. However the other monarchists had taken the name of "Alfonsists" as supporters of Alfonso, the son of the former Queen Isabel, and were organised by Cánovas del Castillo.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: This period of the Republic lasted until Brigadier Martínez-Campos pronounced for Alfonso in Sagunto on 29 December 1874 and the rest of the army refused to act against him. The government collapsed, leading to the end of the republic and the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy with the proclamation of Alfonso XII as king.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: King Amadeo I abdicated from the Spanish throne on 11 February 1873. His decision was mainly due to the constant difficulties he had to face during his short tenure, as the Ten Years' War, the outbreak of the Third Carlist War, the opposition from "alfonsino" monarchists, which hoped for the Bourbon Restoration in the person of Alfonso, son of Isabella II, the many republican insurrections and the division among his own supporters.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The Spanish Cortes, which were assembled in a joint and permanent session of both the Congress of Deputies and the Senate, declared themselves the National Assembly while waiting for any final notice from the King. The overwhelming majority was with the monarchists from the two dynastic parties that had exercised the government until then: the Radical Democratic Party of Manuel Ruiz Zorrilla and the Constitutional Party of Práxedes Mateo Sagasta. There also was a small republican minority in the National Assembly, ideologically divided between federalism and centralism. One of them, Federal Democratic Republican Party member Francisco Pi y Margall moved the following proposal: "The National Assembly assumes powers and declares the Republic as the form of government, leaving its organization to the Constituent Cortes."


title: First Spanish Republic

text: In his speech for the proposal (to which he was a signatory, along with Figueras, Salmerón, and other opponents), Pi y Margall—himself a federalist—renounced for the moment to establish a federal republic, hoping the would-be-assembled Constituent Cortes to decide over the issue, and announced his acceptance of any other democratic decision. Then another republican, Emilio Castelar, took the floor and said:


title: First Spanish Republic

text: After Castelar's powerful speech, amidst passionate applause, the Republic was declared with a resignation of the monarchists, with 258 votes in favour and only 32 against: "The National Assembly assumes all powers and declares the Republic as the form of government of Spain, leaving its organization to the Constituent Cortes. An Executive Power shall be elected directly by the Cortes, and it shall be responsible to the same."


title: First Spanish Republic

text: In the same session, the first government of the Republic was elected. Federal republican Estanislao Figueras was elected the first "President of the Executive Power", an office incorporating the heads of State and Government. No "President of the Republic" was ever elected, as the Constitution creating such office was never enacted. In his speech, Figueras said that the Republic "was like a rainbow of peace and harmony of all Spaniards of good will."


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The passage of these resolutions surprised and stunned most Spaniards, as the recently elected Cortes (now National Assembly) had a wide majority of monarchists. Ruiz Zorrilla spoke in these terms: "I protest and will keep doing so, even if I'm left on my own, against those representatives that having come to the Cortes as constitutional monarchists feel themselves authorized to make the decision to turn the nation from monarchist to republican overnight."


title: First Spanish Republic

text: For most monarchists, though, the impossibility of restoring Isabella II as Queen, and the youth of the future Alfonso XII made the Republic the only, though transitory, viable course of action, particularly given the inevitable failure that awaited it.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The first government of the Republic was formed of federalists and progressives who had been ministers during the monarchy. Four ministers, in particular, had served with King Amadeo: Echegaray (Finance), Becerra (War), Fernández de Córdoba (Navy) and Berenguer (Infrastructure).


title: First Spanish Republic

text: At the beginning, they were plagued by a terrible economic situation, with a 546M peseta budgetary deficit, 153M in debts requiring immediate payment and only 32M available to fulfill them. The Artillery Corps had been dissolved in the most virulent moment of the Carlist and Cuban wars, for which there were not enough soldiers or armament, nor money to feed or purchase them. Besides, Spain was going through a deep economic crisis matching the Panic of 1873 and which was exacerbated by the political instability. In previous years, unemployment had risen steeply amongst field and industrial workers, and proletarian organizations responded with strikes, demonstrations, protest rallies and the occupation of abandoned lands.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: On 23 February the newly elected Speaker of the National Assembly, radical Cristino Marcos, plotted a failed coup d'etat in which the Civil Guard occupied the Ministry of Governance and the National Militia surrounded the Congress of Deputies, in order to establish a unitary republic. This prompted the first remodeling of the government in which the progressives were ousted and replaced with federalists. Twelve days after the establishment of the Republic, compulsory military service was removed and voluntary service set up with a daily salary of 1 peseta and one crust (loaf?) of bread. A "Republican volunteers" corps was also established with an enlistment salary of 50 pesetas and a daily salary of 2 pesetas and 1 crust of bread.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The second Figueras government had to face the attempt of proclamation of the Estat Català inside the Spanish Federal Republic on 9 March which was overcome by a series of telegraphic contacts between the government and the Catalan leaders. On 23 April a new coup attempt was set in motion; this time by a collusion of "alfonsino" monarchists, members of the old Liberal Union and monarchic sectors of the Army; but failed when several units refrained from supporting it at the last hour.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Francisco Pi y Margall is usually considered the heart of this government, which had to face several problems already endemic to the Republic, such as the Third Carlist War, separatist insurrections (this time from Catalonia), military indiscipline, monarchic plots, etc. His government dissolved the National Assembly and summoned Constituent Cortes for 1 May. On 23 April Cristino Martos, Speaker of the old National Assembly, attempted a new coup, now supported by the Civil Governor of Madrid: a battalion of militiamen took positions along the Paseo del Prado, and four thousand more perfectly armed volunteers gathered near Independence Square under the pretext of passing review. Having heard from the plot, Pi i Margall mobilized the Civil Guard. For his part, after the Minister of War appointed as the new Captain General for Madrid, he ordered Brigadier Carmona and a battalion of infantry and various artillery and cavalry units, to march on the militiamen. The coup d'état failed as soon as it started, and the government dissolved the military units participating and the Permanent Committee of the Assembly.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The writs were issued for Constituent Cortes elections on 10 May which resulted 343 seats for federal republicans and 31 for the rest of the political forces. The elections themselves developed in a quite unorthodox environment, and the resulting representation was ridiculous, as most factions in Spain did not participate: the Carlists were still waging war against the Republic, while the "alfonsino" monarchists of Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, the unitary republicans and even the incipient workers' organization close to the First International all called for abstention. The result was clearly favourable to the federal republicans, which captured 343 of the 371 seats, but turnout was probably the lowest in Spanish history, with about 28% in Catalonia and 25% in Madrid.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: On 1 June 1873 the first session of the Constituent Cortes was opened and the presentation of resolutions began. The first one was debated on the seventh of June, written by seven representatives: "First Article. The form of government of the Spanish Nation is the Democratic Federal Republic".


