title: Walking

text: One program to encourage walking is "The Walking the Way to Health Initiative", organized by the British walkers association The Ramblers, which is the largest volunteer led walking scheme in the United Kingdom. Volunteers are trained to lead free Health Walks from community venues such as libraries and doctors' surgeries. The scheme has trained over 35,000 volunteers and has over 500 schemes operating across the UK, with thousands of people walking every week. A new organization called "Walk England" launched a web site in June 2008 to provide these professionals with evidence, advice, and examples of success stories of how to encourage communities to walk more. The site has a social networking aspect to allow professionals and the public to ask questions, post news and events, and communicate with others in their area about walking, as well as a "walk now" option to find out what walks are available in each region. Similar organizations exist in other countries and recently a "Walking Summit" was held in the United States. This "assembled thought-leaders and influencers from business, urban planning and real estate, [along with] physicians and public health officials", and others, to discuss how to make American cities and communities places where "people can and want to walk".


title: Walking

text: Walking is more prevalent in European cities that have dense residential areas mixed with commercial areas and good public transportation.


title: Walking

text: It is theorized that "walking" among tetrapods originated underwater with air-breathing fish that could "walk" underwater, giving rise (potentially with vertebrates like "Tiktaalik") to the plethora of land-dwelling life that walk on four or two limbs. While terrestrial tetrapods are theorised to have a single origin, arthropods and their relatives are thought to have independently evolved walking several times, specifically in insects, myriapods, chelicerates, tardigrades, onychophorans, and crustaceans. Little skates, members of the demersal fish community, can propel themselves by pushing off the ocean floor with their pelvic fins, using neural mechanisms which evolved as early as 420 million years ago, before vertebrates set foot on land.


title: Walking

text: Data in the fossil record indicate that among hominin ancestors, bipedal walking was one of the first defining characteristics to emerge, predating other defining characteristics of "Hominidae". Judging from footprints discovered on a former shore in Kenya, it is thought possible that ancestors of modern humans were walking in ways very similar to the present activity as long as 3 million years ago.


title: Walking

text: Today, the walking gait of humans is unique and differs significantly from bipedal or quadrupedal walking gaits of other primates, like chimpanzees. It is believed to have been selectively advantageous in hominin ancestors in the Miocene due to metabolic energy efficiency. Human walking has been found to be slightly more energy efficient than travel for a quadrupedal mammal of a similar size, like chimpanzees. The energy efficiency of human locomotion can be accounted for by the reduced use of muscle in walking, due to an upright posture which places ground reaction forces at the hip and knee. When walking bipedally, chimpanzees take a crouched stance with bent knees and hips, forcing the quadricep muscles to perform extra work and consequently costs more energy. Comparing chimpanzee quadrupedal travel to that of true quadrupedal animals has indicated that chimpanzees expend one-hundred and fifty percent of the energy required for travel compared to true quadrupeds.


title: Walking

text: In 2007, a study further explored the origin of human bipedalism, using chimpanzee and human energetic costs of locomotion. They found that the energy spent in moving the human body is less than what would be expected for an animal of similar size and approximately seventy-five percent less costly than that of chimpanzees. Chimpanzee quadrupedal and bipedal energy costs are found to be relatively equal, with chimpanzee bipedalism costing roughly ten percent more than quadrupedal. The same 2007 study found that among chimpanzee individuals, the energy costs for bipedal and quadrupedal walking varied significantly, and those that flexed their knees and hips to a greater degree and took a more upright posture, closer to that of humans, were able to save more energy than chimpanzees that did not take this stance. Further, compared to other apes, humans have longer legs and short dorsally oriented ischia (hipbone), which result in longer hamstring extensor moments, improving walking energy economy. It was thought that hominins like "Ardipithecus ramidus," which had a variety of both terrestrial and arboreal adaptions would not be as efficient walkers, however, with a small body mass "A. ramidus" had developed an energy efficient means of bipedal walking while still maintaining arboreal adaptations. Humans have long femoral necks, meaning that while walking, hip muscles do not require as much energy to flex while moving. These slight kinematic and anatomic differences demonstrate how bipedal walking may have developed as the dominant means of locomotion among early hominins because of the energy saved.


title: Walking

text: Human walking is accomplished with a strategy called the double pendulum. During forward motion, the leg that leaves the ground swings forward from the hip. This sweep is the first pendulum. Then the leg strikes the ground with the heel and rolls through to the toe in a motion described as an inverted pendulum. The motion of the two legs is coordinated so that one foot or the other is always in contact with the ground. While walking, the muscles of the calf contract, raising the body’s center of mass, while this muscle is contracted potential energy is stored. Then gravity pulls the body forward and down onto the other leg and the potential energy is then transformed into kinetic energy. The process of human walking is able to save approximately sixty-five percent of the energy used by utilizing gravity in forward motion.


title: Walking

text: Walking differs from a running gait in a number of ways. The most obvious is that during walking one leg always stays on the ground while the other is swinging. In running there is typically a ballistic phase where the runner is airborne with both feet in the air (for bipedals).


title: Walking

text: Another difference concerns the movement of the centre of mass of the body. In walking the body "vaults" over the leg on the ground, raising the centre of mass to its highest point as the leg passes the vertical, and dropping it to the lowest as the legs are spread apart. Essentially kinetic energy of forward motion is constantly being traded for a rise in potential energy. This is reversed in running where the centre of mass is at its lowest as the leg is vertical. This is because the impact of landing from the ballistic phase is absorbed by bending the leg and consequently storing energy in muscles and tendons. In running there is a conversion between kinetic, potential, and elastic energy.


title: Walking

text: There is an absolute limit on an individual's speed of walking (without special techniques such as those employed in speed walking) due to the upwards acceleration of the centre of mass during a stride – if it is greater than the acceleration due to gravity the person will become airborne as they vault over the leg on the ground. Typically, however, animals switch to a run at a lower speed than this due to energy efficiencies.


title: Walking

text: Based on the 2D inverted pendulum model of walking, there are at least five physical constraints that place fundamental limits on walking like an inverted pendulum. These constraints are: take-off constraint, sliding constraint, fall-back constraint, steady-state constraint, high step-frequency constraint.


title: Walking

text: Many people enjoy walking as a recreation in the mainly urban modern world, and it is one of the best forms of exercise. For some, walking is a way to enjoy nature and the outdoors; and for others the physical, sporting and endurance aspect is more important.


title: Walking

text: There are a variety of different kinds of walking, including bushwalking, racewalking, beach walking, hillwalking, volksmarching, Nordic walking, trekking, dog walking and hiking. Some people prefer to walk indoors on a treadmill, or in a gym, and fitness walkers and others may use a pedometer to count their steps. Hiking is the usual word used in Canada, the United States and South Africa for long vigorous walks; similar walks are called tramps in New Zealand, or hill walking or just walking in Australia, the UK and the Irish Republic. In the UK, rambling is also used. Australians also bushwalk. In English-speaking parts of North America, the term walking is used for short walks, especially in towns and cities. Snow shoeing is walking in snow; a slightly different gait is required compared with regular walking.


title: Walking

text: In terms of tourism, the possibilities range from guided walking tours in cities, to organized trekking holidays in the Himalayas. In the UK the term walking tour also refers to a multi-day walk or hike undertaken by a group or individual. Well-organized systems of trails exist in many other European counties, as well as Canada, United States, New Zealand, and Nepal. Systems of lengthy waymarked walking trails now stretch across Europe from Norway to Turkey, Portugal to Cyprus. Many also walk the traditional pilgrim routes, of which the most famous is El Camino de Santiago, The Way of St. James.


title: Walking

text: Numerous walking festivals and other walking events take place each year in many countries. The world's largest multi-day walking event is the International Four Days Marches Nijmegen in the Netherlands. The "Vierdaagse" (Dutch for "Four day Event") is an annual walk that has taken place since 1909; it has been based at Nijmegen since 1916. Depending on age group and category, walkers have to walk 30, 40 or 50 kilometers each day for four days. Originally a military event with a few civilians, it now is a mainly civilian event. Numbers have risen in recent years, with over 40,000 now taking part, including about 5,000 military personnel. Due to crowds on the route, since 2004 the organizers have limited the number of participants. In the U.S., there is the annual Labor Day walk on Mackinac Bridge, Michigan, which draws over 60,000 participants; it is the largest single-day walking event; while the Chesapeake Bay Bridge Walk in Maryland draws over 50,000 participants each year. There are also various walks organised as charity events, with walkers sponsored for a specific cause. These walks range in length from two miles (3 km) or five km to 50 miles (80 km). The MS Challenge Walk is an 80 km or 50-mile walk which raises money to fight multiple sclerosis, while walkers in the Oxfam Trailwalker cover 100 km or 60 miles.


title: Walking

text: In Britain, The Ramblers, a registered charity, is the largest organisation that looks after the interests of walkers, with some 100,000 members. Its "Get Walking Keep Walking" project provides free route guides, led walks, as well as information for people new to walking. The Long Distance Walkers Association in the UK is for the more energetic walker, and organizes lengthy challenge hikes of 20 or even 50 miles (30 to 80 km) or more in a day. The LDWA's annual "Hundred" event, entailing walking 100 miles or 160 km in 48 hours, takes place each British Spring Bank Holiday weekend.


title: Walking

text: There has been a recent focus among urban planners in some communities to create pedestrian-friendly areas and roads, allowing commuting, shopping and recreation to be done on foot. The concept of walkability has arisen as a measure of the degree to which an area is friendly to walking. Some communities are at least partially car-free, making them particularly supportive of walking and other modes of transportation. In the United States, the active living network is an example of a concerted effort to develop communities more friendly to walking and other physical activities.


title: Walking

text: An example of such efforts to make urban development more pedestrian friendly is the pedestrian village. This is a compact, pedestrian-oriented neighborhood or town, with a mixed-use village center, that follows the tenets of New Pedestrianism. Shared-use lanes for pedestrians and those using bicycles, Segways, wheelchairs, and other small rolling conveyances that do not use internal combustion engines. Generally, these lanes are in front of the houses and businesses, and streets for motor vehicles are always at the rear. Some pedestrian villages might be nearly car-free with cars either hidden below the buildings or on the periphery of the village. Venice, Italy is essentially a pedestrian village with canals. The canal district in Venice, California, on the other hand, combines the front lane/rear street approach with canals and walkways, or just walkways.


