title: Christopher Luxon

text: In early August 2022, Luxon accompanied Prime Minister Ardern, Minister of Arts, Culture and Heritage Carmel Sepuloni and Minister of Pacific Peoples William Sio on a state visit to Samoa to mark the 60th anniversary of Samoa's independence and affirm bilateral relations between the two countries.


title: Christopher Luxon

text: In November 2019, Luxon said he was against abortion, euthanasia, and legalising recreational cannabis, though at the same time he supported medicinal cannabis. He also at the time supported a "no jab, no pay" policy for sanctioning welfare beneficiaries who do not vaccinate their children; however, following his election as leader, Luxon said he did not support cutting the benefit of parents who do not vaccinate their children against COVID-19.


title: Christopher Luxon

text: When questioned about the matter of the Monarchy of New Zealand in 2022, Luxon stated that he was "comfortable" with the current constitutional arrangement of having the monarch as head of state and that Queen Elizabeth II had given New Zealand "incredible stability" and set an example of "great public service." Following the death of Queen Elizabeth II, Luxon expressed support for King Charles III, stating "I think he will be a very good king, I think he has been preparing for it all his life and no doubt he will take it in a different direction, reflecting his personality." He also expressed doubt on whether the Queen's death would advance support for republicanism in New Zealand, arguing "I visit two or three towns in New Zealand every week, it just isn't a topic of conversation that comes up. I appreciate at times like this we start thinking about having these conversations but there actually isn't a real desire for the conversation or to make any changes to the constitution arrangements."


title: Christopher Luxon

text: Luxon's views on abortion received media attention following his election as National's leader. He confirmed that his personal views are anti-abortion, but said he would not change abortion laws should he become prime minister. The pro-choice Abortion Law Reform Association of New Zealand put out a statement describing his views as "not representative of the values of mainstream New Zealanders."


title: Christopher Luxon

text: He was questioned about being one of only 15 MPs to vote against the first reading of a member's bill that would establish safe areas around abortion facilities. He said that he was now able to support the bill following changes to it at the select committee stage that made it compliant with the New Zealand Bill of Rights. After previously declining to answer when asked if believes abortion to be tantamount to murder, he said in an interview with Newshub that he is "a pro-life person," and when asked again about the murder comparison, he responded "that's what a pro-life position is."


title: Christopher Luxon

text: Despite his stated opposition to abortion and voting against of the Safe Areas Amendment Bill on its first reading, Luxon voted in favour during its second reading on 10 November 2021 and third reading on 16 March 2022.


title: Christopher Luxon

text: In late June 2022, after the United States Supreme Court's overtuning of Roe v. Wade, the National party was the only sitting political party in New Zealand that would not condemn the change. After increasing fears over the party's position on the topic, and a controversial Facebook post by fellow National MP Simon O'Connor, Luxon issued a second statement, which confirmed that a future National government would not seek to overturn New Zealand's abortion laws, but still did not condemn the law overturning in the United States. Luxon also stated that O’Connor's post did not represent the party's position on abortion and was removed for "causing distress." Following Luxon issuing two party statements in regards to Roe v. Wade, media asked him for his opinion on "People that get abortions", which he refrained to comment on, and refused to state if he still believed abortion is tantamount to murder.


title: Christopher Luxon

text: In response to the controversy around O'Connor's post, former National MP Alfred Ngaro defended O'Connor's right to speak his mind and accused Luxon of silencing National MPs. The Deputy Prime Minister Grant Robertson questioned Luxon's commitment to protecting abortion rights, pointing out that half of the National Party caucus had voted against the Abortion Legislation Act in 2020.


title: Christopher Luxon

text: The following day, after a statement from former National minister Amy Adams warning the party on its position on the topic, Luxon reiterated the National Party's commitment to women and claimed that women voters were concerned about the high cost of living, strained health system, struggling education system, and rising crime and gang violence.


title: Christopher Luxon

text: In late November 2021, Luxon reiterated support for National's vote against the Conversion Practices Prohibition Legislation Bill, but said the practice was "abhorrent". In early February 2022, Luxon announced that National MPs would be allowed a conscience vote on the conversion practices legislation; abandoning Collins' "bloc-voting" position. Luxon also reversed his earlier opposition to the legislation, stating that he supported New Zealand's LGBTQI+ community. He also stated that "there will be those with different views for different reasons across Parliament. These sorts of issues are traditionally treated as conscience issues, and we determined as a caucus that this was the appropriate course in this instance." The Bill passed its third and final reading on 15 February 2022. Luxon voted in favour of the Bill's passage.


title: Christopher Luxon

text: On 8 December 2021, Luxon called for the lifting of Auckland's border restrictions with Northland after "The New Zealand Herald" reported that the Ministry of Health had proposed that the Auckland border should be lifted in tandem with the country's transition into the COVID-19 Protection Framework on 3 December. However, Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern and COVID-19 Response Minister Chris Hipkins had opted to retain the Auckland border until 15 December in order to reduce the risk of community transmissions and boost regional vaccination rates. Luxon has also questioned the effectiveness of the checkpoints led and managed by police in the Auckland–Northland boundary.


title: Christopher Luxon

text: On 8 January 2022, Luxon talked to National MP Harete Hipango about a photo that she had posted on social media, which showed her posing with members of the anti-vaccination group Voices for Freedom. Hipango removed the post stating that the anti-vaccination views of the group did not align with that of the National Party. She and Luxon stated they and the National Party strongly support COVID-19 vaccination, and described vaccination as the best protection for people and their families.


title: Christopher Luxon

text: In early February 2022, Luxon called for rapid antigen testing to be conducted in schools twice a week for both students and teachers, citing the examples of New South Wales and Victoria. In addition, Luxon advocated reopening New Zealand's borders and ending the managed isolation and quarantine (MIQ) system in favour of home isolation for New Zealanders and travellers who tested negative for COVID-19.


title: Christopher Luxon

text: On 9 February, Luxon called for the Government to issue a clear timeline for ending vaccine mandates. In response, Prime Minister Ardern stated that certificates and mandates would only be retained as long as there was a strong public health rationale.


title: Christopher Luxon

text: In mid–June 2022, Luxon announced that the National Party if elected into government would introduce several anti-gang legislation based on Australian anti-gang legislation. These "zero tolerance" policies have included banning gang insignia in public spaces and social media platforms such as Instagram and TikTok, and giving the Police special powers to disperse gang gatherings, and prevent certain gang members from associating with each other or obtaining firearms. Luxon unveiled National's new law and order policies in the midst of rising gang activity and gang warfare in 2022.


title: Christopher Luxon

text: In response, Waikato Mongrel Mob Kingdom ariki Sonny Fatupaito claimed that Luxon's proposed policies would breach human rights legislation and the Treaty of Waitangi while perpetuation racism and racial profiling against Māori and Pasifika. Andrew Cushen, Interim chief executive for InternetNZ stated that “gang posts on social media and extremist material are very different and can't be policed in the same way.” And that the policy would be “nearly impossible to police”. Criminologist and gangs expert Dr. Jarrod Gilbert opined that combating the gangs' criminal activities would work better than targeting the gangs. The Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern stated that similar policies had not worked in other countries. While supporting for National's anti-gang policies, the ACT Party's firearms law reform and justice spokeswoman Nicole McKee expressed concern that legitimate firearms owners could be affected by some of the legislation. Former National Party MP and Minister Chester Borrows questioned the effectiveness of National's proposed anti-gang legislation, citing the failure of earlier anti-gang insignia legislation in Whanganui.


title: Christopher Luxon

text: In early July 2022, Luxon stated that a future National Government would work with community providers to sponsor job coaches for young people under the age of 25 years who have been on the Jobseeker benefit for three months. Welfare beneficiaries who find a job and stay off the benefit for the next 12 consecutive months would receive NZ$1,000 for staying in the workforce. However, beneficiaries who do not follow their agreed plan will face "sanctions." Luxon claimed that the incumbent Labour Government's policies had caused the number of under 25s on welfare to increase by 34,000 (roughly 40%).


title: Christopher Luxon

text: In mid November 2022, Luxon announced that the National Party's youth crime policies would include creating a new Young Serious Offender category for juvenile offenders and establishing boot camps known as Youth Offender Military Academies. National's proposed boot camp policy was criticised by Prime Minister Ardern, Green Party co-leader Marama Davidson, and the NZ Psychological Society, who described it as ineffective and counterproductive deterrents to crime.


title: Christopher Luxon

text: Luxon had a Catholic upbringing, describes himself as a Christian or non-denominational Christian, and has been described as an evangelical Christian. He has attended a Baptist church in Auckland as a child, a Presbyterian church in Australia, an Anglican church in England, and non-denominational churches in the United States, Canada and New Zealand. After he returned to New Zealand in 2011 he attended the Upper Room church in Auckland. In 2021 he said he had not attended a church for five or six years. He met his wife Amanda at a church youth group and they married when he was 23. They have a son and daughter, William and Olivia. He says he enjoys DIY, listens to country music and likes to waterski.