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The president, having carried out the Cortes' regulations for the definite approval of proposal of law, arranged to hold a nominal vote the next day. The resolution was passed 8 June by a favorable vote of 219 representatives and only 2 against, and the Federal Republic was thus declared. Most of the federalists in parliament supported a Swiss-like confederative model, with regions directly forming independent cantons. Spanish writer Benito Pérez Galdós, aged 21 at the time, wrote about the parliamentary atmosphere of the First Republic:


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The situation reached such levels of surrealism that, while presiding over a Cabinet session, Estanislao Figueras yelled: "Gentlemen, I can't stand this any more. I am going to be frank with you: I'm fed up with all of us!" So fed up that on 10 June he left his resignation letter in his office, went for a walk through the Parque del Buen Retiro and, without telling anyone, boarded the first train departing from the Atocha Station. He would only step down upon arriving in Paris.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: After Figueras' flight to France, the power vacuum created was tempting general into starting a pronunciamiento when a Civil Guard colonel, José de la Iglesia, showed up at Congress and declared that nobody would leave until a new president was elected. Figueras' fellow federalist and government minister Francisco Pi y Margall was elected on 11 June, but on his speech to the Assembly he declared he was at a complete loss and without a program. The main efforts of the new government focused on the drafting of the new Constitution and some social character-related bills:


title: First Spanish Republic

text: On 16 June a 25-member Committee was set up by the Cortes to study the draft Constitution of the Federal Republic of Spain, the redaction of which is mainly attributed to Emilio Castelar, with debate starting the following day. On 28 June Pi i Margall renewed the composition of his government, but due to the slow pace of the constitutional debates in the Cortes, events came crashing down on the government at a stunning pace. On 30 June the City Council of Seville passed a motion declaring the town a Social Republic, and the next day many federalist deputies left the Cortes in protest. About a week later, on 9 July, Alcoy followed suit, when during a strike directed by local leaders of the First International, the police fired to the gathered workers who responded by taking up arms and gaining control of the city. These events became known as the Petroleum Revolution.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: There is, however, no record of such a manifesto, nor of any similar declaration, in the municipal archives; and the proceedings of the time seemed to be within normality. This has motivated several historians to deny the authenticity of the manifesto and even the very existence of the Jumilla canton, stating that its invention was merely a form of anti-republican propaganda.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The most active – and known – of the cantons was the Canton of Cartagena, its autonomy declared on 12 July at the city naval base under the inspiration of the federalist congressman Antonio Gálvez Arce, known as "Antonete". The Canton of Cartagena would live six months of constant wars, and even minted its own currency, the "duro cantonal".


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The first deed of the Cartagenan cantonalists was the capture of the Saint Julian castle, which motivated a strange telegram sent by the city's captain-general to the Minister of the Navy: "Saint Julian castle shows Turkish flag". Such "Turkish flag" was in fact the cantonal flag, the first red flag in Spanish history (the Ottoman Civil Ensign was a plain red flag, hence the captain-general's terminology). Gálvez's passionate speeches allowed him to gain control of the Navy ships docked in the city, which at that time were among the best in the Spanish Navy. Under his command, the fleet wreaked havoc on the nearby Mediterranean shore, causing the Madrid government to declare him a pirate and set a bounty on his head. Back on land, he led an expedition towards Madrid that was defeated at Chinchilla.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Two cantonal frigates, the "Almansa" and the "Vitoria", set sail towards a "foreign power" (the Spanish city of Almería) for fund-raising. As the city would not pay, it was bombarded and taken by the cantonalists. General Contreras, commanding officer of the cantonal fleet, ordered the Marcha Real to be played as he unboarded. Afterwards, the deed would be repeated in Alicante, but on the trip back to Cartagena they were captured as pirates by the armoured frigates HMS Swiftsure and SMS Friedrich Karl, under the UK and German flags respectively.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: An even worse problem was the Third Carlist War, in which the rebels controlled most of the Basque Country, Navarre and Catalonia without opposition, and sent raid parties throughout the Peninsula. The Carlist pretender, Charles VII, had formed a rival government in Estella with his own ministers and was already minting currency, while the French connivance allowed him to receive external aid and fortify his defences. Between the Carlists and the cantonal revolution, the actual territory in which the short-lived Republic exerted undisputed authority did not extend much further than the province of Madrid itself and North-Western Spain, as cantonal uprisings took place as far north as Ávila.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Due to the rapid pace of the events, and without time for the new Constitution to be passed by the Cortes, Pi i Margall found himself between a rock and the proverbial hard place of the cantonal revolution. However, the effective Commander in Chief of the Republic rejected all calls, from both military and political instances, to exert repression on the cantonal uprisings, as he argued they were just following his very own doctrine. Thus, he was forced to resign on 18 July after just 37 days in office. He would later sorely describe his experience as premier:


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The draft of the Federal Constitution of the First Republic of Spain developed at length into 117 articles organized under 17 titles.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Composing the Spanish Nation the states of Andalucía Alta, Andalucía Baja, Aragón, Asturias, Baleares, Canarias, Castilla la Nueva, Castilla la Vieja, Cataluña, Cuba, Extremadura, Galicia, Murcia, Navarra, Puerto Rico, Valencia, Regiones Vascongadas. The states will be able to conserve the actual provinces and modify them, according to their territorial necessities.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: These states would have "complete economic-administrative autonomy and political autonomy compatible with the existence of the nation" such as "the ability to give it a political constitution" (articles 92 and 93).


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The constitutional draft anticipated in Title IV—in addition to the classic Legislative Power, Executive Power and Judicial Power—a fourth Relational Power that would be exercised by the president of the Republic.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Legislative Power would be in the hands of the Federal Cortes, which would be composed of the Congress and the Senate. Congress was to be a house of proportional representation with one representative "for every 50,000 souls", renewing every two years. The Senate was to be a house of territorial representation, four senators being elected by the Cortes of each one of the states.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Executive Power would be exercised by the Ministry of Advisors, whose president would be elected by the president of the republic.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Article 40 of the draft stated: "In the political organization of the Spanish nation, all things individual are the pure domain of the individual; all things municipal are that of the municipality; all things regional are that of the state; and all things national, of the Federation." The following article declared that "All powers are elective, revocable, and accountable", and Article 42 that "Sovereignty resides in all citizens, which they exercise by their own representation by the political organizations of the Republic, constituted through universal suffrage."


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Judicial Power would reside in the Federal Supreme Court, which would be composed "of three magistrates for each state of the federation" (Article 73) that would never be elected by the Executive Power or the Legislative Power. It also would establish that all courts would be profession and the judicial institution for all classes of representatives.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Relational Power would be exercised by the president of the Federal Republic whose mandate would last "four years, not being immediately reeligible", as says Article 81 of the draft.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: After accepting the resignation of Pi i Margall, Nicolás Salmerón was elected president of the Executive Power, with 119 votes in favor and 93 votes against.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The new president, who was a moderate federalist republican, defended the necessity of arriving at an understanding with the more moderate or conservative groups and a slow transition toward a federal republic. His oratory was crushing: Francisco Silvela said that in his speeches, Salmerón only used one weapon—artillery. Antonio Maura characterized the professorial tone of Don Nicolás, saying that "it always seemed that he was addressing the metaphysicists of Albacete."