title: Walking

text: Walking is also considered to be a clear example of a sustainable mode of transport, especially suited for urban use and/or relatively shorter distances. Non-motorized transport modes such as walking, but also cycling, small-wheeled transport (skates, skateboards, push scooters and hand carts) or wheelchair travel are often key elements of successfully encouraging clean urban transport. A large variety of case studies and good practices (from European cities and some worldwide examples) that promote and stimulate walking as a means of transportation in cities can be found at Eltis, Europe's portal for local transport.


title: Walking

text: The development of specific rights of way with appropriate infrastructure can promote increased participation and enjoyment of walking. Examples of types of investment include pedestrian malls, and foreshoreways such as oceanways and also river walks.


title: Walking

text: The first purpose-built pedestrian street in Europe is the Lijnbaan in Rotterdam, opened in 1953. The first pedestrianised shopping centre in the United Kingdom was in Stevenage in 1959. A large number of European towns and cities have made part of their centres car-free since the early 1960s. These are often accompanied by car parks on the edge of the pedestrianised zone, and, in the larger cases, park and ride schemes. Central Copenhagen is one of the largest and oldest: It was converted from car traffic into pedestrian zone in 1962.


title: Walking

text: Generally, the first successful walking robots had six legs. As microprocessor technology advanced, the number of legs could be reduced and there are now robots that can walk on two legs. One, for example, is ASIMO. Although there has been significant advances, robots still do not walk nearly as well as human beings as they often need to keep their knees bent permanently in order to improve stability.


title: Walking

text: In 2009, Japanese roboticist Tomotaka Takahashi developed a robot that can jump three inches off the ground. The robot, named Ropid, is capable of getting up, walking, running, and jumping.


title: Walking

text: Multiple mathematical models have been proposed to reproduce the kinematics observed in walking. These may be broadly broken down into four categories: rule-based models based on mechanical considerations and past literature, weakly coupled phase oscillators models, control-based models which guide simulations to maximize some property of locomotion, and phenomenological models which fit equations directly to the kinematics.


title: Walking

text: The rule-based models integrate the past literature on motor control to generate a few simple rules which are presumed to be responsible for walking (e.g. “loading of the left leg triggers unloading of right leg”). Such models are generally most strictly based on the past literature and when they are based on a few rules can be easy to interpret. However, the influence of each rule can be hard to interpret when these models become more complex. Furthermore, the tuning of parameters is often done in an ad hoc way, revealing little intuition about why the system may be organized in this way. Finally, such models are typically based fully on sensory feedback, ignoring the effect of descending and rhythm generating neurons, which have been shown to be crucial in coordinating proper walking.


title: Walking

text: Dynamical system theory shows that any network with cyclical dynamics may be modeled as a set of weakly coupled phase oscillators, so another line of research has been exploring this view of walking. Each oscillator may model a muscle, joint angle, or even a whole leg, and is coupled to some set of other oscillators. Often, these oscillators are thought to represent the central pattern generators underlying walking. These models have rich theory behind them, allow for some extensions based on sensory feedback, and can be fit to kinematics. However, they need to be heavily constrained to fit to data and by themselves make no claims on which gaits allow the animal to move faster, more robustly, or more efficiently.


title: Walking

text: Control-based models start with a simulation based some description of the animal’s anatomy and optimize control parameters to generate some behavior. These may be based on a musculoskeletal model, skeletal model, or even simply a ball and stick model. As these models generate locomotion by optimizing some metric, they can be used to explore the space of optimal locomotion behaviors under some assumptions. However, they typically do not generate plausible hypotheses on the neural coding underlying the behaviors and are typically sensitive to modeling assumptions.


title: Walking

text: Phenomenological models model the kinematics of walking directly by fitting a dynamical system, without postulating an underlying mechanism for how the kinematics are generated neurally. Such models can produce the most realistic kinematic trajectories and thus have been explored for simulating walking for computer-based animation. However, the lack of underlying mechanism makes it hard to apply these models to study the biomechanical or neural properties of walking.


title: Walking

text: The walk is a four-beat gait that averages about . When walking, a horse's legs follow this sequence: left hind leg, left front leg, right hind leg, right front leg, in a regular 1-2-3-4 beat. At the walk, the horse will always have one foot raised and the other three feet on the ground, save for a brief moment when weight is being transferred from one foot to another. A horse moves its head and neck in a slight up and down motion that helps maintain balance.


title: Walking

text: Ideally, the advancing rear hoof oversteps the spot where the previously advancing front hoof touched the ground. The more the rear hoof oversteps, the smoother and more comfortable the walk becomes. Individual horses and different breeds vary in the smoothness of their walk. However, a rider will almost always feel some degree of gentle side-to-side motion in the horse's hips as each hind leg reaches forward.


title: Walking

text: The fastest "walks" with a four-beat footfall pattern are actually the lateral forms of ambling gaits such as the running walk, singlefoot, and similar rapid but smooth intermediate speed gaits. If a horse begins to speed up and lose a regular four-beat cadence to its gait, the horse is no longer walking but is beginning to either trot or pace.


title: Walking

text: Elephants can move both forwards and backwards, but cannot trot, jump, or gallop. They use only two gaits when moving on land, the walk and a faster gait similar to running. In walking, the legs act as pendulums, with the hips and shoulders rising and falling while the foot is planted on the ground. With no "aerial phase", the fast gait does not meet all the criteria of running, although the elephant uses its legs much like other running animals, with the hips and shoulders falling and then rising while the feet are on the ground. Fast-moving elephants appear to 'run' with their front legs, but 'walk' with their hind legs and can reach a top speed of . At this speed, most other quadrupeds are well into a gallop, even accounting for leg length.


title: Walking

text: Walking fish (or ambulatory fish) are fish that are able to travel over land for extended periods of time. The term may also be used for some other cases of nonstandard fish locomotion, e.g., when describing fish "walking" along the sea floor, as the handfish or frogfish.


title: Walking

text: Insects must carefully coordinate their six legs during walking to produce gaits that allow for efficient navigation of their environment. Interleg coordination patterns have been studied in a variety of insects, including locusts ("Schistocerca gregaria"), cockroaches ("Periplaneta americana"), stick insects ("Carausius morosus"), and fruit flies ("Drosophila melanogaster"). Different walking gaits have been observed to exist on a speed dependent continuum of phase relationships. Even though their walking gaits are not discrete, they can often be broadly categorized as either a metachronal wave gait, tetrapod gait, or tripod gait.


title: Walking

text: In a metachronal wave gait, only one leg leaves contact with the ground at a time. This gait starts at one of the hind legs, then propagates forward to the mid and front legs on the same side before starting at the hind leg of the contralateral side . The wave gait is often used at slow walking speeds and is the most stable, since five legs are always in contact with the ground at a time.


title: Walking

text: In a tetrapod gait, two legs swing at a time while the other four legs remain in contact with the ground. There are multiple configurations for tetrapod gaits, but the legs that swing together must be on contralateral sides of the body . Tetrapod gaits are typically used at medium speeds and are also very stable.


title: Walking

text: A walking gait is considered tripod if three of the legs enter the swing phase simultaneously, while the other three legs make contact with the ground. The middle leg of one side swings with the hind and front legs on the contralateral side. Tripod gaits are most commonly used at high speeds, though it can be used at lower speeds. The tripod gait is less stable than wave-like and tetrapod gaits, but it is theorized to be the most robust. This means that it is easier for an insect to recover from an offset in step timing when walking in a tripod gait. The ability to respond robustly is important for insects when traversing uneven terrain.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: USS "Makin Island" (LHD-8), a , is the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for Makin Island, target of the Marine Raiders' Makin Island raid early on in the United States' involvement in World War II.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: "Makin Island"s task is to embark, deploy, and land elements of a Marine Corps landing force in an amphibious assault by helicopters, landing craft, and amphibious vehicles. The secondary or convertible mission for "Makin Island" is sea control and power projection.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: "Makin Island" is the eighth ship of the "Wasp" class, but features noteworthy technological advances. Changes from the previous LHD design include gas turbine main propulsion engines, all-electric auxiliaries, an advanced machinery control system, water-mist fire-protection systems, and the Navy's most advanced command and control and combat systems equipment. The new propulsion system allows the engines to be directly controlled from the throttles on the bridge, replacing the traditional engine order telegraphs on the earlier "Wasp"-class LHDs.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: "Makin Island" was laid down on 14 February 2004 at Ingalls Shipbuilding, Pascagoula, Mississippi. The vessel has a light displacement of and a full-load displacement of with a dead weight is . She has an overall length of and a waterline length of . The extreme beam is with the beam at the waterline being and the draft is . Her maximum speed is .


