title: Ratel IFV

text: After 1977, the domestic South African arms industry was driven by the economic realities of a universal arms embargo imposed on the SADF as a result of United Nations Security Council Resolution 418. The embargo deprived the SADF of many new weapons systems available to other major arms importers, curtailed its attempts to obtain defence technology on the open market, and raised the cost of obtaining spare parts and components for its preexisting equipment. While South Africa was able to partly compensate by developing its local arms industry, the SADF's requirements were too small to make the manufacture of a wide range of armaments economically profitable. Defence contractors were compelled to tool up for uneconomical and short production runs of sophisticated hardware, including military vehicles. Furthermore, the domestic manufacture of obsolete equipment items had to be sustained long after their basic technology had become quite dated, simply because no alternatives were available. These unprofitable practices threatened to result in stagnation for the defence sector; firms like Sandock-Austral looked for new ways to gain badly needed funds for future research and development efforts and counter their own rapidly rising production costs. In the early 1980s, South Africa's defence contractors turned to export orders to help create the economy of scale necessary to keep their operations viable. They embarked on a massive international marketing drive which included extensive advertising campaigns and exhibits at arms fairs. As a result, public information on vehicles like the Ratel became more readily available in connection with their manufacturers' marketing efforts.


title: Ratel IFV

text: The Royal Moroccan Army became the first prospective client to show an interest in the Ratel; it was then purchasing arms from a vast array of sources for use in the Western Sahara War. This was pursued as part of a massive re-armament programme being funded through generous military subsidies from Saudi Arabia. Morocco initially made contact with Sandock-Austral after soliciting a French firm, Panhard, for new AML armoured cars. As Panhard was closing its AML production line, it declined the order but referred the Moroccan government to South Africa, where Sandock-Austral was still producing an AML derivative under licence as the Eland. Though extensively modified, the Eland was still familiar to Moroccan crews and maintenance personnel who had been trained by French instructors on the AML. Morocco received the first Elands in 1976 and obligingly placed orders for more vehicles, including a few dozen Ratels, from Sandock-Austral. These were delivered between 1978 and 1980. The Royal Moroccan Army ordered another 80 Ratels in 1979, which were delivered between 1980 and 1981. They were deployed in counter-insurgency operations against the Polisario Front, which captured several Ratel-20s and pressed them into service. In 2016, Morocco was still operating 30 Ratel-20s and 30 Ratel-90s. All of these were the Ratel Mk III variant.


title: Ratel IFV

text: Sandock-Austral's attempts to secure new export customers for the Ratel were somewhat curtailed by the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 558, which amended the arms embargo to prohibit all member states from importing South African military equipment. At the time production of the Ratel ceased in 1987, no new export orders had been placed. Export of the Ratel only resumed again in the early 2000s, when the SANDF declared hundreds of its own IFVs surplus to requirements and offered them for sale. The chief recipient of these vehicles was the Royal Jordanian Army, which ordered 100 in 2002 and subsequently, another 221 in 2004. The Jordanian government worked closely with a number of South African contractors, such as the Mechanology Design Bureau and Paramount Group, to maintain and refurbish its Ratel fleet. Some Jordanian Ratel-20s have been retrofitted with a new Cummins QSM11-C330 diesel engine developing 329 hp (246 kW). This improved mechanical performance and extended the Ratels' maximum road speed to 110 km/h. The new engine necessitated a relocated engine compartment in the centre of the hull.


title: Ratel IFV

text: A number of Jordanian Ratels were retrofitted with a BAU-23 turret carrying twin 23mm autocannon. Others may have also been retrofitted with a turret carrying both the original 20mm autocannon in addition to a bank of ZT-3 Ingwe missiles. In addition to service with the Royal Jordanian Army, these modified Ratels were exported in small numbers to Yemen between 2008 and 2011. In Yemeni service, the Ratel was utilised for reconnaissance purposes and essentially fulfilled the role of an armoured car. During the Yemeni Revolution, photographs of Ratels seized by defecting army personnel were circulated in the international press, evoking considerable controversy. The South African government acknowledged that it was notified of Jordan's intention to deliver the vehicles to Yemen, but had not formally consented to their transfer or amended the original end-user agreement, which made no provision for the re-export of Jordanian Ratels to third parties. A similar controversy erupted when Ratels began appearing in Libyan service in 2013, prompting Democratic Alliance defence spokesman David Maynier to call for a formal inquiry into how Libya could have acquired the vehicles without the knowledge of South Africa's National Conventional Arms Control Committee (NCACC). Maynier suggested that Libya, like Yemen, had likely obtained the Ratels from another country in violation of an end-user agreement. Ratels are currently operated by the Libyan National Army, as well as a number of unaffiliated militias such as the Zintan Brigades and the February 17th Martyrs Brigade.


title: Ratel IFV

text: Small quantities of second-hand Ratels have been delivered by the SANDF to a number of other African states, including Ghana, which received 15 Ratel-20s and 24 Ratel-90s in 2004, and Rwanda, which received 15 Ratel-90s and 20 Ratel-60s in 2007. Senegal ordered 26 Ratel-20s in 2008 and had received them by 2010. Zambia also received 20 refurbished ex-SANDF Ratel-20s in 2012. Djibouti purchased 12 Ratel-90s in 2004 from an unknown source. Cameroon's Rapid Intervention Battalion acquired 12 Ratel-20s between 2015 and 2016 for demining operations in areas affected by the Boko Haram insurgency.


title: Ratel IFV

text: In 2007, the SANDF committed to donate up to 18 Ratel-90s to the Central African Republic (CAR) under the auspices of Operation Vimbezela. This effort collapsed due to a variety of unforeseen problems: the SANDF was only willing to supply previously decommissioned Ratel-90s and insisted that the donation was contingent on the Central African government making its own arrangements to have them shipped to Bangui. The latter possessed insufficient funds to restore all the Ratel-90s to serviceable condition or cover the shipping cost. Only 2 were delivered while the remainder were reclaimed by the South African contractor responsible for their refurbishment, citing unpaid shipping fees. Both Ratels arrived without adequate parts, maintenance equipment, or ammunition; nevertheless, they were utilised for training purposes by the SANDF mission in the CAR. At least three local crews were trained between 2010 and 2013, after which the vehicles were formally adopted by the Central African Army. The Ratel-90s were deployed without success against Séléka militants during the country's 2012–2014 civil war. Their inexperienced crews failed to use them effectively in an offensive role, and ammunition shortages became so acute that President François Bozizé made personal appeals to South African officials for additional stocks of 90mm shells. After the end of the civil war, it was not clear whether the army retained the Ratel-90s or if either was operational. An arms control panel appointed by the UN Security Council reported that they were still in the CAR in July 2014.


title: Ratel IFV

text: The SANDF has also donated Ratels to multinational peacekeeping forces, namely the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO).


title: Ratel IFV

text: The Ratel was based on a commercial MAN truck chassis, from which many mechanical parts were utilised. Its use of parts otherwise ubiquitous to the civilian automotive industry proved to be an advantage in circumventing the universal arms embargo imposed on South Africa, which extended only to purpose-built military products. The vehicle is not amphibious and is not fitted with an NBC overpressure system. Most production model Ratels did not have any specialised night vision equipment. As an interim measure, the SADF occasionally issued Ratel crews with night vision goggles, which aided navigation in the Angolan bush where the use of headlamps was precluded due to proximity to enemy positions. This was impractical for night fighting as muzzle flashes could blind the crew and the bulky goggles hampered movement and reaction speed in the turret. In the 1990s, Denel Land Systems developed night sights which could be fitted on new Ratel-20 turrets or retrofitted on older turrets.


title: Ratel IFV

text: The Ratel possesses rear-mounted engine and fighting compartments, while its turret ring and driving compartment are located towards the front of the vehicle. It has a long, box-shaped hull with slightly sloped vertical sides and rear. The hull is of all-welded construction, with a maximum armour thickness of 20mm on the hull front. Each Ratel hull is protected against 7.62×39mm armour-piercing ammunition at any angle; it is also capable of stopping 12.7×108mm armour-piercing ammunition on the frontal arc. The bottom of the hull structure is blastproof and vee-shaped to deflect mine explosions away from the passengers and crew. Ratels frequently detonated stacked anti-tank mines during the South African Border War with little injury to their occupants and minimal drive train damage. On many occasions they were able to keep moving after basic field repairs. Anti-tank mines common in Angola, such as the TMA-3, could destroy a Ratel's axles and occasionally damage its gearbox, but almost never penetrated its hull.


title: Ratel IFV

text: The Ratel's crew consists of a section commander, driver, turret gunner, and rear gunner. In addition to the crew, an attached infantry section of nine is carried in the fighting compartment of the vehicle. There are three firing ports with vision blocks on either side of the fighting compartment. Passenger capacity may be reduced to six or seven if additional ammunition racks or radio equipment is carried. The infantry section debarks from three large, pneumatically sealed doors on either side of the hull and at the rear; it is also provided with five forward access hatches on the hull roof.


title: Ratel IFV

text: The driver is seated at the front centre of the Ratel and provided with three bulletproof windscreens for use in a combat environment. This design feature was adopted directly from the Berliet VXB-170 and favoured for its enhanced situational awareness. The windscreens are fitted with armoured shutters which could be closed down as needed. Three vision periscopes are provided for the driver. The Ratel's steering system is mechanical, with hydraulic assistance.


title: Ratel IFV

text: Ratel turrets are located towards the front of the vehicle, directly behind the driving compartment, and house two crew members: the section commander to the left and the turret gunner to the right. Both crew members are provided with roof hatches; the commander is also afforded a domed cupola with vision blocks. The commander and gunner have nine day periscopes for all-round observation. The Ratel's standard armament is a 20mm F2 M693 automatic cannon manufactured under licence as the Denel GI-2. The autocannon may be elevated to a maximum of +38° for use against low-flying, fixed wing aircraft and helicopters. It has a selector switch used to alternate between three rates of fire—semi-automatic, limited burst, or fully automatic—and is belt fed from two ammunition chutes in the turret. The dual-feed system allows the gunner to swap between different projectile types fed from either chute as needed. Two types of ammunition can be selected: a high-explosive (HE) round with a range of 2,000 metres, or an armour-piercing tungsten carbide (APTC) round with a range of 1,000 metres. The HE rounds have a muzzle velocity of 1,050 m/s, while the armour-piercing round has an initial muzzle velocity of 1,300 m/s and penetration of 20mm of rolled homogeneous armour at an incidence of 60°.