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Already during his stints as Minister of Mercy and Justice in the government of Estanislao Figueras, he brought about the abolition of the death penalty, even the independence of judicial power in the face of the political.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: His nomination produced an intensification of the cantonal movement, which to control he had to resort to generals openly against the Federal Republic, sending military expeditions to Andalucía and Valencia under the respective command of generals Pavía and Martínez Campos. One after another the separate cantons were subdued, except that of Cartagena, which resisted until 12 January 1874.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: His generals asked the "awareness" of the government and his signature to execute various death sentences on various deserting soldiers on the Carlist front; according to them, this was essential to reestablishing discipline on the army. Salmerón, man of very advanced liberal principles, declined to concede the "awareness" and, as is written on the wall of his mausoleum, "abandoned power to not sign a death sentence." In this way, he resigned on 6 September.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The next day, 7 September, the man elected to occupy the presidency of the Executive Power was unitarian Emilio Castelar, professor of History and distinguished orator, by 133 votes in favor against the 67 obtained by Pi y Margall. During his previous time as Minister of State in the government of Estanislao Figueras, Castelar promoted and achieved the approval of the abolition of slavery in the overseas territory of Puerto Rico, although not in Cuba because of the continuing war situation. This act by the First Spanish Republic is commemorated in Puerto Rico up to the present day.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Motivated by the difficult situation through which the Republic was passing, with the aggravation of the Carlist War, Emilio Castelar commenced the reorganization of the army, announcing before the Cortes "to sustain this form of government, I need much infantry, much cavalry, much artillery, much Civil Guard, and many riflemen." In spite of the federalist opposition, the Cortes conceded to him extraordinary powers to govern, after which they closed the Cortes on 20 September. He confirmed the death sentences that provoked the resignation of his predecessor, reestablished order, and was at the point of surrendering to the cantonalists of Cartagena.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Without doubt, the chaos incited by the cantonal revolt and the worsening of the Carlist War led them to reopen the Cortes on 2 January 1874, in order to bring to a vote the management and ask for unlimited powers with which to save the Republic from complete discredit.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: In effect, the Cortes session opened on 2 January 1874, but the federalists rose up against Don Emilio Castelar, who was supported by the captain general of Madrid, Don Manuel Pavía, former supporter of Prim, with whom he had rebelled in Villarejo de Salvanés. Two very different forces threatened to interrupt the deliberations of the Cortes: the federalists, eager to finish Castelar with mighty wrath, and the troops of General Pavía, supporter of Castelar, who had decided to show up in his support to avoid his defeat before the federalists.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: The committed regiments had already left at the captain general's orders when the Cortes recognized Castelar's defeat by 119 votes against 101. The former president of the Republic, and the president of the Cortes, Nicolás Salmerón, called for a new vote to elect a new chief of the Executive Power.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Pavía situated himself in front of the building with his staff and ordered two adjutants to impose upon Salmerón the dissolution of the Cortes session and the evacuation of the building in five minutes. The Civil Guard, which guarded the Congress, put into action the general's orders and occupied the halls of Congress (without entering the floor). It was 6:55 in the morning, when the vote to elect the federalist candidate Eduardo Palance was proceeding, and Salmerón, upon receiving the captain general's order, suspended the vote and communicated the grave situation to the representatives. The representatives abandoned the building with all speed, amidst scenes of exaggerated hysterics; some even threw themselves out the windows. Pavía, surprised, asked: "But gentlemen, Why jump out the windows when you can leave through the door?"


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Pavía, who was a unitarian republican, offered to allow Emilio Castelar to continue in the presidency, but he refused, not wanting to maintain power through undemocratic means. These acts signified the unofficial end of the First Republic, although it officially continued for almost a year.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: At the same time as the political convulsions were taking place, General López Domínguez entered into Cartagena on 12 January, replacing Martínez Campos, while Antonete Gálvez, with more than a thousand men, struggled to elude him near the border of Numancia "(Numantia)" and set course for Oran, (Algeria). The end of the cantonal experience was marked by Gálvez with his exile, but the Bourbon Restoration permitted him through amnesty to return to his native Torreagüera. In this period he would strike up a strange and warm friendship with Don Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, most responsible for the Restoration, who considered Gálvez a sincere, honorable, and valiant man, although one of exaggerated political ideas.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Meanwhile, after Emilio Castelar's refusal to continue as president, he put General Serrano, recently returned from his exile in Biarritz for his implication in the attempted coup of 23 April, in charge of the formation of a coalition government that grouped together monarchists, conservatives, and unitarian republicans, but excluded federalist republicans.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Francisco Serrano, Duke of Torre, 63 years old, former collaborator of Isabel II, had already twice freed the leadership of the state. He proclaimed the Unitary Republic, taking control of the presidency of the Executive Power, and dispensing with the Cortes in a conservative republican dictatorship. During his mandate he once and for all subdued the cantonal insurrections, and that of Cartagena, and concentrated his forces on the Carlist War in the north of Spain. The general attempted without success to consolidate power to himself in dictatorship form, following the example of the regime of dukes and generals that prevailed in France upon the fall of Napoleon III and after the defeat of the Paris Commune.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: In just a few months, on 13 May, Serrano ceded the presidency of the government to Juan de Zavala y de la Puente to personally take control of the operations against the Carlists in the north. Práxedes Mateo Sagasta took charge of the government on 3 September. On 10 December the siege of Pamplona began, but it was interrupted by the Proclamation of Sagunto.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: On 29 December 1874 in Sagunto, General Arsenio Martínez Campos came out in favor of the restoration to the throne of the Bourbon monarchy in the personage of Don Alfonso de Borbón, son of Isabel II. The government of Sagasta did not oppose this announcement, permitting the restoration of the monarchy. The triumph of the Bourbon Restoration succeeded thanks to the previous work of Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, which without a doubt was contrary to military rule.


title: First Spanish Republic

text: Until 1931, the Spanish republicans celebrated the 11 February anniversary of the First Republic. Thereafter, the commemoration was moved to 14 April, the anniversary of the proclamation of the Second Republic in 1931.


title: Norm Macdonald Live

text: Norm Macdonald Live was a weekly audio and video podcast hosted by Canadian stand-up comedian, writer and actor Norm Macdonald. The Comedy Store's Adam Eget (b. 1979) served as the show's co-host, with former "Late Show with David Letterman" producer Daniel Kellison as executive producer.


title: Norm Macdonald Live

text: The show featured interviews with comedians, actors, and other members of the entertainment community, and ran for three seasons. Launched by the Video Podcast Network on March 26, 2013, and then produced by Jash, the show was also distributed on YouTube, Amazon Prime, and PlutoTV, with audio-only versions of the episodes uploaded via iTunes.


