title: Cornus

text: The name was explained, from as early as the 16th century itself, as derived from "dag" "skewer", as the wood of the tree was said to have been used to make butcher's skewers. This is uncertain, as the form "*dagwood" was never attested. It is also possible that the tree was named for its berry, called "dogberry" from at least the 1550s, where the implication could be that the quality of the berry is inferior, as it were "fit for a dog".


title: Cornus

text: An older name of the dogwood in English is "whipple-tree", occurring in a list of trees (as "whipultre") in Geoffrey Chaucer "Canterbury Tales".


title: Cornus

text: This name is cognate with the Middle Low German "wipel-bom" "cornel", Dutch "wepe, weype" "cornel" (the "wh-" in Chaucer is unetymological, the word would have been Middle English "wipel"). The tree was so named for waving its branches, c.f. Middle Dutch "wepelen" "totter, waver", Frisian "wepeln", German "wippen".


title: Cornus

text: The name "whippletree", also "whiffle-tree", now refers to an element of the traction of a horse-drawn cart linking the drawpole of the cart to the harnesses of the horses in file. In this sense it is first recorded in 1733. This mechanism was usually made from oak or ash (and not from dogwood), and it is unlikely that there is a connection to the name for "whipple-tree" for Cornus.


title: Cornus

text: Dogwoods have simple, untoothed leaves with the veins curving distinctively as they approach the leaf margins. Most dogwood species have opposite leaves, while a few, such as "Cornus alternifolia" and "C. controversa," have their leaves alternate. Dogwood flowers have four parts. In many species, the flowers are borne separately in open (but often dense) clusters, while in various other species (such as the flowering dogwood), the flowers themselves are tightly clustered, lacking showy petals, but surrounded by four to six large, typically white petal-like bracts.


title: Cornus

text: The fruits of all dogwood species are drupes with one or two seeds, often brightly colorful. The drupes of species in the subgenus "Cornus" are edible. Many are without much flavor. "Cornus kousa" and "Cornus mas" are sold commercially as edible fruit trees. The fruits of "Cornus kousa" have a sweet, tropical pudding like flavor in addition to hard pits. The fruits of "Cornus mas" are both tart and sweet when completely ripe. They have been eaten in Eastern Europe for centuries, both as food and medicine to fight colds and flus. They are very high in vitamin C. However, those of species in subgenus "Swida" are mildly toxic to people, though readily eaten by birds.


title: Cornus

text: Dogwoods are used as food plants by the larvae of some species of butterflies and moths, including the emperor moth, the engrailed, the small angle shades, and the following case-bearers of the genus "Coleophora": "C. ahenella", "C. salicivorella" (recorded on "Cornus canadensis"), "C. albiantennaella", "C. cornella" and "C. cornivorella," with the latter three all feeding exclusively on "Cornus."


title: Cornus

text: Dogwoods are widely planted horticulturally, and the dense wood of the larger-stemmed species is valued for certain specialized purposes. Cutting boards and fine turnings can be made from this fine grained and beautiful wood. Over 32 different varieties of game birds, including quail, feed on the red seeds.


title: Cornus

text: Various species of "Cornus," particularly the flowering dogwood "(Cornus florida)," are ubiquitous in American gardens and landscaping; horticulturist Donald Wyman stated, "There is a dogwood for almost every part of the U.S. except the hottest and driest areas". In contrast, in Northwest Europe the lack of sharp winters and hot summers makes "Cornus florida" very shy of flowering.


title: Cornus

text: Other "Cornus" species are stoloniferous shrubs that grow naturally in wet habitats and along waterways. Several of these are used along highways and in naturalizing landscape plantings, especially those species with bright red or bright yellow stems, particularly conspicuous in winter, such as "Cornus stolonifera".


title: Cornus

text: The following cultivars, of mixed or uncertain origin, have gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017):


title: Cornus

text: The species "Cornus mas" is commonly cultivated in southeastern Europe for its showy, edible berries, that have the color of the carnelian gemstone. Cornelian-cherries have one seed each and are used in syrups and preserves.


title: Cornus

text: Dense and fine-grained, dogwood timber has a density of 0.79 and is highly prized for making loom shuttles, tool handles, roller skates and other small items that require a very hard and strong wood. Though it is tough for woodworking, some artisans favor dogwood for small projects such as walking canes, arrow making, mountain dulcimers and fine inlays. Dogwood wood is an excellent substitute for persimmon wood in the heads of certain golf clubs ("woods"). Dogwood lumber is rare in that it is not readily available with any manufacturer and must be cut down by the person(s) wanting to use it.


title: Cornus

text: Larger items have also been occasionally made of dogwood, such as the screw-in basket-style wine or fruit presses. The first kinds of laminated tennis rackets were also made from this wood, cut into thin strips.


title: Cornus

text: Dogwood twigs were used by U.S. pioneers to brush their teeth. They would peel off the bark, bite the twig and then scrub their teeth.


title: Cornus

text: The bark of "Cornus" species is rich in tannins and has been used in traditional medicine as a substitute for quinine. During the American civil war, confederate soldiers made a tea from the bark to treat pain and fevers, and used dogwood leaves in a poultice to cover wounds.


title: Cornus

text: The Japanese cornel, "C. officinalis", is used in traditional Chinese medicine as "shān zhū yú" for several minor ailments.


title: Cornus

text: The following classification recognizes a single, inclusive genus "Cornus," with four subgroups and ten subgenera supported by molecular phylogeny. Geographical ranges as native plants are given below. In addition, cultivated species occasionally persist or spread from plantings beyond their native ranges, but are rarely if ever locally invasive.


title: Cornus

text: Paniculate or corymbose cymes; bracts minute, nonmodified; fruits globose or subglobose, white, blue, or black:


title: Cornus

text: Umbellate cymes; bracts modified, non-petaloid; fruits oblong, red; stone walls filled with cavities:


title: Cornus

text: The inflorescence of the Pacific dogwood "(Cornus nuttallii)" is the official flower of the province of British Columbia. The flowering dogwood ("Cornus florida") and its inflorescence are the state tree and the state flower respectively for the U.S. Commonwealth of Virginia. It is also the state tree of Missouri and the state flower of North Carolina, and the state memorial tree of New Jersey. The term "dogwood winter", in colloquial use in the American Southeast, is sometimes used to describe a cold snap in spring, presumably because farmers believed it was not safe to plant their crops until after the dogwoods blossomed.


title: Technical support scam

text: A technical support scam, or tech support scam, is a type of fraud in which a scammer claims to offer a legitimate technical support service. Victims contact scammers in a variety of ways, often through fake pop-ups resembling error messages or via fake "help lines" advertised on websites owned by the scammers. Technical support scammers use social engineering and a variety of confidence tricks to persuade their victim of the presence of problems on their computer or mobile device, such as a malware infection, when there are no issues with the victim's device. The scammer will then persuade the victim to pay to fix the fictitious "problems" that they claim to have found. Payment is made to the scammer through ways which are hard to trace and have fewer consumer protections in place which could allow the victim to claim their money back, usually through gift cards.


title: Technical support scam

text: Technical support scams have occurred as early as 2008. A 2017 study of technical support scams found that of the IPs that could be geolocated, 85% could be traced to locations in India, 7% to locations in the United States and 3% to locations in Costa Rica. Research into tech support scams suggests that millennials and those in generation Z have the highest exposure to such scams; however, senior citizens are more likely to lose money to tech support scams. Technical support scams were named by Norton as the top phishing threat to consumers in October 2021; Microsoft found that 60% of consumers who took part in a survey had been exposed to a technical support scam within the previous twelve months. Responses to technical support scams include lawsuits brought against companies responsible for running fraudulent call centres and scam baiting.


title: Technical support scam

text: The first tech support scams were recorded in 2008. Technical support scams have been seen in a variety of countries, including the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, India and South Africa.


title: Technical support scam

text: A 2017 study of technical support scams published at the NDSS Symposium found that, of the tech support scams in which the IPs involved could be geolocated, 85% could be traced to locations in India, 7% to locations in the United States and 3% to locations in Costa Rica. India has millions of English speakers who are competing for relatively few jobs. One municipality had 114 jobs and received 19,000 applicants. This high level of unemployment serves as an incentive for tech scamming jobs, which are often well-paid. Additionally, scammers exploit the levels of unemployment by offering jobs to people desperate to be employed. Many scammers do not realise they are applying and being trained for tech support scam jobs, but many decide to stay after finding out the nature of their job as they feel it is too late to back out of the job and change careers. Scammers are forced to choose between keeping their job or becoming jobless. Some scammers convince themselves that they are targeting wealthy people that have money to spare, which justifies their theft, whilst others see their job as generating "easy money".


title: Technical support scam

text: Technical support scams rely on social engineering to persuade victims that their device is infected with malware. Scammers use a variety of confidence tricks to persuade the victim to install remote desktop software, with which the scammer can then take control of the victim's computer. With this access, the scammer may then launch various Windows components and utilities (such as the Event Viewer), install third-party utilities (such as rogue security software) and perform other tasks in an effort to convince the victim that the computer has critical problems that must be remediated, such as infection with a virus. Scammers target a variety of people, though research by Microsoft suggests that millennials (defined by Microsoft as age 24-37) and people part of generation Z (age 18-23) have the highest exposure to tech support scams and the Federal Trade Commission has found that seniors (age 60 and over) are more likely to lose money to tech support scams. The scammer will urge the victim to pay so the "issues" can be fixed.