title: Ratel IFV

text: The GI-2 can achieve a cyclic rate of fire of 700 to 750 rounds per minute and 1,200 rounds of 20mm ammunition are carried on board. It provides the Ratel with a close support and anti-armour capability which proved sufficient to engage Angolan BTR-60 APCs and light armoured cars such as the BRDM-2 at long range. While the autocannon is generally impotent against heavier armour, well-directed fire or exceptional shots are capable of damaging a tank's external features, especially its sights. During Operation Moduler, one Ratel commander directed a stream of 20mm APTC rounds at an Angolan T-55 at close range, which apparently penetrated a vulnerable margin in its armour and caused a catastrophic kill after igniting the on-board ammunition.


title: Ratel IFV

text: A co-axial 7.62mm Browning M1919 machine gun is mounted to the left of the main armament on nearly all variants of the Ratel. Aside from the co-axial machine gun, a second 7.62mm Browning M1919 is carried at the rear of the vehicle's hull for anti-aircraft purposes. Both the Ratel-60 and Ratel-90 are also armed with a third 7.62mm M1919 on their turret roofs. A maximum of 6,000 rounds of 7.62mm ammunition are carried within the vehicle.


title: Ratel IFV

text: The Ratel is powered by a six-cylinder, liquid-cooled, turbocharged D 3256 BTXF diesel engine. This is housed in an engine compartment at the rear left of the hull and coupled to a fully automatic RENK HSU 106 automatic gearbox with six forward and two reverse gear ratios. The gearbox can be operated manually and has a mechanical emergency gearshift. Drive is transmitted to the Ratel's three axles in two stages, with final reduction being achieved by epicyclic gearing in the wheel hubs. The three axles have their own locking differentials and longitudinal differential locks. There are hydropneumatic shock dampers at each wheel station.


title: Margaret Avery

text: Margaret Avery (born April 15, 1944) is an American actress and singer. She began her career appearing on stage and later had starring roles in films including "Cool Breeze" (1972), "Which Way Is Up?" (1977), "Scott Joplin" (1977), and "The Fish That Saved Pittsburgh" (1979).


title: Margaret Avery

text: Avery is best known for her performance as Shug Avery in the 1985 period drama film "The Color Purple" for which she was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. She continued appearing in films including "Blueberry Hill" (1988), "White Man's Burden" (1995), "Welcome Home Roscoe Jenkins" (2008), "Meet the Browns" (2008), and "Proud Mary" (2018). From 2013 to 2019, Avery starred as Helen Patterson, lead character's mother, in the BET drama series "Being Mary Jane".


title: Margaret Avery

text: Margaret Avery was born in Mangum, Oklahoma and raised in San Diego, California, where she attended Point Loma High School. She then attended San Francisco State University where, in 1965, she earned a degree in education. While working as a substitute teacher in Los Angeles, Avery began making singing and acting appearances.


title: Margaret Avery

text: Among the plays Avery appeared in were "Revolution" and "The Sistuhs". In 1972, she received the Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Award for Outstanding Performance by an Actress for her performance in "Does a Tiger Wear a Necktie?". In the television movie "Something Evil" (1972), a horror story with Sandy Dennis and Darren McGavin, Avery was directed by Steven Spielberg. That same year she made her theatrical motion picture debut as Lark in the crime film "Cool Breeze" with Thalmus Rasulala and Judy Pace. In this blaxploitation remake of "The Asphalt Jungle", Avery played the Marilyn Monroe part. The following year she played a prostitute in "Magnum Force", the second in the series of "Dirty Harry" films starring Clint Eastwood, in which her character was murdered by her pimp. The character was killed through the pouring drain cleaner down the victim's throat which was said to have inspired the notorious Hi-Fi Murders case in 1974.


title: Margaret Avery

text: Avery received NAACP Image Awards for her performance in the 1976 film "Louis Armstrong - Chicago Style". In the 1977 film "Which Way Is Up?", directed by Michael Schultz, Avery gave a comedic performance as Annie Mae, the wife of Richard Pryor's character. That same year, she played Belle Joplin, wife of the ragtime composer Scott Joplin, opposite Billy Dee Williams in the title role in film "Scott Joplin", receiving NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Motion Picture nomination. In 1979, she appeared in "The Fish That Saved Pittsburgh".


title: Margaret Avery

text: Avery made guest appearances on many television series during 1970s and 1980s , including "The New Dick Van Dyke Show", "Kojak", "Marcus Welby, M.D.", "Sanford and Son", "", "The Rookies", five appearances on "Harry O", "A.E.S. Hudson Street", "T. J. Hooker", "Murder, She Wrote", "Miami Vice", "", and "The Cosby Show".


title: Margaret Avery

text: In 1985, Avery played the role of Shug Avery in the period drama film "The Color Purple" directed by Steven Spielberg. Her performance in this screen adaptation of Alice Walker's prize-winning novel "The Color Purple" was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Avery was the last character to be cast in the film. In her "Essence" interview she said: "I had been singing in Indonesia and came back to find all these messages on my answering service from other actors saying, ‘Hey Margaret, you’ve got to get your agent on The Color Purple.’ My agent at the time had tried to get me an audition but was told that I wasn’t right for the role— they wanted a singer, not an actor. I knew Ruben Cannon, who was casting at that time, because he’d cast me in so many television things before, so I wrote him a note. I had read the book and was drawn to Shug Avery. Ruben allowed me to put my reading for the role on tape. Because of him I was able to get my work seen by Steven Spielberg. Alice Walker said that she had seen a lot of tapes of other actors but when my audition came up she just kind of woke up. She couldn’t take her eyes off me. That was like a beautiful introduction to getting the role."


title: Margaret Avery

text: After "The Color Purple" and Oscar nomination, Avery did not work on film or television for two years. She said "The fact that I didn’t work for a couple years after The Color Purple is not unique. It not only happens to White actors sometimes, but with Black actors, too; but more so for women of color. At the time, most women of color who were in the business were limited to Black film; whereas my counterpart like Danny Glover, went on to Lethal Weapon One, Two, and Three. He didn’t have to be limited to a Black film; he didn’t have to be married to a family, or related to somebody, like we women have to. I didn’t work for a couple years after The Color Purple. What saved me was the college lecture circuit. I kind of got a backlash for two reasons: one, no one would even think of me for a television role because they figured she’s too big to do TV now. That was the pattern."


title: Margaret Avery

text: In 1988, Avery starred in the period drama film "Blueberry Hill", and the following year appeared in action film "Riverbend". In 1990, she appeared in "The Return of Superfly", another blaxploitation film. In 1992, Avery starred in the ABC miniseries "" as Martha Scruse, mother of Katherine Jackson, who was played by Angela Bassett. In 1995, she co-starred opposite Harry Belafonte in the drama film "White Man's Burden". The following years, she guest-starred on number of television series, including "Walker, Texas Ranger", "JAG", and "Bones". In 2008, Avery played Mama Jenkins in "Welcome Home Roscoe Jenkins", opposite Martin Lawrence and James Earl Jones, and Sarah Brown in Tyler Perry's "Meet the Browns", which also stars Angela Bassett.


title: Margaret Avery

text: From 2013 to 2019, Avery played the role of Helen Patterson in the BET drama series, "Being Mary Jane". She played Taraji P. Henson' mother in the 2018 action film "Proud Mary". She later guest-starred on "Grey's Anatomy" and "Better Things".


title: Margaret Avery

text: In January 1974, Margaret Avery married Robert Gordon Hunt. They have one daughter, Aisha Hunt, and divorced in 1980.


title: Margaret Avery

text: Margaret Avery lives in Los Angeles, and remains active in the show business. While continuing to act, she also works with at-risk teenagers and battered women of the Greater Los Angeles Area. She was interviewed by Melody Trice on The Melody Trice Show about her activism.


title: Human bonding

text: Human bonding is the process of development of a close, interpersonal relationship between two or more people. It most commonly takes place between family members or friends, but can also develop among groups, such as sporting teams and whenever people spend time together. Bonding is a mutual, interactive process, and is different from simple liking. It is the process of nurturing social connection.


title: Human bonding

text: Bonding typically refers to the process of attachment that develops between romantic or platonic partners, close friends, or parents and children. This bond is characterised by emotions such as affection and trust. Any two people who spend time together may form a bond. Male bonding refers to the establishment of relationships between men through shared activities. The term female bonding refers to the formation of close personal relationships between women. Cross-sex friendships refers to personal relationships between men and women.


title: Human bonding

text: In the 4th century BC, the Greek philosopher Plato argued that love directs the bonds of human society. In his "Symposium", Eryximachus, one of the narrators in the dialog, states that love goes far beyond simple attraction to human beauty. He states that it occurs throughout the animal and plant kingdoms, as well as throughout the universe. Love directs everything that occurs, in the realm of the gods as well as that of humans (186a–b).


title: Human bonding

text: Eryximachus reasons that when various opposing elements such as wet and dry are "animated by the proper species of Love, they are in harmony with one another... But when the sort of Love that is crude and impulsive controls the seasons, he brings death and destruction" (188a). Because it is love that guides the relations between these sets of opposites throughout existence, in every case it is the higher form of love that brings harmony and cleaves toward the good, whereas the impulsive vulgar love creates disharmony.


title: Human bonding

text: Plato concludes that the highest form of love is the greatest. When love "is directed, in temperance and justice, towards the good, whether in heaven or on earth: happiness and good fortune, the bonds of human society, concord with the gods above—all these are among his gifts" (188d).


title: Human bonding

text: In the 1660s, the Dutch philosopher Spinoza wrote, in his "Ethics of Human Bondage or the Strength of the Emotions", that the term "bondage" relates to the human infirmity in moderating and checking the emotions. That is, according to Spinoza, "when a man is prey to his emotions, he is not his own master, but lies at the mercy of fortune."


title: Human bonding

text: In 1809 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, in his classic novella "Elective Affinities", wrote of the "marriage tie," and by analogy shows how strong marriage unions are similar in character to that by which the particles of quicksilver find a unity together through the process of chemical affinity. Humans in passionate relationships, according to Goethe, are analogous to reactive substances in a chemical equation.