title: Norm Macdonald Live

text: On February 16, 2018, archived episodes of the show were taken off of YouTube, followed by most major digital platforms. "Norm Macdonald Has a Show", a spiritual successor to "Norm Macdonald Live" starring Macdonald and Eget, was released on Netflix on September 14, 2018.


title: Norm Macdonald Live

text: The first season premiered on March 26, 2013 and concluded after eleven episodes. After a year-long hiatus, the second season debuted on May 12, 2014. It concluded after thirteen episodes in August 2014.


title: Norm Macdonald Live

text: A third season was released in September and October 2016, but only aired 2 episodes before going on hiatus. On July 25, 2017, the season continued with guest David Letterman. The recommencement of the third season featured a brand new set as well as a new style of filming, that seemed to prefer close-up camera shots on subjects rather than the traditional medium close-up.


title: Norm Macdonald Live

text: The podcast followed a talk show format, yet without a studio audience. Each hour-long episode features opening remarks between Macdonald and co-host Adam Eget, often involving elaborate comedic bits and irreverent chit-chat, leading into a guest interview. The show concludes with a segment called "Jokes," in which the hosts and their guest take turns reading one-liners from index cards.


title: Norm Macdonald Live

text: In the spirit of the "Sports Show with Norm Macdonald", Norm and co-hosts Jeff Martin and Chad Drew live-streamed their coverage of the US Masters golf tournament over several hours in 2013, and again in 2015.


title: Norm Macdonald Live

text: Reviews for the series were positive, with warm notices from "USA Today" and "Entertainment Weekly". Darren Staley of "America's Comedy" wrote "The show is at all times smart, unpredictable, thought-provoking, and funny as hell," arguing that "It's the best podcast out there right now." Writing for IFC, Ron Mwangaguhunga called Macdonald "a comedic force with which to be reckoned," noting that the show was "a bit rough around the edges," in its first episode.


title: Marion Ravenwood

text: Marion Ravenwood is a fictional character who first appeared in the 1981 film "Raiders of the Lost Ark". Played by Karen Allen, she enters the story when Indiana Jones visits her in Nepal, needing her help to locate the Ark of the Covenant with a possession originally obtained by her father, Dr. Abner Ravenwood. After 27 years of absence (21 years in the films' internal chronology), the character returned in "Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull" and was once again played by Allen.


title: Marion Ravenwood

text: Screenwriter Lawrence Kasdan named the character after his wife's grandmother, and took the character's surname from Ravenwood Lane in California. Spielberg originally intended the role for his girlfriend Amy Irving. Sean Young and Stephanie Zimbalist auditioned for the role, Barbara Hershey was considered, while Debra Winger turned it down. Steven Spielberg cast Karen Allen, on the strength of her performance in "National Lampoon's Animal House". Allen screen tested opposite Tim Matheson and John Shea, before Harrison Ford was cast as Indiana.


title: Marion Ravenwood

text: Kasdan's depiction of Marion was more complex, and she was genuinely interested in René Belloq in earlier script drafts. She and Paul Freeman added more comedy in the tent seduction scene. Allen came up with her own backstory for the character, such as what happened to her mother, her romance with Indiana at age 15 or 16, and her time in Nepal; Spielberg described it as "an entirely different movie".


title: Marion Ravenwood

text: After "Raiders of the Lost Ark" was released, Spielberg wanted Allen to return for "Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom", but George Lucas decided that Indy would have a different love interest in each film. Marion became a frequent supporting character in "The Further Adventures of Indiana Jones", a Marvel Comics title which ran for 34 issues from January 1983 until March 1986. During the 1990s, Lucas forbade author Rob MacGregor from including her in his novels for Bantam Books' Indiana Jones series. "How did Indy meet Marion? What happened in their earlier encounters? George apparently wanted to keep that for the future. Maybe we’ll find out in Indy 4," MacGregor speculated. Frank Darabont claimed it was his idea to bring back Marion for "Kingdom of the Crystal Skull", during his tenure as writer from 2002 to 2004.


title: Marion Ravenwood

text: Marion's father, Dr. Abner Ravenwood, was a professor of archaeology obsessed with finding the Biblical Ark of the Covenant; he was also a mentor to the young Henry "Indiana" Jones, who eventually accompanied them on several digs.


title: Marion Ravenwood

text: Marion entered into a relationship with Indiana Jones during this time (when she was 15, according to the novelization of "Raiders of the Lost Ark"). Jones abruptly left the Ravenwoods in 1926; Marion was about 16 or 17 years old when the relationship ended, and Jones was 27, ten years her senior. Later in her life, Marion chastised Jones, stating, "I was a child! I was in love! It was wrong and you knew it!" Jones showed little remorse and simply replied, "You knew what you were doing."


title: Marion Ravenwood

text: After Jones broke off contact with them both, he returned to the United States to focus on his career as an archaeology professor, and Marion and her father settled in Nepal. She later started running a local tavern – "The Raven" – after its manager (her father) died and left it to her. Taking advantage of her high tolerance for alcohol, she would frequently drink the bar's patrons under the table on a wager. She refused to return to the United States until she had enough money to return "with style".


title: Marion Ravenwood

text: In 1936, Marion found herself back in contact with Jones, when he offered her money for the headpiece of the Staff of Ra, an artifact originally located by her father. Reluctant at first, she was forced to cooperate when the bespectacled Gestapo agent Arnold Toht arrived to demand the piece himself. During the subsequent fight, the tavern caught fire. Marion told Jones that, until he paid her the full price he promised, she was his partner. She was then captured by the Nazis. Indy believed she was dead until he stumbled upon her bound and gagged in one of the Nazi tents. Reasoning that an escape would draw too much unwanted attention, Indy left her tied up but promised to return. The perceived betrayal did not affect Marion's refusal to cooperate with her captors, however. Belloq's advances resulted only in an aborted escape attempt, and Toht's interrogation was likewise met with uncommon resistance. After being captured by and escaping from Jones' rival, René Belloq, she helped Jones recover the Ark of the Covenant from the Nazis. In the process, the couple rekindled their relationship.


title: Marion Ravenwood

text: Jones continued to pursue archaeological artifacts, while Marion tried her hand at journalism before opening a bar in New York City named The Raven's Nest. For a time, she also worked as the public relations officer for the museum at Marshall College. However, a week before their planned wedding Indy left her without explanation and unaware she was pregnant with their future son Henry "Mutt" Jones III. Marion began a relationship with the RAF pilot Colin Williams (whom Jones had initially introduced to her) three months after Mutt was born, and they eventually married and lived happily until Colin was killed during World War II. Jones' eccentric old friend, Harold Oxley, then helped raise Mutt, acting as a second (technically third) father.