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: The ship's armament consists of two RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile launchers, two RIM-7 Sea Sparrow surface-to-air missile launchers, three Mk 38 25-mm close-in guns, two Mk 15 Phalanx CIWS, four M2 Browning .50 caliber machine guns, and a ceremonial gun.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: "Makin Island" is the eighth "Wasp"-class amphibious assault ships to be ordered for the U.S. Navy, but differs from her older sister ships in her propulsion system. The previous "Wasp"-class vessels used steam boilers and steam turbines to drive the propellers, while "Makin Island" is the first U.S. Navy vessel to use a hybrid propulsion system consisting of a combined diesel electric and gas turbine propulsion system.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: "Makin Island" has two General Electric LM 2500+ gas turbines each connected to a separate 20:1 ratio main reduction gear, which then drive two diameter Rolls Royce controllable pitch propellers. Gas turbines have a high power-to-weight ratio compared to steam or diesel power, but are only efficient near their maximum power output. In "Makin Island", the gas turbines are used to power the ship above 12 knots. Below 12 knots, ship propulsion is provided by two AC electric motors connected to a second input shaft on the main reduction gears. When powered by the electric motors, the gas turbines are decoupled from the main reduction gear and braked to prevent spinning. When the gas turbines are engaged, the electric motors are similarly decoupled from the drive system. The propeller shafts can be driven at lower speeds by slowing down the electric motors. Variable drive speed is achieved with an Alstom variable frequency drive system. Power for the electric motors comes from the ship's service electrical system, which is provided by six 4000 kW generators powered by Fairbanks Morse diesel engines.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: In conventional Navy ships, the steam boiler drives both the propellers and ship service steam turbine generators to provide electric power for the vessel. The boilers also provide steam to heat the ship in colder climates. Since "Makin Island" does not have steam boilers, she uses the diesel electric generators for all shipboard power services. Specifically, instead of steam heating, she uses electric heating for laundry and hot water supply as well as for heating interior compartments in cold climates.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: The gas turbine propulsion plant, with all electric auxiliaries, is a program first for large-deck amphibious assault ships and provides significant savings in manpower and maintenance costs associated with traditional steam-powered amphibious ships. The ship carries four reverse-osmosis water-purification systems, each capable of processing of fresh water per day.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: She was christened on 19 August 2006, sponsored by Silke Hagee, wife of General Michael Hagee, Commandant of the Marine Corps, and launched on 15 September 2006. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, U.S. Navy officials announced that several ships under construction at Ingalls Shipbuilding had been damaged by the storm, including "Makin Island" and two s. The ship's completion was delayed due to rewiring during 2008 to repair incorrect wiring installation.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: "Makin Island" was delivered to the U.S. Navy on 16 April 2009 and was commissioned at Pascagoula, Mississippi, without ceremony on 26 June 2009 with Captain Bob Kopas in command.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: "Makin Island" deployed 10 July 2009 and sailed around South America via the Strait of Magellan, in which the crew continued to train, obtaining underway certifications in preparation for her arrival in San Diego. During the deployment, "Makin Island" conducted theater security cooperation activities with Brazil, Chile, and Peru, focusing on working closely with partner nation civilian and maritime forces to share methods and training. She arrived in her home port of San Diego on 14 September 2009. Captain Kopas stated in an interview on local radio that "Makin Island" had saved about US$2 million in fuel, compared with a conventional propulsion system, on her voyage from Mississippi around South America to San Diego.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: Her formal commissioning ceremony took place on 24 October 2009 at Naval Air Station North Island, Coronado, near San Diego. Six USMC veterans of the Makin Island raid attended the ceremony.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: "Makin Island" visited San Francisco in October 2010 as part of the city's 2010 Fleet Week festivities. She returned to Fleet Week in 2012 after her maiden deployment to the 5th and 7th Fleet area of operations.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: On 1 October 2014, during the early months of Operation Inherent Resolve, "Makin Island" was part of a naval task force in the northern Gulf with the 11th MEU embarked and engaged in active battle operations against ISIS. Shortly after take-off, an MV-22 lost power and dropped towards the water's surface, prompting two of the crew on board to bail out into the water. The pilot was ultimately able to regain control and land, while other aircraft, watercraft, and ships from the task force began search and rescue efforts. One of the two crewmembers was found. The other, a marine NCO, was eventually declared lost, and later determined to be the first American casualty of the operation.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: During the December 2014 US hostage rescue operation in Yemen, wounded hostages were flown to the ship for medical treatment while she was posted in the Gulf of Aden.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: In October 2016 "Makin Island" was deployed alongside the US Coast Guard to search for missing Chinese sailor Guo Chuan, who was attempting to break the world record for solo sailing from San Francisco to Shanghai. "Makin Island" reached his yacht, "Qingdao China", on 27 October, but found her adrift with no sign of the sailor, roughly northwest of Oahu, Hawaii. After searching an area of without locating the missing sailor, "Makin Island"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s crew recovered his personal items and left the yacht for later salvage.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: "Makin Island" departed on her maiden deployment as the US Navy's first hybrid-drive warship: part gas-turbine and part diesel-electric. About 70% of the time "Makin Island" can use diesel-electric propulsion, saving on fuel as diesel engines are optimized for cruising, and consume much less fuel than gas turbines. When she needs to travel quickly, at 12 knots or more, the gas turbines are used. This arrangement is also known as combined diesel-electric or gas.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: On an average day, "Makin Island" uses of fuel, versus on an older steam ship of its type, according to Captain James Landers, commanding officer.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: The downside is the logistical "tail", which means it takes a while to get parts. Further, the ship is software dependent, which is an independent source of failure.


title: USS Makin Island (LHD-8)

text: Internal heating is provided by electrical, instead of steam, heaters. At temperatures above excess heating capacity can be reallocated for additional electric propulsion.


title: Commuter town

text: A commuter town is a populated area that is primarily residential rather than commercial or industrial. Routine travel from home to work and back is called commuting, which is where the term comes from. A commuter town may be called by many other terms: "bedroom community" (Canada and northeastern US), "bedroom town", "bedroom suburb" (US), "dormitory town", or "dormitory suburb" (Britain/Commonwealth/Ireland). In Japan, a commuter town may be referred to by the "wasei-eigo" coinage . The term "exurb" was used from the 1950s, but since 2006, is generally used for areas beyond suburbs and specifically less densely built than the suburbs to which the exurbs' residents commute.


title: Commuter town

text: Often commuter towns form when workers in a region cannot afford to live where they work and must seek residency in another town with a lower cost of living. The late 20th century, the dot-com bubble and United States housing bubble drove housing costs in Californian metropolitan areas to historic highs, spawning exurban growth in adjacent counties. , over 80% of the workforce of Tracy, California was employed in the San Francisco Bay Area.


title: Commuter town

text: In some cases, commuter towns can result from changing economic conditions. Steubenville, Ohio along with neighboring Weirton, West Virginia had an independent regional identity until the collapse of the steel industry in the 1980s. Steubenville Pike and the Parkway West also created easier access to the much larger city of Pittsburgh. In 2013, Jefferson County, Ohio (where Steubenville is located) was added to the Pittsburgh metropolitan area as part of its larger Combined Statistical Area.


title: Commuter town

text: In Japan, most of the national railway network was privatized by the 1980s but unlike in the UK, both the national railway's tracks, trains, stations and real estate were included in the privatization agreements. Japan's privately operated railroads view real estate investment and development of commuter towns as central to their business model. These railroads continuously develop new residential and commercial areas alongside their existing and new routes and stations and adjust their train schedules in order to provide existing and prospective commuters with convenient work-commute routines. This is quite different from North American commuter towns that are almost exclusively the result of transportation by car.


title: Commuter town

text: Where commuters are wealthier and small town housing markets weaker than city housing markets, the development of a bedroom community may raise local housing prices and attract upscale service businesses in a process akin to gentrification. Long-time residents may be displaced by new commuter residents due to rising house prices. This can also be influenced by zoning restrictions in urbanized areas that prevent the construction of suitably cheap housing closer to places of employment.


title: Commuter town

text: The number of commuter towns increased in the US and the UK during the 20th century because of a trend for people to move out of the cities into the surrounding green belt. In the United States, it is common for commuter towns to create disparities in municipal tax rates. When a commuter town collects few business taxes, residents must pay the brunt of the public operating budget in higher property or income taxes. Such municipalities may scramble to encourage commercial growth once an established residential base has been reached.


title: Commuter town

text: In the UK, commuter towns were developed by railway companies to create demand for their lines. One 1920s pioneer of this form of development was the Metropolitan Railway (now part of London Underground) which marketed its Metro-land developments. This initiative encouraged many to move out of central and inner-city London to suburbs such as Harrow, or out of London itself, to commuter villages in Buckinghamshire or Hertfordshire. Commuter towns have more recently been built ahead of adequate transportation infrastructure, thus spurring the development of roads and public transportation systems. These can take the form of light rail lines extending from the city center to new streetcar suburbs and new or expanded highways, whose construction and traffic can lead to the community becoming part of a larger conurbation.


title: Commuter town

text: A 2014 study by the British Office for National Statistics found that commuting also affects wellbeing. Commuters are more likely to be anxious, dissatisfied and have the sense that their daily activities lack meaning than those who don't have to travel to work, even if they are paid more.


title: Commuter town

text: The term "exurb" ( a portmanteau of "extra & urban") was coined by Auguste Comte Spectorsky, in his 1955 book "The Exurbanites" to describe the ring of prosperous communities beyond the suburbs that are commuter towns for an urban area. However, since a landmark report by the Brookings Institution in 2006, the term is generally used for areas beyond suburbs and specifically less densely built than the suburbs to which the exurbs' residents commute.


title: Commuter town

text: Comparatively low density towns – often featuring large lots and large homes – create heavy motor vehicle dependency.


title: Commuter town

text: Others argue that exurban environments, such as those that have emerged in Oregon over the last 40 years as a result of the state's unique land use laws, have helped to protect local agriculture and local businesses by creating strict urban growth boundaries that encourage greater population densities in centralized towns, while slowing or greatly reducing urban and suburban sprawl into agricultural, timber land, and natural areas.


title: Zendaya (album)

text: Zendaya is the debut studio album by American singer and actress Zendaya, released on September 17, 2013, by Hollywood Records. After acting in the Disney Channel series "Shake It Up", Zendaya signed a recording contract with Hollywood Records, in which she began recording her debut in late 2012. "Zendaya" consists of 12 songs; musically, the album is an electropop album that incorporates renegade urban pop, R&B and dubstep. Lyrically, the album discusses issues of heartbreak and love.


title: Zendaya (album)

text: Upon its release, it was met with positive reviews from music critics, who praised the album's production. Commercially, the album debuted on the US "Billboard" 200 at number 51, selling 7,000 copies in its first week. The album's lead single "Replay" was released on July 16, 2013, and its music video premiered on August 15, 2013, on VEVO and Disney Channel. The single became Zendaya's highest-charting song at the time, charting within both the top forty of the US and New Zealand. To further promote the album, Zendaya performed on a variety of television shows and set out on a North American tour entitled the Swag It Out Tour.


title: Zendaya (album)

text: After starting her career as an actress, acting in shows including Shake It Up, she began featuring on soundtracks releasing the singles "Watch Me" and "Something To Dance For", Zendaya announced she has signed a record deal.