title: Human bonding

text: The term "pair bond" originated in 1940 in reference to mated pairs of birds; referring to a monogamous or relatively monogamous relationship. Whilst some form of monogamy may characterise around 90% of bird species, in mammals long-term pairing (beyond the brief duration of copulation itself) is rare, at around 3% (see animal monogamy). The incidence of monogamy in primate species is similarly low in contrast with polygyny (one male mating with two or more females), the most common pattern. However, regardless of mating patterns, primate life is typically characterised by long-lasting social relationships (whether sexual, care-giving, coalitionary or otherwise) formed in the context of living in durable social groups, and any such durable relationship (whether exclusive or not) is characterised by some degree of bonding. Similarly, whilst the 'naturalness' of monogamy in humans is debated, durable monogamous or polygamous relationships will typically be accompanied by affectional or emotional bonding (see next section).


title: Human bonding

text: According to "limerence theory", posited in 1979 by psychologist Dorothy Tennov, a certain percentage of couples may go through what is called a "limerent reaction", in which one or both of the pair may experience a state of passion mixed with continuous intrusive thinking, fear of rejection, and hope. Hence, with all human romantic relationships, one of three varieties of "bonds" may form, defined over a set duration of time, in relation to the experience or non-experience of limerence:


title: Human bonding

text: The constitution of these bonds may vary over the course of the relationship, in ways that may either increase or decrease the intensity of the limerence. A characteristic of this delineation made by Tennov, is that based on her research and interviews with over 500 people, all human bonded relationships can be divided into three varieties being defined by the amount of limerence or non-limerence each partner contributes to the relationship.


title: Human bonding

text: In 1958, British developmental psychologist John Bowlby published the paper "the "Nature of the Child's Tie to his Mother"," in which the precursory concepts of "attachment theory" were developed. This included the development of the concept of the "affectional bond", sometimes referred to as the "emotional bond", which is based on the universal tendency for humans to attach, i.e. to seek closeness to another person and to feel secure when that person is present. Attachment theory has some of its origins in the observation of and experiments with animals, but is also based on observations of children who had missed typical experiences of adult care. Much of the early research on attachment in humans was done by John Bowlby and his associates. Bowlby proposed that babies have an inbuilt need from birth to make emotional attachments, i.e. bonds, because this increases the chances of survival by ensuring that they receive the care they need. Bowlby did not describe mutuality in attachment. He stated that attachment by mother was a pathological inversion and described only behaviors of the infant. Many developmental specialists elaborated Bowlby's ethological observations. However, neither Bowlby's proximity seeking (not possible for human infants prior to walking) nor subsequent descriptions of caregiver–infant mutuality with emotional availability and synchrony with emotional modulation include the enduring motivation of attachment into adult life. The enduring motivation is the desire to control a pleasantly surprising transformation that is the route of belief in effectiveness by humans. This motivation accounts for curiosity and intellectual growth of language, mathematics and logic, all of which have an emotional base of security.


title: Human bonding

text: Of all human bonds, the "maternal bond" (mother–infant relationship) is one of the strongest. The maternal bond begins to develop during pregnancy; following pregnancy, the production of oxytocin during lactation increases parasympathetic activity, thus reducing anxiety and theoretically fostering bonding. It is generally understood that maternal oxytocin circulation can predispose some mammals to show caregiving behavior in response to young of their species.


title: Human bonding

text: Breastfeeding has been reported to foster the early post-partum maternal bond, via touch, response, and mutual gazing. Extensive claims for the effect of breastfeeding were made in the 1930s by Margaret Ribble, a champion of "infant rights," but were challenged by others. The claimed effect is not universal, and bottle-feeding mothers are generally appropriately concerned with their babies. It is difficult to determine the extent of causality due to a number of confounding variables, such as the varied reasons families choose different feeding methods. Many believe that early bonding ideally increases response and sensitivity to the child's needs, bolstering the quality of the mother–baby relationship—however, many exceptions can be found of highly successful mother–baby bonds, even though early breastfeeding did not occur, such as with premature infants who may lack the necessary sucking strength to be successfully breastfed.


title: Human bonding

text: Research following Bowlby's observations (above) created some concern about whether adoptive parents have missed some crucial period for the child's development. However, research regarding "The Mental and Social Life of Babies" suggested that the "parent-infant system," rather than a bond between biologically related individuals, is an evolved fit between innate behavior patterns of all human infants and equally evolved responses of human adults to those infant behaviors. Thus nature "ensures some initial flexibility with respect to the particular adults who take on the parental role."


title: Human bonding

text: In contrast to the maternal bond, "paternal bonds" tend to vary over the span of a child's development in terms of both strength and stability. In fact, many children now grow up in fatherless households and do not experience a paternal bond at all. In general, paternal bonding is more dominant later in a child's life after language develops. Fathers may be more influential in play interactions as opposed to nurturance interactions. Father–child bonds also tend to develop with respect to topics such as political views or money, whereas mother–child bonds tend to develop in relation to topics such as religious views or general outlooks on life.


title: Human bonding

text: In 2003, a researcher from Northwestern University in Illinois found that progesterone, a hormone more usually associated with pregnancy and maternal bonding, may also control the way men react towards their children. Specifically, they found that a lack of progesterone reduced aggressive behavior in male mice and stimulated them to act in a fatherly way towards their offspring.


title: Human bonding

text: The "human–animal bond" can occur between people and domestic or wild animals; be it a cat as a pet or birds outside one's window. The phrase "Human-Animal Bond" also known as HAB began to emerge as terminology in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Research into the nature and merit of the human–animal bond began in the late 18th century when, in York, England, the Society of Friends established The Retreat to provide humane treatment for the mentally ill. By having patients care for the many farm animals on the estate, society officials theorized that the combination of animal contact plus productive work would facilitate the patients' rehabilitation. In the 1870s in Paris, a French surgeon had patients with neurological disorders ride horses. The patients were found to have improved their motor control and balance and were less likely to suffer bouts of depression.


title: Human bonding

text: During the 1820-1870s America's Victorian middle class used the human-animal bond to aid in children's socialization. This was an entirely gendered process, as parents and society believed only boys had an innate tendency towards violence and needed to be socialized towards kindness and empathy through companion animals. Over time pet keeping to socialize children became more gender neutral, but even into the 1980s and 90s there remained a belief that boys especially benefited from pet keeping due to the fact that it was one of only ways they could practice nurturing given the limiting gender norms.


title: Human bonding

text: An example of the Human-Animal Bond can be seen during World War I on the Western Front with horses. The use of this animal was widespread as over 24,000 horses and mules were used in the Canadian Expeditionary Force in World War I. The horse connection can be seen as horses were used to pull wagons for their drivers, as individual transport mounts for officers, and patients for veterinarians. When researching the human-animal bond there is a danger of anthropomorphism and projections of human qualities.


title: Human bonding

text: In the 19th century, in Bielefeld, Germany, epileptic patients were given the prescription to spend time each day taking care of cats and dogs. The contact with the animals was found to reduce the occurrence of seizures. As early as the 1920s people were starting to utilize the human-animal bond not just for healing, but also granting independence through service animals. In 1929 The Seeing Eye Inc. school formed to train guide dogs for the blind in the United States, inspired by dogs being trained to guide World War I veterans in Europe. Furthermore, the idea is that the human-animal bond can provide health benefits to humans as the animals "appeal to fundamental human needs for companionship, comfort, and security..." In 1980, a team of scientists at the University of Pennsylvania found that human to animal contact was found to reduce the physiological characteristics of stress; specifically, lowered levels of blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, anxiety, and tension were all found to correlate positively with human–pet bonding.


title: Human bonding

text: In some cases, despite its benefits, the human-animal bond can be used for harmful purposes. The 1990s saw an increase in social and scientific awareness of the use of companion animals as a tool for domestic violence. A 1997 study found that 80% of shelters reported women staying with them had experienced their abuser threatening or harming companion animals as a form of abuse.


title: Human bonding

text: A study in 2003, by the U.S. Department of Defense, based on human-animal bonding determined that there was an improvement and enrichment of life when animals were closely involved with humans. The study tested blood levels and noticed a rise in Oxytocin in humans and animals which participated; Oxytocin has the ability to lower stress, heart rate, and fear levels in humans and animals.


title: Human bonding

text: Historically, animals were domesticated for functional use; for example, dogs for herding and tracking, and cats for killing mice or rats. Today, in Western societies, their function is primarily bonding. For example, current studies show that 60–80% of dogs sleep with their owners at night in the bedroom, either in or on the bed. Moreover, in the past the majority of cats were kept outside (barn cats) whereas today most cats are kept indoors (housecats) and considered part of the family. Currently, in the US, for example, 1.2 billion animals are kept as pets, primarily for bonding purposes. In addition, as of 1995 there were over 30 research institutions looking into the potential benefits of the human–animal bond.


title: Human bonding

text: There is evidence in a variety of species that the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin are involved in the bonding process, and in other forms of prosocial and reproductive behavior. Both chemicals facilitate pair bonding and maternal behavior in experiments on laboratory animals. In humans, there is evidence that oxytocin and vasopressin are released during labor and breastfeeding, and that these events are associated with maternal bonding. According to one model, social isolation leads to stress, which is associated with activity in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the release of cortisol. Positive social interaction is associated with increased oxytocin. This leads to bonding, which is also associated with higher levels of oxytocin and vasopressin, and reduced stress and stress-related hormones.


title: Human bonding

text: Oxytocin is associated with higher levels of trust in laboratory studies on humans. It has been called the "cuddle chemical" for its role in facilitating trust and attachment. In the reward centers of the limbic system, the neurotransmitter dopamine may interact with oxytocin and further increase the likelihood of bonding. One team of researchers has argued that oxytocin only plays a secondary role in affiliation, and that endogenous opiates play the central role. According to this model, affiliation is a function of the brain systems underlying reward and memory formation.


title: Human bonding

text: Because the vast majority of this research has been done on animals—and the majority of that on rodents—these findings must be taken with caution when applied to humans. One of the few studies that looked at the influence of hormones on human bonding compared participants who had recently fallen in love with a control group. There were no differences for most of the hormones measured, including LH, estradiol, progesterone, DHEAS, and androstenedione. Testosterone and FSH were lower in men who had recently fallen in love, and there was also a difference in blood cortisol for both sexes, with higher levels in the group that was in love. These differences disappeared after 12–28 months and may reflect the temporary stress and arousal of a new relationship.