title: Marion Ravenwood

text: Twenty years after Mutt's birth, Russians captured Oxley in an attempt to find the mythical crystal skulls that he had pursued. After she was captured trying to find Oxley, Marion sent Mutt to find Jones. After a desperate escape attempt, she revealed to Jones, who had remained clueless, that Mutt was actually his son. During the adventure, she and Jones again realized their love for each other. Back home, they were married, set to continue their adventures together.


title: The Last of the Starks

text: "The Last of the Starks" is the fourth episode of the eighth season of HBO's fantasy television series "Game of Thrones", and the 71st overall. It was written by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss, and directed by David Nutter. It aired on May 5, 2019.


title: The Last of the Starks

text: "The Last of the Starks" shows the aftermath of the battle against the Army of the Dead while setting the stage for the final confrontation, with Daenerys, Jon, and their remaining forces going towards King's Landing to confront Cersei and demand her surrender.


title: The Last of the Starks

text: The episode received mixed reviews. Critics praised its return to the political intrigue of earlier "Game of Thrones" episodes, but criticized the episode's writing. It received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series and was picked by Emilia Clarke to support her nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series.


title: The Last of the Starks

text: This episode marks the final appearance of Nathalie Emmanuel (Missandei), and Hannah Murray (Gilly), as well as the final appearances of six actors whose characters died in the previous episode, but were seen as corpses: Alfie Allen (Theon Greyjoy), Iain Glen (Ser Jorah Mormont), Bella Ramsey (Lyanna Mormont), Richard Dormer (Beric Dondarrion), Ben Crompton (Eddison Tollett), and Staz Nair (Qhono).


title: The Last of the Starks

text: Jon leads a mass funeral cremation for the dead. At a feast, Daenerys legitimizes Gendry as a Baratheon and makes him Lord of Storm's End, the ancestral home of House Baratheon. Gendry proposes to Arya, but she declines. Brienne leaves a drinking game in discomfort when Tyrion guesses she is a virgin. Jaime goes to Brienne's room and they have sex. Daenerys is uncomfortable at the acclaim the wildlings give Jon and, in private, begs him to never reveal his true parentage. Jon reassures Daenerys that he has renounced his claim for hers but insists he must tell Arya and Sansa the truth.


title: The Last of the Starks

text: Daenerys plans to immediately storm King's Landing, but Sansa argues the soldiers need rest. Ultimately, they agree Jon will lead the army on foot while Daenerys and her fleet will sail to Dragonstone. Afterwards, Arya and Sansa tell Jon that they distrust Daenerys but Jon defends her. After swearing Sansa and Arya to secrecy, Jon has Bran tell Arya and Sansa of his true parentage.


title: The Last of the Starks

text: Bronn arrives to kill Jaime and Tyrion, but accepts their offer of Highgarden in exchange for their lives. Arya and Sandor Clegane ride for King's Landing. Sansa reveals Jon's parentage to Tyrion, who then tells Varys. Jon gives Ghost to Tormund, who plans to return north of the Wall with the wildlings; Tormund suggests that Jon join them. Jon also bids farewell to Sam and a pregnant Gilly.


title: The Last of the Starks

text: Euron's Iron Fleet ambushes Daenerys's fleet and kills Rhaegal. Missandei is captured. Daenerys is convinced to talk to Cersei first instead of attacking King's Landing. Varys fears for Daenerys's mental stability and tells Tyrion he believes Jon would be a better ruler, but Tyrion stands by her.


title: The Last of the Starks

text: After learning of Cersei's capture of Missandei and Sansa suggesting Daenerys will execute Cersei for this, Jaime leaves for King's Landing during the night in hopes of saving her, despite Brienne's tearful plea that he stay with her.


title: The Last of the Starks

text: Euron reports his success to Cersei, who claims to be pregnant with his child. She orders the gates of the Red Keep remain open, making her subjects human shields to deter an all-out assault on the city.


title: The Last of the Starks

text: Daenerys and her army arrive at the walls of King's Landing. Cersei and Daenerys demand each other's surrender, with Cersei threatening to kill Missandei. Tyrion attempts to appeal to Cersei's humanity to get her to surrender. Cersei refuses and has Gregor Clegane behead Missandei, horrifying and enraging Grey Worm and Daenerys.


title: The Last of the Starks

text: During filming of the banquet scenes, a disposable coffee cup from a local café was accidentally left on the set; it was briefly visible in the original broadcast of the episode, but was digitally erased two days later.


title: The Last of the Starks

text: Actress Nathalie Emmanuel was digitally inserted into the long shots of her own death scene, because filming took place at a great physical height and was exposed to photographers. To keep the plot secret, the long shots were filmed without the actress and her close-ups were shot separately on a sound stage.


title: The Last of the Starks

text: The episode was viewed by 11.8 million viewers on its initial live broadcast on HBO. An additional 5.4 million viewers watched on streaming platforms, for a total of 17.2 million viewers.


title: The Last of the Starks

text: The episode received mixed reviews; on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes it has an approval rating of 58%, based on 109 reviews and an average rating of 7.01/10, with the critics consensus stating: "'The Last of the Starks' strains to set the board for "Game of Thrones" conclusion, but serves up enough political intrigue and touching character interactions to satisfy".


title: The Last of the Starks

text: Among the positive reviews, Spencer Kornhaber of "The Atlantic" wrote, "despite all of the logical head-smack moments ... I'm not brimming with complaints. The episode recaptured some classic "Thrones" qualities, really." Chris Barton of the "Los Angeles Times" praised the storytelling and the interaction between characters and believed that "the bulk of [this episode] was filled with the sort of palace intrigue and character dynamics that made the show more than the sum of its dragons." Sean T. Collins of "Rolling Stone" believed that the episode did a good job of showing the conflicts between humans and wrote, "It hasn't missed a step thematically, moving from humanity's need to stop killing itself and face a common threat to its compulsion to annihilation even after seeing what it can accomplish as a united front." Sarah Hughes of "The Guardian" wrote in her review that the pace of the episode was just right and added, "Where a lesser show would have hurried the action, moving us swiftly on to the battle with Cersei, The Last of the Starks took time to show what the true cost of the Battle of Winterfell was."


title: The Last of the Starks

text: Among the negative reviews, Shirley Li of "The Atlantic" wrote that she wasn't impressed by "The Last of the Starks" and criticized the "nonsensical storytelling" in this episode. David Malitz of "The Washington Post" also questioned the logic in the episode, and, referring to the confrontation between Daenerys and Euron, wrote, "Maybe it was just good luck on those initial kill shots, though, because the next few dozen arrows that fly toward Daenerys and Drogon all miss their mark. Every single one of them. Yep." Steve Johnson of the "Chicago Tribune" believed the show had lost its exciting storyline and, referring to the downfall of the Night King in the previous episode, wrote, "How are we supposed to get thrilled about fighting mere Cersei again when we've already bested the greatest enemy of all time?" Alan Sepinwall of "Rolling Stone" labeled the episode a "structural oddity", and wrote, "It never feels solid enough. The script races through the transition, piling one personality-altering event on top of the next so that none of them gets to breathe." Longtime "Game of Thrones" reviewer, Erik Kain of "Forbes", stated that "so much happened and so little of it felt right, that today I'm left feeling letdown more than anything, and dreading the next two episodes instead of eagerly awaiting them."