title: Technical support scam

text: Technical support scams can begin in a variety of ways. Some variants of the scam are initiated using pop-up advertising on infected websites or via cybersquatting of major websites. The victim is shown pop-ups which resemble legitimate error messages such as a Blue Screen of Death and freeze the victim's web browser. The pop-up instructs the victim to call the scammers via a phone number to fix the "error". Technical support scams can also be initiated via cold calls. These are usually robocalls which claim to be associated with a legitimate third party such as Microsoft or Apple. Technical support scams can also attract victims by purchasing keyword advertising on major search engines for phrases such as "Microsoft support". Victims who click on these adverts are taken to web pages containing the scammer's phone numbers.


title: Technical support scam

text: Once a victim has contacted a scammer, the scammer will usually instruct them to download and install a remote access program such as TeamViewer, AnyDesk, LogMeIn or GoToAssist. The scammer convinces the victim to provide them with the credentials required to initiate a remote-control session, giving the scammer complete control of the victim's desktop.


title: Technical support scam

text: After gaining access, the scammer attempts to convince the victim that the computer is suffering from problems that must be repaired, most often as the putative result of malicious hacking activity. Scammers use several methods to misrepresent the content and significance of common Windows tools and system directories as evidence of malicious activity, such as viruses and other malware. These tricks are meant to target victims who may be unfamiliar with the actual uses of these tools, such as inexperienced users and senior citizens. The scammer then coaxes the victim into paying for the scammer's services or software, which they claim is designed to "repair" or "clean" the computer but is actually malware that infects it or software that causes other damage, or does nothing at all.


title: Technical support scam

text: The preferred method of payment in a technical support scam is through gift cards. Gift cards are favoured by scammers because they are readily available to buy and have less consumer protections in place that could allow the victim to reclaim their money back. Additionally, the usage of gift cards as payment allows the scammers to extract money quickly whilst remaining anonymous. Tech support scammers have also been known to ask for payment in the form of cryptocurrency, cheques and direct bank transfers made through automated clearing house (the latter only gives victims 60 days to recover their funds).


title: Technical support scam

text: If a victim refuses to follow the scammer's instructions or to pay them, scammers have been known to resort to insulting and threatening their victim to procure payment. Crimes threatened to be inflicted on victims or their families by scammers have ranged from theft, fraud and extortion, to serious crimes such as rape and murder. Canadian citizen Jakob Dulisse reported to CBC that, upon asking the scammer why he had been targeted, the scammer responded with a death threat; 'Anglo people who travel to the country' (India) were 'cut up in little pieces and thrown in the river.' Scammers have also been known to lock uncooperative victims out of their computer using the codice_7 utility (present only in Windows versions previous to Windows 10) or third party applications which they install on the victim's computer, and to delete documents and/or programs essential to the operation of the victim's computer if they do not receive payment.


title: Technical support scam

text: Microsoft commissioned a survey by YouGov across 16 countries in July 2021 to research tech support scams and their impact on consumers. The survey found that approximately 60% of consumers who participated had been exposed to a technical support scam within the last 12 months. Victims reported losing an average of 200 USD to the scammers and many faced repeated interactions from other scammers once they had been successfully scammed. Norton named technical support scams as the top phishing threat to consumers in October 2021, having blocked over 12.3 million tech support scam URLs between July and September 2021.


title: Technical support scam

text: Legal action has been taken against some companies carrying out technical support scams. In December 2014, Microsoft filed a lawsuit against a California-based company operating such scams for "misusing Microsoft's name and trademarks" and "creating security issues for victims by gaining access to their computers and installing malicious software, including a password grabber that could provide access to personal and financial information". In December 2015, the state of Washington sued the firm iYogi for scamming consumers and making false claims in order to scare the users into buying iYogi's diagnostic software. iYogi was also accused of falsely claiming that they were affiliated with Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard and Apple.


title: Technical support scam

text: In September 2011, Microsoft dropped gold partner Comantra from its Microsoft Partner Network following accusations of involvement in cold-call technical-support scams. However, the ease of which companies that carry out technical support scams can be launched makes it difficult to prevent tech support scams from taking place.


title: Technical support scam

text: Major search engines such as Bing and Google have taken steps to restrict the promotion of fake technical support websites through keyword advertising. Microsoft-owned advertising network Bing Ads (which services ad sales on Bing and Yahoo! Search engines) amended its terms of service in May 2016 to prohibit the advertising of third-party technical support services or ads claiming to "provide a service that can only be provided by the actual owner of the products or service advertised". Google announced a verification program in 2018 in an attempt to restrict advertising for third-party tech support to legitimate companies.


title: Technical support scam

text: Tech support scammers are regularly targeted by scam baiting, with individuals seeking to raise awareness of these scams by uploading recordings on platforms like YouTube, cause scammers inconvenience by wasting their time and protect potential victims.


title: Technical support scam

text: Advanced scam baiters may infiltrate the scammer's computer, and potentially disable it by deploying RATs, distributed denial of service attacks and destructive malware. Scam baiters may also attempt to lure scammers into exposing their unethical practices by leaving dummy files or malware disguised as confidential information such as credit/debit card information and passwords on a virtual machine, which the scammer may attempt to steal, only to become infected. Sensitive information important to carrying out further investigations by a law enforcement agency may be retrieved, and additional information on the rogue firm may then be posted or compiled online to warn potential victims.


title: Technical support scam

text: In March 2020, an anonymous YouTuber under the alias Jim Browning successfully infiltrated and gathered drone and CCTV footage of a fraudulent call centre scam operation through the help of fellow YouTube personality Karl Rock. Through the aid of the British documentary programme "Panorama", a police raid was carried out when the documentary was brought to the attention of assistant police commissioner Karan Goel, leading to the arrest of call centre operator Amit Chauhan who also operated a fraudulent travel agency under the name "Faremart Travels".


title: The Space Trilogy

text: The Space Trilogy or Cosmic Trilogy is a series of science fiction novels by C. S. Lewis. The trilogy consists of "Out of the Silent Planet" (1938), "Perelandra" (1943), and "That Hideous Strength" (1945). A philologist named Elwin Ransom is the protagonist of the first two novels and an important character in the third.


title: The Space Trilogy

text: In 1958, the publishing house Avon published an abridged edition of "That Hideous Strength" entitled "The Tortured Planet".


title: The Space Trilogy

text: The other main literary influence was David Lindsay's "A Voyage to Arcturus" (1920): "The real father of my planet books is David Lindsay’s "A Voyage to Arcturus", which you also will revel in if you don’t know it. I had grown up on Wells's stories of that kind: it was Lindsay who first gave me the idea that the ‘scientifiction’ appeal could be combined with the ‘supernatural’ appeal."


title: The Space Trilogy

text: The books are not especially concerned with technological speculation, and in many ways read like fantasy adventures combined with themes of biblical history and classical mythology. Many of the names in the trilogy reflect the influence of Lewis's friend J.R.R. Tolkien's Elvish languages.


title: The Space Trilogy

text: The character of Elwin Ransom appears similar to Lewis himself: A university professor, an expert in languages and medieval literature, unmarried (Lewis did not marry until his fifties), wounded in World War I, and with no living relatives except for one sibling. Lewis, however, apparently intended for Ransom to be partially patterned after his friend and fellow Oxford professor J. R. R. Tolkien, since Lewis is presented as novelizing Ransom's reminiscences in the epilogue of "Out of the Silent Planet" and is a character-narrator in the frame tale for "Perelandra". In "That Hideous Strength", Ransom--with his royal charisma and casual acceptance of the supernatural--appears more like Charles Williams (or some of the heroes in Williams's books).


title: The Space Trilogy

text: In "Out of the Silent Planet" it is suggested that "Ransom" is not the character's real name but merely an alias for a respectable professor whose reputation might suffer from his recounting such a journey to the planet Mars. In the following books, however, this is unaccountably dropped and it is made clear that Ransom is the character's true name. As befits a philologist, he provides an etymology: The name is a contraction of the Old English for "Ranolf's Son". This may be another allusion to Tolkien, a professor of Old English. However, the name "Ransom" holds a deeper meaning. In "Perelandra", the voice of Maleldil (Jesus) tells Ransom, "'It is not for nothing that you are named Ransom'", and later adds, "'My name also is Ransom'".


title: The Space Trilogy

text: An unfinished manuscript, published posthumously in 1977 and named "The Dark Tower" by Walter Hooper, its editor, features Elwin Ransom in a less central role as involved with an experiment that allows its participants to view on a special screen their own location in a parallel universe. Its authenticity was impeached by Lewis scholar Kathryn Lindskoog in her criticism of Walter Hooper, but in 2003 Alastair Fowler established its authenticity when he wrote in the "Yale Review" that he saw Lewis writing the manuscript that would be subsequently published as "The Dark Tower", heard him reading it and discussed it with him; he further stated that he gained the impression that the piece was an abandoned first attempt to write a sequel to "Out of the Silent Planet".


title: The Space Trilogy

text: Ransom gets much information on cosmology from the Oyarsa (presiding angel) of Malacandra, or Mars. Maleldil, the son of the Old One, ruled the Field of Arbol (the Solar System). But then the Bent One (the Oyarsa of Earth, or Satan) rebelled against Maleldil and all the eldila (much as Morgoth rebelled against Eru and the other Valar in Tolkien's "Silmarillion") of Deep Heaven (outer space). The Bent One was frustrated by Maleldil decreeing that, once humans have been created, the Oyarsa of Earth would have to cede control of the planet to them - a concession not demanded of his colleague of Mars/Malacandra, who was left to rule over the planet's intelligent beings. The Bent One first tried to seduce the Martians, who then had the technology to build spaceships, to colonize Earth and live there as his subjects. This plan - directly contradicting Maleldil's plans for Earth - was foiled by the other Oyéresu. Thereupon, the Bent One attacked Mars and inflicted vast damage there, causing the complete extinction of its winged creatures (who might have been an additional intelligent species, birds, or both - the reference is not clear). Only with enormous effort was life on Mars preserved.