title: Human bonding

text: Prolactin is a peptide hormone primarily produced in the anterior pituitary gland. Prolactin affects reproduction and lactation in humans and other non-human mammals. It is also thought to mediate the formation of social bonds between mothers and their infants, much like the hormone oxytocin. In addition to prolactin's role in the formation of social bonds, it is thought to be involved in romantic attachment, especially in its early stages. Prolactin may also act to mediate well-being and the positive effects of close relationships on one's health. To do so, it alters an individual's neuroendocrine system to increase the probability of forming a strong social bond without requiring long gestation periods; this may enable bonding between mother and child in cases of adoption.


title: Human bonding

text: Prolactin can also influence both maternal and paternal behavior. The administration of prolactin to female rats initiates maternal behavior, and in bird and fish fathers, it can increase paternal behavior, whereas antagonists to prolactin decrease paternal behavior. In human studies, fathers with higher prolactin concentrations are more alert and nurturing towards their infants. In a different study where fathers and infants were observed over a six-months period after the child was born, the researchers found that fathers with higher prolactin levels were more likely to facilitate play with their infant. Moreover, following the birth of the child, prolactin promotes bonding between the father and the newborn.


title: Human bonding

text: Prolactin levels can also increase during socially stressful situations in humans. This has been seen by administering the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST), and then measuring blood serum prolactin concentrations. The TSST is a widely accepted stress test in which the research subject undergoes a mock job interview and then a mental arithmetic task in front of a three-person committee. This test is proven to simulate social psychological stress. After the administration of this test, significantly higher prolactin levels can be observed in the serum. There is a large variation in the amount prolactin levels increase in different individuals, however the effect is not significantly different between men and women


title: Human bonding

text: In 1962, while a freshman history major at Harvard, Mark Granovetter became enamored of the concepts underlying the classic chemistry lecture in which "weak" hydrogen bonds hold huge numbers of water molecules together, which themselves are held together by "strong" covalent bonds. This model was the stimulus behind his famous 1973 paper "The Strength of Weak Ties", which is now considered a classic paper in sociology.


title: Human bonding

text: Weak social bonds are believed to be responsible for the majority of the embeddedness and structure of social networks in society as well as the transmission of information through these networks. Specifically, more novel information flows to individuals through weak than through strong ties. Because our close friends tend to move in the same circles that we do, the information they receive overlaps considerably with what we already know. Acquaintances, by contrast, know people that we do not, and thus receive more novel information. There are some demographic groups, such as alexithymics, who may find it very difficult to bond or share an emotional connection with others.


title: Human bonding

text: In 1953, sociologist Diane Vaughan proposed an uncoupling theory. It states that during the dynamics of relationship breakup, there exists a "turning point," only noted in hindsight, followed by a transition period in which one partner unconsciously knows the relationship is going to end, but holds on to it for an extended period, sometimes for a number of years.


title: Human bonding

text: When a person to which one has become bonded is lost, a grief response may occur. Grief is the process of accepting the loss and adjusting to the changed situation. Grief may take longer than the initial development of the bond. The grief process varies with culture.


title: Dollarama

text: Dollarama is a Canadian dollar store retail chain headquartered in Montreal. Since 2009 it is Canada's largest retailer of items for five dollars or less. Dollarama has over 1400 stores and has a presence in every province of Canada; Ontario has the most stores.


title: Dollarama

text: The first all-dollar store was founded in Montreal in 1910 by Salim Rassy, a Lebanese immigrant, whose name became Rossy. His son George took over the retailer in 1937 and led the company until his death in 1973 when grandson Larry Rossy assumed leadership of it when it had 20 stores.


title: Dollarama

text: The discount retailer grew to 44 stores by 1992 which until then operated under the name Rossy S Inc. (not to be confused with Rossy Michael, a similar chain founded in 1949 by another son of Salim Rassy). That year, Larry Rossy opened the first Dollarama at the shopping centre "Les promenades du St-Laurent" in Matane. By the late 1990s, Dollarama had become by far the primary source of revenue for the Rossy family. As such, the Rossy S chain was discontinued by the turn of the new millennium, with all of its stores either closed or converted into Dollarama locations. After converting all the locations to the dollar store concept, Larry Rossy continued to open new stores reaching 1,000 stores in 2015. In November 2004, 80 percent of the chain was sold for $850 million US, to a private equity fund, Bain Capital, of Boston, Massachusetts.


title: Dollarama

text: Dollarama's initial public offering took place on October 9, 2009. In 2013, Dollarama was planning to expand its market to Latin America, and made an eight-year agreement to share its business expertise and provide sourcing services to Dollar City, a Salvadoran chain of dollar stores in Central America and Colombia.


title: Dollarama

text: In 2016, Dollarama established a partnership with the Marco G. R. Enterprise, resulting in the sponsorship of the first edition of the Formula Windsor Championship.


title: Dollarama

text: The number of stores in October 2021 was 539 in Ontario, 379 in Québec, 134 in Alberta, 111 in British Columbia, 42 in New Brunswick, 41 in Manitoba, 40 in Nova Scotia, 40 in Saskatchewan, 25 in Newfoundland and Labrador, and 5 in Prince Edward Island. The company announced that it would open 700 new locations across Canada (including a few replacements for some of the Great Canadian Dollar Store locations) in the aforementioned provinces as well as their first store in the Yukon Territory.


title: Dollarama

text: Many items are priced at $1.00 or less, and initially almost all items were priced as such. In early 2009, Dollarama began to introduce items priced up to $2.00 (including $1.25 and $1.50 price points). Due to the positive response from consumers to the multi-price point strategy, the stores introduced items at $2.50 and $3.00 in August 2012. It again increased price points to include $3.50 and $4.00 items in August 2016. In 2022, Dollarama announced that its maximum price point would be increasing to $5.00. This price level increase allowed the chain to acquire products from a greater variety of sources, including closeout sales. Adjustments may eventually happen to all prices. Dollarama has always had a No Return and No Exchange Policy. Once an item is bought, it cannot be returned or exchanged.


title: Dollarama

text: Payment in Dollarama stores was once by cash only, until Interac debit cards were added as a payment option beginning in 2008. Gift cards began to be offered in 2011. As of 2015, all Dollarama stores also support contact-less Interac Flash payments. In March 2017, Dollarama announced that credit cards would be offered as a payment option at all stores by the end of summer 2018. Customers will be able to pay with Visa, Mastercard, and American Express, following a successful pilot program.


title: Dollarama

text: Many Dollarama stores were opened in place of former locations of the now defunct BiWay, which closed after a series of dubious financial transactions involving a new owner of the parent operation. Dollarama launched its online store on January 21, 2019 where it will sell many of its products in bulk. Only 1000 of the roughly 4000 products offered in Dollarama stores will be sold online, namely items that are easily purchased in bulk.


title: Dollarama

text: Most large scale modern dollar stores sourced products from their inception from China beginning in the mid-1990s when they appeared on the retail landscape. This was the same time when Chinese companies entered the market and were allowed to manufacture for Western countries. Dollarama started branding sourced products starting in the very early 2000s. Such brands include the store's line of stationery branded as Studio, and plastic storage containers under the name Plastico. For a long period of time the public did not know that these were created brands by Dollarama. This would only have been known if customers scrutinized the labels. Such practices were not new: private labels were created as a far back as the early 1930s in Canada by Canadian Tire with Motomaster products, and most retail stores followed.


title: Dollarama

text: An extremely large percentage of Dollarama products are privately sourced. In mid-2009 it rolled out its own store brand, "D". Unlike small dollar/discount stores, it sources most of its products directly from manufacturers, rather than from local unknown distributors.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: Roberto Carlos Braga (; born April 19, 1941) is a Brazilian singer-songwriter, also known as "King of Latin Music" or simply "The King".


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: Most of his songs are written in partnership with his friend, singer and songwriter Erasmo Carlos (no relation). Roberto Carlos has sold over 140 million albums around the world. He is considered one of the most influential artists in Brazil, being cited as a source of inspiration by many artists and bands. His net worth is estimated at US$160 million.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: Roberto Carlos Braga was born in Cachoeiro de Itapemirim, at the southern part of the Brazilian state of Espírito Santo. He is the fourth and last son of watchmaker Robertino Braga (March 27, 1896 – January 27, 1980) and seamstress Laura Moreira Braga (April 10, 1914 – April 17, 2010). The family lived in a modest home on top of a hill in the Nook neighbourhood. His siblings were Lauro Roberto Braga, Carlos Alberto Moreira Braga and Norminha. At age 6, during the feast of St Peter, the patron saint of Cachoeiro do Itapemirim, Roberto Carlos was hit by a steam locomotive and had to have his right leg amputated just below his knee. He still uses a prosthesis, but avoids talking about it.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: As a child he learned to play the guitar and the piano -– first with his mother and later at the Itapemirim Music Conservatory. At 9 years old, he performed for the first time at a children's show broadcast by Rádio Cachoeiro (he sang a bolero called "Mal Amor"). He won candies as the first prize. Years later, he recalled the occasion for the book "Roberto Carlos Up Close", by Paulo Cesar de Araujo: "I was very nervous, yet very happy to be able to sing on the radio. I got a lot of candies, which was the prize for the kids who'd sing there. It was a beautiful day." He became a regular performer on that particular show.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: Influenced by his idol Elvis Presley and the 1950s rock revolution, he rose to stardom as the main figure of the 1950s and 1960s musical movement known as Jovem Guarda (or "Young Guard"), which was a rip off from another TV Show. From the same name "Jovem Guarda" was the first manifestation of the Brazilian pop rock movement. Since then, Roberto Carlos has been called "O Rei" (the King).