title: The Last of the Starks

text: On the "Inside the Episode" featurette for "The Last of the Starks", showrunner David Benioff explained that Daenerys lost Rhaegal and her fleet because "Dany kind of forgot about the Iron Fleet and Euron's forces". Amy Jones of "The Daily Telegraph" described the explanation as "so stupid", while fans ridiculed Benioff by turning the statement into a meme.


title: Peter H. Gilmore

text: Peter Howard Gilmore (born May 24, 1958) is an American writer. He is the current High Priest of the Church of Satan. As a representative of the Church of Satan, Gilmore has been interviewed on numerous television and radio programs dealing with the topic of Satanism, including appearances on History, the BBC, Syfy, "Point of Inquiry", and Bob Larson's Christian radio show.


title: Peter H. Gilmore

text: Gilmore was raised in upstate New York. He visited New York City regularly throughout his youth and moved to Hell's Kitchen in 1980. He read "The Satanic Bible" at age thirteen and has described The Church of Satan as "the motivating philosophical force in my life" ever since.


title: Peter H. Gilmore

text: In 1989, he and his wife Peggy Nadramia began publishing a Satanic journal, "The Black Flame", and continues to publish issues sporadically. In 2005, Gilmore wrote the new introduction to Anton LaVey's "The Satanic Bible", and his essay on Satanism was published in "The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature".


title: Peter H. Gilmore

text: A hard cover edition of "The Satanic Scriptures", a collection essays and other writings by Gilmore was released on Walpurgis Night 2007, with a subsequent paperback edition () released on October 13, 2007. The book includes rituals that were previously not public, such as marriages and Satanic burials.


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: Oscar is a 1991 American comedy film directed by John Landis. Based on the Claude Magnier stage play, it is a remake of the 1967 French film of the same name, but set in Depression-era New York City. "Oscar" stars Sylvester Stallone, in a rare attempt at a comedic role, as Angelo "Snaps" Provolone, a mob boss who promises his dying father that he will leave the world of crime and become an honest businessman. Alongside Stallone, the film's cast includes Marisa Tomei, Ornella Muti, Tim Curry and Chazz Palminteri. Its score was composed by Elmer Bernstein.


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: According to Landis, "Oscar" was stylistically influenced by older Hollywood comedies, particularly those belonging to the "screwball" genre, that was popular during the period in which the film takes place. "Oscar" was released in the United States on April 26, 1991, and received mixed reviews from critics.


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: In the prologue, gangster Angelo "Snaps" Provolone promises his dying father that he will give up a life of crime, and instead "go straight".


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: A month later, Snaps awakes at his mansion and begins his important morning. He has a meeting with several prominent bankers, as he hopes to donate a large sum of cash and join the bank's board of trustees, thereby having an honest job and keeping his word to his father. Anthony Rossano, Snaps's young, good-natured accountant, arrives at the mansion, asks for a 250% raise, and tells his boss that he is in love with "Snaps' daughter". Snaps is furious, does not want his daughter marrying Anthony, and goes to talk to his daughter, Lisa.


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: The only child of Snaps and Sofia, Lisa is a spoiled daughter whose dreams of seeing the world's great sights run into a roadblock because of her overly protective father. Wishing to move out of the house, she lies to her parents at the suggestion of the maid, Nora, and claims to be pregnant. Snaps, believing the father to be Anthony (as he wants to marry "Snaps' daughter"), is shocked when Lisa says the father is Oscar, the former chauffeur who is now serving overseas in the military.


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: Things get even more complicated when Anthony learns that Theresa, the woman he fell in love with, is not actually Snaps' daughter as she had claimed to be. Before Anthony can catch on, Snaps tricks him into agreeing to marry his actual daughter, Lisa, who is supposedly pregnant but without a husband. Both Lisa and Anthony are unhappy at the hasty arrangement, and the pair luck out when Lisa falls in love with someone else: Dr. Thornton Poole, Snaps's dialectician, whose frequent world travels appeal to her adventurous nature.


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: Meanwhile, local police lieutenant Toomey is keeping an eye on the mansion, believing that Snaps is meeting with Chicago mobsters soon. Also watching Snaps is mob rival Vendetti, who also believes that Snaps is meeting Chicago mobsters. Vendetti plans a hit on Snaps in the early afternoon while Toomey plans a raid at the same time to catch Snaps red-handed.


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: While Anthony seeks out Theresa, Snaps meets his mansion's new maid, Roxie. As it turns out, Roxie is an old flame of Snaps, and the pair talk memories and the life that never was. Theresa comes to the mansion and is revealed to be Roxie's daughter — who was actually fathered by Snaps long ago — making Snaps her dad after all. The impromptu celebration of both his daughters' engagements is cut short by the arrival of the bankers. During the meeting, Snaps senses the bankers are giving him a raw deal — they do not intend to give him any actual influence in the bank's operations, despite the money he is willing to invest. The meeting is interrupted by police officers and Toomey, who is embarrassed to find no money or gangsters present on site. He leaves the mansion just in time for Vendetti's car full of armed men to crash right outside. Toomey smiles at reporters and arrests the men.


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: Despite his father's wishes, Snaps realizes that he would rather deal with gangsters and gunmen than "respectable" bankers, and decides to abandon his short-lived honest ways and return to a life of crime. The final scene of the movie shows a double wedding for both his daughters. Oscar himself finally appears and objects to Lisa's marriage, but he is carried off by Snaps' men and the weddings end happily.


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: According to director John Landis, the film was influenced by comedies released around the era in which the film is set, with humor and dialogue delivered in a manner reminiscent of old Hollywood comedies, particularly the "screwball" genre.


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: Landis' first choice for the lead role was Al Pacino, who was going to be paid $2 million for the role but was then offered $3 million to appear in "Dick Tracy". "He was very upfront about it, he said he was going to go for the money," said Landis. "I think "Oscar" would've been a much better movie with Al, but there you go."


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: Stallone later said he should have played "Snaps", his character in the film, "incredibly cynical like in the original French version".


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: The film score was composed by Elmer Bernstein and is based around Gioachino Rossini's "Barber of Seville". In the Varèse Sarabande edition of the film soundtrack, Landis penned liner notes about the development of the score:


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: The opening track is "Largo Al Factotum" from "The Barber of Seville", performed by Earle Patriarco. The track "Cops and Real Crooks" includes "Finucci Piano Boogie," composed and performed by Ralph Grierson. The soundtrack also contained four pre-existing songs which appeared in the film: "Sweet Georgia Brown" (performed by Bing Crosby); "Rockin' in Rhythm" (performed by Duke Ellington & His Orchestra); "Tea for Two" (performed by Fred Waring & His Pennsylvanians); and "Plain Dirt" (performed by McKinney's Cotton Pickers).