title: Zendaya (album)

text: On August 8, 2012, Zendaya announced she had signed a record deal with Hollywood Records, via her official Twitter account she commented on the signing writing; "epic moment in my life...it's official!!! HOLLYWOOD RECORDS!!!", the comment also included pictures of herself with the label executives signing a contract. In May 2013, it was reported Coleman's debut album would be released in the fall of 2013 and the album's lead single would be released in June. On August 13, 2013, Zendaya revealed that her debut album would self-titled, along with unveiling the official artwork for the record.


title: Zendaya (album)

text: "Zendaya" consists of twelve tracks. The album is mainly rooted in urban electropop, that musically experiment with pop, R&B, trap and dubstep genres. The album's lyrical content tackles issues of love and heartbreak.


title: Zendaya (album)

text: After streaming the album to radio presenter Ryan Seacrest, he commented on the album's music calling is a "pop/R&B hybrid offering for the most part", he continued to comment saying the album contained "urban cuts"


title: Zendaya (album)

text: The album's opening track and lead single "Replay" is a "grittier club-ready pop track", that was produced by Mick Schultz. "Replay" is an electro-R&B song with influences from glitch and dubstep.


title: Zendaya (album)

text: "Scared" is an up-tempo pop song that lyrically speaks about "trying to save a relationship because she is scared of being alone". "Scared" was written by Tiffany Fred and Paul "Phamous" Shelton, and was described by Zendaya as having a "Kanye West type of vibe".


title: Zendaya (album)

text: "Love You Forever" is an up-tempo "90s throwback" song that has been compared to the work of the late singer Aaliyah. Lyrically the song discusses Zendaya falling in love on the dance floor, the concept of the song is introduced with lyrics such as "We on that all night, get it right/ If you keep on moving like that, I might love you forever/ We on that first time love high/ Just keep on moving/ 'Cause I might love you Forever


title: Zendaya (album)

text: On September 19, 2013, Zendaya made her first national performance on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", in which she sang the album's lead single. On October 29, Zendaya was the New Artist of the Month on "The Today Show", where she performed an acoustic version of "Replay". On November 29, she performed "Replay" on BET's "106 & Park". Zendaya further promoted the project by hosting events like "106 & park" special "106 & prom", in which she spoke about her upcoming music project. In early 2012 Zendaya embarked on a North American tour entitled Swag It Out Tour, in order to promote her debut album and the Shake It Up soundtrack. The tour started on August 5, 2012, in Oakland and finished on December 17, 2013. The tour consisted of two legs over America and Canada with a total of twenty one shows.


title: Zendaya (album)

text: "Replay" was released as the album's lead single on July 16, 2013. The song was met with positive reviews from critics noting the single from breaking the musical "mould" and praised the song for its catchy lyrics. Replay was a moderate success in the US, where it debuted at number 77 and reached peak of 40 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, making Replay her first Top 40 hit. The song also made appearances on the New Zealand chart and US "Billboard" Dance Club Play, by peaking at 18 and 3, respectively. It was however a top 10 hit in Australia where it peaked at 8. A remix version of "My Baby", featuring American rappers Ty Dolla Sign, Iamsu! and Bobby Brackins, was released as single. The two versions had a music video.


title: Zendaya (album)

text: AllMusic praised the self-titled album, commending its production saying the album "delivers sleek pop thrills with fewer growing pains than some of her predecessors suffered on their early albums". AllMusic continued to compare the album to the debut of Cassie, overall saying the album "is a streamlined, self-assured first effort".


title: Bejoy Nambiar

text: Bejoy Nambiar (born 12 April 1979) is an Indian film director, and screenwriter known for his work in Bollywood. He is mostly known for his critically acclaimed short films, "Rahu" and "Reflections", starring Mohanlal. He was the winner of Sony PIX Gateway to Hollywood, as the best director judged by Ashok Amritraj, Rajat Kapoor and Anurag Basu. He marked his feature film debut with the thriller "Shaitan" (2011). His second feature film was a gangster-comedy film called "David". His latest Bollywood film was Taish (2020) which was also released as a Series on ZEE5. He also directed Wazir (2016), starring Amitabh Bachchan and Farhan Akhtar. He has also directed a short video 'Sachinocalypse' for All India Bakchod.


title: Bejoy Nambiar

text: His mother tongue is Malayalam. Nambiar was married to Juhi Babbar on 27 June 2007, after a two-year courtship; the couple divorced in January 2009. He then married his long-time girlfriend Sheetal Menon in a traditional Malayali wedding in Kerala on 27 December 2015.


title: 1997–98 Chicago Bulls season

text: The 1997–98 NBA season was the Bulls' 32nd season in the National Basketball Association. The Bulls entered the season as the two-time defending NBA champions, and in the Finals, they met the Utah Jazz in a rematch from the prior year's NBA Finals and just like that year, they would go on to defeat the Jazz in six games to win their sixth championship in eight years and complete the franchise's second "3-peat".


title: 1997–98 Chicago Bulls season

text: During the off-season, the Bulls acquired Scott Burrell from the Golden State Warriors. However, All-Star forward Scottie Pippen would miss the first half of the season due to an injured toe on his left foot sustained from the 1997 NBA Playoffs. Without Pippen, the Bulls started with a slow 9–7 record in November, but then would go on a 15–4 record until he returned in January. However, three-point specialist Steve Kerr went down with a knee injury in January, and only played just 50 games. Despite the injuries, the Bulls held a 34–15 record at the All-Star break. At midseason, the team traded Jason Caffey to the Golden State Warriors in exchange for David Vaughn. Vaughn would only play just three games with the Bulls before being waived on March 2. Also in early March, the team re-signed former Bulls reserve forward Dickey Simpkins, who was previously released by the Warriors, and played in the final 21 games of the regular season. Despite the slow start, with the help of Scottie's return which was limited to just 44 games, the Bulls would post a 13-game winning streak between March and April, and still finish first place in the Central Division and Eastern Conference with a 62–20 record. The Bulls had the third best team defensive rating in the NBA.


title: 1997–98 Chicago Bulls season

text: In the playoffs, the Bulls swept the New Jersey Nets 3–0 in the Eastern Conference First Round, defeated the Charlotte Hornets 4–1 in the Eastern Conference Semi-finals, despite losing Game 2 at the United Center 78–76, and then the Indiana Pacers 4–3 in the Eastern Conference Finals en route to advance to the NBA Finals. In the Finals, they met the Utah Jazz in a rematch from the prior year's NBA Finals and just like last year, they would go on to defeat the Jazz in six games to win the championship. The championship was their sixth in eight years and completed the franchise's second "3-peat".


title: 1997–98 Chicago Bulls season

text: The season also saw Michael Jordan earn his fifth and final NBA Most Valuable Player Award, while being selected for the 1998 NBA All-Star Game, where he also won his third and final All-Star Game MVP Award. He once again led the league in scoring averaging 28.7 points, 5.8 rebounds and 1.7 steals per game, while being named to the All-NBA First Team, and NBA All-Defensive First Team, and also finished in fourth place in Defensive Player of the Year voting. In addition, Pippen averaged 19.1 points, 5.2 rebounds, 5.8 assists and 1.8 steals per game, and was selected to the All-NBA Third Team, and also to the All-Defensive First Team, while finishing in tenth place in Most Valuable Player voting, and rebound-specialist Dennis Rodman once again led the league in rebounding with 15.0 rebounds per game. Toni Kukoč provided the team with 13.3 points per game, playing most of the season as the team's starting small forward in Pippen's absence, while Luc Longley averaged 11.4 points and 5.9 rebounds per game, Ron Harper contributed 9.3 points and 1.3 steals per game, and Kerr contributed 7.5 points per game off the bench.


title: 1997–98 Chicago Bulls season

text: This was Jordan's last season as a Bull, as he announced his second retirement after it was over. However, he did make a second comeback with the Washington Wizards in 2001. Following the season, Phil Jackson resigned as head coach, while Pippen was traded to the Houston Rockets, Rodman left for the Los Angeles Lakers as a free agent, Longley was dealt to the Phoenix Suns, Kerr signed with the San Antonio Spurs, Burrell signed with the New Jersey Nets, and Jud Buechler signed with the Detroit Pistons.


title: 1997–98 Chicago Bulls season

text: Because of this dismantling of the team, this was the last season for the Bulls dynasty that had headlined the NBA throughout the 1990s. What followed was a long rebuilding process between 1998 and 2004, and the Bulls did not return to the postseason until 2005.


title: 1997–98 Chicago Bulls season

text: The story of this season was captured in ESPN's "The Last Dance". It aired in April 2020, expedited due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: 1997–98 Chicago Bulls season

text: This was the first time in the 1990s that the same two teams played each other in two consecutive finals. The Jazz had won both regular season match-ups, and many analysts predicted a hard-fought seven-game series. Predictions of a Jazz championship were strengthened with their game one victory in overtime in Utah. The Bulls would tie the series in game 2 putting together a fourth quarter run to silence the Delta Center and holding on to win 93–88, finally securing their first victory against Utah all season.


title: 1997–98 Chicago Bulls season

text: The Finals would move to Chicago with control of the series at stake in Game 3. Though anticipation was high, no one could have expected a blow-out of the proportions seen in Game 3. With a 96–54 triumph over Utah, the Bulls would help the Jazz set an embarrassing record for the lowest points scored in Finals history and biggest margin of defeat, while everyone on the Bulls scored. The Jazz would pull themselves together in Game 4 in a better attempt to tie the series, but lost 86–82.


title: 1997–98 Chicago Bulls season

text: The early Jazz series-lead seemed like a distant memory, a false indication of a tough series as they hit the floor for Game 5 behind 3–1. Chicago fans prepared for the last game they would host with the Jordan-led Bulls of the 1990s. But any notions of a championship at the United Center would be snuffed out when, with 0.8 seconds on the game, Michael Jordan airballed an off-balance 3 to the right of the basket giving the Jazz a narrow 83–81 win. The play might have been for Toni Kukoč to shoot a three. With the series shifting back to Utah with a far more generous 3-2 Bulls advantage, the promise of another Chicago championship was not so certain.