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: When his first single and first LP ("Louco por você", 1961) were commercial failures, Roberto Carlos was in danger of being fired from CBS in favor of , the first successful rock singer in Brazil. Nevertheless, Murilo was fired instead for clashing with musical director Evandro Ribeiro over repertoire and payment, opening up space for Roberto Carlos. During his first decade of recording, Roberto Carlos also starred in a few motion pictures directed by Roberto Farias, many of them heavily inspired by the Beatles movies.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: Roberto Carlos insisted on investing time in young music, rock, and in 1962 released "Splish Splash". With his friend Erasmo Carlos, Roberto recorded Portuguese versions of pop songs and wrote his own songs, such as "Parei Na Contramão" which became a big hit. The following year the singer was back on the charts with the album "É Proibido Fumar", in which, besides the title track, the highlight was the song "O Calhambeque". Thus was born the "Jovem Guarda" (TV Show).


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: Nationally known, Roberto Carlos began to host the Jovem Guarda TV program in 1965 at TV Record, along with Erasmo Carlos and Wanderléa. The program further popularized the pop rock movement in Brazil and established the singer, who became one of the first idols of the young Brazilian culture. Also in 1965, the albums "Roberto Carlos Canta Para A Juventude" – with hits "A Estoria do Homem Mau (Old Man Moses)," "Os Sete Cabeludos", "Eu Sou Fã Do Monoquini" and "Eu Não Quero Ver Você Triste" partnerships with Erasmo Carlos –and "Jovem Guarda" with the hits "Quero Que Vá Tudo Pro Inferno", "Lobo Mau", "O Feio" (Getúlio Cortes) and "Não É Papo Pra Mim" were released.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: In 1966 Roberto Carlos presented the programs "Roberto Carlos à Noite", "Opus 7", "Jovem Guarda em Alta Tensão" e "Todos os Jovens do Mundo", at TV Record, all of them short-lived. That year would be marked by a fight that nearly ended the partnership between him and Erasmo. The reason for the split was a failure of production of the "Show in Si Monal ..." TV Record, which paid homage to Erasmo. The production was to present a pot-pourri of Erasmo's most famous compositions, including "Parei na Contramão" and "Quero Que Vá Tudo Pro Inferno". The controversy was created because of these songs were composed in partnership with Roberto Carlos, but the credits were given only to Erasmo. The two quarreled, and the partnership was suspended for more than one year. During this period, Roberto wrote "We There Yet?" and "Namoradinha de Um Amigo Meu" were released on the LP "Roberto Carlos" that year (the album still had the hits "Eu Te Darei O Céu", "Esqueça", "Negro Gato" (Getúlio Cortes) and "Nossa Canção" (Luiz Ayrão).


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: In 1967, the friendship between Roberto and Erasmo was shaken, though the two still presented – along with Wanderléa – the "Jovem Guarda" show on TV Record. Roberto wrote his own hits like "Como É Grande Meu Amor Por Você", "Corro Demais", "Quando" and "De vale tudo isso?", which would be released on the LP "Roberto Carlos em Ritmo de Aventura" soundtrack of movie with the same name, released the following year. The film was produced and directed by Roberto Farias and featured Roberto Carlos as protagonist, with José Lewgoy and Reginaldo Faria in the cast. The film became a box office success in the Brazilian cinema. With his many professional commitments, Roberto could not finish the lyrics for "Eu Sou Terrível", which was to be the starting soundtrack of the feature. He asked his former partner Erasmo Carlos, who helped finalize the lyrics. Thus, friendship and partnership between the two resumed. Later that year, Roberto Carlos had his first performances abroad, in Cannes (France) and participated in several Brazilian Pop Music festivals. He placed fifth with the song "Maria Carnaval e Cinzas" (Luís Carlos Paraná). Some people objected to the presence of a Jovem Guarda icon.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: In 1968 the LP "O Inimitável" was released. A transition record in the singer's career, the album had influences in U.S. black music (soul / funk) and scored several hits, like "Se Você Pensa", "Eu Te Amo, Te Amo, Te Amo", "É Meu É Meu É Meu", "As Canções que você Fez Pra Mim" (all partnerships with Erasmo Carlos), "Ciúmes De Você" (Luiz Ayrão), and "Eu Não Vou Deixar Você Tão Só" (Marcos Antonio). Later that year, Roberto Carlos became the first and only Brazilian to win the Festival of San Remo (Italy), with the song "Canzone Per Te", Sergio Endrigo and Sergio Bardotti. The singer would change his style in 1969 and also stopped naming his albums. The album "Roberto Carlos" was marked by a greater romanticism instead of the traditional themes typical of the Jovem Guarda youth. Among the successes of this LP are "As Curvas da Estrada De Santos", "Sua Estupidez" and "As Flores do Jardim de Nossa Casa", all partnerships with Erasmo Carlos. Later that year, he starred in "Roberto Carlos e o Diamante Cor-de-rosa", the second film directed by Roberto Farias and new success at the box office.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: <nowiki> The 1970 decade was marked by the end of the Jovem Guarda and the bolstering the prestige of Roberto Carlos as a romantic artist in Brazil and abroad (USA, Europe and Latin America). The singer became the artist who would sell the most albums in the country. Several of his songs were recorded by other artists such as </nowiki>Julio Iglesias, Caravelli and Ray Conniff. In 1970, the singer made a successful series of shows in Canecão. Later that year, he launched his annual album, which brought such hits as "Ana", "Veste A Roupa Meu Bem" and "Jesus Cristo", a song which also marked his approach to religion.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: The following year, "Roberto Carlos a 300 km Por Hora", the last movie starring the singer, was released also a great national success. Also in 1971, another album was released, featuring the hits "Detalhes," "Amada Amante", "Todos Estão Surdos", "Debaixo dos Caracóis dos Seus Cabelos" (homage to Caetano Veloso) and "Como Dois E Dois" (Caetano). The 1972 album resonated with "A Montanha", "Como Vai Você", and "Quando As Crianças Saírem de Férias" in addition to being the first LP to reach the milestone of one million copies sold, and in 1973, with "Rotina" and "Proposta". On December 24, 1974, TV Globo aired a special show with singer, which got huge ratings. From that year, the program would be aired at the end of each year. That same year, he released another album, with hits like "O Portão" and "Eu Quero Apenas".


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: The 1975 album had a hit with "Além do Horizonte" and a remake of his 1965 song "Quero Que Vai Tudo Pro Inferno". The following year the singer would record the new LP in the CBS Studios in New York. The album spawned the songs "Ilegal, Imoral e Engorda" and "Os Seus Botões"." In 1977, Roberto Carlos released his annual album, with hits like "Amigo" (an homage to Erasmo Carlos), "Muito Romântico" (Caetano Veloso) and "Cavalgada" and reached #1 on the charts. The following year, another annual album was released, which featured the songs "Café da Manhã", "Força Estranha" (Caetano Veloso) and "Lady Laura" – a song dedicated to his mother. The album sold 1,500,000 copies. In addition to albums that sold more than 1 million copies a year, Roberto Carlos's shows were also popular; in 1978, the singer toured the country for six months, always with packed houses. When Pope John Paul II visited Mexico in 1979, he was greeted with the song "Amigo", sung by a choir of children. The event was broadcast live to hundreds of millions of people worldwide. Roberto also engaged in support of the UN International Year of the Child.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: In the early 1980s, he took part in another campaign, this time for the International Year of the Disabled. In 1981, the singer made international tours and recorded the first album in English – others would be released in Spanish, Italian and French. He also recorded the annual album, which featured hits like "Emoções", "Cama e Mesa" and "As Baleias". In 1982, Maria Bethânia participated in the yearly album, the duet "Amiga." It was the first time the singer invited another artist to participate in the recordings on the disc. "Roberto Carlos" (1982) also had the hit song "Fera Ferida", another collaboration with Erasmo.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: After his first decade of success, Carlos moved towards a more serious, adult-oriented approach to singing, whilst consistently continuing to score hits in his country and throughout Latin America, as well as in Portugal, Spain and Italy. In the 1980s, Roberto Carlos also began recording in English and French (he had already recorded albums in Spanish, Italian, and, naturally, Portuguese). He went on to win the "Globo de Cristal" trophy, awarded by CBS to Brazilian artists who sell more than five million copies outside Brazil. At the same time, his albums continued to break records in his country. "Caminhoneiro" (1984) aired 3,000 times in a single day, soon topped by his own "Verde e Amarelo" (1985), with 3,500 airings. In 1985 he participated in the campaign to help children in Latin America, in the song Cantarê, cantarás, he performed with Julio Iglesias, Gloria Estefan, Jose Feliciano, Plácido Domingo, Cheech Marin and Menudo, among others. He won the 1988 Grammy for Best Latin American Singer and the following year he reached the top of Billboard's Latin charts. Also in 1989, he had a hit with the song "Amazonia". In the traditional year-end special Rede Globo he sang hits like "Outra Vez" alongside Simone.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: In 1986, Carlos performed at Radio City Music Hall in New York and two years later became one of the only Brazilians ever to win a Grammy Award in the category of Best Latin Pop Album with "Roberto Carlos / Tolo". In 1998, due to the illness of his wife Maria Rita, Roberto Carlos had to reconcile the disc recording and support for his wife hospitalized in São Paulo. His yearly record, that almost was not released, had only four new songs, including "O Baile da Fazenda", a partnership with Erasmo Carlos and was attended special Dominguinhos. In 1999, the worsening state of health of Maria Rita, followed by her death in December of that year, made the singer failed to make the traditional end of year special on Rede Globo and to record a new album. The record company Sony has just launched "The 30 Greatest Hits (Vol. 1 and 2)", paired with a collection of greatest hits and a new song, the religious "Todas As Nossas Senhoras", written with Erasmo.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: Carlos continued to record through the 1990s, focusing on romantic songs. In the mid-1990s a retro-Jovem Guarda wave hit Brazil, and Carlos—who was considered a has-been amongst a younger generation familiar only with his romantic and sentimental hits directed at a middleaged audience—had his importance cited by younger musicians such as Cássia Eller, Adriana Calcanhotto, Chico Science e Nação Zumbi, Barão Vermelho and Skank. Skank also recorded "Rei", a tribute to Roberto Carlos with his classic hits from the heyday of the Jovem Guarda epoch.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: In 1992 he left his name on the Latin artist Walk of Fame in Miami in the United States. In 1994, Roberto Carlos managed to beat the Beatles' sales in Latin America, selling over 70 million records. In 1996, Roberto Carlos scored another success in partnership with Erasmo Carlos, "Mulher de 40", and recorded along with Julio Iglesias, Gloria Estefan, Plácido Domingo, Ricky Martin, Jon Secada among others, the song in Spanish, "Puedes Llegar", the theme of the Atlanta Olympics in the United States. In 1997, he launched the Spanish-language album "Canciones Que Amo."