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: The film was released theatrically in the United States on April 26, 1991, and had nine international releases from June until September.


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: "Oscar" was released on VHS on September 11, 1991, followed by a LaserDisc edition on November 11. The film was released on DVD on May 6, 2003, and later received a Blu-ray release by Kino Lorber on September 5, 2018.


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 12% approval rating based on 17 reviews, with an average rating of 3.70/10. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 47 out of 100, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: "Oscar" received mixed reviews from critics upon release. Dave Kehr of the "Chicago Tribune" wrote, "Landis does his best to give the material a cartoonlike rhythm and stylized sense of movement ... but the labored, repetitive screenplay, by Michael Barrie and Jim Mulholland, defeats him." He continued, "For a film meant to define a lighter and fresher image for Stallone, "Oscar" doesn't quite get the job done." Owen Gleiberman of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the film a grade of "D+", writing: "Director John Landis executes the mechanics of farce without a trace of the speed or effervescence this material demands. Every chuckle feels engineered."


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: Conversely, "Tribune" reviewer Gene Siskel gave the film a score of three out of four stars. While he described the first reel as "disastrous," he added that the film included "truly funny work by enormously talented supporting players." Roger Ebert was in full agreement with Siskel on "Siskel & Ebert & the Movies" and they gave the film "two thumbs up". "Variety" stated the film was an "intermittently amusing throwback to gangster comedies of the 1930s. While dominated by star Sylvester Stallone and heavy doses of production and costume design, pic is most distinguished by sterling turns by superb character actors." Kathleen Maher of "The Austin Chronicle" gave the film three out of five stars, commending Stallone's performance: "I'm not used to having much good to say about the guy, but Stallone has evidenced a nascent sense of humor before, and here he allows it to blossom."


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: "Oscar" was nominated for three Razzie Awards at the 12th Golden Raspberry Awards in 1992: Worst Actor (Sylvester Stallone), Worst Director (John Landis) and Worst Supporting Actress (Marisa Tomei).


title: Oscar (1991 film)

text: In 2020, Lee Pfeiffer of "Cinema Retro" wrote that ""Oscar" was a box office flop and critics attacked it across the board. However, it has aged very well and I found it to be a delight throughout. Give it chance, will ya?"


title: Mashed potato

text: Mashed potato or mashed potatoes (American and Canadian English), colloquially known as mash (British English), is a dish made by mashing boiled or steamed potatoes, usually with added milk, butter, salt and pepper. It is generally served as a side dish to meat or vegetables. Roughly mashed potatoes are sometimes called smashed potatoes. Dehydrated instant mashed potatoes and frozen mashed potatoes are available. Mashed potatoes are an ingredient in other dishes, such as dumplings and gnocchi.


title: Mashed potato

text: Most authors recommend the use of "floury" potatoes with a high ratio of amylose in their starch to achieve a fluffy, creamy consistency and appearance. The best-known floury varieties are King Edward, golden wonder, and red rascal in Britain and the Russet in North America. However, some recipes use "waxy" potatoes containing more amylopectin in their starch for a different texture or look; for instance, one pounded mashed potato dish from Yunnan cuisine (in southwestern China), which uses waxy potatoes to achieve a chewy, sticky texture.


title: Mashed potato

text: Butter, milk or cream, salt, and pepper are usually added. Many other seasonings may also be used, including herbs (notably parsley and chives), spices (notably nutmeg), garlic, cheese, bacon, sour cream, crisp onion or spring onion, caramelized onion, and mustard.


title: Mashed potato

text: One French variation adds egg yolk for "pommes duchesse" or Duchess potatoes; piped through a pastry tube into wavy ribbons and rosettes, brushed with butter and lightly browned. Some French recipes for "pomme purée" (potato puree) use up to one part butter for every two parts potato. In low-calorie or non-dairy variations, milk, cream and butter may be replaced by soup stock or broth.


title: Mashed potato

text: "Aloo bharta", an Indian sub-continent variation, uses chopped onions, mustard (oil, paste or seeds), chili pepper, coriander leaves and other spices. "Alu pitika" () is a popular variation of "aloo bharta" in Assam, that may occasionally omit mustard and other spices. "Alu pitika" using roasted and smoked potatoes is especially consumed in winters.


title: Mashed potato

text: An early recipe is found in Hannah Glasse's "The Art of Cookery", in 1747. Her recipe mashed them in a saucepan with milk, salt, and butter.


title: Mashed potato

text: Mashed potato can be served as a side dish. In the British Isles, sausages served with mashed potatoes are known as bangers and mash. Mashed potato can be an ingredient of various other dishes, including shepherd's and cottage pie, Orkney clapshot, pierogi, colcannon, dumplings, potato pancakes, potato croquettes and gnocchi. Particularly runny mashed potatoes are called "mousseline" potatoes.


title: Mashed potato

text: In the United Kingdom, cold mashed potato can be mixed with fresh eggs and then fried until crisp to produce a potato cake. This dish is thought to have originated in Cornwall and is a popular breakfast item. When instead combined with meat and other leftover vegetables, the fried dish is known as bubble and squeak.


title: Mashed potato

text: Mashed potatoes may be eaten with gravy, typically meat gravy, though vegetable gravy is becoming more common as the vegetarian and vegan trends see a rise in popularity.


title: Mashed potato

text: A potato masher can be used to mash the potatoes. A potato ricer produces a uniform, lump-free, mash.


title: Mashed potato

text: In India mashed potatoes made with spices, fried or not, are called chaukha. Chaukha is used in samosas in India and with littee specially in Bihar.


title: Ergodic literature

text: Ergodic literature is a term coined by Espen J. Aarseth in his book "Cybertext—Perspectives on Ergodic Literature." The term is derived from the Greek words "ergon", meaning "work", and "hodos", meaning "path". It is associated with the concept of cybertext and describes a cybertextual process that includes a semiotic sequence that the concepts of "reading" do not account for.


title: Ergodic literature

text: In ergodic literature, nontrivial effort is required to allow the reader to traverse the text. If ergodic literature is to make sense as a concept, there must also be nonergodic literature, where the effort to traverse the text is trivial, with no extranoematic responsibilities placed on the reader except (for example) eye movement and the periodic or arbitrary turning of pages.


title: Ergodic literature

text: In addition to the above definition, Aarseth explained ergodic literature as two-fold: a normal text and a machine capable of producing several manifestations of a text. One of the major innovations of the concept of ergodic literature is that it is not medium-specific so long as the medium has the ability to produce an iteration of the text. New media researchers have tended to focus on the medium of the text, stressing that it is for instance paper-based or electronic. Aarseth broke with this basic assumption that the medium was the most important distinction, and argued that the mechanics of texts need not be medium-specific.