title: Christopher Luxon

text: In late July 2022, Luxon confirmed he was on a family holiday in Hawaii during the parliamentary recess when a Facebook video post published on 21 July implied he was visiting Te Puke at that time. Luxon attributed the confusion to a delay in his social media team updating his whereabouts over the previous week, which he said was a mistake.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: Pokémon Colosseum is a role-playing video game in the "Pokémon" series developed by Genius Sonority, published by The Pokémon Company, and distributed by Nintendo. It was released for the GameCube on November 21, 2003, in Japan; March 22, 2004, in North America; and May 14, 2004, in Europe. Unlike previous titles' random encounters with Pokémon, "Colosseum" allows the player steal ("snag") the Pokémon of other Pokémon Trainers. The game also features single-player and multiplayer battle modes.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: Set in the desert region of Orre, the player controls Wes, a former member of Team Snagem. Throughout the game, Wes rescues "Shadow Pokémon"—Pokémon who have had their hearts darkened by Team Cipher, an antagonistic organization—via snagging. Rui, a non-player character, serves as Wes's sidekick and identifies Shadow Pokémon.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: "Pokémon Colosseum" was exhibited at E3 2003 and featured Pokémon models ported from the Nintendo 64's "Pokémon Stadium" and "Pokémon Stadium 2". North American pre-orders included a bonus disc that allows the player to download the Pokémon Jirachi on the Game Boy Advance titles "Pokémon Ruby" and "Sapphire" while Japanese bonus discs featured similar downloads for Celebi and Pikachu. Upon release, the game was a critical and commercial success. Overall "Colosseum" was generally well-received, with praise directed at its graphics and music. It sold 1.15 million copies in the United States and 656,270 in Japan. A successor, "", released for the GameCube in 2005.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: "Pokémon Colosseum" is a 3D role-playing game viewed from a third-person perspective. The player, controlling a Pokémon Trainer named Wes (default name), moves through various towns and other locations (traversed using a type of one-wheeled motorcycle), battling enemy Trainers and completing quests. Items are purchased at "Pokémon Mart" locations using the game's currency, "Pokémon Dollars" (). When a battle starts, the screen switches to a turn-based interface where the player's and enemies' Pokémon fight. Most battles are of the "double battle" format, which means two Pokémon on each side at one time. However, each Trainer can carry up to six Pokémon at one time, so once a Pokémon is defeated, his or her Trainer must switch out another one unless no more are left. Battles are also conducted at "Colosseums" in several cities.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: Unlike most "Pokémon" games, "Colosseum" does not feature random encounters. The player begins the game with two Pokémon. More are obtained throughout the game by "Snagging" them from other Trainers using Poké Balls of various strengths. Only specifically designated "Shadow Pokémon", whose hearts have been artificially closed, can be Snagged. Pokémon can be traded between "Colosseum" and the Game Boy Advance games "Ruby", "Sapphire", "FireRed", "LeafGreen" and "Emerald".


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: Each of the player's Shadow Pokémon has a purple gauge that is drained by battling and coming to like the player. Once a Pokémon's gauge is empty, the player may "Purify" the Pokémon by bringing him or her to Celebi's shrine in Agate Village, or by using a rare "Time Flute" item. Purifying Shadow Pokémon is desirable because while in that status, they will often disobey the player, they cannot gain experience points, and their moves are at first restricted to "Shadow Rush". Additionally, Shadow Pokémon will sporadically enter "Hyper Mode" state during battle, causing them to disobey the player character or attack themselves until the condition is alleviated by selecting the "Call" battle command.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: Aside from the story mode, "Colosseum" also features several non-canonical battle modes. In the "Quick Battle" mode, the player can battle either CPU trainers or friends, using Pokémon obtained in the story mode or randomly assigned ones. Battles in this mode do not result in gain of experience points or money. In the single-player battle mode, the player competes at Colosseums—stadiums used throughout the game for Pokémon battles—and earns "Poké Coupons", another currency which can be used to buy rare items. In the "Gang Battle" mode, up to four players can compete in a tournament. The first can use Pokémon obtained in the story mode, or from the Game Boy Advance games. Players two through four, however, can only use Pokémon from the Game Boy Advance games.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: "Pokémon Colosseum" is set in the Orre region. Orre is a mostly desertous region in which no wild Pokémon can be found (although the sequel, "Pokémon XD: Gale of Darkness", adds wild Pokémon spots to the region). Orre consists of many cities, towns, and Colosseums.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: The game's player protagonist is by default named , but as with most "Pokémon" games, the player can change his name. Wes's Starter Pokémon are Espeon and Umbreon, two fox-like Pokémon who start at level 25 and 26, respectively. Additionally, shortly after the game begins, the player meets the game's partner character, Rui; she accompanies Wes on his journey, and uses her ability to see shadow Pokémon to help combat the efforts of the game's villains. , a criminal organization that uses the "Snag machine" technology to capture the Pokémon of Trainers, serves as an antagonistic entity in the game. However, shortly after the game's start, is revealed to be the main antagonistic force, having partnered with Snagem to obtain Pokémon from Trainers, corrupting them, and distributing them throughout Cipher and other places such as Pyrite Town. Wes is a former employee of Team Snagem. The organization also employs many grunt workers, as well as four administrators: disco-loving , the explosively-tempered bodybuilder, , the queen of the Under, , and the strategist of a scientist, .


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: The game begins with a cold open in which Wes infiltrates and destroys the Team Snagem hideout before leaving the organization. Wes starts at the Outskirt Stand, a dilapidated train engine in the middle of the desert that has been converted into a shop. With Espeon and Umbreon, Wes's first opponent is a Trainer named Willie. Wes then leaves the Stand and heads to the oasis-esque Phenac City in time to see two men dragging a sack. After defeating them in battle, Wes unties the sack to find Rui, a girl with the ability to discern Shadow Pokémon. They meet the mayor, Es Cade, who seems very bothered about the Cipher problem, but seems to do nothing about it. Later, upon leaving Phenac Colosseum, three Snagem grunts find Wes and Rui. The grunts then reveal to Rui that he was a member of Snagem, and an excellent Snagger. Wes then confronts one of the grunts, which results in the latter's defeat. Finding out that he is an expert at snagging Pokémon, Rui asks him to join forces with her in finding and snagging Shadow Pokémon.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: As the game progresses, Wes becomes a target of a powerful organization known as Team Cipher. After leaving Phenac, he visits Pyrite Town, where Rui was kidnapped. In Pyrite, Shadow Pokémon are openly offered to winners of the town's Colosseum tournament. The local police force is powerless to stop the practice, so Duking, an influential man in Pyrite, asks Wes to enter the tournament and investigate. Wes enters the Colosseum challenge and defeats four trainers to win. Inside a nearby building, a Cipher Peon is about to present the Shadow Pokémon prize, but another one recognizes Wes. The pair then battle their way through the building and a maze-like cave set in the rock behind. Eventually, they face and defeat Miror B., one of four Cipher Admins. Afterwards, Wes returns a Pokémon Miror B. stole from Duking. A team of kids working in Duking's house introduce themselves as members of an anti-Cipher news network, known as the Kids Grid, who pledge their help to Wes and Rui.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: Their next stop is Agate Village, a forested village in the mountains. As Rui introduces Wes to her grandfather Eagun, another villager runs into the room, telling them that the Relic Stone—a shrine protected by Celebi—is under attack. Wes, following Eagun to the center of the tree, fights off four Cipher agents before the Relic Stone is safe. After resting, Wes is given access to the Relic Stone, the only place where he can purify Shadow Pokémon. After receiving an e-mail from Duking about Mt. battle being under attack by Cipher, Rui asks Eagun where it is and the two headed over there.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: Upon reaching Mt. Battle, people inform Wes and Rui that Cipher has already taken over the first section of the mountain. After battling nine other Trainers, Wes battles the Cipher administrator Dakim. Dakim owns a Shadow Entei, who is one of the trio of legendary beasts. After defeating Dakim, Wes heads to The Under, which is an underground city located underneath Pyrite Town, and under the control of Cipher. More members of the Kids Grid are here. They tell the player of Venus, another Cipher administrator, who has influence over The Under. After Wes confronts Venus, the owner of the second legendary beast Suicune, she flees. Next, Wes and Rui head to the Shadow Pokémon Lab, where Pokémon are transformed into Shadow Pokémon. After defeating numerous Cipher peons, Wes faces Ein, the final Cipher administrator and the owner of the final legendary beast Raikou.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: Wes and Rui then go to Realgam Tower. All four administrators are there and ready to face Wes again. After doing so, he is granted access to the Colosseum at the top of the building. There, he is greeted by a large crowd. A Cipher man named Nascour tells Wes that he will have to face four trainers. After Wes defeats all four trainers, Nascour fights him. Once defeated, Nascour tries to leave, only to be interrupted by Es Cade. Es Cade reveals that he is really none other than Evice, the head of Cipher, and battles Wes. When Wes defeats him, Evice attempts to escape by helicopter, but the legendary Pokémon Ho-Oh swoops in and blasts it out of the sky. Evice and Nascour are sent to jail.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: "Pokémon Colosseum" was developed by the Japanese game developer Genius Sonority, and published by Nintendo. Just as Nintendo 64 predecessors "Pokémon Stadium" and "Pokémon Stadium 2" had served as home console counterparts to the first- and second-generation handheld titles, "Colosseum" had a similar role for the third generation.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: The new concept for "Pokémon Colosseum" was influenced by RPGs such as "Final Fantasy VII" and "Persona 2" over the "Pokémon" mold. When asked in an interview with Prima Games why the gameplay of "Colosseum" did not mirror that of the handheld "Pokémon" games, "Pokémon" director Junichi Masuda explained: "How players communicate with each other has been key to the "Pokémon" games – it is the backbone of all "Pokémon" game designs. I feel that the handheld systems work better than the home-based consoles. It's certainly possible to come up with concepts for home-based consoles, but we might then have to change the core of the game."