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: In 1998, Carlos's second wife, Maria Rita, discovered she had cancer (she would die in 1999). After a one-year break, Roberto Carlos returned to recording and performing. In 2001, he broke his contract with Sony (formerly CBS), the recording company through which he had released a vast majority of his albums, due to reasons connected to his wife's death. However, in a 2008 interview, Roberto Carlos stated that he had no intention of retiring from the music industry anytime soon and released an album later that year. In 2004, Carlos was awarded the Latin Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. He was later recognized as the Latin Recording Academy Person of the Year in 2015.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: In December 2006, "Duetos" a CD with 14 tracks and a DVD with 16 numbers was released, which had taken of the special moments recorded for the Globo since the 1970s. Later that year Roberto Carlos won the Latin Grammy for best romantic music album (album "Roberto Carlos", 2005). In the same period, the publisher Planeta launched the book "Roberto Carlos em Detalhes", by Paulo Cesar de Araujo, an unauthorized biography about the singer, a result of 16 years of research and with testimonies of about 200 people who participated in the career of Roberto. Roberto Carlos repudiated the publication, claiming that there is untruth in it, and announced his intention to withdraw the work from circulation. The court ruled for Roberto Carlos and the book "Roberto Carlos em Detalhes" was pulled from stores at the end of February 2007. On April 27, 2007, after a long hearing at the Criminal Forum of Barra Funda, São Paulo, all copies of the book were recalled.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: In January 2007, the singer travelled to Spain, where he recorded his first album in Spanish in a decade. In June, he performed at Canecão. In addition to special appearances by singers Gilberto Gil, Zeca Pagodinho, and journalists Nelson Motta and Leda Nagle and established actors and actresses, the show's repertoire included the entirety of "É Preciso Saber Viver", a song whose verse "se o bem e o mal existem" (If there are good and evil) the singer had long refused to sing long before, due to OCD (Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder).


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: Every year, Roberto Carlos hosts a special TV show singing his greatest hits along with special guests. The show has become a tradition in Brazilian television. The house where Carlos was born has also been converted into a museum dedicated to him.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: In 2008, Roberto Carlos and Caetano Veloso did a show together in tribute to Antonio Carlos Jobim, which was recorded on CD and DVD "Roberto Carlos, Caetano Veloso and Tom Jobim's music". Jaques Morelenbaum, Daniel Jobim and Wanderlea participated in this show. In 2009, he began a tour celebrating 50 years of his career, and his first concert was on April 19 in Itapemirim, his hometown, the day he turned 68 years old. In April, the show "They sing Roberto – DIVAS", at the Municipal Theater of São Paulo, was attended by the great singers of national music, such Adriana Calcanhotto, Alcione, Ana Carolina, Claudia Leitte, Daniela Mercury, Fafa de Belém, Fernanda Abreu, Ivete Sangalo, Luiza Possi, Marina Lima, Mart'nália, Nana Caymmi, Paula Toller, , Sandy, Wanderlea and Zizi Possi. The television host Hebe Camargo and the actress Marilia Pera also participated in the show. Roberto Carlos was considered by the "Journal Times" one of the 100 most influential Brazilians of 2009.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: His mother Laura Moreira Braga died on April 17, 2010, at age 96. The news of her death was given minutes after a Roberto Carlos's concert at the Radio City Music Hall in New York City. Through the 2010s, Roberto Carlos continued his yearly cruise ship concert project, "Emoções em Alto Mar" ("Emotions in the High Seas"). In the second half of 2011, the singer also held a concert in the city of Jerusalem, titled "Emoções em Jerusalem".


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: In 2013, "Esse Cara Sou Eu" won the Best Brazilian Song and was nominated for Song of the Year at the 2013 Latin Grammy Awards. In 2015, he received the Billboard Latin Music Lifetime Achievement Award and was recognized Person of the Year by the Latin Recording Academy. Roberto Carlos received the Excellence Award at the 2019 Lo Nuestro Awards.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: On July 11, 2009, to celebrate his 50th career anniversary, Roberto Carlos performed a major show at Maracanã Stadium. It was his first presentation in the stadium. The estimated audience was about 70,000 people.


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: Roberto Carlos's 50th career anniversary was also celebrated with a major exhibition in the Lucas Nogueira Garcez Pavilion, located in Ibirapuera Park, São Paulo. The interactive expo, opened on March 4, 2010, portrayed the singer's life and career. The young poet and composer Gabriel Ataide Lima, says in its influences that Roberto Carlos was one of the largest, and thanks to his music, he realized that "poetry has to be sweet, pure, direct, and lively. Speaking of themes love it ... no grueling things I learned from Roberto Carlos. Besides singing themes like nature, religion and life in peace. "


title: Roberto Carlos (singer)

text: Mostly in Portuguese; some songs in Spanish, English and Italian. As the majority of Roberto Carlos's albums are simply self-titled, the most significant hit of each album is also indicated.


title: The 2nd Law

text: The 2nd Law is the sixth studio album by English rock band Muse, first released on 28 September 2012 through Warner Bros. Records and the band's own Helium-3 imprint. Recording of the album took place in studios between London and Los Angeles County, beginning in October 2011 and ending in August 2012. "The 2nd Law" was Muse's second album to be solely self-produced, following "The Resistance" (2009), and features a plethora of additional musicians that performed brass, strings, and choir vocals.


title: The 2nd Law

text: "The 2nd Law" is a concept album about a deteriorating planet that its inhabitants can no longer live on. Major lyrical themes of the album include societal collapse, totalitarianism, and the second law of thermodynamics, which the album's title references. Musically, the band chose to experiment significantly and create a sound that was distinct from their past records. The album's sound incorporates art rock, progressive rock, and electronic music with Muse's traditional alternative rock style. Acts such as Queen, David Bowie, and Skrillex also served as key influences on the album. The album's cover art features a map of the human brain's pathways, which was taken from the Human Connectome Project.


title: The 2nd Law

text: The singles "Survival", "Madness", "Follow Me", "Supremacy", and "Panic Station" were released in promotion. "Survival" had been chosen as the official song for the 2012 Summer Olympics, "Madness" became an international hit, most notably topping the "Billboard" Alternative Songs chart for a record-breaking 19 weeks, and "Supremacy" was performed live to begin the 2013 Brit Awards. "The 2nd Law" received positive reviews from critics and performed well commercially; it was a top ten-charting album in 31 countries and a number one album in 13 countries. For its sales figures, it was certified platinum in four countries, including the United Kingdom, and triple-platinum in France. At the 55th Annual Grammy Awards, the album was nominated for Best Rock Album and "Madness" was nominated for Best Rock Song. "Panic Station" was later nominated for Best Rock Song at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards the following year. As of 2018, "The 2nd Law" has sold over 2.3 million copies worldwide.


title: The 2nd Law

text: "The 2nd Law" was primarily recorded at AIR Studios in London, England and EastWest Studios in Los Angeles, California, with additional recording taking place at Shangri La Studios in Malibu, California and Capitol Studios in Hollywood. In an interview with "Billboard" on 18 October 2011, the band's manager Anthony Addis revealed that Muse had begun recording their sixth album in London and that he expected it to be released by October 2012. Muse bassist Chris Wolstenholme had stated in an interview with BBC Radio 1 that they had aimed to begin recording "The 2nd Law" in either September or October 2011. During the recording of the album, band frontman Matt Bellamy jokingly described the album as a "Christian gangsta rap jazz odyssey, with some ambient rebellious dubstep and face-melting metal flamenco cowboy psychedelia" on his Twitter account.


title: The 2nd Law

text: In an interview with "Kerrang!" on 14 December 2011, Wolstenholme stated that the next Muse album would be "something radically different" from their prior releases. He also said that it felt as if the band were "drawing a line under a certain period" of their career with their sixth album. In another interview Chris mentioned that the band had experimented with music and sounds in particular. It was revealed via Muse's publicist Tom Kirk on his Twitter account that composer David Campbell was helping the band compose the album. In an interview in the April 2012 issue of "NME", Bellamy said that the band were set to include elements of electronic music, with influences coming from acts such as French house duo Justice and UK dance-punk group Does It Offend You, Yeah?.


title: The 2nd Law

text: "The 2nd Law" has been described by "The Arts Desk" as a concept album with main themes of "chaos, control, societal collapse and totalitarianism". The iTunes review of the album similarly described it as a concept album telling the story of "a resource-strapped planet that can no longer support its inhabitants". The music of "The 2nd Law" has been described as art rock, alternative rock, progressive rock, and electronic music. The album's first track, "Supremacy", has been compared to James Bond theme songs. "Madness", according to "NME", features influences which draw from Queen's "I Want to Break Free" and David Bowie's "Scary Monsters" album. Instead of using a bass guitar for the song, Wolstenholme opted to use a Misa Kitara, a digital MIDI controller, to create the song's main bass riff. "Panic Station", the third track, has been noted as a funk rock song and features collaborations from people who had worked on Stevie Wonder's "Superstition". It also includes explicit lyrics, making "The 2nd Law" Muse's first album to feature the Parental Advisory label.


title: The 2nd Law

text: Bellamy stated that dubstep producer Skrillex was an influence when writing one of the final two tracks on the album – "". He also stated that the song "Follow Me" was written about his newborn son, Bingham Bellamy. The song was produced by electronic music trio Nero. Bassist Chris Wolstenholme wrote two songs for the album about his battle with alcoholism – "Save Me" and "Liquid State" – and provided lead vocals on both tracks, thus marking the first time Wolstenholme sang lead vocals on a Muse song. Bellamy revealed that during the recording of "The 2nd Law" he was reading the novel "World War Z", which became a major influence on the album, especially the tracks "The 2nd Law: Isolated System" and "Survival". "The 2nd Law: Isolated System" was featured in the film adaptation of the novel.


title: The 2nd Law

text: The name "The 2nd Law" references the second law of thermodynamics, which is quoted in the track "Unsustainable" as follows:


title: The 2nd Law

text: All natural and technological processes proceed in such a way that the availability of the remaining energy decreases. In all energy exchanges, if no energy enters or leaves an isolated system, the entropy of that system increases. Energy continuously flows from being concentrated, to becoming dispersed, spread out, wasted, and useless. New energy cannot be created and high-grade energy are being destroyed. An economy based on endless growth is unsustainable.