title: Ergodic literature

text: Ergodic literature is not defined by medium, but by the way in which the text functions. Thus, both paper-based and electronic texts can be ergodic: "The ergodic work of art is one that in a material sense includes the rules for its own use, a work that has certain requirements built in that automatically distinguishes between successful and unsuccessful users."


title: Ergodic literature

text: Cybertext is a subcategory of ergodic literature that Aarseth defines as "texts that involve calculation in their production of scriptons". The process of reading printed matter, in contrast, involves "trivial" extranoematic effort, that is, merely moving one's eyes along lines of text and turning pages. Thus, hypertext fiction of the simple node and link variety is ergodic literature but not cybertext. A non-trivial effort is required for the reader to traverse the text, as the reader must constantly select which link to follow, but a link, when clicked, will always lead to the same node. A chat bot such as ELIZA is a cybertext because when the reader types in a sentence, the text-machine actually performs calculations on the fly that generate a textual response. The I Ching is likewise cited as an example of cybertext because it contains the rules for its own reading. The reader carries out the calculation but the rules are clearly embedded in the text itself.


title: Ergodic literature

text: It has been argued that these distinctions are not entirely clear and scholars still debate the fine points of the definitions. Under the definition above, "Finnegans Wake", "The Phenomenology of Spirit", and "Being and Nothingness" are considered ergodic literature as they require active engagement in the form of taking notes, using reference manuals by the reader/user in the readings/comprehension of the text.


title: Ergodic literature

text: The concepts of cybertext and ergodic literature were of seminal importance to new media studies, in particular literary approaches to digital texts and to game studies.


title: Ergodic literature

text: Examples given by Aarseth include a diverse group of texts: wall inscriptions of the temples in ancient Egypt that are connected two-dimensionally (on one wall) or three dimensionally (from wall to wall or room to room); the "I Ching"; Apollinaire's "Calligrammes" in which the words of the poem "are spread out in several directions to form a picture on the page, with no clear sequence in which to be read"; Marc Saporta's "Composition No. 1, Roman", a novel with shuffleable pages; Raymond Queneau's "One Hundred Thousand Billion Poems"; B. S. Johnson's "The Unfortunates"; Arno Schmidt's "Bottom's Dream"; Milorad Pavić's "Dictionary of the Khazars" and "Landscape Painted with Tea"; Vladimir Nabokov's "Pale Fire"; Joseph Weizenbaum's "ELIZA"; William Chamberlain and Thomas Etter's "Racter"; Michael Joyce's "Afternoon: a story"; Roy Trubshaw and Richard Bartle's "Multi-User Dungeon" (aka "MUD1"); and James Aspnes's "TinyMUD". Some other contemporary examples of this type of literature are Nick Bantock's "The Griffin and Sabine Trilogy", "S." by J. J. Abrams and Doug Dorst, and "House of Leaves" by Mark Z. Danielewski, Osman Lins's Avalovara, Julio Cortazar's "Rayuela".


title: Ergodic literature

text: All these examples require non-trivial effort from the reader, who must participate actively in the construction of the text.


title: Fencing response

text: The fencing response is an unnatural position of the arms following a concussion. Immediately after moderate forces have been applied to the brainstem, the forearms are held flexed or extended (typically into the air) for a period lasting up to several seconds after the impact. The fencing response is often observed during athletic competition involving contact, such as combat sports, American football, Ice hockey, rugby union, rugby league and Australian rules football. It is used as an overt indicator of injury force magnitude and midbrain localization to aid in injury identification and classification for events including on-field and/or bystander observations of sports-related head injuries.


title: Fencing response

text: The fencing response designation arises from the similarity to the asymmetrical tonic neck reflex in infants. Like the reflex, a positive fencing response resembles the "en garde" position that initiates a fencing bout, with the extension of one arm and the flexion of the other.


title: Fencing response

text: Tonic posturing (see abnormal posturing) preceding convulsion has been observed in sports injuries at the moment of impact where extension and flexion of opposite arms occur despite body position or gravity. The fencing response emerges from the separation of tonic posturing from convulsion and refines the tonic posturing phase as an immediate forearm motor response to indicate injury force magnitude and location.


title: Fencing response

text: The neuromotor manifestation of the fencing response resembles reflexes initiated by vestibular stimuli. Vestibular stimuli activate primitive reflexes in human infants, such as the asymmetric tonic neck reflex, Moro reflex, and parachute reflex, which are likely mediated by vestibular nuclei in the brainstem. The lateral vestibular nucleus (LVN; Deiter’s nucleus) has descending efferent fibers in the vestibulocochlear nerve distributed to the motor nuclei of the anterior column and exerts an excitatory influence on ipsilateral limb extensor motor neurons while suppressing flexor motor neurons. The anatomical location of the LVN, adjacent to the cerebellar peduncles (see cerebellum), suggests that mechanical forces to the head may stretch the cerebellar peduncles and activate the LVN. LVN activity would manifest as limb extensor activation and flexor inhibition, defined as a fencing response, while flexion of the contralateral limb is likely mediated by crossed inhibition necessary for pattern generation.


title: Fencing response

text: In simpler terms, the shock of the trauma manually activates the nerves that control the muscle groups responsible for raising the arm. These muscle groups are activated by stimuli in infants for instincts such as grabbing for their mothers or breaking their falls. The LVN has neurons that connect it to motor neurons inside grey matter in the spinal cord, and sends signals to one side of the body that activate motor neurons that cause extension, while suppressing motor neurons that cause flexing. The LVN is located near the connection between the brain and the brain stem, which suggests that excessive force to the head may stretch this connection and thus activate the LVN. The neurons that are stimulated suppress neighboring neurons, which prevents neurons on the other side of the body from being stimulated.


title: Fencing response

text: In a survey of documented head injuries followed by unconsciousness, most of which involved sporting activities, two thirds of head impacts demonstrated a fencing response, indicating a high incidence of fencing in head injuries leading to unconsciousness, and those pertaining to athletic behavior. Likewise, animal models of diffuse brain injury have illustrated a fencing response upon injury at moderate but not mild levels of severity as well as a correlation between fencing, blood–brain barrier disruption, and nuclear shrinkage within the LVN, all of which indicate diagnostic utility of the response.


title: Fencing response

text: The most challenging aspect to managing sport-related concussion (mild traumatic brain injury, TBI) is recognizing the injury. Consensus conferences have worked toward objective criteria to identify mild TBI in the context of severe TBI. However, few tools are available for distinguishing mild TBI from moderate TBI. As a result, greater emphasis has regularly been placed on the management of concussions in athletes than on the immediate identification and treatment of such an injury.


title: Fencing response

text: On-field predictors of injury severity can define return-to-play guidelines and urgency of care, but past criteria have either lacked sufficient incidence for effective utility, did not directly address the severity of the injury, or have become cumbersome and fraught with inter-rater reliability issues.