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: The transition to 3D also brought new graphical changes. Wes was designed to look "hazy" and about 17 years old. Genius Sonority ported most of the models and animations of first- and second-generation Pokémon from "Stadium" and "Stadium 2". Genius Sonority based most of Orre on the real-life city of Phoenix, Arizona. As a whole, the graphics were influenced more by manga than by established "Pokémon" convention.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: A preview for the game was hosted at E3 2003. Upon completion of development, "Colosseum" received a rating of "E" (Everyone) from the Entertainment Software Rating Board, "All Ages" from Computer Entertainment Rating Organization, and "3+" from Pan European Game Information. The game was released on November 21, 2003, in Japan; March 22, 2004, in North America, and May 14, 2004, in Europe.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: Nintendo also published supplementary media to unlock additional content. Pre-ordered copies of the game came with a bonus disc that contains trailers for the game and the film "". The North American disc also contains the exclusive Pokémon Jirachi that can be downloaded to the player's copy of "Ruby" or "Sapphire". The Japanese release contains a downloadable Celebi instead and requires a completed save file of Pokémon Colosseum. The disc also updates the software in "Ruby" and "Sapphire" to remove a "berry glitch" discovered in 2003. Despite public anticipation the Bonus Disc was not released in PAL territories, prompting Nintendo to issue an official apology. However a Jirachi was later included in the PAL version of the game Pokémon Channel. In Japan, scannable cards for the Nintendo e-Reader were available for purchase that featured additional trainers to battle and capture Shadow Pokémon.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: "Pokémon Colosseum" was generally well-received upon release, with respective scores of 73/100 and 73.46% from aggregators Metacritic and GameRankings. Allgame staff writer Scott Alan Marriott gave the game three and a half stars out of five, although he did not review the game with more depth.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: Critics praised "Colosseum" as the first true 3D role-playing installment in the "Pokémon" series and for its darker tone. Gamers Hell reviewer John K. called it "certainly a step in the right direction to a good 3D "Pokémon" game", although he felt that the limited number of Pokémon and lack of a true overworld detracted from the experience. IGN staff writer Craig Harris said that the adaptation of the "Pokémon" RPG formula to the 3D zeitgeist "does a decent enough job" and is "a bit more linear and straightforward".


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: The new 3D graphics received mixed remarks. Harris called the game "[g]raphically ... a mixed bag", praising the visual style of the game's Pokémon but criticizing the "poorly modeled and animated, angular" style of the Trainers. GameSpot reviewer Ryan Davis offered a similar opinion, concluding that "[t]he visual style ... has gone off the deep end". "GamePro" writer Star Dingo called the graphics as a whole "insanely cute" but criticized the lack of animations showing two Pokémon attacking in tandem. GameZone's review took a more positive stance, saying that "[a]nimations are brief but impressive; each attack move is more elaborate and more extravagant on the 'Cube." "Nintendo Power" thought similarly, commending the "amazing level of detail". Nimensio Rivera of the San Diego Union-Tribune praised the game for its gameplay, graphics and replay value, but criticized its sound, specifically its soundtrack which was described as “Saturday morning-ish.”


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: GameZone compared the overall town design and environments to those of the landmark "Final Fantasy VII". Dingo complained that "there are some characters to talk to and chests to find, but no 'overworld' with free-roaming monsters to capture." John K. stated that "[t]he towns are made with enough detail, but sometimes a bit dull."


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: Harris denounced the game's usage of old Pokémon battle cries, a recurring complaint of the series. Dingo called the music as a whole "a bit too low-tech and synthetic". GameZone, in contrast, stated that the sound effects evoke nostalgia for "Pokémon Red" and "Blue", and that the music tracks "have more depth than any of the songs from the previous games." John K. said that the music is neither annoying nor entertaining. Retronauts described "Colosseum" as "terrible", citing the reuse of graphics from the "Pokémon Stadium" games.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: In 2006, "Nintendo Power" listed "Colosseum" as the 121st greatest video game to appear on a Nintendo console.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: Three weeks before its release, pre-orders of "Pokémon Colosseum" made it the best-selling game on Amazon.com. In the game's first week of release in the United Kingdom, it boosted the GameCube's market share from 16% to 32%. It was the best-selling GameCube game of May 2004, and fourteenth among all consoles. In 2005, the game was certified as part of Nintendo's Player's Choice line in North America, representing at least 250,000 copies sold. As of 2007, the game has sold over 1.15 million copies in the United States and 656,270 in Japan. It is the best-selling RPG for the GameCube.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: "Pokémon Colosseum" spawned a high-profile tournament in the United Kingdom entitled "Pokémon Colosseum Battlemaster 2004". The first round of battles was held at Toys "R" Us locations, with later battles taking place in movie theaters. Across Europe, the game was bundled with GameCube consoles shortly after its release. Special editions of this set also included a copy of ""


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: —a game that allows players to organize and store up to 1,500 Pokémon from their games—as well as a memory card and a Game Boy Advance–GameCube link cable.


title: Pokémon Colosseum

text: A manga adaptation of "Colosseum"s plot was printed in 2004 issues of the Japanese magazine "CoroCoro Comic" and titled . The game was followed by a 2005 sequel entitled "". Set in Orre five years after "Colosseum", it features a new protagonist snagging Shadow Pokémon from Team Cipher. Shadow Lugia is the game's mascot, and serves as an antagonist whom the player can snag. The game alludes to Wes, Rui, and The Under, though they do not appear.


title: Near-open central vowel

text: The near-open central vowel, or near-low central vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , a rotated lowercase double-barrelled letter a.


title: Near-open central vowel

text: In English this vowel is most typically transcribed with the symbol , i.e. as if it were open-mid back. That pronunciation is still found in some dialects, but most speakers use a central vowel like or .


title: Near-open central vowel

text: Much like , is a versatile symbol that is not defined for roundedness and that can be used for vowels that are near-open central, near-open near-front, near-open near-back, open-mid central, open central or a (often unstressed) vowel with variable height, backness and/or roundedness that is produced in that general area. For open central unrounded vowels transcribed with , see open central unrounded vowel.


title: Near-open central vowel

text: When the usual transcription of the near-open near-front and the near-open near-back variants is different from , they are listed in near-open front unrounded vowel and open back unrounded vowel or open back rounded vowel, respectively.


title: Near-open central vowel

text: The near-open central unrounded vowel is sometimes the only open vowel in a language and then is typically transcribed with .


title: Near-open central vowel

text: In the following list, is assumed to be unrounded. The rounded variant is transcribed as . Some instances of the latter may actually be fully open.


title: Laura Howard

text: Laura Howard (born as Laura Simmons in Chiswick, London, 1977) is an English actress. She is probably best known for her role as Cully Barnaby in the long-running British crime-mystery Police procedural "Midsomer Murders".


title: Laura Howard

text: Howard's first major role came in 1992, playing the teenage daughter Tammy Rokeby in the BBC comedy series "So Haunt Me". She went on to play Cully as John Nettles' daughter in "Midsomer Murders" from 1997 to 2011. Howard has also had a starring role in the Jack Rosenthal drama "Eskimo Day" and its sequel "Cold Enough For Snow". Her other UK television credits include "Soldier Soldier", "The Bill", "Doctors" and "Casualty".


title: Laura Howard

text: Howard has appeared in numerous UK theatre productions, including the premier of "Life of Riley" by Alan Ayckbourn. In June 2012 she appeared in Ayckbourn's "The Norman Conquests" at the Liverpool Playhouse. In 2014 she starred in Invincible by Torben Betts at the Orange Tree Theatre and then its transfer to the St James Theatre, London. In 2016 she appeared in two plays as part of the RSC's Making Mischief Season.


title: HATEOAS

text: Hypermedia as the Engine of Application State (HATEOAS) is a constraint of the REST application architecture that distinguishes it from other network application architectures.


title: HATEOAS

text: With HATEOAS, a client interacts with a network application whose application servers provide information dynamically through hypermedia. A REST client needs little to no prior knowledge about how to interact with an application or server beyond a generic understanding of hypermedia.


title: HATEOAS

text: By contrast, clients and servers in Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA) interact through a fixed interface shared through documentation or an interface description language (IDL).


title: HATEOAS

text: The restrictions imposed by HATEOAS decouple client and server. This enables server functionality to evolve independently.


title: HATEOAS

text: A user-agent that implements HTTP makes an HTTP request of a REST API through a simple URL. All subsequent requests the user-agent may make are discovered inside the responses to each request. The media types used for these representations, and the link relations they may contain, are standardized. The client transitions through application states by selecting from the links within a representation or by manipulating the representation in other ways afforded by its media type. In this way, RESTful interaction is driven by hypermedia, rather than out-of-band information.


title: HATEOAS

text: For example, this GET request fetches an account resource, requesting details in a JSON representation:


title: HATEOAS

text: The response contains these possible follow-up links: POST a deposit, withdrawal, transfer, or close request (to close the account).


title: HATEOAS

text: As an example, later, after the account has been overdrawn, there is a different set of available links, because the account is overdrawn.


title: HATEOAS

text: Now only one link is available: to deposit more money (by POSTing to deposits). In its current "state", the other links are not available. Hence the term "Engine of Application State". What actions are possible varies as the state of the resource varies.


title: HATEOAS

text: A client does not need to understand every media type and communication mechanism offered by the server. The ability to understand new media types can be acquired at run-time through "code-on-demand" provided to the client by the server.


title: HATEOAS

text: The HATEOAS constraint is an essential part of the "uniform interface" feature of REST, as defined in Roy Fielding's doctoral dissertation. Fielding has further described the concept on his blog.


title: HATEOAS

text: The purpose of some of the strictness of this and other REST constraints, Fielding explains, is "software design on the scale of decades: every detail is intended to promote software longevity and independent evolution. Many of the constraints are directly opposed to short-term efficiency. Unfortunately, people are fairly good at short-term design, and usually awful at long-term design".


title: Chief Whip

text: The Chief Whip is a political leader whose task is to enforce the whipping system, which aims to ensure that legislators who are members of a political party attend and vote on legislation as the party leadership prescribes.


title: Chief Whip

text: In British politics, the Chief Whip of the governing party in the House of Commons is usually also appointed as Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury, a Cabinet position. The Government Chief Whip has an official residence at 12 Downing Street. However, the Chief Whip's office is currently located at 9 Downing Street.


title: Chief Whip

text: The Chief Whip can wield great power over their party's MPs, including cabinet ministers, being seen to speak at all times with the voice of the Prime Minister. Margaret Thatcher was known for using her Chief Whip as a "cabinet enforcer".


title: Chief Whip

text: The role of Chief Whip is regarded as secretive, as the Whip is concerned with the discipline of their own party's Members of Parliament, never appearing on television or radio in their capacity as whip. An exception occurred on 1 April 2019 when Julian Smith chose to criticise his own government and Prime Minister. Whips in the House of Commons do not, by convention, speak in debates.