title: 1997–98 Chicago Bulls season

text: As they arrived at the Delta Center for Game 6, things didn't look good for the Bulls. Scottie Pippen's back gave out when he dunked the opening basket of the game and he was slowed down and held to just 8 points. The Jazz suffered a bad break when the referees incorrectly nullified a Howard Eisley three-pointer that, replays showed, was clearly released just before the 24-second clock expired. In the 4th quarter, the Bulls closed the gap as Michael Jordan tallied many of his 45 overall points. Then things got worse for Chicago when John Stockton hit a clutch 3 with 41.9 seconds left to give Utah an 86–83 lead as the Delta Center crowd roared happily. Down by 3, the Bulls had one last chance to stay alive. Running perilously low on energy, it would be imperative for Chicago to win the series before the game went into OT, and also for the Bulls to avoid a Game 7 on the road when Scottie Pippen was so badly injured and their entire lineup was exhausted.


title: 1997–98 Chicago Bulls season

text: After Michael Jordan made a quick layup to cut the Jazz lead to one, the Bulls needed to stop the Jazz from scoring again. When John Stockton passed the ball to Karl Malone, Michael Jordan stole the ball away and dribbled to the front. Guarding him was Bryon Russell, one of the Jazz's best perimeter defenders. Jordan drove inside the 3-point line, executed a quick cross-over, and drilled a 20-ft. jump shot to give the Bulls an 87–86 lead with 5.2 seconds left. After Utah took a timeout, Stockton's 3 hit the rim and bounced away, giving the Bulls their 6th title in 8 years. The famous winning shot has been immortalized in many records, as Jordan completed a perfect sextet: 6 NBA Finals, 6 championships, and 6 NBA Finals MVP trophies.


title: Nathy Peluso

text: Natalia Peluso (born 12 January 1995), known professionally as Nathy Peluso (), is an Argentinian singer, songwriter, dancer and pedagogue. Born in Argentina, and raised in Spain, Peluso became interested in the performing arts at an early age, performing cover songs at musical bars in her teenage years. After graduating King Juan Carlos University, Peluso relocated to Barcelona to pursue a professional career in music, with her first releases, "Esmeralda" (2017) and "La Sandunguera" (2018), being confected independently. Peluso slowly started to become recognized in Spain. After signing Sony Music, Peluso started working on her breakthrough album "Calambre" (2020), for which she won the Latin Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album.


title: Nathy Peluso

text: Distinguished for her theatrical personality onstage, and her fusion of hip hop, soul, and world music, Peluso's popularity expanded after collaborating with Bizarrap on "", achieving commercial success and social media virality in Latin America. She has also collaborated with Christina Aguilera, Karol G, and C. Tangana, with the latter one's duet "Ateo" debuting atop the Spanish charts.


title: Nathy Peluso

text: Peluso's artistry has been awarded four Premios Gardel and a Latin Grammy Award out of six nominations, including Best New Artist, among many others.


title: Nathy Peluso

text: Peluso was born in 1995 in Luján, Argentina and was raised in the Saavedra neighbourhood in Buenos Aires. While growing up she listened to a variety of artists like Ella Fitzgerald and Ray Charles, as well as folk artists such as João Gilberto, Ray Barretto or Atahualpa Yupanqui. She has Italian ancestry.


title: Nathy Peluso

text: In 2004, at 9 she emigrated to Spain with her family. She first resided in Alicante. At the age of 16, she began to perform at hotels and restaurants in Torrevieja, mainly performing classic songs by Frank Sinatra, Etta James or Nina Simone. As a teenager she began uploading versions to her YouTube channel. She moved to Murcia shortly after, where she entered the city's local university to study a degree in Audiovisual Communication. After leaving the degree program, she moved to Madrid to study Fine Arts at the King Juan Carlos University. She specialized in Pedagogy of Visual Arts and Dance. While studying, she worked in the hospitality industry as a waitress at VIPS and Domino's Pizza, among others. After leaving her studies, she moved to Barcelona, where she currently resides.


title: Nathy Peluso

text: In 2017 she began to dedicate herself completely to music with the release of her first mixtape "Esmeralda".


title: Nathy Peluso

text: In October 2017, Peluso independently released a seven-track extended play titled "Esmeralda", which included the single "Corashe". The track aroused the interest of many music critics and independent music magazines like "Mondo Sonoro" and "Rockdelux."


title: Nathy Peluso

text: In April 2018, she released a second EP, "La Sandunguera", with Everlasting Records, which spawned the singles "La Sandunguera" and "Estoy Triste". She later embarked on a tour with her band Big Menu that had over a hundred concerts, including gigs at BBK Live, Sónar and the Festival Internacional de Benicàssim. The tour visited Spain and selected parts of Europe and Latin America. She was nominated at the Independent Music Awards (MIN) for Song of the Year and Best Music Video for "La Sandunguera" She also received the Discovery Artist award at the Latin Alternative Music Conference in New York City.


title: Nathy Peluso

text: In 2019 she released her debut book "Deja Que te Combata", a compilation of her thoughts, reflections, stories and past and upcoming projects. During that year she continued promoting herself through new releases like "Natikillah" and appearances at major festivals such as Primavera Sound. She also partnered with Samsung to be part of their Somos Smart Girl campaign alongside Blanca Suárez, Sandra Barneda and Carolina Marín.


title: Nathy Peluso

text: In December 2019, Peluso signed a record deal with Sony Music Spain. Her first release as a signed artist was the independent single "Copa Glasé".


title: Nathy Peluso

text: In 2020 she reached the attention of the general public and the mainstream audience after "Operación Triunfo" contestant Anaju sang "La Sandunguera" on prime time to keep participating on the show. After that, Peluso was invited to the show on Women's Day to promote her new single "Business Woman", defined as a feminist anthem. During the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic, Peluso released a musical collaboration with urbano artist Rels B titled "No Se Perdona", which had great commercial success. Another single "Buenos Aires" was released shortly after. It received critical acclaim for its message and sound and scored a Latin Grammy nomination for Best Alternative Song. She also received a Premio Gardel and a Latin Grammy nomination for Best New Artist. She was also covered in "The Guardian" for the first time.


title: Nathy Peluso

text: In September 2020 she announced that she would be releasing her debut studio album "Calambre" on 2 October and released a new single "Sana Sana". Briefly before releasing her album, her performance of "Sana Sana" at the German music platform Colors "which features exceptional talent from around the world" went viral on Twitter, reaching over twelve million views. "Calambre" was released to critical and commercial success, peaking at number five on the PROMUSICAE album chart. The album was later nominated for Album of the Year at the Premios Gardel (the Argentine equivalent to the Grammy Awards) as well as for Best Alternative Pop Album. Its single "Buenos Aires" also received a nomination for Record of the Year. In November she collaborated with Argentine producer Bizarrap in "Bzrp Music Sessions Vol. 36", which eventually became viral due to its lyrics and instrumentation, reaching the top 5 on the Argentina Hot 100. It is certified platinum in Spain. The rap session received three Premios Gardel nominations, one of them being Song of the Year.


title: Nathy Peluso

text: In 2021, the music video for her next single "Delito", directed by Agustín Puente, met praise from critics. The song became a top 30 hit both in Argentina and Spain and was certified Gold in the latter one. Later in March, she received critical acclaim for her performance of "La Violetera" at the 35th Goya Awards. That same month, she collaborated with Karol G on "Gato Malo", included in the Colombian's third studio album and sparked rumors about a possible future collaboration with J Balvin. In May, the singer embarked on her first major tour in Spain, which lasted until fall comprising 28 concerts. On July 3, 2021, Nathy Peluso announced her first solo single since the release of her debut album, titled "Mafiosa", which peaked at 89 in Spain. In September, she took part in the Spotify Singles song series in which she covered "La Despedida" by Daddy Yankee to critical acclaim. The following month, she collaborated with C. Tangana on his song "Ateo" (which became Peluso's first number one single in Spain) and was featured on Christina Aguilera's "Pa Mis Muchachas" alongside Becky G and Nicki Nicole. In December, Peluso reinterprated Camilo Sesto's "Vivir Así es Morir de Amor" to great commercial success.


title: Nathy Peluso

text: In February 2022, Peluso released "Emergencia" in collaboration with PlayStation. The single was inspired by the game Horizon Forbidden West. In the video clip, Peluso takes on the aesthetics of Aloy, the video game's main character. The single was produced by Didi Gutman and ODDLIQUOR, while the music video was directed by The Movement.


title: Christopher Mayer (American actor)

text: Christopher Mayer (born George Charles Mayer III; February 21, 1954 – July 23, 2011), also known as Chip Mayer, was an American film and TV actor who was best known for portraying Vance Duke on "The Dukes of Hazzard" for 19 episodes during season 5 when cousins Coy and Vance Duke temporarily replaced Bo and Luke Duke (due to a salary dispute between producers and the original actors).


title: Christopher Mayer (American actor)

text: Mayer played the role of Vance Duke in 19 episodes of the fifth season of "The Dukes of Hazzard" during 1982–83. Mayer continued his work in television and movies into the early 1990s, including a stint on the daytime serial "Santa Barbara". He also played Kenneth Falk in the film "Liar Liar" (1997) alongside Jim Carrey. He appeared on "", season 7, episode 15, "Badda Bing Badda Bang" as a security guard in 1999. His last TV credit was a guest appearance on "18 Wheels of Justice" in 2000.


title: Christopher Mayer (American actor)

text: Mayer's first marriage was to actress Teri Copley, with whom he had a daughter, Ashley. Mayer's second marriage was to Eileen Davidson, an actress on the daytime serials "Days of Our Lives" and "The Young and the Restless". Mayer's third marriage was to actress Shauna Sullivan in 1988, with whom he had two more daughters, Alexandra and Angelica. Mayer was engaged to be married to Catherine Irvine at the time of his death.


title: Accommodation (eye)

text: Accommodation is the process by which the vertebrate eye changes optical power to maintain a clear image or focus on an object as its distance varies. In this, distances vary for individuals from the far point—the maximum distance from the eye for which a clear image of an object can be seen, to the near point—the minimum distance for a clear image.