title: The 2nd Law

text: The album's cover art, taken from the Human Connectome Project, represents the map of the human brain's pathways, "tracking the circuits in our heads and how we process information with bright, neon colors."


title: The 2nd Law

text: The artwork was subsequently used by Muse in a social Connectome Project on 21 September 2012. As more fans joined the online project, the album art was built, representing the network of the neurons within the brain. As the album art branched and more fans joined the network, incremental segments of the album track "The 2nd Law: Isolated System" were released.


title: The 2nd Law

text: The album was released as a digital download, CD, CD+DVD (with "The Making of The 2nd Law" and bonus feature), and vinyl. A deluxe edition box set of "The 2nd Law" included a CD, DVD, double vinyl and three posters.


title: The 2nd Law

text: On 6 June 2012, Muse released a trailer for "The 2nd Law" with a countdown on the band's website suggesting a 17 September release date. The trailer, which included dubstep elements, was met with mixed reactions from fans. "Survival" was released as the album's first single on 27 June 2012 and premiered on BBC Radio 1's Zane Lowe show, along with the song's counterpart intro, "Prelude". The song served as the official song of the London 2012 Olympic Games and peaked at number 22 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: The 2nd Law

text: It was revealed by the band in an interview with "NME" magazine that "Madness" would be released as the second single. Released on 20 August, it was announced that the song would make its world premiere on BBC Radio 1 at 19:30 BST, but the track was leaked online beforehand, due to an unintentional early release in South Korea. The official music video for the song was uploaded on 5 September to the band's YouTube channel. The song had significant chart performance by peaking in the top 40 in several countries. It has peaked at number 25 in the UK, as well as number 45 in the "Billboard" Hot 100, making "Madness" the band's second-highest charting song in the US, behind "Uprising". The song was also notable for topping the "Billboard" Alternative Songs chart for a cumulative amount of nineteen weeks, making it the longest-running number-one song on the chart. The previous record was eighteen weeks, held by the Foo Fighters with their song "The Pretender". The song has been certified platinum by the FIMI in Italy and the MC in Canada. The song has also been certified double-platinum by the RIAA in the US for 2,000,000 copies of the song sold.


title: The 2nd Law

text: "Follow Me" was revealed as the third single when several promo CD's allegedly sent to radio stations appeared on eBay. The official lyric video was released on 1 November and the official music video was released on 11 December, both on the band's official YouTube channel. The song failed to chart in the UK, but it ended up charting in Belgium, France, Italy, and Japan. "Supremacy" was released as the fourth single from the album on 25 February 2013. The song gained popularity when it was performed at the beginning of the 2013 Brit Awards. Due to this performance, the song charted and peaked at number 58 on the UK singles chart. The band conducted a competition to produce a music video for "Animals". The winning video was created by Inês Freitas and Miguel Mendes (Oneness Team) from Portugal. The winning entry was released on 20 March 2013. "Panic Station" was released as the fifth single on 31 May 2013, accompanied by a music video shot during the Japanese dates of The 2nd Law Tour. The music video was released on 22 April 2013 at 10:00 AM PDT on the official Muse YouTube channel. An interactive lyric video for the song was released, as well. The band had previously performed this track, as well as "Madness", on the 6 October 2012 episode of "Saturday Night Live". The song failed to chart in the UK, but it peaked at number two on the "Billboard" Alternative Songs chart. Furthermore, "Big Freeze" was released in April 2013, but only for French radios and without a commercial release.


title: The 2nd Law

text: On 7 June 2012, Muse announced a European Arena tour; the first leg of The 2nd Law World Tour. The leg included dates in France, Italy, Ireland, Spain, Finland and the United Kingdom as well as other countries. They had also added North American dates to the tour.


title: The 2nd Law

text: Furthermore, the tour has an official live release on CD/DVD/Blu-ray: Live at Rome Olympic Stadium, with the Italian date which was held on 6 July 2013 at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome, in front of a crowd of 60,963 people. A show in Tokyo described by drummer Dom as 'the funniest ever' was also filmed. However, a release date for this recording has yet to be confirmed, with only one song from the concert being released as a Muse website members 'Christmas present.' At the conclusion of 2013, the tour was placed on Pollstar's annual "Year End Top 20 Worldwide Tours", and appeared 13th worldwide, earning over $103 million with 79 shows in 2013.


title: The 2nd Law

text: "The 2nd Law" received generally positive reviews upon release. On Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 70 based on 30 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". BBC music critic Ian Winwood also gave the album a positive review, highlighting "Supremacy", "Liquid State" and "The 2nd Law: Isolated System", saying that Muse "present themselves in any guise they please". "The Telegraph"s Helen Brown rated the album four out of five stars, noting the album's eclectic influences and reserving praise for "Madness" in particular. "The Observer"s Kitty Empire also alluded to Muse's bombastic tendencies, saying "Bellamy is not blind to the contradictions of his band's attempts continually to ramp the ludicrousness up to 11; endless growth is, of course, unsustainable. But for now they remain pretty comfortable with the idea of obscene over-inflation. So should we."


title: The 2nd Law

text: AllMusic rated the album three out of five stars, noting "their excursions into dubstep and dance music on tracks like "Madness" and "Follow Me" feel more like remixes than original songs. Songs like these definitely have the spine of Muse tracks, but the production that's built up around them feels almost alien." Kyle Anderson of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the album a grade of C+, claiming that "the band goes overboard with Queen-isms" and expressing disappointment at the lack of electronic music elements compared to the band's expectations that the album would be a departure from previous releases. "The Guardian"s Alexis Petridis rated the album four out of five stars, complimenting the band's ambition but finding fault with the album's bombastic tendencies which were also present on their previous albums, stating "no one goes to see a blockbuster for its profundity and deep characterisation. They go for the stunts and the special effects, both of which "The 2nd Law" delivers."


title: The 2nd Law

text: The album was a nominee for Best Rock Album at the 2013 Grammy Awards. The song "Madness" was also nominated for Best Rock Song. The album listed at number 46 on "Rolling Stone"s list of the top 50 albums of 2012, saying "In an era of diminished expectations, Muse make stadium-crushing songs that mix the legacies of Queen, King Crimson, Led Zeppelin and Radiohead while making almost every other current band seem tiny."


title: The 2nd Law

text: "The 2nd Law" had a very positive commercial performance, selling around 475,000 copies worldwide on its release. It debuted at number 2 on the "Billboard" 200 with 102,000 copies sold in its first week, giving Muse the highest charting debut of their career in the US, although it sold fewer copies than the debut of their previous album "The Resistance", which debuted at number three with 128,000 copies. It has sold 485,000 copies in the US . It also debuted at number 2 in Australia, Germany, Ireland, Korea and Spain. The album gave Muse their fourth number 1 debut in the UK with first week sales of 108,536 copies, while also debuting at number 1 in 13 other countries. It has sold 255,000 copies in the UK in 2012 alone.


title: Aleksandr Ulyanov

text: Aleksandr Ilyich Ulyanov (; – ) was a Russian revolutionary and political activist. He was the elder brother of Vladimir Lenin, the founder of the Soviet Union.


title: Aleksandr Ulyanov

text: Ulyanov was born in Nizhny Novgorod, the second child and eldest son of schoolteachers Ilya Nikolayevich Ulyanov and Maria Alexandrovna Ulyanova. He was often referred to as Sasha, a common diminutive form of the name Aleksandr. He graduated with honors from the Classical Gymnasium of Simbirsk in 1883 and later attended Saint Petersburg Imperial University, where he majored in Natural Sciences and earned a degree in zoology. While at university, he participated in illegal meetings and demonstrations, often handing out pamphlets and making speeches to students and workers.


title: Aleksandr Ulyanov

text: In 1886 he became a member of the "terrorist faction", which was part of the Narodnaya Volya ("People's Will") party. He was one of the authors of the party's program. Acknowledging the working class as the "nucleus of the Socialist Party", the program affirmed the revolutionary's initiative of fighting autocracy through terrorism.


title: Aleksandr Ulyanov

text: Ulyanov and his comrades conspired to assassinate Alexander III of Russia. On 1 March 1887 (Julian calendar), the day of the sixth anniversary of Alexander II's murder, three party members were arrested in the Nevsky Prospekt carrying handmade bombs filled with dynamite and lead pellets poisoned with strychnine. Police suspected that when Alexander III visited church on the anniversary of his father's assassination, the plotters would throw bombs into the Emperor's carriage. The attempt is known as "The Second First of March".


title: Aleksandr Ulyanov

text: Ulyanov, who served as both the main ideologist of the group as well as the bomb-maker, was later arrested. In court Ulyanov gave a political speech. The conspirators were initially sentenced to death; all but five were then pardoned by Alexander III. Ulyanov was not among those pardoned. On 8 May, he and his four comrades – Pakhomy Andreyushkin, Vasily Generalov, Vasili Osipanov, and Petr Shevyrev – were hanged at Shlisselburg.


title: Aleksandr Ulyanov

text: Aleksandr's execution drove his younger brother Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Vladimir Lenin) to pursue the Russian revolutionary struggle ever more fervently. Vladimir was already active in politics prior to his older brother's arrest. Vladimir admired his older brother; however, he was quite dismissive of his older brother's political attitude. He once said, "No, my brother won't make a revolutionary, I thought at the time. A revolutionary can't give so much time to the study of worms." Lenin also remembered how his family were shunned by liberal circles in Simbirsk following his brother's arrest.


title: Aleksandr Ulyanov

text: A minor planet, 2112 Ulyanov, was discovered in 1972 by Soviet astronomer Tamara Mikhailovna Smirnova and named after him.


title: Tswana language

text: Tswana, also known by its native name , and previously spelled Sechuana in English, is a Bantu language spoken in Southern Africa by about 8.2 million people. It belongs to the Bantu language family within the Sotho-Tswana branch of Zone S (S.30), and is closely related to the Northern Sotho and Southern Sotho languages, as well as the Kgalagadi language and the Lozi language.