title: Chief Whip

text: The Government Chief Whip is assisted by the Deputy Chief Whip, other whips, and assistant whips. In order to provide the whip with a salary, the government whips are appointed to positions in HM Treasury and in the Royal Household under the Lord Steward of the Household. The whips are not fully active in either of these departments, though they do undertake a number of responsibilities. The Deputy Chief Whip is Treasurer of HM Household, the next two whips are Comptroller of HM Household and Vice-Chamberlain of HM Household. The remaining whips are Lords Commissioners of the Treasury. Assistant whips, and whips of opposition parties, generally do not receive such appointments. The Government Chief Whip in the House of Lords also holds the role of Captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms, while the Government Deputy Chief Whip in the Lords holds the role of Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard.


title: Chief Whip

text: Outside the government, the Official Opposition Chief Whip in the Commons, like the Leader of the Opposition, receives a stipend in addition to their parliamentary salary, because their additional responsibilities will make them unable to hold down another job.


title: Chief Whip

text: The whips, although superficially dictatorial, act as communicators between backbenchers and the party leadership. Ultimately, if backbenchers are unhappy with the leadership's position, they can threaten to revolt during a vote and force the leadership to compromise.


title: Chief Whip

text: While the whip was formally introduced to British politics by the Irish Parliamentary Party under Charles Stewart Parnell in the 1880s, in 1846 the Duke of Wellington advised the new Conservative Party leader Lord Stanley to ensure that his "whippers-in" were personally loyal. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the use of the term "whippers-in" was first recorded in the parliamentary sense in the Annual Register of 1772.<ref name="SN/PC/02829"></ref>


title: Chief Whip

text: In the UK Parliament the importance of a vote is indicated by underlining of items on the "whip", which is the name of the letter the Chief Whip sends to all the MPs in their party at the start of the week. This letter informs them of the schedule for the days ahead and includes the sentence "Your attendance is absolutely essential" next to each debate in which there will be a vote. This sentence is underlined once, twice, or three times depending on the consequences that will be suffered if they do not turn up, hence the origin of the terms "one-line whip", "two-line whip" and "three-line whip". The actual vote they are to make is communicated to them in the chamber by hand signals during the division when the time comes (usually after the division bell has been rung). Neither these instructions, which are visible to everyone in the chamber, nor the "whip" letter at the start of the week, are recorded in "Hansard", as they are considered a matter internal to the political party. Any explicit direction to an MP as to how they should vote would be a breach of parliamentary privilege.


title: Chief Whip

text: The consequences of defying the party whip depend on the circumstances and are usually negotiated with the party whip in advance. The party whip's job is to ensure the outcome of the vote. The party in the majority can always win a vote, if its members obey the whip.


title: Chief Whip

text: If the party has a large Commons majority, it can make allowances for MPs who are away on important business, or whose political circumstances require them to take a particular issue very seriously. Theoretically at least, expulsion from the party is an automatic consequence of defying a three-line whip.


title: Chief Whip

text: Other such offences include betraying party loyalties. An example of this during John Major's government was when nine Conservative MPs had the whip removed after voting against the government on its stance on the Maastricht Treaty, becoming known as Eurosceptics. In practice they remained Conservative MPs supporting the government on other issues. Sir Bill Cash, Sir John Redwood and Sir Iain Duncan Smith are still Conservative MPs. This was also the only time when MPs who were being whipped were cooperating with the opposite side's whips. In most cases the 'pairing' system enables one from each side to cancel out the other's vote if absent simultaneously. Despite the whip, individuals are entitled to vote according to their own beliefs, particularly when there is a "free vote" on a matter of conscience.


title: Chief Whip

text: There are some cases in which the whip is removed because an issue is a matter of conscience. These include adoption, religion and equal opportunities. The impact of a whip being imposed on a matter of conscience can be damaging for a party leader. One such case was that of Iain Duncan Smith, who imposed a three-line whip against the adoption of children by unmarried couples which, at the time, meant gay couples could never adopt. Several Conservative MPs voted against the official party line, and Smith's authority was weakened.


title: Chief Whip

text: Whips often employ a mixture of promises, cajoling and persuasion to force an unpopular vote. A whip should know major figures in an MP's local constituency party and the MP's agent. There have been cases where sick MPs were wheeled into the House from far afield to vote for the government on a crucial vote. Former MP Joe Ashton recalled a case from the latter days of James Callaghan's government:


title: Chief Whip

text: I remember the famous case of Leslie Spriggs, the then-Member for St. Helens. We had a tied vote, and he was brought to the House in an ambulance having suffered a severe heart attack. The two Whips went out to look in the ambulance and there was Leslie Spriggs laid there as though he was dead. I believe that John Stradling Thomas said to Joe Harper, "How do we know that he is alive?" So, he leaned forward, turned the knob on the heart machine, the green light went around, and he said, "There, you've lost—it's 311." That is an absolutely true story. It is the sort of nonsense that used to happen. No one believes it, but it is true.


title: Chief Whip

text: A minister who defies the whip is generally dismissed from their job immediately, if they have not already resigned, and returns to being a backbencher. Sometimes their votes in Parliament are called the "payroll vote", because they can be taken for granted. The consequences for a back-bencher can include the lack of future promotion to a government post, a reduction of party campaigning effort in his or her constituency during the next election, deselection by his or her local party activists, or, in extreme circumstances, "withdrawal of the whip" and expulsion from the party.


title: Chief Whip

text: A similar arrangement exists for whips in the House of Lords. The Government Chief Whip is usually appointed Captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms, while the Deputy Chief Whip is usually appointed Captain of the Queen's Bodyguard of the Yeomen of the Guard. Other whips, who are fewer in number due to the decreased importance of party discipline in the Lords, are appointed as Lords in Waiting, if men, and Baronesses in Waiting, if women. As well as their duties as whips, Lords whips speak in the chamber (unlike Commons whips) to support departmental ministers, or act as a spokesperson for government departments with no minister in the Lords.


title: Chief Whip

text: The Government Chief Whip's office is headed by a Principal Private Secretary, who also acts as a go-between for ministers and the opposition to keep parliamentary business moving. The first officeholder, Charles Harris, was appointed privately in 1919 to assist Lord Edmund Talbot, the Conservative chief whip. He was retained by successive Conservative chief whips on a private basis, serving as their secretary during periods when the party was in government (1922–23, 1924–29 and 1935 onwards) until 1939, when the post formally became part of the civil service (as Assistant to the Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury) and Harris was appointed into it, with a salary of £850. He retired in 1961 and was succeeded by Freddie Warren; all subsequent appointees have been permanent civil servants.


title: Chief Whip

text: In India, the concept of the whip was inherited from colonial British rule. Every major political party appoints a whip who is responsible for the party's discipline and behaviour on the floor of the house. Usually, that person directs the party members to stick to the party's stand on certain issues and directs them to vote as per the direction of senior party members. However, there are some cases, such as Indian presidential election, where no whip can be issued to direct Member of Parliament or Member of Legislative Assembly on whom to vote.


title: Chief Whip

text: British Chief Whips have appeared in TV series such as "House of Cards", "Yes Minister", "The New Statesman" and "The Thick of It".


title: Symphony X

text: Symphony X is an American progressive metal band from Middletown, New Jersey. Founded in 1994, the band consists of guitarist Michael Romeo, keyboardist Michael Pinnella, drummer Jason Rullo, lead vocalist Russell Allen and bassist Michael Lepond.


title: Symphony X

text: They achieved some commercial success with the 2007 album "Paradise Lost" and the 2011 album "Iconoclast", which reached number 76 on the Billboard 200.


title: Symphony X

text: Symphony X is often compared to other progressive metal bands such as Dream Theater, Fates Warning, and Shadow Gallery. Their music includes complex timings and odd meters while incorporating elements of heavy metal and progressive rock. Their early albums in particular contain strong neo-classical elements reminiscent of Yngwie Malmsteen, Randy Rhoads, and others. The band have been categorized as progressive metal, power metal, and neoclassical metal, though the band themselves dislike genre labels with Romeo stating they can be "misleading sometimes ... at the core of it all we're a metal band".


title: Symphony X

text: Romeo explained the band's name in a 2008 interview; "So, you know, the music we were coming up with had the keyboard thing and the guitar, and some classical elements, so the word 'Symphony' came up and, so the dramatic thing, you know? So then, somebody said 'Symphony X' and we were like, 'yeah, that's cool' it is that kinda thing, and the 'X' is the unknown and all the other stuff we do."


title: Symphony X

text: The albums "The Divine Wings of Tragedy" and "V: The New Mythology Suite" were partially recorded in "The Dungeon", Romeo's home studio. "The Odyssey", "Paradise Lost", "Iconoclast" and "Underworld" were fully recorded there and produced by Romeo himself.


title: Symphony X

text: In early 1994 Michael Romeo (formerly of the bands Phantom's Opera and Gemini) recorded a studio album titled "The Dark Chapter", which featured himself and keyboard player Michael Pinnella. The tape attracted a fair share of attention, particularly in Japan. Romeo then recruited bassist Thomas Miller, drummer Jason Rullo, and vocalist Rod Tyler. Their self-titled debut album was recorded in the same year, and released to a positive reception in Japan by the now-defunct record company Zero Corporation. The band's second studio album, "The Damnation Game", followed six months later. Singer Rod Tyler had left the band by then and was replaced by current singer Russell Allen.


title: Symphony X

text: "The Divine Wings of Tragedy" was the album that first gave Symphony X exposure in metal circles. It took a considerable time to record the album, with the recording sessions taking place in 1996, and the album was released late in the year.


title: Symphony X

text: At the end of 1997 and for part of the next year, Jason Rullo, their drummer, had to stay away from the band in order to solve personal issues. He was temporarily replaced by Thomas Walling. Even with a temporary drummer, the band recorded "Twilight in Olympus", released in early 1998. That year also saw the first live performances from the band, which by then had already gathered many fans from around the globe. Their first official show happened in 1998, in Japan, which was soon followed by a world tour. Following the departure of bassist Thomas Miller, the band briefly toured with Andy DeLuca, before being replaced by Michael Lepond.