title: Accommodation (eye)

text: Accommodation usually acts like a reflex, including part of the accommodation-vergence reflex, but it can also be consciously controlled. Mammals, birds and reptiles vary their eyes' optical power by changing the form of the elastic lens using the ciliary body (in humans up to 15 dioptres in the mean). Fish and amphibians vary the power by changing the distance between a rigid lens and the retina with muscles.


title: Accommodation (eye)

text: When humans accommodate to a near object, they also converge their eyes and, as a result, constrict their pupils. However, the constriction of the pupils is not part of the process called lens accommodation. The combination of these three movements (accommodation, convergence and miosis) is under the control of the Edinger-Westphal nucleus and is referred to as the "near triad", or accommodation reflex. While it is well understood that proper convergence is necessary to prevent diplopia, the functional role of the pupillary constriction remains less clear. Arguably, it may increase the depth of field by reducing the aperture of the eye, and thus reduce the amount of accommodation needed to bring the image in focus on the retina.


title: Accommodation (eye)

text: There is a measurable ratio (Matthiessen's ratio) between how much convergence takes place because of accommodation (AC/A ratio, CA/C ratio). Abnormalities with this can lead to binocular vision problems.


title: Accommodation (eye)

text: There are many types of accommodation anomalies. It can be broadly classified into two, decreased accommodation and increased accommodation. Decreased accommodation may occur due to physiological (presbyopia), pharmacological (cycloplegia) or pathological. Excessive accommodation and spasm of accommodation are types of increased accommodation.


title: Accommodation (eye)

text: Presbyopia, physiological insufficiency of accommodation due to age related changes in lens (decreased elasticity and increased hardness) and ciliary muscle power is the commonest form of accommodative dysfunction. It will cause gradual decrease in near vision.


title: Accommodation (eye)

text: Accommodative insufficiency is the condition where amplitude of accommodation of a person is lesser compared to physiological limits for their age. Premature sclerosis of lens or ciliary muscle weaknesses due to systemic or local cases may cause accommodative insufficiency.


title: Accommodation (eye)

text: Ill-sustained accommodation is a condition similar to accommodative insufficiency. In this, range of accommodation will be normal, but after excessive near work accommodative power will decrease.


title: Accommodation (eye)

text: In paralysis of accommodation, amplitude of accommodation is either markedly reduced or completely absent (cycloplegia). It may occur due to ciliary muscle paralysis or occulomotor nerve paralysis. Parasympatholytic drugs like atropine will also cause paralysis of accommodation.


title: Accommodation (eye)

text: If there is amplitude of accommodation between the eyes differ 0.5 dioptre or more, it is considered as unequal. Organic diseases, head trauma or functional amblyopia may be responsible for unequal accommodation.


title: Accommodation (eye)

text: Accommodative infacility is also known as accommodative inertia. In this condition there will be difficulty in changing accommodation from one point to other. There may be difficulty in adjusting focus from distance from near. It is a comparatively rare condition.


title: Accommodation (eye)

text: Spasm of accommodation also known as ciliary spasm is a condition of abnormally excessive accommodation which is out of voluntary control of the person. Vision may be blurred due to induced pseudomyopia.


title: Accommodation (eye)

text: Accommodative excess occurs when an individual uses more than normal accommodation for performing certain near work. Modern definitions simply regard it as an inability to relax accommodation readily.


title: The Stand In (2020 film)

text: The Stand In is a 2020 American romantic comedy film directed by Jamie Babbit, written by Sam Bain, and starring Drew Barrymore, Michael Zegen, T.J. Miller and Holland Taylor. It was released on December 11, 2020.


title: The Stand In (2020 film)

text: Actress Candy Black, was once was a blockbuster comedic star, however, after years of drug abuse and anger issues, she's considered difficult. On one of her movies, "Entrapment Baby"'s set, she refuses to work until her stand in Paula reveals the director may replace her with Melissa McCarthy. During the scene, her co-star Jenna Jones hits her with a solid marble statue instead of a breakaway vase. In a rage, Black shatters an ashtray and a shard hits Jones' eye. The video goes viral, ruining her career.


title: The Stand In (2020 film)

text: Candy locks herself up in her Long Island mansion for five years, while facing many legal issues from her addictions and tax evasion. Her romantic pen pal relationship with Steve Grady, also passionate about Shaker carpentry is her one joy - however, she secretly writes as Kathy Tyler, her actual legal name. In May 2019, she is sentenced to months in rehab, jeopardizing their plan to finally meet. She asks her former manager Louis to find her former stand-in Paula, now a struggling actress living in her car. Inviting Paula to her mansion, Candy asks her to attend rehab for her. She agrees, only if Candy resumes acting, with Paula as her stand-in.


title: The Stand In (2020 film)

text: In rehab, Paula meets director's assistant Ingrid, who offers her a cameo in a reboot of their former collaboration "Saddle Up". Upon release, Paula tells Kathy, but she refuses because filming conflicts with her first date with Steve. Desperate to resume work, Paula, as Steve, messages Kathy, claiming to be married and severing contact. Then as Kathy, attending her first date with Steve, initially planning to break up with him, but quickly falls for and begins dating him.


title: The Stand In (2020 film)

text: Although the "Saddle Up" cameo is still in limbo, Paula convinces Kathy to appear in a series of six-figure talk show apology appearances. This puts Paula in contact with Louis (who doesn't know she's Paula), as well as their new publicist Simon. He asks her on a date and she accepts, but they are interrupted when Paula and Steve spot each other (Steve sees Kathy/Paula was Candy Black after watching her on a television interview). Paula and Steve go back to his apartment and have sex. Several days later, the "Saddle Up" offer is a go.


title: The Stand In (2020 film)

text: Paula drugs Kathy to host another date with Steve at the mansion, dumping her in the backyard. During the date, Steve admits he is actually Larry Cooper from Ann Arbor, Michigan, infamous for accidentally peeing on the New Orleans Holocaust Memorial while drunk. Kathy's high drug tolerance results in a quick recovery from being drugged, so she enters the mansion bathroom to vomit. Steve narrowly misses seeing her there before he leaves. Kathy and Paula then have a physical fight, leading to Paula dragging Kathy outside, locking her out, and getting the police to remove the 'crazed stalker'.


title: The Stand In (2020 film)

text: Kathy seeks help from Louis. However, when he discovers Paula is who's been making Candy Black's comeback, he drops her for Paula. She then applies for a construction job as a carpenter, so she breaks into the mansion to retrieve some certification papers. Steve spots Kathy, and recognizes her voice from the phone. Paula walks in behind him, and the three are in the same room for the first time. Confusion ensues over their respective secret identities, and Kathy realizes Paula sabotaged her relationship with Steve to further their career. Kathy storms out, and Steve dumps Paula to reunite with Kathy.


title: The Stand In (2020 film)

text: Steve and Kathy go to his townhouse and start building a relationship, while Paula films for the "Saddle Up" reboot as Candy Black. Uncomfortable doing the physical gags, Paula begs Kathy to resume working as Candy. She goes downstairs to personally refuse Paula's offer, and after complimenting her Method acting skills over the past few months, she gut-punches her for trying to sabotage her and Steve. As Kathy goes inside, a group of teenagers take selfies next to a downed Paula.


title: The Stand In (2020 film)

text: One year later, Paula is successfully working as Candy Black and dating her publicist Simon. No longer living in her own shadow, Kathy and Steve have a happy, quiet, successful life as woodworkers in a Shaker community.


title: The Stand In (2020 film)

text: In February 2018, Drew Barrymore joined the cast of the film and served as a producer under her company banner, with Jamie Babbit directing from a screenplay by Sam Bain. In January 2019, Michael Zegen joined the cast of the film. In February 2019, Charlie Barnett, Ellie Kemper, T.J. Miller and Holland Taylor joined the cast of the film.


title: The Stand In (2020 film)

text: Principal photography began in New York City in January 2019. In February, filming took place in Lexington and Versailles, Kentucky.


title: The Stand In (2020 film)

text: It was scheduled to premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 23, 2020. However, the festival was canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In July 2020, Saban Films acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released on December 11, 2020. It was released on Netflix on April 10, 2021.


title: The Stand In (2020 film)

text: The film received negative reviews from film critics. It holds approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on reviews, with an average of . The website's critics consensus reads: "Despite impressively committed work from Drew Barrymore in a dual role, "The Stand In" struggles to find the humor in a premise with no shortage of comedic potential." On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 38 out of 100, based on seven critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


"Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears" is the first line of a speech by Mark Antony in the play "Julius Caesar", by William Shakespeare. Occurring in Act III, scene II, it is one of the most famous lines in all of Shakespeare's works.


title: Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears

text: Antony has been allowed by Brutus and the other conspirators to make a funeral oration for Caesar on condition that he will not blame them for Caesar's death; however, while Antony's speech outwardly begins by justifying the actions of Brutus and the assassins ("I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him"), Antony uses rhetoric and genuine reminders to ultimately portray Caesar in such a positive light that the crowd is enraged against the conspirators.


text: Throughout his speech, Antony calls the conspirators "honourable men" his implied sarcasm becoming increasingly obvious. He begins by carefully rebutting the notion that his friend, Caesar, deserved to die because he was ambitious, instead claiming that his actions were for the good of the Roman people, whom he cared for deeply ("When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept: / Ambition should be made of sterner stuff"). He denies that Caesar wanted to make himself king, for there were many who witnessed the latter's denying the crown three times.


text: As Antony reflects on Caesar's death and the injustice that nobody will be blamed for it, he becomes overwhelmed with emotion and deliberately pauses ("My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar, / And I must pause till it come back to me"). As he does this, the crowd begins to turn against the conspirators.


text: Antony then teases the crowd with Caesar's will, which they beg him to read, but he refuses. Antony tells the crowd to "have patience" and expresses his feeling that he will "wrong the honourable men / Whose daggers have stabb'd Caesar" if he is to read the will. The crowd, increasingly agitated, calls the conspirators "traitors" and demands that Antony read out the will.