title: The Space Trilogy

text: This is, in effect, Lewis' version of the events known in Christian theology as The War in Heaven: 7 Then war broke out in heaven. Michael and his angels fought against the dragon, and the dragon and his angels fought back. 8 But he was not strong enough, and they lost their place in heaven. 9 The great dragon was hurled down—that ancient serpent called the devil, or Satan, who leads the whole world astray. He was hurled to the earth, and his angels with him. [Revelation 12:7–10 (NIV)].


title: The Space Trilogy

text: In response to his destructive acts, the Bent One suffered confinement on Earth, where he inflicted great evil. He made Earth a silent planet, cut off from the Oyéresu of other planets; thus, Earth is referred to by the name 'Thulcandra', the Silent Planet. The Bent One, or Satan, seduced Adam and Eve and caused the Original Sin in order to make humans unworthy of getting custody of the planet, as Maleldil intended. He then continues to tempt humans into evil, so as to continue their unworthiness. However, he hates the humans, whose advent was forced upon him by Maleldil, and he mistreats and tortures also the humans who submitted to him - as seen in his treatment of Professor Weston in "Perelandra" and of the N.I.C.E. directors in the end of "That Hideous Strength". Maleldil incarnated as a man on Thulcandra to save the human race. According to the Green Lady, Tinidril (Mother of Perelandra, or Venus), Thulcandra is favored among all the worlds because Maleldil came to it to become a man.


title: The Space Trilogy

text: Earth will remain a silent planet until the end of the great Siege of Deep Heaven against the Oyarsa of Earth. The siege starts to end (with the Oyéresu of other worlds descending to Earth) at the finale of the trilogy, "That Hideous Strength". But there is still much to happen until the Oyéresu put an end to the rule of the Bent Eldil and, on the way, smash the Moon to fragments.


title: The Space Trilogy

text: In the Field of Arbol, the outer planets are older than the inner planets. Asteroids are called "dancers before the threshold of the Great Worlds."


title: The Space Trilogy

text: The "eldila" (singular "eldil") are super-human spirits. The human characters in the trilogy encounter them on various planets, but the eldila themselves are native to interplanetary and interstellar space ("Deep Heaven"). They can, if they want, remain fixed to one point on a planet's surface - but that requires a conscious act on their part, without which they would instantly drift away into space.


title: The Space Trilogy

text: Certain very powerful eldila, the "Oyéresu" (singular "Oyarsa"), control the course of nature on each of the planets of the Solar System. They can manifest in corporeal forms. The title "Oyarsa" seems to indicate the function of leadership, regardless of the leader's species; when the Perelandran human Tor assumes rule of his world, he styles himself "Tor-Oyarsa-Perelendri" (presumably "Tor, Ruler of Perelandra").


title: The Space Trilogy

text: The eldila are science-fictionalised depictions of angels, immortal and holy. (As Lewis implies in Chapter 22 of "Out of the Silent Planet", the name "Oyarsa" was suggested by "Oyarses", the name given in Bernard Silvestris's "Cosmographia" to the governors of the celestial spheres. Bernard's word was almost certainly a corruption—or a deliberate alteration—of Greek οὐσιάρχης ["ousiarches", "lords of being"], used with the same meaning in the Hermetic "Asclepius".) The eldila resident on Earth are "dark eldila"; in other words, fallen angels or demons. The "Oyarsa" of Earth, the "Bent One", is Satan. During the trilogy, Ransom meets the Oyéresu of both Mars and Venus, who are described as being masculine (but not actually male) and feminine (but not actually female), respectively. The Oyéresu of other worlds have characteristics like those of the corresponding classical gods; for instance, the Oyarsa of Jupiter gives a feeling of merriment (joviality). It is made clear that they are identical with the gods and goddesses of the Greco-Roman pantheon, but that the Greeks and Romans were wrong to worship them as gods—in fact, they are angels, faithful servants of the one and only true God, Maleldil. As noted by Lewis in the non-fiction book "The Discarded Image", the identification of the Greco-Roman gods as angels can be traced to late medieval and Renaissance times, when European intellectuals rediscovered and highly valued works of classical antiquity where references to these gods abound, and this needed to be reconciled with these intellectuals' Christian faith.


title: The Space Trilogy

text: "Hnau" is a word in the Old Solar language which refers to "rational animals" such as humans. In the book, the Old Solar speaker specifies that God is not "hnau", and is unsure whether eldila can be termed "hnau", deciding that if they are "hnau", they are a different kind of "hnau" than humans or Martians.


title: The Space Trilogy

text: The term was adopted by some others, including Lewis's friend J. R. R. Tolkien; Tolkien used the term in The Notion Club Papers, which were not published in his lifetime. Tolkien distinguished "hnau" from beings of pure spirit or spirits able to assume a body (which is not essential to their nature). Similarly, a character in James Blish's science fiction novel "A Case of Conscience" wonders whether a particular alien is a "hnau", which he defines as having "a rational soul".


title: The Space Trilogy

text: The term has been used by philosopher Thomas I. White in "Is a Dolphin a Person?" White asks if dolphins are persons, and if they are, whether they can also be reckoned as "hnau".


title: The Space Trilogy

text: According to the Space Trilogy's cosmology, the language of all the inhabitants of the Field of Arbol is Old Solar, or "Hlab-Eribol-ef-Cordi". Only Earth lost the language; this loss was due to the Bent One's influence. Old Solar can be likened to the Elvish languages invented by Lewis's friend, Tolkien. The grammar is little known, except for the plurals of nouns. The plurals of some words ("hross, eldil") are simple, only adding a final "-a" or "-i"; others (as for "Oyarsa, sorn, hnakra"), are quite complex broken plurals, adding an internal "-é-", and adding or altering a final vowel (usually to "-i" or "-u"), and may also include internal metathesis ("Oyéresu, séroni, hnéraki"). Old Solar is also referred to as "the Great Tongue":


title: The Space Trilogy

text: The cosmology of all three books—in which the "Oyéresu" of Mars and Venus somewhat resemble the corresponding gods from classical mythology—derives from Lewis's interest in medieval beliefs. Lewis discusses these ideas in his book "The Discarded Image", which was published much later than the Space Trilogy. Lewis was intrigued with the ways medieval authors borrowed concepts from pre-Christian religion and science and attempted to reconcile them with Christianity, and with the lack of a clear distinction between natural and supernatural phenomena in medieval thought. The Space Trilogy also plays on themes in Lewis's essay "Religion and Rocketry", which argues that as long as humanity remains flawed and sinful, our exploration of other planets will tend to do them more harm than good. Furthermore, much of the substance of the argument between Ransom and Weston in "Perelandra" is found in Lewis's book "Miracles". Links between Lewis's "Space Trilogy" and his other writings are discussed at great length in Michael Ward's "Planet Narnia" and in Kathryn Lindskoog's "C.S. Lewis: Mere Christian".


title: The Space Trilogy

text: In "That Hideous Strength", Lewis alludes several times to Tolkien's Atlantean civilization Numinor (spelt Númenor by Tolkien), saying in the foreword, "Those who would like to learn further about Numinor and the True West must (alas!) await the publication of much that still exists only in the MSS. of my friend, Professor J. R. R. Tolkien."


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: The presidency of Theodore Roosevelt started on September 14, 1901, when Theodore Roosevelt became the 26th president of the United States upon the assassination of President William McKinley, and ended on March 4, 1909. Roosevelt had been the vice president for only days when he succeeded to the presidency. A Republican, he ran for and won by a landslide a four-year term in 1904. He was succeeded by his protégé and chosen successor, William Howard Taft.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: A Progressive reformer, Roosevelt earned a reputation as a "trust buster" through his regulatory reforms and antitrust prosecutions. His presidency saw the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act, which established the Food and Drug Administration to regulate food safety, and the Hepburn Act, which increased the regulatory power of the Interstate Commerce Commission. Roosevelt took care, however, to show that he did not disagree with trusts and capitalism in principle, but was only against monopolistic practices. His "Square Deal" included regulation of railroad rates and pure foods and drugs; he saw it as a fair deal for both the average citizen and the businessmen. Sympathetic to both business and labor, Roosevelt avoided labor strike, most notably negotiating a settlement to the great Coal Strike of 1902. He vigorously promoted the conservation movement, emphasizing efficient use of natural resources. He dramatically expanded the system of national parks and national forests. After 1906, he moved to the left, denouncing the rich, attacking trusts, proposing a welfare state, and supporting labor unions.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: In foreign affairs, Roosevelt sought to uphold the Monroe Doctrine and to establish the United States as a strong naval power, he took charge of building the Panama Canal, which greatly increased access to the Pacific and increased American security interests and trade opportunities. He inherited the colonial empire acquired in the Spanish–American War (1898). He ended the United States Military Government in Cuba and committed to a long-term occupation of the Philippines. Much of his foreign policy focused on the threats posed by Japan in the Pacific and Germany in the Caribbean Sea. Seeking to minimize European power in Latin America, he mediated the Venezuela Crisis and declared the Roosevelt Corollary. Roosevelt mediated the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), for which he won the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize. He pursued closer relations with Great Britain. Biographer William Harbaugh argues:


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Historian Thomas Bailey, who generally disagreed with Roosevelt's policies, nevertheless concluded, "Roosevelt was a great personality, a great activist, a great preacher of the moralities, a great controversialist, a great showman. He dominated his era as he dominated conversations...the masses loved him; he proved to be a great popular idol and a great vote-getter." His image stands alongside George Washington, Thomas Jefferson and Abraham Lincoln on Mount Rushmore. Although Roosevelt has been criticized by some for his imperialism stance, he is often ranked by historians among the top-five greatest U.S. presidents of all time.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt served as assistant secretary of the navy and governor of New York before winning election as William McKinley's running mate in the 1900 presidential election. Roosevelt became president following the assassination of McKinley by anarchist Leon Czolgosz in Buffalo, New York; Czolgosz shot McKinley on September 6, 1901, and McKinley died on September 14. Roosevelt was sworn into office on the day of McKinley's death at the Ansley Wilcox House in Buffalo. John R. Hazel, U.S. District Judge for the Western District of New York, administered the oath of office. At age 41, Roosevelt became the youngest president in U.S. history, a distinction he still retains.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt would later state that he came into office without any particular domestic policy goals. He broadly adhered to most Republican positions on economic issues, with the partial exception of the protective tariff. Roosevelt had stronger views on the particulars of his foreign policy, as he wanted the United States to assert itself as a great power in international relations.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Anxious to ensure a smooth transition, Roosevelt convinced the members of McKinley's cabinet, most notably Secretary of State John Hay and Secretary of the Treasury Lyman J. Gage, to remain in office. Another holdover, Secretary of War Elihu Root, had been a Roosevelt confidante for years, and he continued to serve as President Roosevelt's close ally. Attorney General Philander C. Knox, who McKinley had appointed in early 1901, also emerged as a powerful force within the Roosevelt administration. McKinley's personal secretary, George B. Cortelyou, remained in place. Once Congress began its session in December 1901, Roosevelt replaced Gage with L. M. Shaw and appointed Henry C. Payne as Postmaster General, earning the approval of powerful Senators William B. Allison and John Coit Spooner. He replaced Secretary of the Navy John D. Long, with Congressman William H. Moody. In 1903, Roosevelt named Cortelyou as the first head of the Department of Commerce and Labor, and William Loeb Jr. became Roosevelt's secretary.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Root returned to the private sector in 1904 and was replaced by William Howard Taft, who had previously served as the governor-general of the Philippines. Knox accepted appointment to the Senate in 1904 and was replaced by William Moody, who in turn was succeeded as attorney general by Charles Joseph Bonaparte in 1906. After Hay's death in 1905, Roosevelt convinced Root to return to the Cabinet as secretary of state, and Root remained in office until the final days of Roosevelt's tenure. In 1907, Roosevelt replaced Shaw with Cortelyou, while James R. Garfield became the new secretary of the interior.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Building on McKinley's innovative and effective use of the press, Roosevelt made the White House the center of national news every day, providing interviews and photo opportunities. Noticing the reporters huddled outside in the rain one day, he gave them their own room inside, effectively inventing the presidential press briefing.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: The grateful press, with unprecedented access to the White House, rewarded Roosevelt with ample coverage, rendered the more possible by Roosevelt's practice of screening out reporters he did not like.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt appointed three associate justices of the Supreme Court. Roosevelt's first appointment, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. had served as chief justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Court since 1899. Confirmed in December 1902, Holmes served on the Supreme Court until 1932. Some of Holmes's antitrust decisions angered Roosevelt and they stopped being friends. Roosevelt's second appointment, former Secretary of State William R. Day, became a reliable vote for Roosevelt's antitrust prosecutions and remained on the court from 1903 to 1922. In 1906, after considering Democratic appellate judge Horace Harmon Lurton for a Supreme Court vacancy, Roosevelt instead appointed Attorney General William Moody. Moody served until health problems forced his retirement in 1910.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt also appointed 71 other federal judges: 18 to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 53 to the United States district courts. These nominations were prepared by the Justice Department, in consultation with Republican leaders, especially senators from the home state. The average age of the appointees was 50.7 years, with 22 percent younger than 45.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt was deeply immersed in the ethos of the Progressive era and was determined to create what he called a "Square Deal" of efficiency and opportunity for every citizen. Roosevelt pushed several pieces of progressive legislation through Congress. Progressivism was the dominant force of the day, and Roosevelt was its most articulate spokesperson. Progressivism had dual aspects. First, progressivism promoted use of science, engineering, technology, and social sciences to address the nation's problems, and identify ways to eliminate waste and inefficiency and promote modernization. Those promoting progressivism also campaigned against corruption among political machines, labor unions, and trusts of new, large corporations, which emerged at the turn of the century. In describing Roosevelt's priorities and characteristics as president, historian G. Warren Chessman noted Roosevelt's