title: Symphony X

text: A compilation album, "Prelude to the Millennium", was released by the end of 1998. As an extra, it featured a second version of the song "Masquerade" from the first album, with Russell Allen on vocals.


title: Symphony X

text: Jason Rullo returned to the drums for the band's fifth album, "V: The New Mythology Suite", released in 2000. It was the band's first release on major progressive label InsideOut Music. The album was their first concept album, dealing with the myth of Atlantis. The album features classics such as "Evolution (The Grand Design)", "Communion and the Oracle", "Egypt" and the mini-suite "Rediscovery", and includes pieces of classical music.


title: Symphony X

text: The band went on a European and South American tour shortly after its release and recorded their first live album, "Live on the Edge of Forever".


title: Symphony X

text: In 2002, the band released "The Odyssey", an album prominently featuring a 24-minute-long musical interpretation of the Homeric epic, the Odyssey.


title: Symphony X

text: In 2005 Symphony X was featured on Gigantour, a summer festival headlined by Megadeth with Dream Theater, Nevermore and Anthrax. Two Symphony X songs from the tour, "Inferno" and "Of Sins and Shadows", are featured on the Gigantour DVD and CD-set, released in September 2006.


title: Symphony X

text: The band's album "Paradise Lost", a concept album loosely inspired by John Milton's epic poem of the same name, was recorded in Romeo's studio throughout 2006, delayed numerous times and released finally worldwide on June 26, 2007. The band claimed this work had darker themes musically. The album included a special DVD of footage shot by the band throughout their history, available in FYE stores. The release coincided with a 14-month world tour, including a tour through all of Europe with Dream Theater in the fall of 2007. The band also revealed plans to perform in Japan and other Asian countries, as well as appear for the first time ever in Russia, India, and the Middle East.


title: Symphony X

text: "Paradise Lost" debuted at number 123 on the "Billboard" 200 album chart in the United States, selling 6,300 copies in its first week. The record also debuted at number 1 on the Top Heatseekers Chart.


title: Symphony X

text: Symphony X released their first music video for the song "Serpent's Kiss" on July 28, 2007. It was followed by a video for "Set the World on Fire", released on January 11, 2008. The band toured North and South America from October to November 2008, and toured Asia in February 2009.


title: Symphony X

text: On March 1, 2010, an update on the Symphony X official website announced, that the band had recorded most of their next album and that Romeo and Allen were working on lyrics; Romeo was getting ready to start doing tracking for the album. The album's name and lyrical concept were revealed on January 29, 2011 in an interview by DJ JC Green of Metal Messiah Radio's "Heavy Metal Thunder" show with Russell Allen: the follow-up to "Paradise Lost" will be titled "Iconoclast" and will have its lyrics centered around "machines taking over everything and all this technology we put our society into pretty much being our demise." On March 25, 2011, it was announced on the Nuclear Blast website and Blabbermouth.net, that the new Symphony X album, "Iconoclast", would be released in Europe on June 17 and in North America on June 21, as a Standard Edition as well as a 2-CD Digipack. "Iconoclast" debuted at number 76 on the "Billboard" 200 album chart in the United States, selling more than 7,300 copies in its first week. The record also debuted at number 7 on the Top Hard Rock Chart, number 19 on the Top Rock Chart and number 13 on the Top Independent Chart. The album showcases the highest chart position and the most first-week sales in the band's history.


title: Symphony X

text: On February 25, 2011, Symphony X played the first show of their 2011 tour in Stuttgart, Germany, where they performed two songs from "Iconoclast": "End of Innocence" and "Dehumanized". Some days later, in Antwerp, Belgium, they performed yet another new song, "Heretic". During their show in London, England, the band debuted another new song titled "Prometheus".


title: Symphony X

text: On February 27, 2013, it was announced that, during the previous week, drummer Jason Rullo was admitted to hospital for heart failure. Jason spent a week in hospital, and was released after some days. He then started a rehab program that took a minimum of 3–6 months under doctors' care. John Macaluso joined them on tour for their South American and European dates, until Jason Rullo was able to fully recover.


title: Symphony X

text: The band is working on releasing a second fan club CD. Michael Romeo said it will be another collection of demo tunes and other rare material, and may also include a bit of content created just for the release, along the lines of MJR's Star Wars tune on the first fan club CD, Rarities and Demos, which has since sold out of its first pressing. SXW, the band's revamped fan club, has relaunched and is now active.


title: Symphony X

text: The band began recording the drum tracks for the new album on September 9, 2014, and planned to release the complete recording by the spring of 2015. Michael Lepond stated they had ten songs written and that the album would contain either nine or all ten of them. He also stated all lyrics and instrumental tracks were composed and ready to be brought together, and that the album would be less heavy than "Iconoclast": "If I had to compare, I would say that it's a combination of "The Odyssey" and "Paradise Lost" — something in there. It has a lot of classic Symphony X elements in it, which I think a lot of our fans were missing for a few years. So I think our fans will really like this one. It really just focuses on solid songwriting."


title: Symphony X

text: As of December 11, 2014, recording of the drums, lead vocals, rhythm guitar, and bass were complete. With the keyboards, guitar solos, background vocals, and some miscellaneous odds and ends being done in the coming weeks. On April 10, 2015 the band announced the mixing and mastering of the new album was complete. On May 18, 2015, the band announced the title of the album would be titled "Underworld", and a release date of July 24, 2015. The first single from the album, ""Nevermore"", premiered on May 22, 2015. The band released the second single, ""Without You"", on June 19, 2015, and was made available for digital download.


title: Symphony X

text: According to singer Russell Allen, the band entered a short hiatus during 2017 in which they did not perform, due in part to his commitment to Adrenaline Mob, although it was announced during a January 2018 interview with Metal Nation that the band had plans to get together in the following months and begin writing a follow up to Underworld. On July 14, 2017, Adrenaline Mob was involved in a serious vehicular accident, which resulted in severe injuries for Allen and the death of the band's bassist and their tour manager. In July 2018, according to Michael Romeo, the band hopes to re-group and make another album, but also said that he was giving Russell Allen some time and space after dealing with the aftermath of the accident, and also his touring commitments with Trans-Siberian Orchestra. In June 2019, Romeo was considering to make their tenth album after they're done touring in August 2019.


title: Symphony X

text: During bassist LePond's May 2020 interview with Metal Nation when asked about plans for him and the band, he had confirmed that the band was ready to start writing the tenth studio album, a follow-up to their 2015 album, "Underworld" as soon as the virus slowed down, and that writing would begin in about "a month or so".


title: Symphony X

text: While promoting "War of the Worlds, Pt. 2" in early 2022, Romeo confirmed that writing for the next album had begun. Romeo stated "we are working on it", noting the process "feels a little slower than normal" due to the band's extended hiatus and inability to tour due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Symphony X

text: Keyboardist Michael Pinnella released a solo album, entitled "Enter by the Twelfth Gate", on October 12, 2004. Another solo album, "Ascension", was released in 2014.


title: Symphony X

text: Vocalist Russell Allen's solo debut, entitled "Atomic Soul", was released in the summer of 2005. With this album, Allen took a different musical direction from that seen in his work with Symphony X. It was considered by many—including Allen himself—to be a hard rock album. Also in 2005, he recorded an album called "The Battle" with former Masterplan vocalist Jørn Lande under the moniker "Allen/Lande". The two would later record follow-up albums entitled "The Revenge", released May 11, 2007; "The Showdown", released November 5, 2010; and "The Great Divide", released October 21, 2014.


title: Symphony X

text: In early 2011, Russell Allen co-founded heavy metal supergroup Adrenaline Mob with guitarist Mike Orlando and drummer Mike Portnoy (ex-Dream Theater), who has since left the group. They have released three studio albums, "Omertá" (2012), "Men of Honor" (2014) and "We the People" (2017).


title: Symphony X

text: Bassist Michael LePond released his first solo album, "Mike LePond's Silent Assassins" on September 26, 2014. It features guest performances from guitarist Mike Chlasciak (Halford, Testament), lead guitarist, drum producer and Symphony X bandmate Michael Romeo, and vocalist Alan Tecchio (Hades, Watchtower). LePond himself played bass and rhythm guitar.


title: Symphony X

text: Michael Romeo's second solo album, "War of the Worlds, Pt. 1", was released on July 27, 2018. The album features Rick Castellano on vocals, John DeServio on bass, and John Macaluso on drums. It was Romeo's first solo album since "The Dark Chapter", which was released in 1994. "War of the Worlds, Pt. 2" was released on March 25, 2022 with Dino Jelusick replacing Castellano on vocals.