text: Instead of reading the will immediately, however, he focuses the crowd's attention on Caesar's body, pointing out his wounds and stressing the conspirators' betrayal of a man who trusted them, in particular the betrayal of Brutus ("Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar loved him!"). In response to the passion of the crowd, Antony denies that he is trying to agitate them ("I come not, friends, to steal away your hearts"), and he contrasts Brutus, "an orator", with himself, "a plain, blunt man", implying that Brutus has manipulated them through deceitful rhetoric. He claims that if he were as eloquent as Brutus, he could give a voice to each of Caesar's wounds ("... that should move / The stones of Rome to rise and mutiny").


text: After that, Antony deals his final blow by revealing Caesar's will, in which "To every Roman citizen he gives, / To every several man, seventy-five drachmas" as well as land, to the crowd. He ends his speech with a dramatic flourish: "Here was a Caesar, when comes such another?", at which point the crowd begins to riot and search out the assassins with the intention of killing them.


text: Antony then utters to himself: "Now let it work. Mischief, thou art afoot, / Take thou what course thou wilt!"


text: The speech is a famous example of the use of emotionally charged rhetoric. Comparisons have been drawn between this speech and political speeches throughout history in terms of the rhetorical devices employed to win over a crowd.


text: In Monty Python's "Life of Brian", the first line is quoted by Michael Palin as Pontius Pilate. In "Carry On Cleo" (1964), the line is begun several times by Julius Caesar, played by actor Kenneth Williams.


text: In the 1971 film, "Up Pompeii", Michael Hordern, playing Ludicrus Sextus, is given the line: "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your feet".


text: Lord Buckley recast the speech as "Hipsters, flipsters and finger-poppin' daddies: knock me your lobes."


text: Also parodied in "" (1995), when Ace Ventura (Jim Carrey) is rallying his animals, he yells "Friends! Rodents! Quadrupeds! Lend me your rears!" Also parodied in "Sausage Party", when Frank (Seth Rogen) tries to convince the other food that the humans are evil he starts by saying "Friends, Ramen, Country Club Lemonade, lend me your ears of corn."


text: In "" (1991), Cat R. Waul (John Cleese) begins the opening ceremony of his saloon (while using a concealed giant mouse trap to trap the mice) with the line: "Cats and gentle-mice, lend me your ears!"


text: In "" (1993) the speech is parodied where Robin Hood begins the speech, only to be interrupted by a barrage of ears thrown by the audience, misinterpreting the rhetoric for a literal request.


text: In René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo’s "Astérix" comics, the line is parodied several times, most often by the Chief Vitalstatistix, as “Friends, Gauls, countrymen,” which is normally the beginning of the chief’s speeches. These speeches, to his immense annoyance, are invariably interrupted by the villagers.


text: The lyrics of Bob Dylan's "Pay in Blood" on his 2012 album "Tempest" include the line, "I came to bury not to praise."


text: In episode 18 of season 3 ("Enemies Foreign and Domestic") of the TV show "The West Wing", the White House Press Secretary lists the injustices to women perpetrated by US ally Saudi Arabia and follows this with "But Brutus is an honorable man."


text: The video game "" has the titular Duke parody the line upon entering Ancient Rome. The line goes "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your chicks."


text: The line is referenced in the Ernest P. Worrell movie "Ernest Scared Stupid". During a scene where Ernest tries to help give advice to his young friend Kenny after he gets bullied while looking for a place to build a tree house, Ernest recounts a fictional story of Botswana rebelling against the Ottoman Empire, wherein he portrays a Julius Caesar-like figure and at one point recites a paraphrased version of the line; "Friends, Romans, Botswanians, lend me your trees!"


title: Mark Wilkerson

text: Mark Wilkerson is an American musician, who was the lead singer and guitarist for rock band Course of Nature, previously known as COG.


title: Mark Wilkerson

text: Wilkerson co-wrote the song "It's Not Over" which was released as a single and as the opening track on the eponymous album by Daughtry. On December 6, 2007, the song earned him and the other co-writers a nomination for Best Rock Song for the 50th Annual Grammy Awards.


title: Mark Wilkerson

text: On May 3, 2007, Wilkerson gave a concert to help the relief efforts of Enterprise High School in Alabama, two months after a violent storm destroyed the school and killed eight students.


title: Mark Wilkerson

text: On July 19, 2003, Wilkerson married actress Melissa Joan Hart. They have three sons: Mason (born January 2006), Braydon (born March 2008), and Tucker (born September 2012).


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: Adam Fox (born February 17, 1998) is an American professional ice hockey defenseman for the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League (NHL). Fox was selected by the Calgary Flames, 66th overall, in the 2016 NHL Entry Draft. In 2021, Fox won the James Norris Memorial Trophy as the NHL's best defenseman, joining Bobby Orr as the only two players in NHL history to win the award before their third NHL season.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: He played two seasons in the U.S. National Team Development Program, and finished with the record for the most assists in a single season (in 2015–16) and the most assists in a career (in 2014–16). He played collegiate ice hockey for Harvard University, leading all NCAA defensemen in the nation in assists and points in his freshman season, and leading all defensemen in the country in points per game and assists in his junior season. In June 2018, Calgary traded Fox's NHL rights to the Carolina Hurricanes, who traded them to the New York Rangers in April 2019. He left college a year early and made his NHL debut for the Rangers in 2019. In his rookie season, he tied for second among all NHL rookie defensemen in goals and was third in assists and points.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: Fox was born in Jericho, New York, to parents Bruce and Tammy Fox and raised in Jewish faith. His father was a New York Rangers season ticket holder. He has an older brother, Andrew, who is an investment banker. His nickname is "Foxy". He attended Jericho High School, and then Pioneer High School in Ann Arbor, Michigan, where he played hockey, soccer, and lacrosse.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: He played two seasons (2014–16) in the U.S. National Team Development Program (USNTDP) in Plymouth, Michigan. During his final season in the program, he led all under-18 defensemen in goals, assists, and points. He finished his career with the record for the most assists in a single-season (59; in 2015–16), the most assists in a career (86; in 2014–2016), and the third-most points by a defenseman in USNTDP history.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: He was named the 2016 IIHF World U18 Championships Best Defenseman, to the 2016 U18 World Hockey Championships Media All-Star Team, and won a bronze medal at the 2016 Championships.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: Leading up to the 2016 NHL Entry Draft, Fox was ranked 50th for North American Skaters in the final ranking by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau. He was drafted 66th overall by the Calgary Flames.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: Fox attended Harvard University for three years, majoring in psychology. He had an immediate impact after joining Harvard Crimson men's ice hockey team for the 2016–17 season. He led all NCAA defensemen in the nation, and ranked 4th among NCAA freshmen skaters with 40 points, led all NCAA defensemen and all NCAA freshmen skaters in assists with 34, and led all ECAC skaters in both points and assists, as he played 35 games. He was named 2017 ECAC Rookie of the Year and Ivy League Rookie of the Year after his freshman season. In his freshman season, Fox helped Harvard win the Beanpot for the first time since 1993 by recording a goal and an assist to beat Boston University 6–3. Fox also helped Harvard reach its first Frozen Four series since 1994 and win an Ivy title and ECAC Hockey Championship. In the Frozen Four semifinals against University of Minnesota Duluth, the Crimson lost 2–1.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: In his sophomore 2017–18 season, he had 28 points on six goals and 22 assists in 29 games. He was fifth in the nation among defensemen, averaging .97 points per game.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: In his junior 2018–19 season, he had 48 points (9 goals, 39 assists) in 33 games for Harvard, and was the top scoring player and defenseman in the country with 1.45 points per game. He led the NCAA in assists and was fourth in points, while also setting school single-season records for assists and points by a defenseman. Fox broke the school record for points by a Harvard defenseman in one season, set by Mark Fusco in 1983. He was named a finalist for the Hobey Baker Award as the top player in college hockey, won the 2019 Walter Brown Award, and was an Academic All-Ivy honoree.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: Fox was also named to the NCAA First All-American Team and ECAC First All-Star Team in each of his three seasons (2017–19). In 97 career games, he had 116 points (21 goals, 95 assists). He became the fourth defenseman in Harvard history to reach 100 career points. He left Harvard before his senior year to play in the NHL, when he was five classes short of graduating. Fox graduated from Harvard in 2022 after taking his final two classes needed for his degree that summer.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: On June 23, 2018, the Calgary Flames traded Fox's NHL playing rights (along with Dougie Hamilton and Micheal Ferland) to the Carolina Hurricanes in exchange for Elias Lindholm and Noah Hanifin. Flames general manager Brad Treliving had expressed doubts about the team's chances of signing him.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: The likelihood that Fox would sign with the Hurricanes diminished with the team becoming a playoff contender with a surplus of quality defensemen and a clause in the NHL's collective bargaining agreement (CBA) allowing a NCAA player to return for his senior year and become a free agent upon graduation. Hurricanes owner Thomas Dundon expressed his pessimism over the matter by stating, "We’ll try to trade him." On April 30, 2019, Carolina traded Fox's NHL rights to the New York Rangers in exchange for a second-round pick in the 2019 NHL Entry Draft and what would become a second-round pick in the 2020 NHL Entry Draft. On May 2, Fox signed an entry-level contract with the Rangers, with a maximum entry-level salary ($925,000 plus bonuses). He won the Lars-Erik Sjoberg Award as the top Ranger rookie in training camp in 2019, and made the Rangers' Opening Night roster.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: He made his NHL debut in October 2019, at 21 years of age. He finished the 2019–20 season with 42 points (8 goals, 34 assists) in 70 games. He tied for second among all NHL rookie defensemen in goals, and third in points, assists, and PPP (13). He ranked first among Rangers defensemen in Goals Above Replacement (14.9) and Wins Above Replacement (2.7). He became the fifth rookie defenseman in franchise history to have at least 40 points in a season, joining Ron Greschner, Reijo Ruotsalainen, Brian Leetch, and Mike McEwen. Despite his rookie season success, Fox fell short of a Calder Memorial Trophy nomination.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: During the 2020–21 season, on April 6, during a 8–4 win over the Pittsburgh Penguins, Fox became the fourth defenseman in Rangers history to record an 11-game point streak. His point streak ended on April 9 at 12 games. He also became the first Rangers defenseman to assist on 11-straight power play goals. On April 29, Fox was named the recipient of the Steven MacDonald Extra Effort Award. He was given the award for his outstanding defense and consistent play throughout the season. Fox was the first defenseman to win the award since Brian Leetch won in 1997. On June 29, Fox won the James Norris Memorial Trophy for the 2020–21 NHL season. Fox became only the second defenseman in NHL history to win the award before starting his third season. He is the youngest winner since then Montreal Canadiens defenseman P. K. Subban won it at the age of 23 in 2013, and is the first Rangers player to receive the honor since Brian Leetch in 1997. In a shortened 56-game schedule, Fox led all defensemen with 42 assists and was second in points with 47, behind Tyson Barrie of the Edmonton Oilers. In 55 games, he registered five goals, posted a plus-19 rating, averaged 24:42 of ice time per game, and finished with 23 power play points.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: On November 1, 2021, Fox signed a seven-year, $66.5 million contract extension with the Rangers. In January 2022, Fox was chosen to his first NHL All-Star Game, which will be held at T-Mobile Arena in Paradise, Nevada. After scoring two goals with an assist in a game against the Toronto Maple Leafs on January 19, Fox became the first Rangers defenseman to reach the 40-point mark in 40 games or fewer since Brian Leetch in the 2000–01 season. On November 6, during a game against the Calgary Flames, which marked Fox's first appearance in the Scotiabank Saddledome, Fox was heavily booed by Flames fans whenever he touched the puck. He scored a goal on Jacob Markström and mocked fans by putting his hand against his ear, but the goal was called back because of an offside, Flames fans throughout the game started chanting "Fox you suck!", which was caused by Fox not wanting to sign an entry-level contract with the Flames, his draft team.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: Fox has represented the United States men's national junior ice hockey team at both the 2017 and 2018 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: In 2017, Fox won a gold medal with Team USA while recording four points in seven games. The following year, Fox was named an alternate captain for Team USA at the 2018 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships. He led Team USA to a bronze medal while leading the team's defensemen in assists and points.