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Public attention focused on the trusts--economic monopolies--typically blamed for raising inflation. Roosevelt seized the issue and became identified as the "trusty buster," although he typically wanted to regulate the trusts rather than break them up. In the 1890s many large businesses, most notoriously Standard Oil, had bought out their rivals or had established business arrangements that effectively stifled competition. Many companies followed the model of Standard Oil, which organized itself as a trust in which several component corporations were controlled by one board of directors. While Congress had passed the 1890 Sherman Antitrust Act to make illegal some moves toward monopoly, the Supreme Court had limited the power of the act in the case of "United States v. E. C. Knight Co.". By 1902, the 100 largest corporations held control of 40 percent of industrial capital in the United States. Roosevelt did not oppose all trusts, but sought to regulate trusts that he believed harmed the public, which he labeled as "bad trusts." According to Leroy Dorsey, Roosevelt told voters that corporations were needed in modern America (and Muckrakers should cool their angry exaggerations). Roosevelt then took the role of moral guardian and advised corporate executives they must adhere to ethical standards. He told them business could be effectively conducted only in terms of a sense of morality and a spirit of public service.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Upon taking office, Roosevelt proposed new federal regulation of trusts. As the states had not prevented the growth of what he viewed as harmful trusts, Roosevelt advocated the creation of Cabinet department designed to regulate corporations engaged in interstate commerce. He also favored amending the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, which had failed to prevent the consolidation of railroads. In February 1902, the Justice Department announced that it would file an antitrust suit against the Northern Securities Company, a railroad holding company that had been formed in 1901 by J. P. Morgan, James J. Hill, and E. H. Harriman. As the Justice Department lacked an antitrust division, Attorney General Knox, a former corporate lawyer, personally led the suit. While the case was working its way through court, Knox filed another case against the "Beef Trust," which had become unpopular due to rising meat prices. Combined with his earlier rhetoric, the suits signaled Roosevelt's resolve to strengthen the federal regulation of trusts.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: After the 1902 elections, Roosevelt called for a ban on railroad rebates to large industrial concerns, as well as for the creation of a Bureau of Corporations to study and report on monopolistic practices. To pass his antitrust package through Congress, Roosevelt appealed directly to the people, casting the legislation as a blow against the malevolent power of Standard Oil. Roosevelt's campaign proved successful, and he won congressional approval of the creation of the Department of Commerce and Labor, which included the Bureau of Corporations. The Bureau of Corporations was designed to monitor and report on anti-competitive practices; Roosevelt believed that large companies would be less likely to engage in anti-competitive practices if such practices were publicized. At Knox's request, Congress also authorized the creation of the Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice. Roosevelt also won passage of the Elkins Act, which restricted the granting of railroad rebates.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: In March 1904, the Supreme Court ruled for the government in the case of "Northern Securities Co. v. United States". According to historian Michael McGerr, the case represented the federal government's first victorious prosecution of a "single, tightly integrated interstate corporation." The following year, the administration won another major victory in Swift and Company v. United States, which broke up the Beef Trust. The evidence at trial demonstrated that, prior to 1902, the "Big Six" leading meatpackers had engaged in a conspiracy to fix prices and divide the market for livestock and meat in their quest for higher prices and higher profits. They blacklisted competitors who failed to go along, used false bids, and accepted rebates from the railroads. After they were hit with federal injunctions in 1902, the Big Six had merged into one company, allowing them to continue to control the trade internally. Speaking for the unanimous court, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. held that interstate commerce included actions that were part of the chain where the chain was clearly interstate in character. In this case, the chain ran from farm to retail store and crossed many state lines.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Following his re-election, Roosevelt sought to quickly enact a bold legislative agenda, focusing especially on legislation that would build upon the regulatory accomplishments of his first term. Events during his first term had convinced Roosevelt that legislation enacting additional federal regulation of interstate commerce was necessary, as the states were incapable of regulating large trusts that operated across state lines and the overworked Department of Justice was unable to provide an adequate check on monopolistic practices through antitrust cases alone. Roused by reports in McClure's Magazine, many Americans joined Roosevelt in calling for an enhancement to the Elkins Act, which had done relatively little to restrict the granting of railroad rebates. Roosevelt also sought to strengthen the powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which had been created in 1887 to regulate railroads. Roosevelt's call for regulatory legislation, published in his 1905 message to Congress, encountered strong opposition from business interests and conservative congressmen.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: When Congress reconvened in late 1905, Roosevelt asked Senator Jonathan P. Dolliver of Iowa to introduce a bill that would incorporate Roosevelt's railroad regulatory proposals, and set about mobilizing public and congressional support for the bill. The bill was also taken up in the House, where it became known as the Hepburn Bill, named after Congressman William Peters Hepburn. While the bill passed the House with relative ease, the Senate, dominated by conservative Republicans like Nelson Aldrich, posed a greater challenge. Seeking to defeat reform efforts, Aldrich arranged it so that Democrat Benjamin Tillman, a Southern senator who Roosevelt despised, was left in charge of the bill. Because railroad regulation was widely popular, opponents of the Hepburn Bill focused on the role of courts in reviewing the ICC's rate-setting. Roosevelt and progressives wanted to limit judicial review to issues of procedural fairness, while conservatives favored "broad review" that would allow judges to determine whether the rates themselves were fair.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: After Roosevelt and Tillman were unable to assemble a bipartisan majority behind a bill that restricted judicial review, Roosevelt accepted an amendment written by Senator Allison that contained vague language allowing for court review of the ICC's rate-setting power. With the inclusion of the Allison amendment, the Senate passed the Hepburn Bill in a 71-to-3 vote. After both houses of Congress passed a uniform law, Roosevelt signed the Hepburn Act into law on June 29, 1906. In addition to rate-setting, the Hepburn Act also granted the ICC regulatory power over pipeline fees, storage contracts, and several other aspects of railroad operations. Though some conservatives believed that the Allison amendment had granted broad review powers to the courts, a subsequent Supreme Court case limited judicial power to review the ICC's rate-setting powers.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: In response to public clamor largely arising from the popularity of Upton Sinclair's novel, "The Jungle", Roosevelt also pushed Congress to enact food safety regulations. Opposition to a meat inspection bill was strongest in the House, due to the presence of conservative Speaker of the House Joseph Gurney Cannon and allies of the meatpacking industry. Roosevelt and Cannon agreed to a compromise bill that became the Meat Inspection Act of 1906. Congress simultaneously passed the Pure Food and Drug Act, which received strong support in both the House and the Senate. Collectively, the laws provided for the labeling of foods and drugs and the inspection of livestock, and mandated sanitary conditions at meatpacking plants.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Seeking to bolster antitrust regulations, Roosevelt and his allies introduced a bill to enhance the Sherman Act in 1908, but it was defeated in Congress. In the aftermath of a series of scandals involving major insurance companies, Roosevelt sought to establish a National Bureau of Insurance to provide federal regulation, but this proposal was also defeated. Roosevelt continued to launch antitrust suits in his second term, and a suit against Standard Oil in 1906 would lead to that company's break-up in 1911. In addition to the antitrust suits and major regulatory reform efforts, the Roosevelt administration also won the cooperation of many large trusts, who consented to regulation by the Bureau of Corporations. Among the companies that voluntarily agreed to regulation was U.S. Steel, which avoided an antitrust suit by allowing the Bureau of Corporations to investigate its operations.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt was a prominent conservationist, putting the issue high on the national agenda. Roosevelt's conservation efforts were aimed not just at environment protection, but also at ensuring that society as a whole, rather than just select individuals or companies, benefited from the country's natural resources. His key adviser and subordinate on environmental matters was Gifford Pinchot, the head of the Bureau of Forestry. Roosevelt increased Pinchot's power over environmental issues by transferring control over national forests from the Department of the Interior to the Bureau of Forestry, which was part of the Agriculture Department. Pinchot's agency was renamed to the United States Forest Service, and Pinchot presided over the implementation of assertive conservationist policies in national forests.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt encouraged the Newlands Reclamation Act of 1902, which promoted federal construction of dams to irrigate small farms and placed 230 million acres (360,000 mi or 930,000 km) under federal protection. In 1906, Congress passed the Antiquities Act, granting the president the power to create national monuments in federal lands. Roosevelt set aside more federal land, national parks, and nature preserves than all of his predecessors combined. Roosevelt established the Inland Waterways Commission to coordinate construction of water projects for both conservation and transportation purposes, and in 1908 he hosted the Conference of Governors. This was the first time governors had ever met together and the goal was to boost and coordinate support for conservation. Roosevelt then established the National Conservation Commission to take an inventory of the nation's natural resources.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt's policies faced opposition from both environmental activists like John Muir and opponents of conservation like Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado. While Muir, the founder of the Sierra Club, wanted nature preserved for the sake of pure beauty, Roosevelt subscribed to Pinchot's formulation, "to make the forest produce the largest amount of whatever crop or service will be most useful, and keep on producing it for generation after generation of men and trees." Teller and other opponents of conservation, meanwhile, believed that conservation would prevent the economic development of the West and feared the centralization of power in Washington. The backlash to Roosevelt's ambitious policies prevented further conservation efforts in the final years of Roosevelt's presidency and would later contribute to the Pinchot–Ballinger controversy during the Taft administration.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt was generally reluctant to involve himself in labor-management disputes, but he believed that presidential intervention was justified when such disputes threatened the public interest. Labor union membership had doubled in the five years preceding Roosevelt's inauguration, and at the time of his accession, Roosevelt saw labor unrest as the greatest potential threat facing the nation. Yet he also sympathized with many laborers due to the harsh conditions that many faced. Resisting the more extensive reforms proposed by labor leaders such as Samuel Gompers of the American Federation of Labor (AFL), Roosevelt established the open shop as the official policy for civil service employees.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: In 1899, the United Mine Workers (UMW) had expanded its influence from bituminous coal mines to anthracite coal mines. The UMW organized an anthracite coal strike in May 1902, seeking an eight-hour day and pay increases. Hoping to reach a negotiated solution with the help of Mark Hanna's National Civic Federation, UMW president John Mitchell prevented bituminous coal miners from launching a sympathy strike. The mine owners, who wanted to crush the UMW, refused to negotiate, and the strike continued. In the ensuing months, the price of coal increased from five dollars per ton to above fifteen dollars per ton. Seeking to help the two parties arrive at a solution, Roosevelt hosted the UMW leaders and mine operators at the White House in October 1902, but the mine owners refused to negotiate. Through the efforts of Roosevelt, Root, and J.P. Morgan, the mine operators agreed to the establishment of a presidential commission to propose a solution to the strike. In March 1903, the commission mandated pay increases and a reduction in the workday from ten hours to nine hours. At the insistence of the mine owners, the UMW was not granted official recognition as the representative of the miners.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt refrained from major interventions in labor disputes after 1902, but state and federal courts increasingly became involved, issuing injunctions to prevent labor actions. Tensions were particularly high in Colorado, where the Western Federation of Miners led a series of strikes that became part of a struggle known as the Colorado Labor Wars. Roosevelt did not intervene in the Colorado Labor Wars, but Governor James Hamilton Peabody dispatched the Colorado National Guard to crush the strikes. In 1905, radical union leaders like Mary Harris Jones and Eugene V. Debs established the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), which criticized the conciliatory policies of the AFL.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Although Roosevelt did some work improving race relations, he, like most leaders of the Progressive Era, lacked initiative on most racial issues. Booker T. Washington, the most important black leader of the day, was the first African American to be invited to dinner at the White House, dining there on October 16, 1901. Washington, who had emerged as an important adviser to Republican politicians in the 1890s, favored accommodation with the Jim Crow laws that instituted racial segregation. News of the dinner reached the press two days later, and public outcry from whites was so strong, especially from the Southern states, that Roosevelt never repeated the experiment. Nonetheless, Roosevelt continued to consult Washington regarding appointments and shunned the "lily-white" Southern Republicans who favored excluding blacks from office.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: After the highly controversial dinner with Washington, Roosevelt continued to speak out against lynchings, but did little to advance the cause of African-American civil rights. He reduced the number of blacks holding federal patronage. In 1906, he approved the dishonorable discharges of three companies of black soldiers who all refused his direct order to testify regarding their actions during a violent episode in Brownsville, Texas, known as the [[Brownsville affair]. Roosevelt was widely criticized by Northern newspapers for the discharges, and Republican Senator [[Joseph B. Foraker]] won passage of a congressional resolution directing the administration to turn over all documents related to the case. The controversy hung over the remainder of his presidency, although the Senate eventually concluded that the dismissals had been justified.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: In 1907, Roosevelt faced the greatest domestic economic crisis since the [[Panic of 1893]]. The U.S. [[stock market]] entered a slump in early 1907, and many in the financial markets blamed Roosevelt's regulatory policies for the decline in stock prices. Lacking a strong [[History of central banking in the United States|central banking system]], the government was unable to coordinate a response to the economic downturn. The slump reached a full-blown panic in October 1907, when two investors failed to take over [[United Copper]]. Working with Secretary of the Treasury Cortelyou, financier J.P. Morgan organized a group of businessmen to avert a crash by pledging their own money. Roosevelt aided Morgan's intervention by allowing U.S. Steel to acquire the [[Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company]] despite antitrust concerns, and by authorizing Cortelyou to raise bonds and commit federal funds to the banks. Roosevelt's reputation in [[Wall Street]] fell to new lows following the panic, but the president remained broadly popular. In the aftermath of the panic, most congressional leaders agreed on the need to reform the nation's financial system. With the support of Roosevelt, Senator Aldrich introduced a bill to allow [[History of central banking in the United States#1863–1913: National Banks|National Banks]] to issue emergency currency, but his proposal was defeated by Democrats and progressive Republicans who believed that it was overly favorable to Wall Street. Congress instead passed the [[Aldrich–Vreeland Act]], which created the [[National Monetary Commission]] to study the nation's banking system; the commission's recommendations would later form the basis of the [[Federal Reserve System]].


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt exploded in anger at the super-rich for the economic malfeasance, calling them "malefactors of great wealth." In a major speech in August entitled, "The Puritan Spirit and the Regulation of Corporations." Trying to restore confidence, he blamed the crisis primarily on Europe, but then, after saluting the unbending rectitude of the Puritans, he went on: It may well be that the determination of the government...to punish certain malefactors of great wealth, has been responsible for something of the trouble; at least to the extent of having caused these men to combine to bring about as much financial stress as possible, in order to discredit the policy of the government and thereby secure a reversal of that policy, so that they may enjoy unmolested the fruits of their own evil-doing.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Regarding the very wealthy, Roosevelt privately scorned, "their entire unfitness to govern the country, and...the lasting damage they do by much of what they think are the legitimate big business operations of the day."