title: Symphony X

text: Jason Rullo's first album with new band 3 Rules, "Rule of 3", was released in 2020. The band is composed of guitar player Ron Sanborn and bassist Artha Meadors.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: Promised Land is a 2012 American drama film directed by Gus Van Sant and starring Matt Damon, John Krasinski, Frances McDormand, Rosemarie DeWitt and Hal Holbrook. The screenplay is written by Damon and Krasinski based on a story by Dave Eggers. "Promised Land" follows two petroleum landmen who visit a rural town in an attempt to buy drilling rights from the local residents.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: Damon was originally attached to direct the film, but he was replaced by Van Sant. Filming took place mainly in Pittsburgh from early to mid-2012. During filming and afterward, the film's highlighting of the resource extraction process hydraulic fracturing, known as "fracking," emerged as a topic of debate.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: The film had a limited release in the United States on , 2012 and followed with a nationwide expansion on , 2013. The film had its international premiere and received Special Mention Award at the 63rd Berlin International Film Festival in February 2013. It received mixed reviews from critics, although the National Board of Review named it one of the top ten films of 2012, and was a box office bomb, grossing just $8 million against a $15 million budget.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: Steve Butler has caught the eyes of top management at his employer, Global Crosspower Solutions, an energy company that specializes in obtaining natural gas trapped underground through a process known as fracking. Butler has an excellent track record for quickly and cheaply persuading land owners to sign mineral rights leases that grant drilling rights over to his employer. Butler and his partner Sue Thomason arrive in an economically struggling Pennsylvania farming town whose citizens are proud of having family farms passed from one generation to the next.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: Coming from a town and a life very similar to that of the people he is now determined to win over on behalf of Global, Butler tells the story of how his own town died after the local Caterpillar assembly plant closed. The idea of a town surviving solely on family farms being passed down through generations as a viable economy is one that he can no longer accept. He claims to be offering the town its last chance. Butler spends some pleasant after-hours time with Alice, a teacher he meets in a bar.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: The community seems willing to accept Global's offer, until an elderly, local high school science teacher, Frank Yates, who happened to be a successful engineer in his working life, raises the question of the safety of fracking during a town meeting. It's decided that the people will vote in a few weeks whether or not to take the offer. After hearing about the vote, Dustin Noble, an unknown environmental advocate, starts a grassroots campaign against Global, motivated by a tale of his family losing its Nebraska dairy farm after the herd died as a result of Global's industry-standard fracking process.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: Butler begins to meet a great deal of resistance in town. Noble seems to be winning over nearly everyone, including Alice. One night Butler receives a package from Global that includes an enlarged copy of a photograph of dead cattle on a field that Noble said came from his family's Nebraska farm. The enlargement shows that an object thought to be a silo is, in fact, a lighthouse, which are nonexistent in Nebraska, revealing that Noble fabricated his story and deceived the people. The picture was actually taken in Lafayette, Louisiana, where Global is in the midst of a lawsuit over environmental complications that were probably caused by their fracking practices.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: Butler informs the town's mayor of the deception, who then informs the rest of the town. He returns to the hotel to find Noble loading his truck, preparing to leave town. Noble accidentally reveals that he knows the picture with the lighthouse was taken in Lafayette. Butler realizes the only way Noble could have known this information is if he were also employed by Global, and that Noble's job had been to discredit the environmental movement and convince the town to vote in favor of Global's offer. He arranged for Butler to receive the "confidential" photos and engineered the entire public relations effort.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: At a town meeting the next day, the citizens are prepared to vote on Global's efforts to buy drilling rights to their property. Butler talks to them about how the barn in the picture reminds him of his grandfather's barn. He reveals that Noble has manipulated them and is employed by Global. Butler leaves the meeting to find Thomason on the phone with Global. She tells him he's fired and that she is leaving for New York. Butler walks to Alice's home and she welcomes him in.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: "Promised Land" is directed by Gus Van Sant based on a screenplay by Matt Damon and John Krasinski, who are film producers along with Chris Moore. In interviews, Krasinski and Damon said that the idea for the movie was partially inspired by an investigative series of stories in The New York Times by Ian Urbina, called "Drilling Down", about fracking. The screenplay was based on a story by Dave Eggers. Krasinski came up with the film's premise and developed the idea with Eggers. They pitched the idea to Damon, suggesting that both Damon and Krasinski would write and star in the film. The project was set up at Warner Bros. with Damon attached as director in October 2011, in what would have been his directorial debut. Filming was scheduled to begin in early 2012.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: In January 2012, Damon stepped down as director due to scheduling conflicts but remained involved with the project. Damon contacted Gus Van Sant, who directed him in the 1997 film "Good Will Hunting", and Van Sant joined the project as director. The project was in turnaround at Warner Bros., and by February, Focus Features and Participant Media acquired rights to produce the film. The title was announced to be "Promised Land". With a production budget of , filming began in Pennsylvania in late April 2012. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania provided the production company in tax credits since filming would provide jobs and revenue. More than eighty percent of the crew were hired out of Pittsburgh. Filming mostly took place in Avonmore, Pennsylvania, which was the main setting for the film's rural town of McKinley. Additional filming locations for the town were locations in Armstrong County including Apollo, Worthington, and Slate Lick. Other filming locations in Pennsylvania were Alexandria, Delmont, Export, and West Mifflin. Filming also took place at the Grand Concourse at Station Square in Pittsburgh. Several hundred extras were hired for the film, and filming lasted for .


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: The film score was composed by Danny Elfman. Three songs by The Milk Carton Kids including Snake Eyes, The Ash & Clay and Jewel of June were also written for the film.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: "Promised Land" was criticized by the energy industry for its portrayal of the resource extraction process hydraulic fracturing, colloquially known as "fracking". The portrayal was first reported in April 2012 by filmmakers raising funds for the pro-fracking documentary "FrackNation". They said, ""Promised Land" will increase unfounded concerns about fracking." Phelim McAleer, the director of "FrackNation", said Dimock, Pennsylvania was the likely inspiration for "Promised Land". McAleer said despite Dimock families' claims that fracking activity contaminated their water, the state and EPA scientists did not find anything wrong. In September 2012, CNBC reported that a group of residents from Armstrong County, Pennsylvania were protesting the film and formed a Facebook group. The group said, "They filmed this movie in our backyard. They told us it would be fair to drilling. It’s not. We’re p*ssed [sic]." Mike Knapp, one of the organizers of the Facebook group said, "One of the things that really aggravates me, is that they seem to have a very condescending view" of farmers as portrayed in the film.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: Krasinski, who co-wrote the screenplay and plays Dustin, said the film's original premise involved wind power. Krasinski said wind power was replaced by fracking as a more relevant backdrop based on news coverage in recent years. "The Huffington Post" reported, "The procedure has caused concern due in part to the chemicals injected into the wells for drilling, which may taint nearby drinking water." It said Damon had posted in 2010 a YouTube video to promote the Working Families Party, which works "to prevent risky natural gas drilling". "Politico" said "Promised Land" reflected a trend about fracking since the release of the 2010 documentary film "Gasland", which was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: Leading up to the film's release, a spokesperson for Independent Petroleum Association of America said, "We have to address the concerns that are laid out in these types of films." The industry planned to send scientific studies to film critics, to distribute leaflets to film audiences, and to use social media like Facebook and Twitter as a response to the film. Where the industry launched "direct attacks" at "Gasland", it instead sought to portray "Promised Land" as "derivative, condescending and clichéd". In Pennsylvania, the industry group Marcellus Shale Coalition bought a 16-second onscreen ad to be shown at 75 percent of theaters in the state at the same time "Promised Land" was released.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: James Schamus, chief executive of the film's distributor Focus Features said, "We've been surprised at the emergence of what looks like a concerted campaign targeting the film even before anyone's seen it." As the film was released, he said, "Fracking is a great premise for real drama. It represents Americans deeply conflicted about how to deal with these issues." He compared the industry's stealth campaign against the film to the one depicted within the film.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: "Promised Land" had a limited release on , 2012. The film was released in and grossed an estimated $53,000 on its first day, a "sobering" average of $2,120. For the opening weekend, "Promised Land" grossed an estimated $190,000. Box Office Mojo reported before the film's wide release the following week, "It's unlikely that it will be able to pull many people away from the various other appealing options in theaters right now." "Promised Land" expanded to on , 2013. It grossed over the weekend, which the "Los Angeles Times" judged as "a bad start" even with its budget. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a "B" average grade on an A+ to F scale. "The Los Angeles Times" said the grade and "middling reviews" indicated the film was unlikely to be a success. By the end of its theatrical run, the film grossed $12.3 million.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: The film had its international premiere at the 63rd Berlin International Film Festival in February 2013 where Gus Van Sant won a Special Mention.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: "Promised Land" received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 53%, based on 154 reviews, with an average rating of 5.90/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "The earnest and well-intentioned "Promised Land" sports a likable cast, but it also suffers from oversimplified characterizations and a frustrating final act." Metacritic gave the film a weighted average score of 55 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". "The Los Angeles Times" reported that most critics felt that the film did not reach its full potential.


title: Promised Land (2012 film)

text: "New York Times" film critic A.O. Scott praised "Promised Land" as a film that "works" mainly "by putting character ahead of story" and by "inviting the actors to be warm, funny and prickly". Liam Lacey of "The Globe and Mail" is critical of the film: "Apart from its warm, gentle tone, much about "Promised Land" simply isn't good, especially the inconsistencies in the screenplay. After the mood-setting first half, things start to unravel."


title: Chest radiograph

text: A chest radiograph, called a chest X-ray (CXR), or chest film, is a projection radiograph of the chest used to diagnose conditions affecting the chest, its contents, and nearby structures. Chest radiographs are the most common film taken in medicine.


title: Chest radiograph

text: Like all methods of radiography, chest radiography employs ionizing radiation in the form of X-rays to generate images of the chest. The mean radiation dose to an adult from a chest radiograph is around 0.02 mSv (2 mrem) for a front view (PA, or posteroanterior) and 0.08 mSv (8 mrem) for a side view (LL, or latero-lateral). Together, this corresponds to a background radiation equivalent time of about 10 days.


title: Chest radiograph

text: Chest radiographs are used to diagnose many conditions involving the chest wall, including its bones, and also structures contained within the thoracic cavity including the lungs, heart, and great vessels. Pneumonia and congestive heart failure are very commonly diagnosed by chest radiograph. Chest radiographs are also used to screen for job-related lung disease in industries such as mining where workers are exposed to dust.


title: Chest radiograph

text: For some conditions of the chest, radiography is good for screening but poor for diagnosis. When a condition is suspected based on chest radiography, additional imaging of the chest can be obtained to definitively diagnose the condition or to provide evidence in favor of the diagnosis suggested by initial chest radiography.


title: Chest radiograph

text: Unless a fractured rib is suspected of being displaced, and therefore likely to cause damage to the lungs and other tissue structures, x-ray of the chest is not necessary as it will not alter patient management.


title: Chest radiograph

text: The main regions where a chest X-ray may identify problems may be summarized as "ABCDEF" by their first letters:


title: Chest radiograph

text: Different "views" (also known as "projections") of the chest can be obtained by changing the relative orientation of the body and the direction of the x-ray beam. The most common views are "posteroanterior", "anteroposterior", and "lateral". In a posteroanterior (PA) view, the x-ray source is positioned so that the x-ray beam enters through the posterior (back) aspect of the chest and exits out of the anterior (front) aspect, where the beam is detected. To obtain this view, the patient stands facing a flat surface behind which is an x-ray detector. A radiation source is positioned behind the patient at a standard distance (most often 6 feet, 1,8m), and the x-ray beam is fired toward the patient.