title: Adam Fox (ice hockey)

text: Following the conclusion of his collegiate career, on April 19, 2019, Fox was selected to represent the senior United States team at the 2019 IIHF World Championship held in Bratislava and Košice, Slovakia.


title: Peacekeeping

text: Peacekeeping comprises activities intended to create conditions that favour lasting peace. Research generally finds that peacekeeping reduces civilian and battlefield deaths, as well as reduces the risk of renewed warfare.


title: Peacekeeping

text: Within the United Nations (UN) group of nation-state governments and organisations, there is a general understanding that at the international level, peacekeepers monitor and observe peace processes in post-conflict areas, and may assist ex-combatants in implementing peace agreement commitments that they have undertaken. Such assistance may come in many forms, including confidence-building measures, power-sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development. Accordingly, the UN peacekeepers (often referred to as Blue Berets or Blue Helmets because of their light blue berets or helmets) can include soldiers, police officers, and civilian personnel.


title: Peacekeeping

text: The United Nations is not the only organisation to implement peacekeeping missions. Non-UN peacekeeping forces include the NATO mission in Kosovo (with United Nations authorisation) and the Multinational Force and Observers on the Sinai Peninsula or the ones organised by the European Union (like EUFOR RCA, with UN authorisation) and the African Union (like the African Union Mission in Sudan). The Nonviolent Peaceforce is one NGO widely considered to have expertise in general peacemaking by non-governmental volunteers or activists.


title: Peacekeeping

text: Under international law, peacekeepers are non-combatants due to their neutral stance in the conflict between two or more belligerent parties (to the same extent as neutral personnel and properties outside of peacekeeping duties) and are to be protected from attacks at all times.


title: Peacekeeping

text: There is a range of various types of operations encompassed in peacekeeping. In Page Fortna's book "Does Peacekeeping Work?", for instance, she distinguishes four different types of peacekeeping operations. Importantly, these types of missions and how they are conducted are heavily influenced by the mandate in which they are authorized. Three of Fortna's four types are consent-based missions, i.e., so-called "Chapter VI" missions, with the fourth being a "Chapter VII" Mission.


title: Peacekeeping

text: Chapter VI missions are consent-based; therefore they require the consent of the belligerent factions involved in order to operate. Should they lose that consent, Peacekeepers would be compelled to withdraw. Chapter VII missions, by contrast, do not require consent, though they may have it. If consent is lost at any point, Chapter VII missions would not be required to withdraw.


title: Peacekeeping

text: During the Cold War, peacekeeping was primarily interpositional in nature—thus being referred to as traditional peacekeeping. UN Peacekeepers were deployed in the aftermath of interstate conflict in order to serve as a buffer between belligerent factions and ensure compliance with the terms of an established peace agreement. Missions were consent-based, and more often than not observers were unarmed—such was the case with UNTSO in the Middle East and UNCIP in India and Pakistan. Others were armed—such as UNEF-I, established during the Suez Crisis. They were largely successful in this role.


title: Peacekeeping

text: In the post-Cold War era, the United Nations has taken on a more nuanced, multidimensional approach to Peacekeeping. In 1992, in the aftermath of the Cold War, then Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali put together a report detailing his ambitious concepts for the United Nations and Peacekeeping at large. The report, titled "An Agenda for Peace", described a multi-faceted and interconnected set of measures he hoped would lead to effective use of the UN in its role in post-Cold War international politics. This included the use of preventative diplomacy, peace-enforcement, peace-making, peace-keeping and post-conflict reconstruction.


title: Peacekeeping

text: In "The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations", Michael Doyle and Nicolas Sambanis summarise Boutros Boutros' report as preventative diplomacy, confidence-building measures such as fact-finding missions, observer mandates, and the potential deployment of UN mandated forces as a preventative measure in order to diminish the potential for violence or the danger of violence occurring and thus increasing the prospect for lasting peace. Their definitions are as follows:


title: Peacekeeping

text: Peacekeeping also means working together with NGOs with a view to protecting cultural property. The UN peacekeeping commitment to the protection of cultural heritage dates back to 2012 and is being expanded. An outstanding mission was the deployment of the UN peace mission UNIFIL together with Blue Shield International in 2019 to protect the UNESCO World Heritage in Lebanon. Basically, the protection of cultural property (carried out by military and civil experts in cooperation with local people) forms the stable basis for the future peaceful and economic development of a city, region or country in many conflict areas. Whereby there is also a connection between cultural user disruption and the cause of flight, as President of Blue Shield International Karl von Habsburg explained during the United Nations peacekeeping and UNESCO mission in Lebanon in April 2019: "Cultural assets are part of the identity of the people who live in a certain place. If you destroy their culture, you also destroy their identity. Many people are uprooted, often have no prospects anymore and subsequently flee from their homeland".


title: Peacekeeping

text: Not all international peacekeeping forces have been directly controlled by the United Nations. In 1981, an agreement between Israel and Egypt formed the Multinational Force and Observers which continues to monitor the Sinai Peninsula.


title: Peacekeeping

text: The African Union (AU) is working on building an African Peace and Security Architecture that fulfils the mandate to enforce peace and security on the continent. In cases of genocide or other serious human rights violations, an AU-mission could be launched even against the wishes of the government of the country concerned, as long as it is approved by the AU General Assembly. The establishment of the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) which includes the African Standby Force (ASF) is planned earliest for 2015. On the regional level, the Economic Community of West African States has initiated several peacekeeping missions in some of its member states, and it has been described as "Africa's most advanced regional peace and security mechanism".


title: Peacekeeping

text: Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping (UCP) are civilian personnel that carry out non-violent, non-interventionist and impartial set of tactics in order to protect civilians in conflict zones from violence in addition to supporting additional efforts to build a lasting peace. While the term UCP is not entirely ubiquitous among non-governmental agencies (NGOs) in the field: many utilize similar techniques and desire shared outcomes for peace; such as accompaniment, presence, rumour control, community security meetings, the securing of safe passage, and monitoring.


title: Peacekeeping

text: United Nations Peacekeeping started in 1948 when the United Nations Security Council authorised the deployment of UN unarmed military observers to the Middle East in order to monitor the armistice agreement that was signed between Israel and its Arab neighbours in the wake of the Arab-Israeli War. This operation was called the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) and is still in operation today. With the passage of resolution 73 (1949) by the Security Council in August 1949, UNTSO was given the task of fulfilling four Armistice Agreements between the state of Israel and the Arab states which had participated in the war. Thus, UNTSO's operations were spread through five states in the region—Israel, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon and the Syrian Arab Republic.


title: Peacekeeping

text: In the wake of independence in India and Pakistan in August 1947 and the subsequent bloodshed that followed the Security Council adopted resolution 39 (1948) in January 1948 in order to create the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP), with the purpose of mediating the dispute between India and Pakistan over Kashmir and the fighting related to it. This operation was non-interventionist in nature and was additionally tasked with supervision of a ceasefire signed by Pakistan and India in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. With the passage of the Karachi agreement in July 1949, UNCIP would supervise a ceasefire line that would be mutually overseen by UN unarmed military observers and local commanders from each side in the dispute. UNCIP's mission in the region continues to this day, now under the operational title of the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP).


title: Peacekeeping

text: Since then, sixty-nine peacekeeping operations have been authorised and have deployed to various countries all over the world. The great majority of these operations have begun in the post-Cold War world. Between 1988 and 1998 thirty-five UN operations had been established and deployed. This signified a substantial increase when compared with the periods between 1948 and 1978; which saw the creation and deployment of only thirteen UN Peacekeeping operations and zero between 1978 and 1988.


title: Peacekeeping

text: Armed intervention first came in the form of UN involvement in the wake of the Suez Crisis in 1956. United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF-1), which existed from November 1956 to June 1967 was essentially the first ever United Nations peacekeeping force. It was given the mandate of ensuring the cessation of hostilities between Egypt, the United Kingdom, France, and Israel in addition to overseeing the withdrawal of French, Israeli and British troops from Egyptian territory. Upon completion of said withdrawal, UNEF would serve as a buffer force between Egyptian and Israeli forces in order to supervise conditions of the ceasefire and contribute to a lasting peace.