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: High tariffs had always been Republican Party orthodoxy. However, the western elements wanted lower tariffs on industrial products while keeping rates high on farm products. Democrats had a powerful campaign issue to the effect that high tariffs enriched big business and hurt consumers; they wanted to sharply lower rates and impose an income tax on the rich. Roosevelt realized the political dilemma and avoided or postponed the tariff issue for his entire presidency; it exploded under his successor and hurt Taft badly. The tariff protected domestic manufacturing against foreign competition, and kept wages high in American factories, thus attracting immigrants. Its taxes on imports produced over one-third of federal revenue in 1901. McKinley had been a committed protectionist, and the [[Dingley Act|Dingley Tariff]] of 1897 represented a major increase in tariff rates. McKinley also negotiated bilateral reciprocity treaties with France, Argentina, and other countries in an attempt to expand foreign trade while still keeping overall tariff rates high. Unlike all other previous Republican presidents, Roosevelt had never been a strong advocate of the protective tariff, nor did he place a high emphasis on tariffs in general. When Roosevelt took office, McKinley's reciprocity treaties were pending before the Senate, and many assumed that they would be ratified despite the opposition of Aldrich and other conservatives. After conferring with Aldrich, Roosevelt decided not to push Senate ratification of the treaties in order to avoid an intra-party conflict. He did, however, achieve some minor changes, such as reciprocal tariff treaties with the Philippines and, after overcoming domestic sugar interests, with Cuba.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: The issue of the tariff lay dormant throughout Roosevelt's first term, but it continued to be an important campaign topic for both parties. Proponents of tariff reduction asked Roosevelt to call a special session of Congress to address the issue in early 1905, but Roosevelt was only willing to issue a cautious endorsement of a cut in tariff rates, and no further action was taken on the tariff during Roosevelt's tenure. In the first decade of the 20th century, the country experienced a period of sustained [[inflation]] for the first time since the early 1870s, and Democrats and other free trade advocates blamed rising prices on high tariff rates. Tariff reduction became an increasingly important national issue, and Congress would pass a major tariff law in 1909, shortly after Roosevelt left office.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: By 1907, Roosevelt identified himself with the "left center" of the Republican Party. He explained his balancing act:


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Growing popular outrage at corporate scandals, along with reporting of muckraking journalists like [[Lincoln Steffens]] and [[Ida Tarbell]], contributed to a split in the Republican Party between conservatives like Aldrich and progressives like [[Albert B. Cummins]] and [[Robert M. La Follette]]. Roosevelt did not fully embrace the left wing of his party, but he adopted many of their proposals.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: In his last two years in office, Roosevelt abandoned his cautious approach toward big business, lambasting his conservative critics and calling on Congress to enact a series of radical new laws. Roosevelt sought to replace the [[laissez-faire]] economic environment with a new economic model which included a larger regulatory role for the federal government. He believed that 19th-century entrepreneurs had risked their fortunes on innovations and new businesses, and that these capitalists had been rightly rewarded. By contrast, he believed that 20th-century capitalists risked little but nonetheless reaped huge and unjust, economic rewards. Without a redistribution of wealth away from the upper class, Roosevelt feared that the country would turn to radicalism or fall to revolution.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: In January 1908, Roosevelt sent a special message to Congress, calling for the restoration of an [[Workers' compensation|employer's liability law]], which had recently been struck down by the Supreme Court due to its application to intrastate corporations. He also called for a national [[Incorporation (business)|incorporation]] law (all corporations had state charters, which varied greatly state by state), a [[Income tax in the United States|federal income tax]] and [[Estate tax in the United States|inheritance tax]] (both targeted at the rich), limits on the use of court [[injunction]]s against labor unions during strikes (injunctions were a powerful weapon that mostly helped business), an [[Eight-hour day|eight-hour work day]] for federal employees, a [[United States Postal Savings System|postal savings system]] (to provide competition for local banks), and legislation barring corporations from contributing to political campaigns.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt's increasingly radical stance proved popular in the Midwest and Pacific Coast, and among farmers, teachers, clergymen, clerical workers and some proprietors, but appeared as divisive and unnecessary to eastern Republicans, corporate executives, lawyers, party workers, and many members of Congress. Populist Democrats such as William Jennings Bryan expressed admiration for Roosevelt's message, and one Southern newspaper called for Roosevelt to run as a Democrat in 1908, with Bryan as his running mate. Despite the public support offered by Democratic congressional leaders like [[John Sharp Williams]], Roosevelt never seriously considered leaving the Republican Party during his presidency. Roosevelt's move to the left was supported by some congressional Republicans and many in the public, but conservative Republicans such as Senator Nelson Aldrich and Speaker [[Joseph Gurney Cannon]] remained in control of Congress. These Republican leaders blocked the more ambitious aspects of Roosevelt's agenda, though Roosevelt won passage of a new [[Federal Employers Liability Act]] and other laws, such as a restriction of child labor in Washington, D.C.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: One new state, [[Oklahoma]], was [[Admission to the Union|admitted to the Union]] while Roosevelt was in office. Oklahoma, which was formed out of [[Indian Territory]] and [[Oklahoma Territory]], became the 46th state on November 16, 1907. The [[Oklahoma Enabling Act]] also contained provisions encouraging [[New Mexico Territory]] and [[Arizona Territory]] to begin the process of gaining admission as states.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Foreign-policy became a tug-of-war between Roosevelt and Secretary of State [[John Hay]], one of the most prestigious Republicans of the older generation. Roosevelt garnered most of the publicity, but in practice Hay handled both routine and ceremonial affairs and had a strong voice shaping policy. he was in very bad health starting in 1903. After Hay died in 1905, Roosevelt named [[Elihu Root]], who had been serving as Secretary of War. [[William Howard Taft]] became Secretary of War. Roosevelt personally handled all the major issues. Apart from his close friend Sen. Henry Cabot Lodge, Roosevelt seldom dealt with senators on matters of foreign policy.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt was adept at coining clever phrases to concisely summarize his policies. "Big stick" was his catch phrase for his hard pushing foreign policy: "Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far." Roosevelt described his style as "the exercise of intelligent forethought and of decisive action sufficiently far in advance of any likely crisis." As practiced by Roosevelt, big stick diplomacy had five components. First it was essential to possess serious military capabilities that force the adversary to pay close attention. At the time that meant a world-class navy. Roosevelt never had a large army at his disposal. The other qualities were to act justly toward other nations, never to bluff, to strike only if prepared to strike hard, and the willingness to allow the adversary to save face in defeat.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Victory over Spain had made the United States a power in both the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. It was already the largest economic power. Roosevelt was determined to continue the expansion of American influence, stating in his 1905 Inaugural Address:We have become a great nation, forced by the fact of its greatness into relations with the other nations of the earth, and we must behave as beseems a people with such responsibilities. Toward all other nations, large and small, our attitude must be one of cordial and sincere friendship. We must show not only in our words, but in our deeds, that we are earnestly desirous of securing their good will by acting toward them in a spirit of just and generous recognition of all their rights...No weak nation that acts manfully and justly should ever have cause to fear us, and no strong power should ever be able to single us out as a subject for insolent aggression.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt saw a duty to uphold a [[Balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]] in international relations and seek to reduce tensions. He was also adamant in upholding the [[Monroe Doctrine]], the American policy of opposing [[European colonialism]] in the Western Hemisphere. Roosevelt viewed the [[German Empire]] as the biggest potential threat, and strongly opposed any German base in the [[Caribbean Sea]]. He responded skeptically to German Kaiser [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]]'s efforts to curry favor with the United States. Roosevelt also attempted to expand U.S. influence in [[East Asia]] and the Pacific, where the [[Empire of Japan]] and the [[Russian Empire]] were rivals trying to expand their role in Korea and China. He kept an important aspect of McKinley's rhetoric in East Asia: the [[Open Door Policy]] calling for keeping the Chinese economy open to trade from all countries.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: To gain visibility in European affairs Roosevelt helped organize that [[Algeciras Conference]] that temporarily resolved the Moroccan crisis of 1905–1906. France and Britain had agreed that France would dominate Morocco, but Germany suddenly protested aggressively. Berlin asked Roosevelt to help and he facilitated an agreement among the powers in April, 1906. Germany gained nothing of importance but was mollified for a while until it instigated the even worse [[Agadir Crisis]] of 1912.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Americans heatedly debated the status of the new territories. Roosevelt believed that Cuba should be quickly granted independence and that [[Puerto Rico]] should remain a semi-autonomous possession under the terms of the [[Foraker Act]]. He wanted U.S. forces to remain in the Philippines to establish a stable, democratic government, even in the face of an [[Philippine–American War|insurrection]] led by [[Emilio Aguinaldo]]. Roosevelt feared that a quick U.S. withdrawal would lead to instability in the Philippines or a takeover by Germany.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: The Filipino insurrection largely [[Miguel Malvar|in 1902]] and the insurgents accepted American rule. However trouble continued in the remote southern areas, where the Muslim [[Moro people|Moros]] resisted American rule as they had resisted the Spanish. This was the [[Moro Rebellion]]. To resolve religious tensions, and eliminate the last Spanish presence, Roosevelt continued the McKinley policies of buying out the Catholic friars and returning them to Spain (with compensation to the [[Pope]]).