title: Chest radiograph

text: In anteroposterior (AP) views, the positions of the x-ray source and detector are reversed: the x-ray beam enters through the anterior aspect and exits through the posterior aspect of the chest. AP chest x-rays are harder to read than PA x-rays and are therefore generally reserved for situations where it is difficult for the patient to get an ordinary chest x-ray, such as when the patient is bedridden. In this situation, mobile X-ray equipment is used to obtain a lying down chest x-ray (known as a "supine film"). As a result, most supine films are also AP.


title: Chest radiograph

text: Lateral views of the chest are obtained in a similar fashion as the posteroanterior views, except in the lateral view, the patient stands with both arms raised and the left side of the chest pressed against a flat surface.


title: Chest radiograph

text: Required projections can vary by country and hospital, although an erect posteroanterior (PA) projection is typically the first preference. If this is not possible, then an anteroposterior view will be taken. Further imaging depends on local protocols which is dependent on the hospital protocols, the availability of other imaging modalities and the preference of the image interpreter. In the UK, the standard chest radiography protocol is to take an erect posteroanterior view only and a lateral one only on request by a radiologist. In the US, chest radiography includes a PA and Lateral with the patient standing or sitting up. Special projections include an AP in cases where the image needs to be obtained stat and with a portable device, particularly when a patient cannot be safely positioned upright. Lateral decubitus may be used for visualization of air-fluid levels if an upright image cannot be obtained. Anteroposterior (AP) Axial Lordotic projects the clavicles above the lung fields, allowing better visualization of the apices (which is extremely useful when looking for evidence of primary tuberculosis).


title: Chest radiograph

text: In the average person, the diaphragm should be intersected by the 5th to 7th anterior ribs at the mid-clavicular line, and 9 to 10 posterior ribs should be viewable on a normal PA inspiratory film. An increase in the number of viewable ribs implies hyperinflation, as can occur, for example, with obstructive lung disease or foreign body aspiration. A decrease implies hypoventilation, as can occur with restrictive lung disease, pleural effusions or atelectasis. Underexpansion can also cause interstitial markings due to parenchymal crowding, which can mimic the appearance of interstitial lung disease. Enlargement of the right descending pulmonary artery can indirectly reflect changes of pulmonary hypertension, with a size greater than 16 mm abnormal in men and 15 mm in women.


title: Chest radiograph

text: Appropriate penetration of the film can be assessed by faint visualization of the thoracic spines and lung markings behind the heart. The right diaphragm is usually higher than the left, with the liver being situated beneath it in the abdomen. The minor fissure can sometimes be seen on the right as a thin horizontal line at the level of the fifth or sixth rib. Splaying of the carina can also suggest a tumor or process in the middle mediastinum or enlargement of the left atrium, with a normal angle of approximately 60 degrees. The right paratracheal stripe is also important to assess, as it can reflect a process in the posterior mediastinum, in particular the spine or paraspinal soft tissues; normally it should measure 3 mm or less. The left paratracheal stripe is more variable and only seen in 25% of normal patients on posteroanterior views.


title: Chest radiograph

text: Localization of lesions or inflammatory and infectious processes can be difficult to discern on chest radiograph, but can be inferenced by silhouetting and the hilum overlay sign with adjacent structures. If either hemidiaphragm is blurred, for example, this suggests the lesion to be from the corresponding lower lobe. If the right heart border is blurred, than the pathology is likely in the right middle lobe, though a cavum deformity can also blur the right heard border due to indentation of the adjacent sternum. If the left heart border is blurred, this implies a process at the lingula.


title: Chest radiograph

text: Fluid in space between the lung and the chest wall is termed a pleural effusion. There needs to be at least 75 mL of pleural fluid in order to blunt the costophrenic angle on the lateral chest radiograph and 200 mL of pleural fluid in order to blunt the costophrenic angle on the posteroanterior chest radiograph. On a lateral decubitus, amounts as small as 50ml of fluid are possible. Pleural effusions typically have a meniscus visible on an erect chest radiograph, but loculated effusions (as occur with an empyema) may have a lenticular shape (the fluid making an obtuse angle with the chest wall).


title: Chest radiograph

text: Pleural thickening may cause blunting of the costophrenic angle, but is distinguished from pleural fluid by the fact that it occurs as a linear shadow ascending vertically and clinging to the ribs.


title: Chest radiograph

text: The differential for diffuse shadowing is very broad and can defeat even the most experienced radiologist. It is seldom possible to reach a diagnosis on the basis of the chest radiograph alone: high-resolution CT of the chest is usually required and sometimes a lung biopsy. The following features should be noted:


title: Chest radiograph

text: Pleural effusions may occur with cancer, sarcoid, connective tissue diseases and lymphangioleiomyomatosis. The presence of a pleural effusion argues against pneumocystis pneumonia.


title: Chest radiograph

text: Disease mimics are visual artifacts, normal anatomic structures or harmless variants that may simulate diseases and abnormalities.


title: Chest radiograph

text: While chest radiographs are a relatively cheap and safe method of investigating diseases of the chest, there are a number of serious chest conditions that may be associated with a normal chest radiograph and other means of assessment may be necessary to make the diagnosis. For example, a patient with an acute myocardial infarction may have a completely normal chest radiograph.


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: Cabin Fever is a 2016 American science fiction horror film directed by Travis Zariwny (under the pseudonym Travis Z) and written by Eli Roth. A remake of Roth's 2002 film of the same name and the fourth installment in the "Cabin Fever" series, the film stars Samuel Davis, Gage Golightly, Matthew Daddario, Nadine Crocker, and Dustin Ingram. The film was released on February 12, 2016, by IFC Midnight. Eli Roth, writer and director of the original film, acts as co-writer and executive producer. The film was poorly received by critics and underperformed at the box office.


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: A forest-dwelling hermit discovers his dog has died from a mysterious illness and is sprayed by its infected blood. Five young friends, Paul, Karen, Bert, Jeff and Marcy have rented a cabin in the same woods for a week-long vacation. The group stops for supplies at Priddy's General Store. Dennis, the intellectually-disabled son of the store manager, unexpectedly bites Paul's hand.


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: Bert ventures into the woods with a rifle. Bert encounters and accidentally shoots the hermit. He panics when he realizes the hermit is infected with a disease and flees. He says nothing about the incident to his friends.


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: Later that evening, while the group hang out around a campfire, a stranger who calls himself Grim and his dog, Dr. Mambo, gatecrash their evening.


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: Later that night, the infected hermit comes to the cabin in search of help. Bert slams the door in his face and the desperate man tries to steal the group's vehicle. A conflict ensues between the hermit and the five friends, during which they accidentally cripple their car and set fire to the hermit. He runs off into the woods, presumably to his death.


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: The next day, Jeff and Bert head out in search of help. They encounter a farmer who offers to help them, but hastily leave when they discover that the hermit is her cousin. Meanwhile, Deputy Winston arrives at the cabin to investigate reports of the previous night's commotion. Paul explains things without mentioning the hermit's presumed death. Winston promises to send a tow truck before departing.


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: Dr. Mambo returns to the cabin without Grim and seemingly infected. He threatens Paul and Bert, before Marcy scares him off with the rifle.


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: While Paul and Karen make out, they discover that Karen is infected with the flesh-eating virus and her leg has started to decay. Fearful of contagion, the others lock her in the shed. Paul leaves on foot to find help, but the only people he encounters chase him away, mistaking him for a peeping Tom.


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: The following morning, the group's attempt to evacuate is botched when Karen vomits blood all over the interior of the car. Bert drives back to the general store alone and Jeff abandons everybody and flees to a remote shack. Marcy and Paul lament their poor chances of surviving and have sex, believing they won't live long enough to regret it. They later discover marks on Marcy's back that reveals she, too, is sick.


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: At the general store, Dennis bites Bert's hand just as he did with Paul. His father, Tommy, lashes out at Bert for exposing his son to the virus, and he and his friends chase Bert down in order to contain the disease. While once again searching for help, Paul encounters the severely-burnt hermit in the lake. Surprisingly, he is still alive and he attacks Paul, only for Paul to fend him off and finally kill him.


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: Marcy draws a bath and shaves her legs, causing the infected flesh to gruesomely peel from her body. She stumbles outside in distress and is mauled to death by Dr. Mambo.


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: Paul returns to the boat shed where Karen begs him to kill her. His gun is empty and since he's unable to finish the job of splitting her face with a shovel, Paul sets the shed on fire and watches in horror as Karen is completely burned alive. Bert makes it back to the cabin, but he is followed and shot dead by Tommy. Paul recovers Bert's rifle and guns down Tommy and his two accomplices. Paul escapes in Tommy's truck, but crashes it into a tree and explodes. Covered in blood, Paul stumbles upon a small campfire party attended by Deputy Winston. Winston receives a radio call from the sheriff ordering her to shoot Paul on sight. However, Paul convinces Winston to let him go instead.


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: The next morning, Jeff returns to the cabin. He finds the corpses of his friends and Tommy’s accomplices, and rejoices in having survived the ordeal himself, until he sees signs of the infection on his hand. He is then shot and killed by Deputy Winston with a sniper rifle. Paul succumbs to infection and drops dead in the woods where Dennis discovers his corpse. Back at the cabin, as the authorities and a hazmat crew clean up the scene, it’s revealed that Jeff’s corpse landed near the lake, which is now infected with his blood.


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: In 2011, alongside the announcement of "", a fourth film was revealed to be in development at Indomina and Hypotenuse Pictures, with both films expected to shoot back-to-back. "Texas Chainsaw 3D" screenwriters Adam Marcus and Debra Marcus were tapped to pen the script, entitled "Cabin Fever: Outbreak", with a planned production start of Spring 2012 in the Dominican Republic. The initial plot served as direct sequel to "Patient Zero" and followed a doctor on a Caribbean island attempting to contain the virus. However, story changes were made with the final iteration taking place on a cruise ship. Production for "Patient Zero" was delayed to August and then to October 2012, with no mention of any further updates on "Outbreak". By May 2013, Voltage Pictures and Idomina proposed a trilogy of films following "Patient Zero".