title: Tswana language

text: Setswana is an official language of Botswana and South Africa. It is a lingua franca in Botswana and parts of South Africa, particularly North West Province. Tswana tribes are found in more than two provinces of South Africa, primarily in the North West, where about four million people speak the language. An urbanised variety, which is part slang and not the formal Setswana, is known as Pretoria Sotho, and is the principal unique language of the city of Pretoria. The three South African provinces with the most speakers are Gauteng (circa 11%), Northern Cape, and North West (over 70%). Until 1994, South African Tswana people were notionally citizens of Bophuthatswana, one of the bantustans of the apartheid regime. The Setswana language in the Northwest Province has variations in which it is spoken according to the tribes found in the Tswana culture (Bakgatla, Barolong, Bakwena, Batlhaping, Bahurutshe, Bafokeng, Batlokwa, Bataung, and Bapo, among others); the written language remains the same. A small number of speakers are also found in Zimbabwe (unknown number) and Namibia (about 10,000 people).


title: Tswana language

text: The first European to describe the language was the German traveller Hinrich Lichtenstein, who lived among the Tswana people Batlhaping in 1806 although his work was not published until 1930. He mistakenly regarded Tswana as a dialect of the Xhosa, and the name that he used for the language ""Beetjuana"" may also have covered the Northern and Southern Sotho languages.


title: Tswana language

text: The first major work on Tswana was carried out by the British missionary Robert Moffat, who had also lived among the Batlhaping, and published "Bechuana Spelling Book" and "A Bechuana Catechism" in 1826. In the following years, he published several other books of the Bible, and in 1857, he was able to publish a complete translation of the Bible.


title: Tswana language

text: The first grammar of Tswana was published in 1833 by the missionary James Archbell although it was modelled on a Xhosa grammar. The first grammar of Tswana which regarded it as a separate language from Xhosa (but still not as a separate language from the Northern and Southern Sotho languages) was published by the French missionary, E. Casalis in 1841. He changed his mind later, and in a publication from 1882, he noted that the Northern and Southern Sotho languages were distinct from Tswana.


title: Tswana language

text: Solomon Plaatje, a South African intellectual and linguist, was one of the first writers to extensively write in and about the Tswana language.


title: Tswana language

text: Some dialects have two additional vowels, the close-mid vowels and . The circumflex on e and o in general Setswana writing is only encouraged at elementary levels of education and not at upper primary or higher; usually these are written without the circumflex.


title: Tswana language

text: The consonant is merely an allophone of , when the latter is followed by the vowels or . Two more sounds, v and


title: Tswana language

text: Tswana also has three click consonants, but these are only used in interjections or ideophones, and tend only to be used by the older generation, and are therefore falling out of use. The three click consonants are the dental click , orthographically ; the lateral click , orthographically ; and the palatal click , orthographically .


title: Tswana language

text: There are some minor dialectal variations among the consonants between speakers of Tswana. For instance, is realised as either or by many speakers; is realised as in most dialects; and and are realised as and in northern dialects.


title: Tswana language

text: The consonant can exist at the end of a word without being followed by a vowel (as in Jwaneng and Barolong Seboni).


title: Tswana language

text: Stress is fixed in Tswana and thus always falls on the penult of a word, although some compounds may receive a secondary stress in the first part of the word. The syllable on which the stress falls is lengthened. Thus, mosadi (woman) is realised as .


title: Tswana language

text: Tswana has two tones, high and low, but the latter has a much wider distribution in words than the former. Tones are not marked orthographically, which may lead to ambiguity.


title: Tswana language

text: An important feature of the tones is the so-called spreading of the high tone. If a syllable bears a high tone, the following two syllables will have high tones unless they are at the end of the word.


title: Tswana language

text: The letter š was introduced in 1937, but the corresponding sound is still sometimes written as ⟨sh⟩. The letters ⟨ê⟩ and ⟨ô⟩ are used in textbooks and language reference books, but not so much in daily standard writing.


title: Tswana language

text: Nouns in Tswana are grouped into nine noun classes and one subclass, each having different prefixes. The nine classes and their respective prefixes can be seen below, along with a short note regarding the common characteristics of most nouns within their respective classes.


title: Tswana language

text: Some nouns may be found in several classes. For instance, many class 1 nouns are also found in class 1a, class 3, class 4, and class 5.


title: Romani Americans

text: It is estimated that there are one million Romani people in the United States. Though the Romani population in the United States has largely assimilated into American society, the largest concentrations are in Southern California, the Pacific Northwest, Texas, Louisiana, Florida and the Northeast as well as in cities such as Chicago and St. Louis. There is also a substantial Romani community in Miami and Las Vegas. Around 200,000 Roma live in California, and about 50,000 live in Los Angeles. They are sometimes referred as "American Gypsies.” Some of the Romani population view the reference as a term of endearment which can be explored more at the https://www.gypsyloresociety.org/ and there are some that view the reference to be a racial slur.


title: Romani Americans

text: The largest wave of Romani immigrants came from the Transylvania, Wallachia and Moldavia region in the late 19th century following the abolition of Slavery in Romania in 1864. Romani immigration to the United States has continued at a steady rate ever since, with an increase of Romani immigration occurring in the late 20th century following the Porajmos in Nazi Germany and its occupied European territories and then the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe.


title: Romani Americans

text: The size of the Romani American population and the absence of a historical and cultural presence, such as the Romani have in Europe, make Americans largely unaware of the existence of the Romani as a people. The term's lack of significance within the United States prevents many Romani from using the term around non-Romani: identifying themselves by nationality rather than heritage.


title: Romani Americans

text: The Romani people originate from Northern India, presumably from the northwestern Indian states Rajasthan and Punjab.


title: Romani Americans

text: The linguistic evidence has indisputably shown that roots of Romani language lie in India: the language has grammatical characteristics of Indian languages and shares with them a big part of the basic lexicon, for example, body parts or daily routines.


title: Romani Americans

text: More exactly, Romani shares the basic lexicon with Hindi and Punjabi. It shares many phonetic features with Marwari, while its grammar is closest to Bengali.


title: Romani Americans

text: Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in northwestern India and migrated as a group.


title: Romani Americans

text: According to a genetic study in 2012, the ancestors of present scheduled tribes and scheduled caste populations of northern India, traditionally referred to collectively as the Ḍoma, are the likely ancestral populations of modern European Roma.


title: Romani Americans

text: In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, the Indian Minister of External Affairs stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India. The conference ended with a recommendation to the Government of India to recognize the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora.


title: Romani Americans

text: Romani slaves were first shipped to the Americas with Columbus in 1498. Spain sent Romani slaves to their Louisiana colony between 1762 and 1800. An Afro-Romani community exists in St. Martin Parish due to intermarriage of freed Africans and Romani slaves. The Romanichal, the first Romani group to arrive in North America in large numbers, moved to America from Britain around 1850. Eastern European Romani, the ancestors of most of the Romani population in the United States today, began immigrating to the United States on a large scale over the latter half of the 19th century after the abolition of slavery in Romania. Other countries the Romani came from during this period are Italy, Greece and Turkey. England and Scotland had shipped Romani slaves to Virginia. Massive Romani migration from Europe began in the nineteenth century. Most were Romanichal. Many resided in Ohio, Pennsylvania and Virginia. They were mostly horse traders.


title: Romani Americans

text: That wave of Romani immigration comprised Romani-speaking peoples like the Kalderash, Machvaya, Lovari, and Churari, and ethnically Romani groups that had integrated more within the Central and Eastern European societies, such as the Boyash (Ludari) of Romania and the Bashalde of Slovakia. Romani immigration, like all Central and Eastern European migration, was severely limited during the Soviet era in Central and Eastern Europe but picked up again in the 1990s after the fall of the Eastern Bloc. The Kalderash primarily came from Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Serbia.


title: Romani Americans

text: Romani Americans are concentrated in large cities such Chicago and Los Angeles and states such as New York, Virginia, Illinois, Texas, and Massachusetts.


title: Romani Americans

text: The Roma first came to Chicago during the large waves of Southern and Eastern European immigration to the United States in the 1880s until World War I. Two separate Romani subgroups settled in Chicago, the Machwaya and the Kalderash. The Machwaya came from Serbia and parts of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. They settled on the Southeast Side of Chicago.


title: Romani Americans

text: There are about 20,000 Roma in Texas. In Texas, the two main Roma populations are Vlax and Romanichal. Romani Anericans are concentrated in Houston and Fort Worth.


title: Rhashan Stone

text: Rhashan Stone is an American actor and comedian based in the UK. He is best known for appearing in many comedy shows such as "Desmond's" and "Mutual Friends". Stone is also a stage actor who has performed in numerous productions for The Royal Shakespeare Company, The National Theatre, The Royal Court and in London's West End. His roles have included the heroic soldier Claudio in "Much Ado About Nothing", Hero in the Sondheim musical "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum", and the king's brother Clarence in "Richard III". Stone is a singer and musician in a wide range of styles, including jazz, soul and gospel. He is also a classically trained singer, musician and composer, and also works occasionally as a playwright.


title: Rhashan Stone

text: When he was six years old his mother married the English singer/songwriter Russell Stone and they moved to the UK to live with him. Together, his mother and stepfather formed the singing duo R&J Stone. They were very successful and became known for their song "We Do It". His aunt Madeline Bell was also involved in the music industry and became the lead singer for Blue Mink. Stone himself is an accomplished singer multi-instrumentalist.


title: Rhashan Stone

text: When Stone was 11, his mother died from a brain tumor. Later, he joined Mountview Academy of Theatre Arts. While at Mountview, Stone was offered a role in the West End musical "Five Guys Named Moe". He has worked consistently ever since in theatre, film, and television.


title: Cubana de Aviación

text: Cubana de Aviación S.A., commonly known as Cubana, is Cuba's flag carrier, as well as the country's largest airline. It was founded in , becoming one of the earliest airlines to emerge in Latin America. It has its corporate headquarters in Havana, and its main base is located at José Martí International Airport. Originally a subsidiary of Pan American World Airways and later a private company owned by Cuban investors, Cubana has been wholly owned by the Cuban government since May 1959.


title: Cubana de Aviación

text: Cubana was a founder and is a current member of the International Air Transport Association (IATA), the International Association of Aeronautical Telecommunications (SITA) and the International Association of Latin American Air Transportation (AITAL).