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Modernizing the Philippines was a high priority. He invested heavily in upgrading the infrastructure, introducing public health programs, and launching economic and social modernization. His enthusiasm shown in 1898-99 for colonies cooled off, and Roosevelt saw the islands as "our heel of Achilles." He told Taft in 1907, "I should be glad to see the islands made independent, with perhaps some kind of international guarantee for the preservation of order, or with some warning on our part that if they did not keep order we would have to interfere again." By then the president and his foreign policy advisers turned away from Asian issues to concentrate on Latin America, and Roosevelt redirected Philippine policy to prepare the islands to become the first Western colony in Asia to achieve self-government. Though most Filipino leaders favored independence, some minority groups, especially the Chinese who controlled much of local business, wanted to stay under American rule indefinitely.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: The Philippines was a major target for the progressive reformers. A report to Secretary of War Taft provided a summary of what the American civil administration had achieved. It included, in addition to the rapid building of a public school system based on English language teaching:


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: While the Philippines remained under U.S. control until 1946, Cuba gained independence in 1902. The [[Platt Amendment]], passed during the final year of McKinley's tenure, made Cuba a de facto [[protectorate]] of the United States. Roosevelt won congressional approval for a reciprocity agreement with Cuba in December 1902, thereby lowering tariffs on trade between the two countries. In 1906, an insurrection erupted against Cuban President [[Tomás Estrada Palma]] due to his electoral frauds. Both Estrada Palma and his liberal opponents called for an intervention by the U.S., but Roosevelt was reluctant to intervene. When Estrada Palma and his Cabinet resigned, Secretary of War Taft declared that the U.S. would intervene under the terms of the Platt Amendment, beginning the [[Second Occupation of Cuba]]. U.S. forces restored peace to the island, and the occupation ceased shortly before the end of Roosevelt's presidency.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Puerto Rico had been something of an afterthought during the Spanish–American War, but it assumed importance due to its strategic position in the Caribbean Sea. The island provided an ideal naval base for defense of the Panama Canal, and it also served as an economic and political link to the rest of Latin America. Prevailing racist attitudes made Puerto Rican statehood unlikely, so the U.S. carved out a new political status for the island. The Foraker Act and [[Insular Cases|subsequent Supreme Court cases]] established Puerto Rico as the first [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|unincorporated territory]], meaning that the United States Constitution would not fully apply to Puerto Rico. Though the U.S. imposed tariffs on most Puerto Rican imports, it also invested in the island's infrastructure and education system. Nationalist sentiment remained strong on the island and Puerto Ricans continued to primarily speak Spanish rather than English.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: [[Image:BigStick.jpg|thumb|300px|1904 commentary on Roosevelt's "big stick" policy in the Caribbean]]


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt placed an emphasis on expanding and reforming the United States military. The [[United States Army]], with 39,000 men in 1890, was the smallest and least powerful army of any major power in the late 19th century. By contrast, France's army consisted of 542,000 soldiers. The Spanish–American War had been fought mostly by temporary volunteers and state national guard units, and it demonstrated that more effective control over the department and bureaus was necessary. Roosevelt gave strong support to the reforms proposed by Secretary of War Elihu Root, who wanted a uniformed chief of staff as general manager and a European-style [[Staff (military)|general staff]] for planning. Overcoming opposition from General [[Nelson A. Miles]], the [[Commanding General of the United States Army]], Root succeeded in enlarging [[United States Military Academy|West Point]] and establishing the [[U.S. Army War College]] as well as the general staff. Root also changed the procedures for promotions, organized schools for the special branches of the service, devised the principle of rotating officers from staff to line, and increased the Army's connections to the [[National Guard of the United States|National Guard]].


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Upon taking office, Roosevelt made naval expansion a priority, and his tenure saw an increase in the number of ships, officers, and enlisted men in the Navy. With the publication of "[[The Influence of Sea Power upon History]], 1660–1783" in 1890, Captain [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]] had been immediately hailed as an outstanding naval theorist by the leaders of Europe. Roosevelt paid very close attention to Mahan's emphasis that only a nation with a powerful fleet could dominate the world's oceans, exert its diplomacy to the fullest, and defend its own borders. By 1904, the United States had the fifth largest navy in the world, and by 1907, it had the third largest. Roosevelt sent 16 battleships of the [[Great White Fleet]] around the world in 1907-1909. Pulitzer prize-winning biographer [[Henry Pringle]] states that sending the fleet was, "the direct result of the Japanese trouble." He made sure all the naval powers understood the United States was now a major player. Though Roosevelt's fleet did not match the overall strength of the British fleet, it became the dominant naval force in the Western Hemisphere.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Britain was ending its long tradition of no allies, and was looking for friends. It concluded alliances with France and Japan and sough friendship with the U.S. in what was called "[[The Great Rapprochement]]." London supported Washington in the war against Spain, agreed to let the U.S. build the Panama Canal alone and agreed the U.S.A should be the policeman of Central America. Washington supported Britain against the Boers in South Africa.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: However, Canada raised an issue—it wanted to take over the part of Alaska that gave access to the Canadian gold fields. McKinley offered a lease but Canada demanded ownership. Technically the dispute was about the vagueness of the 1825 [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825)|Treaty of Saint Petersburg]]. the United States had assumed Russian claims on the region through the 1867 [[Alaska Purchase]]. In January 1903, Washington and London agreed on a six-member tribunal, composed of American, British, and Canadian delegates, to finalize the border. Besides the three American delegates, the tribunal had two Canadian delegates, and [[Richard Webster, 1st Viscount Alverstone|Lord Alverstone]], the lone delegate from Britain itself. To Canada's shock and horror, Alverstone joined with the three Americans in accepting the American claims in October 1903. The outcome of the tribunal improved relations between the United States and Britain, though many Canadians were outraged against London by the tribunal's decision.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: In December 1902, an Anglo-German blockade of [[Venezuela]] began an incident known as the [[Venezuelan crisis of 1902–03|Venezuelan Crisis]]. Venezuela owed heavy debts to European creditors and would not pay. Roosevelt became suspicious that Germany would demand territorial indemnification and a permanent German military presence in the Western Hemisphere. Roosevelt mobilized his fleet and threatened the smaller German fleet unless Berlin agreed to arbitration. Germany complied and American arbitration ended the episode without violence


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: In 1904, Roosevelt announced his [[Roosevelt Corollary]] to the Monroe Doctrine. It stated that Washington would intervene in the finances of unstable Caribbean and Central American countries if they defaulted on their debts to European creditors. In effect Roosevelt guaranteed their debts, making it unnecessary for European powers to intervene. They did not do so.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: A debt crisis in the [[Dominican Republic]] became the first test case for the Roosevelt Corollary. Roosevelt reached an agreement with Dominican President [[Carlos Felipe Morales]] to take temporary control of the Dominican customs house. Roosevelt sent economists such as [[Jacob Hollander]] to restructure the economy, and ensured a steady flow of revenue to the foreign creditors. The intervention stabilized the political and economic situation in the Dominican Republic, and the U.S. role on the island would serve as a model for Taft's [[dollar diplomacy]] in the years after Roosevelt left office.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt sought the creation of a canal through Central America which would link the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]]. Most members of Congress preferred that the canal cross through [[Nicaragua]], which was eager to reach an agreement, but Roosevelt preferred the [[isthmus of Panama]], under the loose control of [[Colombia]]. Colombia had been engulfed in a [[Thousand Days' War|civil war]] since 1898, and a previous attempt to build a canal across Panama had failed under the leadership of [[Ferdinand de Lesseps]]. A presidential commission appointed by McKinley had recommended the construction of the canal across Nicaragua, but it noted that a canal across Panama could prove less expensive and might be completed more quickly. Roosevelt and most of his advisers favored the Panama Canal, as they believed that war with a European power, possibly Germany, could soon break out over the Monroe Doctrine and the U.S. fleet would remain divided between the two oceans until the canal was completed. After a long debate, Congress passed the [[Spooner Act]] of 1902, which granted Roosevelt $170 million to build the [[Panama Canal]]. Following the passage of the Spooner Act, the Roosevelt administration began negotiations with the Colombian government regarding the construction of a canal through Panama.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: The U.S. and Colombia signed the [[Hay–Herrán Treaty]] in January 1903, granting the U.S. a lease across the isthmus of Panama. The Colombian Senate refused to ratify the treaty, and attached amendments calling for more money from the U.S. and greater Colombian control over the canal zone. Panamanian rebel leaders, long eager to break off from Colombia, appealed to the United States for military aid. Roosevelt saw the leader of Colombia, [[José Manuel Marroquín]], as a corrupt and irresponsible autocrat, and he believed that the Colombians had acted in bad faith by reaching and then rejecting the treaty. After an insurrection broke out in Panama, Roosevelt dispatched the [[USS Nashville (PG-7)|USS Nashville]] to prevent the Colombian government from landing soldiers in Panama, and Colombia was unable to re-establish control over the province. Shortly after Panama [[Separation of Panama from Colombia|declared its independence]] in November 1903, the U.S. recognized Panama as an independent nation and began negotiations regarding construction of the canal. According to Roosevelt biographer Edmund Morris, most other Latin American nations welcomed the prospect of the new canal in hopes of increased economic activity, but [[anti-imperialism|anti-imperialists]] in the U.S. raged against Roosevelt's aid to the Panamanian separatists.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Secretary of State Hay and French diplomat [[Philippe-Jean Bunau-Varilla]], who represented the Panamanian government, quickly negotiated the [[Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty]]. Signed on November 18, 1903, it established the [[Panama Canal Zone]]—over which the United States would exercise [[sovereignty]]—and insured the construction of an Atlantic to Pacific ship canal across the [[Isthmus of Panama]]. Panama sold the Canal Zone (consisting of the Panama Canal and an area generally extending on each side of the centerline) to the United States for $10 million and a steadily increasing yearly sum. In February 1904, Roosevelt won Senate ratification of the treaty in a 66-to-14 vote. The [[Isthmian Canal Commission]], supervised by Secretary of War Taft, was established to govern the zone and oversee the construction of the canal. Roosevelt appointed [[George Whitefield Davis]] as the first governor of the Panama Canal Zone and [[John Findley Wallace]] as the [[Chief Engineer]] of the canal project. When Wallace resigned in 1905, Roosevelt appointed [[John Frank Stevens]], who built a railroad in the canal zone and initiated the construction of a [[Lock (water navigation)|lock]] canal. Stevens was replaced in 1907 by [[George Washington Goethals]], who saw construction through to its completion. Roosevelt traveled to Panama in November 1906 to inspect progress on the canal, becoming the first sitting president to travel outside of the United States.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Russia had occupied the Chinese region of [[Manchuria]] in the aftermath of the 1900 [[Boxer Rebellion]], and the United States, Japan, and Britain all sought the end of its military presence in the region. Russia agreed to withdraw its forces in 1902, but it reneged on this promise and sought to expand its influence in Manchuria to the detriment of the other powers. Roosevelt was unwilling to consider using the military to intervene in the far-flung region, but Japan prepared for war against Russia in order to remove it from Manchuria. When the [[Russo-Japanese War]] broke out in February 1904, Roosevelt sympathized with the Japanese but sought to act as a mediator in the conflict. He hoped to uphold the Open Door policy in China and prevent either country from emerging as the dominant power in East Asia. Throughout 1904, both Japan and Russia expected to win the war, but the Japanese gained a decisive advantage after [[Siege of Port Arthur|capturing]] the Russian naval base at [[Lüshunkou District|Port Arthur]] in January 1905. In mid-1905, Roosevelt persuaded the parties to meet in a peace conference in [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire]], starting on August 5. His persistent and effective mediation led to the signing of the [[Treaty of Portsmouth]] on September 5, ending the war. For his efforts, Roosevelt was awarded the 1906 [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. The Treaty of Portsmouth resulted in the removal of Russian troops from Manchuria, and it gave Japan control of [[Korea]] and the southern half of [[Sakhalin Island]].


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: The American annexation of Hawaii in 1898 was stimulated in part by fear that otherwise Japan would dominate the Hawaiian Republic. Likewise Japan was the alternative to American takeover of the Philippines in 1900. These events were part of the American goal of transitioning into a naval world power, but it needed to find a way to avoid a military confrontation in the Pacific with Japan. One of Theodore Roosevelt's high priorities during his presidency and even afterwards, was the maintenance of friendly relations with Japan.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: In the late 19th century, the opening of sugar plantations in the Kingdom of Hawaii led to the immigration of large numbers of Japanese families. Recruiters sent about 124,000 Japanese workers to more than fifty sugar plantations. China, the Philippines, Portugal and other countries sent an additional 300,000 workers. When Hawaii became part of the U.S. in 1898, the Japanese were the largest element of the population then. Although immigration from Japan largely ended by 1907, they have remained the largest element ever since.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: President Roosevelt made sure there was a strategy to defend the islands against possible Japanese aggression, especially in 1907 when tensions were high. In June 1907 he met with military and naval leaders to decide on a series of operations to be carried in the Philippines which included shipments of coal, military rations, and the movement of guns and munitions. The October 23, 1907 Puck magazine cover shows President Theodore Roosevelt defending the nation of Japan from attack – Roosevelt is wearing a military uniform with the Japanese Imperial seal on his hat. He holds a rifle and confronts two rolled-up U.S. newspapers labeled the "Sun" and "World" who are also holding rifles and confronting Roosevelt – "In the magazine caption", Roosevelt stated that the war talk predicting a future conflict between the U.S. and Japan was based entirely on these incendiary newspapers, which sought to increase their sales, and for that reason, these newspapers had attacked Roosevelt's representative Minister William Howard Taft, who Roosevelt had again sent to Tokyo to promote improved communications between their two nations. Much of the confrontation was sparked by racism shown against Japanese Americans living in California.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt saw Japan as the rising power in Asia, in terms of military strength and economic modernization. He viewed [[Korea]] as a backward nation and did not object to Japan's attempt to gain control over Korea. With the withdrawal of the American legation from Seoul and the refusal of the Secretary of State to receive a Korean protest mission, the Americans signaled they would not intervene militarily to stop Japan's planned takeover of Korea. In mid-1905, Taft and Japanese Prime Minister [[Katsura Tarō]] jointly produced the [[Taft–Katsura agreement]]. Nothing new was decided but each side clarified its position. Japan stated that it had no interest in the Philippines, while the U.S. stated that it considered Korea to be part of the Japanese sphere of influence.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Regarding China, the two nations cooperated with the European powers in suppressing the [[Boxer Rebellion]] in China in 1900, but the U.S. was increasingly troubled about Japan's denial of the [[Open Door Policy]] that would ensure that all nations could do business with China on an equal basis.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Vituperative [[Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States#Early 20th century|anti-Japanese sentiment]] (especially on the West Coast) soured relations in the early 20th century. President Theodore Roosevelt did not want to anger Japan by passing legislation to bar Japanese immigration to the U.S. as had been done for Chinese immigration. Instead there was an informal "[[Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907]]" between the foreign ministers [[Elihu Root]] and Japan's [[Hayashi Tadasu|Tadasu Hayashi]]. The Agreement said Japan would stop emigration of Japanese laborers to the U.S. or Hawaii, and there would not be segregation in California. The agreements remained effect until 1924 when Congress forbade all immigration from Japan—a move that angered Japan.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Repeated large-scale murderous attacks on Jews—called a [[pogrom]]—in Russia in the late 19th and early 20th century increasingly angered American opinion. The well-established German Jews in the United States, although they were not directly affected by the Russian pograms, were well organized and convinced Washington to support the cause of Jews in Russia. Led by [[Oscar Straus (politician)|Oscar Straus]], [[Jacob Schiff]], [[Mayer Sulzberger]], and Rabbi [[Stephen Samuel Wise]], they organize protest meetings, issued publicity, and met with Roosevelt and Secretary of State John Hay. Stuart E. Knee reports that in April, 1903, Roosevelt received 363 addresses, 107 letters and 24 petitions signed by thousands of Christians leading public and church leaders—they all called on the Tsar to stop the persecution of Jews. Public rallies were held in scores of cities, topped off at Carnegie Hall in New York in May. The Tsar retreated a bit and fired one local official after the [[Kishinev pogrom]], which Roosevelt explicitly denounced. But Roosevelt was mediating the war between Russia and Japan and could not publicly take sides. Therefore, Secretary Hay took the initiative in Washington. Finally Roosevelt forwarded a petition to the Tsar, who rejected it claiming the Jews were at fault. Roosevelt won Jewish support in his 1904 landslide reelection. The pograms continued, as hundreds of thousands of Jews fled Russia, most heading for London or New York. With American public opinion turning against Russia, Congress officially denounced its policies in 1906. Roosevelt kept a low profile as did his new Secretary of State Elihu Root. However in late 1906 Roosevelt did appoint the first Jew to the cabinet, [[Oscar Straus (politician)|Oscar Straus]] becoming Secretary of Commerce and Labor.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Before and during his presidency, Roosevelt built up a strong following within the Republican Party, but his re-nomination in 1904 was far from certain at the end of 1901. Many expected Senator [[Mark Hanna]], a confidante of former President McKinley, to win the party's 1904 presidential nomination. Support for Hanna was especially strong among conservative businessmen who opposed many of Roosevelt's policies, though Hanna lacked his own national organization, and even in his home state he was opposed by influential Senator Joseph Foraker. Hanna and another prominent party leader, [[Matthew Quay]] of Pennsylvania, both died in 1904. Other potential rivals for the 1904 Republican presidential nomination, including Leslie Shaw and [[Charles W. Fairbanks]], failed to galvanize support for their candidacies. At the [[1904 Republican National Convention]], Roosevelt secured his own nomination, but his preferred vice-presidential running mate, [[Robert R. Hitt]], was not nominated. Senator Fairbanks, a favorite of conservatives, gained the vice-presidential nomination.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: The Democratic Party's presidential nominee in 1904 was [[Alton B. Parker]], the chief judge of the [[New York Court of Appeals]]. Democratic leaders hoped that Parker, whose political positions were largely unknown, would be able unify the populist followers of [[William Jennings Bryan]] with the conservative supporters of former President [[Grover Cleveland]]. Parker was unable to unite the party, and many Democrats supported Roosevelt. Democrats alleged that the Republican campaign extorted large contributions from corporations, but these allegations had little impact on the election. As Parker moved his party in a conservative direction, Republicans performed well among progressives and centrists. Roosevelt won 56% of the popular vote while Parker received 38% of the popular; Roosevelt also won the [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral vote]] 336 to 140. Roosevelt's victory made him first president to be elected to a full term of his own after having succeeded to the presidency upon the death of a predecessor. His [[List of United States presidential elections by popular vote margin|popular vote margin]] of 18.8% was the largest margin in U.S. history until the [[1920 United States presidential election|1920 presidential election]]. On election night, as it became clear that he had won in a landslide, Roosevelt pledged not to run for a third term.


title: Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt

text: Roosevelt had mixed feelings about a third term, as he enjoyed being president and was still relatively youthful, but felt that a limited number of terms provided a check against dictatorship. Roosevelt ultimately decided to stick to his 1904 pledge not to run for a third term, and he threw his support behind a successor so as to avoid a potential pro-Roosevelt delegate stampede at the [[1908 Republican National Convention]]. Roosevelt personally favored Secretary of State Elihu Root, but Root's ill health made him an unsuitable candidate. New York Governor [[Charles Evans Hughes]] loomed as a potentially strong candidate and shared Roosevelt's progressivism, but Roosevelt disliked him and considered him to be too independent. Instead, Roosevelt settled on his Secretary of War, [[William Howard Taft]], who had ably served under Presidents Harrison, McKinley, and Roosevelt in various positions. Roosevelt and Taft had been friends since 1890, and Taft had consistently supported President Roosevelt's policies. Many conservatives wanted to re-take leadership of the party from the progressive Roosevelt. Senator Joseph Foraker, who like Taft was from Ohio, briefly emerged as the main conservative candidate for the GOP nomination. However, Taft defeated Foraker's attempt to win control of the Ohio Republican Party and entered the convention as the strong favorite over Foraker, Hughes, and Senator Philander Knox.