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: By April 2014, plans for "Outbreak" were scrapped altogether in favor of producing a remake of the original film. By this point, Indomina had moved on from the project, while Cassian Elwes and Evan Astrowsky boarded the film as producers. In October, Travis Zariwny, director of "The Midnight Man" and "Intruder", was announced as director and would utilize the original script written by Eli Roth and Randy Pearlstein. That same month, "Teen Wolf" actress Gage Golightly, Dustin Ingram, Samuel Davis, Matthew Daddario, and Nadine Cocker joined the cast, while Chris Lemole and Tim Zajaros signed on to produce the film alongside Astrowsky, while Elwes and Roth would act as executive producers. Impressed with Zariwny's pitch, Roth decided to join the film, but had no involvement due to his obligations to "South of Hell".


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: While using the original script from Roth and Pearlstein, Zariwny made his own changes to script; such as making the characters more likable, changed the deaths of the characters, incorporated elements Roth was not able to in the original, and removed the comedic aspects. Zariwny also trimmed the page count from 124 to only 92. In this version, the character of Deputy Winston is gender-swapped, this time played by Louise Linton, a frequent collaborator of Zariwny. The director opted to make this choice because he felt there was no other way to emulate the performance of Giuseppe Andrews, who portrayed the character in "Cabin Fever" and "".


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: In September 2015, IFC Midnight acquired North American distribution rights to the film, The film was released in a limited release and through video on demand on February 12, 2016.


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rare approval rating of 0% based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 2.52/10. The site's critics' consensus reads: "No need for a quarantine -- enthusiasm for this inert remake is not contagious." On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 14 out of 100, based on 7 critics, indicating "overwhelming dislike".


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: Geoff Berkshire of "Variety" gave the film a negative review, writing: "It's little surprise that Roth himself is the exec producer of this nearly beat-for-beat redo. Who else would feel as much passion for the middling material? And who better to ensure the copy does nothing to improve on the original? The silver lining of a day-and-date limited theatrical and VOD release is that there's no chance this repurposed dud duplicates the original's commercial performance." Glenn Kenny of "The New York Times" also gave the film a negative review, writing: "Who benefits from the existence of this film? Certainly not the largely bland ensemble of post-adolescent actors cast as the leads, who here can scarcely be called characters." Peter Bradshaw of "The Guardian" gave the film a score of 1/5 stars, writing: "There is no interesting new slant on this material: it’s just the same old stuff, being served up in a tired and cynical fashion, without anything inventive in the way of humour or fear." Martin Tsai of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote: "One criticism often lobbed against remakes is that they dumb down the originals. "Cabin Fever" … is guilty as charged."


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on July 5, 2016. In Australia, it was released on April 28, 2016.


title: Cabin Fever (2016 film)

text: The film was released on DVD and Blu-Ray Disc on June 27, 2016 in UK and Ireland with the behind of the scenes feature.


title: Commerce Clause

text: The Commerce Clause describes an enumerated power listed in the United States Constitution (). The clause states that the United States Congress shall have power "to regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes". Courts and commentators have tended to discuss each of these three areas of commerce as a separate power granted to Congress. It is common to see the individual components of the Commerce Clause referred to under specific terms: the Foreign Commerce Clause, the Interstate Commerce Clause, and the Indian Commerce Clause.


title: Commerce Clause

text: Dispute exists within the courts as to the range of powers granted to Congress by the Commerce Clause. As noted below, it is often paired with the Necessary and Proper Clause, and the combination used to take a more broad, expansive perspective of these powers.


title: Commerce Clause

text: During the Marshall Court era (1801–1835), interpretation of the Commerce Clause gave Congress jurisdiction over numerous aspects of intrastate and interstate commerce as well as activity that had traditionally been regarded not to be commerce. Starting in 1937, following the end of the "Lochner" era, the use of the Commerce Clause by Congress to authorize federal control of economic matters became effectively unlimited. Since "United States v. Lopez" (1995), congressional use of the Commerce Clause has become slightly restricted again to be limited to matters of trade or any other form of restricted area (whether interstate or not) and production (whether commercial or not).


title: Commerce Clause

text: The Commerce Clause is the source of federal drug prohibition laws under the Controlled Substances Act. In a 2005 medical marijuana case, "Gonzales v. Raich", the U.S. Supreme Court rejected the argument that the ban on growing medical marijuana for personal use exceeded the powers of Congress under the Commerce Clause. Even if no goods were sold or transported across state lines, the Court found that there could be an indirect effect on interstate commerce and relied heavily on a New Deal case, "Wickard v. Filburn", which held that the government may regulate personal cultivation and consumption of crops because the aggregate effect of individual consumption could have an indirect effect on interstate commerce.


title: Commerce Clause

text: The significance of the Commerce Clause is described in the Supreme Court's opinion in "Gonzales v. Raich", :


title: Commerce Clause

text: The Commerce Clause represents one of the most fundamental powers delegated to the Congress by the founders. The outer limits of the Interstate Commerce Clause power have been the subject of long, intense political controversy. Interpretation of the sixteen words of the Commerce Clause has helped define the balance of power between the federal government and the states and the balance of power between the two elected branches of the federal government and the Judiciary. As such, it directly affects the lives of American citizens.


title: Commerce Clause

text: The commerce clause provides comprehensive powers to the United States over navigable waters. The powers are critical to understand the rights of landowners adjoining or exercising what would otherwise be riparian rights under the common law. The Commerce Clause confers a unique position upon the federal government in connection with navigable waters: "The power to regulate commerce comprehends the control for that purpose, and to the extent necessary, of all the navigable waters of the United States... For this purpose they are the public property of the nation, and subject to all the requisite legislation by Congress." "United States v. Rands", . The "Rands" decision continues:


title: Commerce Clause

text: This power to regulate navigation confers upon the United States a dominant servitude, "FPC v. Niagara Mohawk Power Corp.", 347 U.S. 239, 249 (1954), which extends to the entire stream and the stream bed below ordinary high-water mark. The proper exercise of this power is not an invasion of any private property rights in the stream or the lands underlying it, for the damage sustained does not result from taking property from riparian owners within the meaning of the Fifth Amendment but from the lawful exercise of a power to which the interests of riparian owners have always been subject. "United States v. Chicago, M., St. P. & P. R. Co.", 312 U.S. 592, 596–597 (1941); "Gibson v. United States", 166 U.S. 269, 275–276 (1897). Thus, without being constitutionally obligated to pay compensation, the United States may change the course of a navigable stream, "South Carolina v. Georgia", 93 U.S. 4 (1876), or otherwise impair or destroy a riparian owner's access to navigable waters, "Gibson v. United States", 166 U.S. 269 (1897); "Scranton v. Wheeler", 179 U.S. 141 (1900); "United States v. Commodore Park, Inc.", 324 U.S. 386 (1945), even though the market value of the riparian owner's land is substantially diminished.


title: Commerce Clause

text: Other scholars, such as Robert H. Bork and Daniel E. Troy, argue that prior to 1887, the Commerce Clause was rarely invoked by Congress and so a broad interpretation of the word "commerce" was clearly never intended by the Founding Fathers. In support of that claim, they argue that the word "commerce," as used in the Constitutional Convention and the Federalist Papers, can be substituted with either "trade" or "exchange" interchangeably and still preserve the meaning of those statements. They also point to James Madison's statement in an 1828 letter that the "Constitution vests in Congress expressly... 'the power to regulate trade'."


title: Commerce Clause

text: Examining contemporaneous dictionaries does not neatly resolve the matter. For instance, the 1792 edition of Samuel Johnson's "A Dictionary of the English Language" defines the noun "commerce" narrowly as "[e]xchange of one thing for another; interchange of any thing; trade; traffick," but it defines the corresponding verb "to commerce" more broadly as "[t]o hold intercourse." The word "intercourse" also had a different and wider meaning back in 1792, compared to today.


title: Commerce Clause

text: Chief Justice John Marshall ruled in "Gibbons v. Ogden" (1824) that the power to regulate interstate commerce also included the power to regulate interstate navigation: "Commerce, undoubtedly is traffic, but it is something more—it is intercourse... [A] power to regulate navigation is as expressly granted, as if that term had been added to the word 'commerce'... [T]he power of Congress does not stop at the jurisdictional lines of the several states. It would be a very useless power if it could not pass those lines." The Court's decision contains language supporting one important line of Commerce Clause jurisprudence, the idea that the electoral process of representative government represents the primary limitation on the exercise of the Commerce Clause powers:


title: Commerce Clause

text: The wisdom and the discretion of Congress, their identity with the people, and the influence which their constituents possess at elections, are, in this, as in many other instances, as that, for example, of declaring war, the sole restraints on which they have relied, to secure them from its abuse. They are the restraints on which the people must often rely solely, in all representative governments...


title: Commerce Clause

text: In "Gibbons", the Court struck down New York State's attempt to grant a steamboat monopoly to Robert Fulton, which he had then ultimately franchised to Ogden, who claimed river traffic was not "commerce" under the Commerce Clause and that Congress could not interfere with New York State's grant of an exclusive monopoly within its own borders. Ogden's assertion was untenable: he contended that New York could control river traffic within New York all the way to the border with New Jersey and that New Jersey could control river traffic within New Jersey all the way to the border with New York, leaving Congress with the power to control the traffic as it crossed the state line.


title: Commerce Clause

text: Thus, Ogden contended, Congress could not invalidate his monopoly if transported passengers only within New York. The Supreme Court, however, found that Congress could invalidate his monopoly since it was operational on an interstate channel of navigation.


title: Commerce Clause

text: In its decision, the Court assumed interstate commerce required movement of the subject of regulation across state borders. The decision contains the following principles, some of which have since been altered by subsequent decisions: