title: Metropolitan line

text: The fast (non-stopping) lines between Wembley Park and Harrow on the Hill are signalled with LUL signalling, but using four-aspect Network Rail signal heads. The upper two lights are a two-aspect stop signal displaying either a green or red aspect, the lower two lights a repeater signal for the next stop signal ahead showing a green or yellow aspect, or no aspect when the stop signal shows a red aspect. Thus they are effectively four-light three-aspect signals with green/red/green/yellow lights from the top, danger being a single red light, caution the top green light over a yellow light, and clear two green lights.


title: Metropolitan line

text: The Metropolitan line's suburban rail character opposed to other London Underground lines is also shown by the long distances between stops. Eight of the top 10 furthest apart stations on the Underground are on the Metropolitan line. The section between Chalfont & Latimer and Chesham is the longest at , whilst the Finchley Road to Wembley Park section is the second longest, and Rickmansworth to Chorleywood the fourth longest overall.


title: Metropolitan line

text: The Metropolitan line is the only London Underground line to operate non-stop services through some of its stations, although since 11 December 2011 these only run on weekdays during peak times (southbound in the morning peak, northbound in the evening peak). Depending on the stopping pattern, services are advertised as either "all-stations", "semi-fast" or "fast" on platform information boards and on-train announcements. The stopping pattern of each type of service is as follows:


title: Metropolitan line

text: Owing to the track layout, "fast" services can only run to/from or . The branch diverges from the rest of the line before the "fast" section, while the branch is not directly connected with the fast line at Moor Park.


title: Metropolitan line

text: No Metropolitan line trains call at any intermediate stations between Finchley Road and Wembley Park. These stations are served by the Jubilee line which runs parallel to the Metropolitan line along this section.


title: Metropolitan line

text: These services combine to give a total frequency of 16tph between Baker Street and Harrow-on-the-Hill. Of these, 12tph run between Aldgate and Baker Street which, together with the 6tph frequencies on both the Circle and Hammersmith & City lines, gives a total of 24 trains every hour on the central-London section between Liverpool Street and Baker Street.


title: Metropolitan line

text: The northbound frequencies in the morning peak are similar on each route, except all trains run as "all-stations" services.


title: Metropolitan line

text: The southbound frequencies in the evening peak are similar on each route, except all trains run as "all-stations" services.


title: Metropolitan line

text: Since 20 September 2012, all services have been provided by eight-car S Stock trains introduced in July 2010 to replace the 1960s A Stock. Part of Bombardier's Movia family, they have air-conditioning, feasible because the sub-surface tunnels, unlike tube tunnels, are able to disperse the exhausted hot air. They have regenerative brakes, returning around 20% of their energy to the network and thus reducing energy consumption. With fewer seats than the older A Stock – 306 compared with 448 – they can accommodate 697 standing passengers, compared with 597 in A Stock, and have dedicated space for wheelchairs. They have a top speed of , being the only London Underground stock to travel at that speed, doing so on the long-distance sections north of Finchley Road.


title: Metropolitan line

text: There are 58 S8 Stock trains in operation, as well as one eight-car S7 Stock also called 'S7+1' – which retains the all-longitudinal seating of the normal seven-car S7 Stock that is operated on London Underground's other sub-surface lines.


title: Metropolitan line

text: It is planned to increase the traction voltage from the present nominal 630 V to 750 V to give better performance and allow the trains to return more energy to the network through their regenerative brakes.


title: Metropolitan line

text: The line is served by a depot at Neasden. The Metropolitan Railway opened a carriage works at Neasden in 1882 and the following year the locomotive works were moved from Edgware Road. In 1904–05, the depot was refitted to take the new electric multiple units and accommodation enlarged in 1932–3. After the amalgamation into the LTPB, the depot was rebuilt from 1936 to 1939. The depot was upgraded in 2010–11 to enable it to maintain S Stock trains. Trains are also stored overnight at Uxbridge, Watford, Rickmansworth and Wembley Park.


title: Metropolitan line

text: In 1989, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the opening of the Metropolitan to Chesham, the first Steam on the Met event took place with London Underground running two weekends of steam specials between Chesham and Watford. The event was a success and so in 1990 London Underground ran steam between Harrow and Amersham. In 1992, to celebrate 100 years of the Met at Amersham, the event was extended to five days at the end of May. From 1994, diesel locomotive 20227, owned by the Class 20 Locomotive Society, and electric locomotive Sarah Siddons provided air braking for the coaches. In 1995, trains ran between Amersham and Watford.


title: Metropolitan line

text: Engines used included BR standard class 5 and BR standard class 4 and GWR Pannier tanks. There was other rolling stock on static display at Rickmansworth sidings. The steam trains ran between normal Metropolitan and main line services. Due to the imminent partial privatisation of LUL and the stock condition, the last steam excursion took place in 2000. In 2008, special trains ran on using Metropolitan Railway electric locomotive "Sarah Siddons" and diesel Class 20 locomotives.


title: Metropolitan line

text: To celebrate the 150th anniversary of the opening of the Metropolitan, special services ran in January 2013 using a restored 1892 "Jubilee" carriage, 1898–1900 Ashbury and Cravens bogie carriages, Metropolitan Railway milk van No.3, Metropolitan Railway E Class steam locomotive No. 1 and electric locomotive "Sarah Siddons". Further events were planned for 2013 involving Locomotive No. 1, "Sarah Siddons" and the Jubilee carriage, including a "Steam back on the Met" scheduled for May.


title: Metropolitan line

text: It was planned that a new signalling system would be used first on the line north of Baker Street from the end of 2016, but signalling contractor Bombardier was released from its contract by agreement in December 2013 amid heavy criticism of the procurement process and London Underground subsequently awarded the contract for the project to Thales in August 2015.


title: Metropolitan line

text: With the introduction of S8 Stock, the track, electrical supply, and signalling systems are being upgraded in a programme planned to increase peak-hour capacity on the line by 27 per cent by the end of 2023. A single control room for the sub-surface railway opened at Hammersmith on 6 May 2018, and communications-based train control (CBTC) provided by Thales will progressively replace 'fixed block' signalling equipment dating back the 1940s. Trackside signals with automatic train protection (ATP) will remain on the line north of Harrow-on-the-Hill, shared with Chiltern Railways DMUs.


title: Metropolitan line

text: The rollout of CBTC has been split into sections, each known as a signal migration area (SMA), and are located on the line as follows:


title: Metropolitan line

text: The Brill Tramway with stations , , , , and closed in 1935. In the following year, the line was cut back to Aylesbury, with Waddesdon station and , stations on the line to Verney Junction closing. Initially and Quainton Road remained open, with main line services provided by the LNER.


title: Metropolitan line

text: In 1939, the Stanmore branch and the stopping service between Finchley Road and Wembley Park were transferred to the Bakerloo line. On the St John's Wood section, Lord's and Marlborough Road stations were replaced by St John's Wood, and Swiss Cottage replaced the Metropolitan line station. The Bakerloo line service to Stanmore was transferred to the Jubilee line when that line opened in 1979.


title: Metropolitan line

text: In 1961, when steam locomotives were replaced and the line was electrified to Amersham, the Underground service to Great Missenden, Wendover, Stoke Mandeville and Aylesbury was withdrawn.


title: Metropolitan line

text: Between Moor Park and Croxley, a short branch ran south-east off the Watford branch, near its junction with the main line, to Croxley Tip, a rubbish dump beside the Grand Union Canal. This site began as a gravel loading point before becoming used by the railway to dump waste such as old ballast and waste from Neasden power station. This route, never used for passenger traffic, continued to be used by London Transport's small fleet of steam engines until 1971, when diesels replaced them. The branch closed some time after this, although a section of the spur line remained visible from a passing train.


title: Metropolitan line

text: A second short branch line, known as the Halton Railway, served RAF Halton near Wendover, across the Wendover Arm of the Grand Union Canal. The line was built during the First World War and closed in 1963. The trackbed is now a footpath.


title: Metropolitan line

text: Although not operated by Metropolitan passenger services, the line from South Harrow to Rayners Lane was built by the Metropolitan railway as the District Railway was in financial difficulties at the time. This included a short branch, part of which is still visible, on a viaduct to a gas works. Other minor freight connections along the line once included connections to the Midland main line at Finchley Road.


title: Metropolitan line

text: A single-track spur from a small yard between Ickenham and Ruislip stations connects to Ruislip Depot of the Central line. This line is used for engineering and empty stock transfers, although occasional plans suggest extending the Central line into Uxbridge by upgrading the connection. It was built in 1973.


title: Metropolitan line

text: Also known as the Croxley Rail Link, an extension to the Metropolitan line was to reroute the Watford branch from the current terminus using the disused Croxley Green branch line to Watford Junction. Funding was agreed in December 2011 and the necessary permission was granted by the UK Government in July 2013. Due to a funding shortfall, the project was cancelled in 2016.


title: 1992 Philippine presidential election

text: The 1992 Philippine presidential and vice presidential elections were held on May 11, 1992. This was the first general election held under the 1987 Constitution. An estimated 80,000 candidates ran for 17,000 posts from the presidency down to municipal councilors.


title: 1992 Philippine presidential election

text: The new constitution limited the president to a single six-year term with no possibility of reelection, even if nonsuccessive. Although some of President Corazon Aquino's advisers suggested that she could run for a second term, as she was sworn in before the 1987 Constitution took effect, Aquino did not run again.


title: 1992 Philippine presidential election

text: In the presidential election, retired general Fidel Ramos of Lakas–NUCD narrowly defeated populist candidate Miriam Defensor Santiago of the People's Reform Party. Ramos also got the lowest plurality in the Philippine electoral history, and beat the previous election for the closest margin of victory, percentage-wise (this record would later be beaten by the 2004 election).


title: 1992 Philippine presidential election

text: Santiago led the canvassing of votes for the first five days but then was overtaken by Ramos in a few days. Santiago cried fraud and filed an electoral protest citing power outages as evidence. Various media personnel became witnesses to the fraud made in the election, where the phrase, 'Miriam won in the election, but lost in the counting' became popular. However, her protest was eventually dismissed by the Supreme Court of the Philippines.


title: 1992 Philippine presidential election

text: The 1992 election was the second time both president and vice president came from different parties. Movie actor and Senator Joseph Estrada, running with presidential candidate Eduardo Cojuanco, won a six-year term as vice-president.


title: 1992 Philippine presidential election

text: Under the transitory provisions of the Constitution, 24 senators were elected in this election. The first 12 senators who garnered the highest votes would have six-year terms while the next 12 senators would have three-year terms. Laban ng Demokratikong Pilipino (LDP) received a large share in the Senate race. Television personality and Quezon City vice mayor Vicente Sotto III (also known as Tito Sotto) received the highest number of votes.


title: 1992 Philippine presidential election

text: A debate was held between presidential candidates Salvador Laurel and Ramon Mitra Jr. on the ABS-CBN television program "Magandang Gabi... Bayan" on March 7, 1992. It was considered an especially heated debate between the two candidates, with the "Manila Standard" noting the "barbs, insults, and witticisms" exchanged during the program.


title: 1992 Philippine presidential election

text: On March 15, the Commission on Elections (COMELEC) began its series of six presidential and vice-presidential debates held over the next six Sundays, with the first debate held among presidential candidates Fidel V. Ramos, Miriam Defensor-Santiago, and Jovito Salonga, moderated by Dong Puno and broadcast live on GMA Network. Estrada, then a presidential candidate, was scheduled to participate in the debate but had to withdraw due to a prior commitment.


title: 1992 Philippine presidential election

text: The second COMELEC-sponsored presidential debate was held on March 22 among Laurel, Mitra, and Eduardo Cojuangco Jr., moderated by Puno and broadcast live on RPN. The debate was also broadcast live on radio through the government-owned Radyo ng Bayan, but was interrupted 45 minutes into the debate when the station switched instead to a broadcast of a Lakas-NUCD rally in Dumaguete City led by President Aquino.


title: 1992 Philippine presidential election

text: The first vice-presidential debate as set by COMELEC was held on March 29 among Marcelo Fernan, Ramon Magsaysay Jr., and Vicente Magsaysay, moderated by Mario C. Garcia and broadcast live on the government-owned PTV.


title: Cherry picking

text: Cherry picking, suppressing evidence, or the fallacy of incomplete evidence is the act of pointing to individual cases or data that seem to confirm a particular position while ignoring a significant portion of related and similar cases or data that may contradict that position. Cherry picking may be committed intentionally or unintentionally.


title: Cherry picking

text: The term is based on the perceived process of harvesting fruit, such as cherries. The picker would be expected to select only the ripest and healthiest fruits. An observer who sees only the selected fruit may thus wrongly conclude that most, or even all, of the tree's fruit is in a likewise good condition. This can also give a false impression of the quality of the fruit (since it is only a sample and is not a representative sample). A concept sometimes confused with cherry picking is the idea of gathering only the fruit that is easy to harvest, while ignoring other fruit that is higher up on the tree and thus more difficult to obtain (see low-hanging fruit).


title: Cherry picking

text: Cherry picking has a negative connotation as the practice neglects, overlooks or directly suppresses evidence that could lead to a complete picture.


title: Cherry picking

text: Cherry picking can be found in many logical fallacies. For example, the "fallacy of anecdotal evidence" tends to overlook large amounts of data in favor of that known personally, "selective use of evidence" rejects material unfavorable to an argument, while a false dichotomy picks only two options when more are available. Some scholars classify cherry-picking as a fallacy of selective attention, the most common example of which is the confirmation bias. Cherry picking can refer to the selection of data or data sets so a study or survey will give desired, predictable results which may be misleading or even completely contrary to reality.


title: Cherry picking

text: An anecdotal story about the 5th century BCE atheist philosopher Diagoras of Melos says how, when shown the votive gifts of people who had supposedly escaped death by shipwreck by praying to gods, he pointed out that many people "had" died at sea in spite of their prayers, yet these cases were not likewise commemorated. Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) in his essay on prophecies comments on people willing to believe in the validity of supposed seers:


title: Cherry picking

text: Cherry picking is one of the epistemological characteristics of denialism and widely used by different science denialists to seemingly contradict scientific findings. For example, it is used in climate change denial, evolution denial by creationists, denial of the negative health effects of consuming tobacco products and passive smoking.


title: Cherry picking

text: In a 2002 study, a review of previous medical data found cherry picking in tests of anti-depression medication:


title: Cherry picking

text: [researchers] reviewed 31 antidepressant efficacy trials to identify the primary exclusion criteria used in determining eligibility for participation. Their findings suggest that patients in current antidepressant trials represent only a minority of patients treated in routine clinical practice for depression. Excluding potential clinical trial subjects with certain profiles means that the ability to generalize the results of antidepressant efficacy trials lacks empirical support, according to the authors.


title: Cherry picking

text: In argumentation, the practice of "quote mining" is a form of cherry picking, in which the debater selectively picks some quotes supporting a position (or exaggerating an opposing position) while ignoring those that moderate the original quote or put it into a different context. Cherry picking in debates is a large problem as the facts themselves are true but need to be put in context. Because research cannot be done live and is often untimely, cherry-picked facts or quotes usually stick in the public mainstream and, even when corrected, lead to widespread misrepresentation of groups targeted.


title: Cherry picking

text: A one-sided argument (also known as card stacking, stacking the deck, ignoring the counterevidence, slanting, and suppressed evidence) is an informal fallacy that occurs when only the reasons supporting a proposition are supplied, while all reasons opposing it are omitted.


title: Cherry picking

text: Philosophy professor Peter Suber has written: "The one-sidedness fallacy does not make an argument invalid. It may not even make the argument unsound. The fallacy consists in persuading readers, and perhaps ourselves, that we have said enough to tilt the scale of evidence and therefore enough to justify a judgment. If we have been one-sided, though, then we haven't yet said enough to justify a judgment. The arguments on the other side may be stronger than our own. We won't know until we examine them. So the one-sidedness fallacy doesn't mean that your premises are false or irrelevant, only that they are incomplete."


title: Cherry picking

text: "With rational messages, you need to decide if you want to use a one-sided argument or a two-sided argument. A one-sided argument presents only the pro side of the argument, while a two-sided argument presents both sides. Which one you use will depend on which one meets your needs and the type of audience. Generally, one-sided arguments are better with audiences already favorable to your message. Two-sided arguments are best with audiences who are opposed to your argument, are better educated or have already been exposed to counter arguments."


title: Cherry picking

text: Card stacking is a propaganda technique that seeks to manipulate audience perception of an issue by emphasizing one side and repressing another. Such emphasis may be achieved through media bias or the use of one-sided testimonials, or by simply censoring the voices of critics. The technique is commonly used in persuasive speeches by political candidates to discredit their opponents and to make themselves seem more worthy.


title: Cherry picking

text: The term originates from the magician's gimmick of "stacking the deck", which involves presenting a deck of cards that appears to have been randomly shuffled but which is, in fact, 'stacked' in a specific order. The magician knows the order and is able to control the outcome of the trick. In poker, cards can be stacked so that certain hands are dealt to certain players.


title: Cherry picking

text: The phenomenon can be applied to any subject and has wide applications. Whenever a broad spectrum of information exists, appearances can be rigged by highlighting some facts and ignoring others. Card stacking can be a tool of advocacy groups or of those groups with specific agendas. For example, an enlistment poster might focus upon an impressive picture, with words such as "travel" and "adventure", while placing the words, "enlist for two to four years" at the bottom in a smaller and less noticeable point size.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: 101955 Bennu (provisional designation ) is a carbonaceous asteroid in the Apollo group discovered by the LINEAR Project on 11 September 1999. It is a potentially hazardous object that is listed on the Sentry Risk Table and has the highest cumulative rating on the Palermo Technical Impact Hazard Scale. It has a cumulative 1-in-1,800 chance of impacting Earth between 2178 and 2290 with the greatest risk being on 24 September 2182. It is named after the Bennu, the ancient Egyptian mythological bird associated with the Sun, creation, and rebirth.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Bennu was the target of the OSIRIS-REx mission which is intended to return its samples to Earth in 2023 for further study. On 3 December 2018, the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft arrived at Bennu after a two-year journey. It orbited the asteroid and mapped out Bennu's surface in detail, seeking potential sample collection sites. Analysis of the orbits allowed calculation of Bennu's mass and its distribution.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: In October 2020, OSIRIS-REx successfully touched down on the surface of Bennu, collected a sample using an extendable arm, secured the sample and prepared for a return trip to Earth. On 10 May 2021, OSIRIS-REx successfully completed its departure from the Bennu asteroid while still carrying the sample of the asteroid rubble.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Bennu was discovered on 11 September 1999 during a Near-Earth asteroid survey by the Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR). The asteroid was given the provisional designation and classified as a near-Earth asteroid. Bennu was observed extensively by the Arecibo Observatory and the Goldstone Deep Space Network using radar imaging as Bennu closely approached Earth on 23 September 1999.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: The name "Bennu" was selected from more than eight thousand student entries from dozens of countries around the world who entered a "Name That Asteroid!" contest run by the University of Arizona, The Planetary Society, and the LINEAR Project in 2012. Third-grade student Michael Puzio from North Carolina proposed the name in reference to the Egyptian mythological bird Bennu. To Puzio, the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft with its extended TAGSAM arm resembled the Egyptian deity, which is typically depicted as a heron.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Bennu has a roughly spheroidal shape, resembling a spinning top. Bennu's axis of rotation is tilted 178 degrees to its orbit; the direction of rotation about its axis is retrograde with respect to its orbit. While the initial ground based radar observations indicated that Bennu had a fairly smooth shape with one prominent boulder on its surface, high resolution data obtained by OSIRIS-REx revealed that the surface is much rougher with more than 200 boulders larger than on the surface, the largest of which is across. The boulders contain veins of high albedo carbonate minerals believed to have formed prior to the formation of the asteroid due to hot water channels on the much larger parent body. The veins range from 3 to 15 centimeters wide, and can be over one meter in length, much bigger than carbonate veins seen in meteorites.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: There is a well-defined ridge along the equator of Bennu. The presence of this ridge suggests that fine-grained regolith particles have accumulated in this area, possibly because of its low gravity and fast rotation (about once every 4.3 hours). Observations by the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft has shown that Bennu is rotating faster over time. This change in Bennu's rotation is caused by the Yarkovsky–O'Keefe–Radzievskii–Paddack effect, or the YORP effect. Due to the uneven emission of thermal radiation from its surface as Bennu rotates in sunlight, the rotation period of Bennu decreases by about one second every 100 years.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Observations of this minor planet by the Spitzer Space Telescope in 2007 gave an effective diameter of , which is in line with other studies. It has a low visible geometric albedo of . The thermal inertia was measured and found to vary by approximately 19% during each rotational period. It was based on this observation scientists (incorrectly) estimated a moderate regolith grain size, ranging from several millimeters up to a centimeter, evenly distributed. No emission from a potential dust coma has been detected around Bennu, which puts a limit of 10 g of dust within a radius of 4750 km.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Astrometric observations between 1999 and 2013 have demonstrated that 101955 Bennu is influenced by the Yarkovsky effect, causing the semimajor axis of its orbit to drift on average by  meters/year. Analysis of the gravitational and thermal effects has given a bulk density of ρ =  kg/m, which is only slightly denser than water. Therefore, the predicted macroporosity is %, suggesting the interior has a rubble pile structure or even hollows. The estimated mass is .


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Photometric observations of Bennu in 2005 yielded a synodic rotation period of . It has a B-type classification, which is a sub-category of carbonaceous asteroids. Polarimetric observations show that Bennu belongs to the rare F subclass of carbonaceous asteroids, which is usually associated with cometary features. Measurements over a range of phase angles showed a phase function slope of 0.040 magnitudes per degree, which is similar to other near-Earth asteroids with low albedo.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Before OSIRIS-REx, spectroscopy indicated a correspondence with the CI and/or CM carbonaceous chondrite meteorites, including carbonaceous-chondrite mineral magnetite. Magnetite, a spectrally prominent water product but destroyed by heat, is an important proxy of astronomers including OSIRIS-REx staff.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Predicted beforehand, Dante Lauretta (University of Arizona) then stated that Bennu is water-rich- already detectable while OSIRIS-REx was still technically in approach.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Preliminary spectroscopic surveys of the asteroid's surface by OSIRIS-REx confirmed magnetite and the meteorite-asteroid linkage, dominated by phyllosilicates. Phyllosilicates, among others, hold water.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Bennu's water spectra were detectable on approach, reviewed by outside scientists, then confirmed from orbit.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: OSIRIS-REx observations have resulted in a (self-styled) conservative estimate of about 7 x 10 kg water in one form alone, neglecting additional forms. This is a water content of ~1 wt.%, and potentially much more. In turn this suggests transient pockets of water beneath Bennu's regolith. The surficial water may be lost from the collected samples. However, if the sample return capsule maintains low temperatures, the largest (centimeter-scale) fragments may contain measurable quantities of adsorbed water, and some fraction of Bennu's ammonium compounds.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Bennu is an active asteroid, sporadically emitting plumes of particles and rocks as large as , (not dust, defined as tens of micrometers). Scientists hypothesize the releases may be caused by thermal fracturing, volatile release through dehydration of phyllosilicates, pockets of subsurface water, and/or meteoroid impacts.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Before the arrival of OSIRIS-REx, Bennu had displayed polarization consistent with Comet Hale-Bopp and 3200 Phaethon, a rock comet. Bennu, Phaethon, and inactive Manx comets are examples of active asteroids. B-type asteroids displaying a blue color in particular, may be dormant comets. If the IAU declares Bennu to be a dual-status object, its comet designation would be P/ (LINEAR).


title: 101955 Bennu

text: All geological features on Bennu are named after various species of birds and bird-like figures in mythology. The first features to be named were the final four candidate OSIRIS-REx sample sites, which were given unofficial names by the team in August 2019. On 6 March 2020 the IAU announced the first official names for 12 Bennu surface features, including regiones (broad geographic regions), craters, dorsa (ridges), fossae (grooves or trenches) and saxa (rocks and boulders).


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Analysis showed that the particles making up Bennu's exterior are loosely packed and lightly bound to each other; "The spacecraft would have sunk into Bennu had it not fired its thrusters to back away immediately after it grabbed dust and rock from the asteroid's surface." Analysis also revealed that the Sun's heat fractures rocks on Bennu in just 10,000 to 100,000 years instead of millions of years as was thought before.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: On 12 December 2019, after a year of mapping Bennu's surface, a target site was announced. Named Nightingale, the area is near Bennu's north pole and lies inside a small crater within a larger crater. Osprey was selected as the backup sample site.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: The carbonaceous material that composes Bennu originally came from the breakup of a much larger parent body—a planetoid or a proto-planet. But like nearly all other matter in the Solar System, the origins of its minerals and atoms are to be found in dying stars such as red giants and supernovae. According to the accretion theory, this material came together 4.5 billion years ago during the formation of the Solar System.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Bennu's basic mineralogy and chemical nature would have been established during the first 10 million years of the Solar System's formation, where the carbonaceous material underwent some geologic heating and chemical transformation inside a much larger planetoid or a proto-planet capable of producing the requisite pressure, heat and hydration (if need be)—into more complex minerals. Bennu probably began in the inner asteroid belt as a fragment from a larger body with a diameter of 100 km. Simulations suggest a 70% chance it came from the Polana family and a 30% chance it derived from the Eulalia family. Impactors on boulders of Bennu indicate that Bennu has been in near earth orbit (separated from the main asteroid belt) for 1–2.5 million years.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Subsequently, the orbit drifted as a result of the Yarkovsky effect and mean motion resonances with the giant planets, such as Jupiter and Saturn. Various interactions with the planets in combination with the Yarkovsky effect modified the asteroid, possibly changing its spin, shape, and surface features.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Cellino et al. have suggested a possible cometary origin for Bennu, based on similarities of its spectroscopic properties with known comets. The estimated fraction of comets in the population of near Earth objects is . This includes rock comet 3200 Phaethon, originally discovered as, and still numbered as an asteroid.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Bennu currently orbits the Sun with a period of 1.20 years (437 days). Earth gets as close as about 480,000 km (0.0032 au) from its orbit around 23 to 25 September. On 22 September 1999 Bennu passed 0.0147 au from Earth, and six years later on 20 September 2005 it passed 0.033 au from Earth. The next close approaches of less than 0.09 au will be 30 September 2054 and then 23 September 2060, which will perturb the orbit slightly. Between the close approach of 1999 and that of 2060, Earth completes 61 orbits and Bennu 51. An even closer approach will occur on 25 September 2135 around 0.0014 au (see below). In the 75 years between the 2060 and 2135 approaches, Bennu completes 64 orbits, meaning its period will have changed to 1.17 years (427 days). The Earth approach of 2135 will increase the orbital period to about 1.24 years (452 days). Before the 2135 Earth approach, Bennu's maximum distance from the Earth occurs on 27 November 2045 at a distance of .


title: 101955 Bennu

text: On average, an asteroid with a diameter of can be expected to impact Earth about every 130,000 years or so. A 2010 dynamical study by Andrea Milani and collaborators predicted a series of eight potential Earth impacts by Bennu between 2169 and 2199. The cumulative probability of impact is dependent on physical properties of Bennu that were poorly known at the time, but was found to not exceed 0.071% for all eight encounters. The authors recognized that an accurate assessment of 's probability of Earth impact would require a detailed shape model and additional observations (either from the ground or from spacecraft visiting the object) to determine the magnitude and direction of the Yarkovsky effect.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: The publication of the shape model and of astrometry based on radar observations obtained in 1999, 2005, and 2011 made possible an improved estimate of the Yarkovsky acceleration and a revised assessment of the impact probability. In 2014, the best estimate of the impact probability was a cumulative probability of 0.037% in the interval 2175 to 2196. This corresponds to a cumulative score on the Palermo scale of −1.71. If an impact were to occur, the expected kinetic energy associated with the collision would be 1,200 megatons in TNT equivalent (for comparison, TNT equivalent of Little Boy was approx 0.015 megaton).


title: 101955 Bennu

text: The 2021 orbit solution extended the virtual impactors from the year 2200 to the year 2300 and slightly increased the cumulative Palermo impact scale to −1.42. The solution even included the estimated masses of 343 other asteroids and represents about 90% of the total mass of the main asteroid belt.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Bennu will pass from Earth on 23 September 2060, while the Moon's average orbital distance ("Lunar Distance, LD") is today and will be 384,404 km in 50 years time. It will be too dim to be seen with common binoculars. The close approach of 2060 causes divergence in the close approach of 2135. On 25 September 2135, the Earth approach distance is ±20 thousand km. There is no chance of an Earth impact in 2135. The 2135 approach will create many lines of variations and Bennu may pass through a gravitational keyhole during the 2135 passage which could create an impact scenario at a future encounter. The keyholes are all less than ~20 km wide with some keyholes being only 5 meters wide.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: The most threatening virtual impactor is on 24 September 2182 when there is a 1 in 2,700 chance of an Earth impact, but the asteroid could be as far as the Sun is from Earth. To impact Earth on 24 September 2182 Bennu needs to pass through a keyhole roughly 5 km wide on 25 September 2135. The next two biggest risks occur in 2187 (1:14,000) and 2192 (1:26,000). There is a cumulative 1 in 1,800 chance of an Earth impact between 2178 and 2290.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: Lauretta et al. reported in 2015 their results of a computer simulation, concluding that it is more likely that 101955 Bennu will be destroyed by some other cause:


title: 101955 Bennu

text: The orbit of Bennu is intrinsically dynamically unstable, as are those of all NEOs. In order to glean probabilistic insights into the future evolution and likely fate of Bennu beyond a few hundred years, we tracked 1,000 virtual "Bennus" for an interval of 300 Myr with the gravitational perturbations of the planets Mercury–Neptune included. Our results ... indicate that Bennu has a 48% chance of falling into the Sun. There is a 10% probability that Bennu will be ejected out of the inner Solar System, most likely after a close encounter with Jupiter. The highest impact probability for a planet is with Venus (26%), followed by the Earth (10%) and Mercury (3%). The odds of Bennu striking Mars are only 0.8% and there is a 0.2% chance that Bennu will eventually collide with Jupiter.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: As an active asteroid with a small minimum orbit intersection distance from Earth, Bennu may be the parent body of a weak meteor shower. Bennu particles would radiate around 25 September from the southern constellation of Sculptor. The meteors are expected to be near the naked eye limit and only produce a Zenith hourly rate of less than 1.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: The OSIRIS-REx mission of NASA's New Frontiers program was launched towards on 8 September 2016. On 3 December 2018, the spacecraft arrived at the asteroid Bennu after a two-year journey. One week later, at the American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting, investigators announced that OSIRIS-REx had discovered spectroscopic evidence for hydrated minerals on the surface of the asteroid, implying that liquid water was present in Bennu's parent body before it split off.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: On 20 October 2020, OSIRIS-REx descended to the asteroid and "pogo-sticked off" it while successfully collecting a sample. OSIRIS-REx is expected to return samples to Earth in 2023 via a capsule-drop by parachute, ultimately, from the spacecraft to the Earth's surface in Utah on 24 September. On 7 April 2021, OSIRIS-REx completed its final flyover of the asteroid and began slowly drifting away from it. On 10 May 2021, the departure was completed with OSIRIS-REx while still managing to contain the asteroid sample.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: The asteroid Bennu was selected from over half a million known asteroids by the OSIRIS-REx selection committee. The primary constraint for selection was close proximity to Earth, since proximity implies low impulse (Δv) required to reach an object from Earth orbit. The criteria stipulated an asteroid in an orbit with low eccentricity, low inclination, and an orbital radius of . Furthermore, the candidate asteroid for a sample-return mission must have loose regolith on its surface, which implies a diameter greater than 200 meters. Asteroids smaller than this typically spin too fast to retain dust or small particles. Finally, a desire to find an asteroid with pristine carbon material from the early Solar System, possibly including volatile molecules and organic compounds, reduced the list further.


title: 101955 Bennu

text: With the above criteria applied, five asteroids remained as candidates for the OSIRIS-REx mission, and Bennu was chosen, in part for its potentially hazardous orbit.


title: Adriana Barraza

text: In 1999 director Alejandro González Iñárritu cast her as the mother of Gael García Bernal's character in "Amores perros", which was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. In 2006, she collaborated with Iñárritu again in "Babel", for which she received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress.


title: Adriana Barraza

text: Barraza is known in Mexico as "Master Barraza" from her partnership with Mexican director Sergio Jiménez, known as "El Profe". They created the Actors Workshop in Mexico City, teaching and developing their own version of Method acting. Barraza began her career directing telenovela episodes, the actors in which she would also coach. In the 1990s she decided to step in front of the camera.


title: Adriana Barraza

text: She currently operates her own acting school located in Miami, Florida titled "Adriana Barraza's Black Box". Instructors at the school include her husband Arnaldo and daughter Carolina.


title: Adriana Barraza

text: Barraza was born in Toluca, Estado de Mexico, the daughter of Celia (née González Flores) and Eduardo Barraza Carral, a farmer. Her mother died when she was ten years old from myocarditis, a heart condition. Barraza herself has experienced two heart attacks. She has a sister named Maria Eugenia Barraza and three brothers, Eduardo, Porfirio, and Jose.


title: Adriana Barraza

text: She became pregnant at age 18 with her daughter, actress Carolina Valsagna b. 1975. The father of her daughter is not known, as he abandoned her. Her first husband was Carlos Valsagna, whom she married in 1978, and he adopted her daughter and gave her his name. Her second husband is Arnaldo Pipke. Barraza studied acting through the Fine Arts School at Autonomous University of Chihuahua.


title: Adriana Barraza

text: In 1985, Barraza moved to Mexico City, to work as a theatre director. Since 1985, Barraza has guest starred and directed the Mexican television show "Mujer, Casos de la Vida Real", alongside host Silvia Pinal. She has also been a part of the telenovela ensembles of "Bajo un Mismo Rostro" playing Elvira, "La Paloma" as Madre Clara and "Imperio de Cristal" as Flora. In 1997 she took on the role of Nurse Clara Dominguez in "Alguna Vez Tendremos Alas".


title: Adriana Barraza

text: Barraza directed "Locura de Amor" (in which she also starred), "Nunca Te Olvidare" and "El Manantial".


title: Adriana Barraza

text: Barraza appeared in the films "Henry Poole Is Here", "Drag Me to Hell", "And Soon the Darkness". In 2011, Barraza's latest films included "From Prada to Nada" and "Thor" (in which her part was cut down). She had a recurring role as Guadalupe Elizalde, on the FX television series "The Strain". In 2014 she starred in the film "Cake" opposite Jennifer Aniston.


title: Adriana Barraza

text: She is also a professional acting coach and has worked with actors for a number of films and television shows, including the American film "Spanglish". Barraza worked for Telemundo as an acting instructor, teaching accents to actors and actresses from all over Latin America, giving them a more Mexican lilt and sound appropriate for their character.


title: Kappei Yamaguchi

text: , better known by his stage name , is a Japanese actor, voice actor, singer, and "rakugoka" affiliated with Gokū and 21st Century Fox. After making his voice acting debut in 1989 as the male version of Ranma Saotome in "Ranma ½", Yamaguchi went on to other notable roles, including Inuyasha in "Inuyasha" and L in "Death Note". He currently voices Shinichi Kudo and Kaito Kid in "Detective Conan" and Usopp in "One Piece". He is married and has a son, Ryunosuke, and a daughter, Akane. Ryunosuke and Akane are also voice actors, while the latter is also a "rakugoka".


title: Kappei Yamaguchi

text: In Japanese dubs of international works, Yamaguchi is the voice of Kyle Broflovski, Bugs Bunny, and Crash Bandicoot. He appeared in "eroge" as . After performing "rakugo" at an event in 2017, Yamaguchi started studying under Shirano Tatekawa. He uses the name as a "rakugoka".


title: Kappei Yamaguchi

text: Yamaguchi made his first public appearance in North America at Otakon 2008 and in Sakura-Con 2009. His third appearance to date has been at Animazement in 2010. He also made a fourth appearance in Hawaii at Kawaii Kon in 2011.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: The 1975 Formula One season was the 29th season of FIA Formula One motor racing. It featured the 1975 World Championship of F1 Drivers and the 1975 International Cup for F1 Manufacturers which were contested concurrently from 12 January to 5 October over fourteen races. The season also included three non-championship Formula One races and a nine race South African Formula One Championship.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: After a strong finish to the 1974 season, many observers felt the Brabham team were favourites to win the 1975 title. The year started well, with an emotional first win for Carlos Pace at the Interlagos circuit in his native São Paulo. However, over the season tyre wear frequently slowed the cars, and the initial promise was not maintained.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: Niki Lauda often referred to 1975 as "the unbelievable year". In his second year with Ferrari, the team provided him with the Ferrari 312T – a car that was technically far superior to any of the competition. He won his first world title with five wins and a huge margin over second place in the championship.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: American Mark Donohue died in August, two days after a practice run crash for the Austrian Grand Prix. After the season in late November, an Embassy Hill airplane crashed in England and all six aboard were killed, including team owner Graham Hill and driver Tony Brise.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: The following drivers and constructors and contested the 1975 World Championship of F1 Drivers and the 1975 International Cup for F1 Manufacturers.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: The Spanish Grand Prix was moved from Jarama to Montjuïc, in keeping with the event-sharing arrangement between the two circuits.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: The Belgian Grand Prix and Monaco Grand Prix swapped places on the calendar so that the Monaco round followed the Belgian Grand Prix.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: The British Grand Prix was moved from Brands Hatch to Silverstone, in keeping with the event-sharing arrangement between the two circuits.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: The Canadian Grand Prix was originally schedule to be the penultimate race in 1975 but was cancelled due to a small row between Formula One Constructors' Association and Mosport about payments.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: The drivers went to Argentina to start the season, and it was Jean-Pierre Jarier in the Shadow who took pole position with the Brabhams of Carlos Pace and Carlos Reutemann second and third on the grid. However, poleman Jarier could not even start the race because his transmission failed on the parade lap. Home hero Reutemann took the lead from teammate Pace, with Niki Lauda's Ferrari third.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: Pace passed teammate Reutemann to take the lead but then spun off and dropped to seventh. James Hunt in his Hesketh soon overtook Lauda and then Reutemann, much to the chagrin of the crowd. By then, reigning world champion Emerson Fittipaldi in his McLaren was past Lauda and up to third, and soon took Reutemann for second as well. Fittipaldi closed in on Hunt and took the lead with 18 laps left. Pace recovered to fourth after his spin, but it was to no avail as his engine blew up. Fittipaldi started his title defence with a win, Hunt was a superb second, and Reutemann third in front of his home crowd.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: The second round was in Brazil, and Jarier took pole position again with Fittipaldi alongside and Reutemann third. Reutemann, just like in Argentina, took the lead at the start from Jarier and Pace was up to third, whereas home driver Fittipaldi dropped to seventh. Jarier retook the lead from Reutemann on lap 5 and then pulled away. Reutemann struggled with handling issues and dropped well down the order then, with Pace up to second, Clay Regazzoni's Ferrari third and Fittipaldi recovering to fourth. Jarier's engine stopped with seven laps left and Pace took the lead. Regazzoni was up to second but dropped behind Fittipaldi and Jochen Mass in the second McLaren as he too suffered handling issues. Pace took a home victory, with countryman Fittipaldi second and Mass third.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: A month after the Brazilian race, the field went to South Africa and Pace followed up his win with pole, with Reutemann alongside as Brabham locked out the front row, and home hero Jody Scheckter was third in the Tyrrell. Pace led at the start, with Scheckter second, and Ronnie Peterson in his Lotus jumped up from eighth to take third. However, the Swede did not have the pace of the front runners and dropped back down the order. Scheckter took the lead from Pace on the third lap, to the delight to the fans. Pace kept second until he struggled with tyres and was passed by Reutemann and the second Tyrrell of Patrick Depailler. Scheckter took an emotional home victory, with Reutemann and Depailler completing the podium.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: Nearly two months after the third round, the European season began in Spain at the very fast Montjuic street circuit in Barcelona. The Grand Prix Drivers Association was not happy with the state of the barriers, which were not bolted properly, and the drivers threatened not to take part. Mechanics from the teams went around the entire circuit to attempt to repair/fasten down the barriers. After work was done on the circuit, the drivers agreed that the circuit was still not safe enough. Reigning world champion and championship leader Emerson Fittipaldi had no intention to race because of the condition of the barriers, and went home on Sunday morning. The organisers of the event then locked the cars and motorhomes inside the circuit confines for breach of contract and threatened to keep them there. This being incompatible with the schedule for the next race at Monaco, the teams decided to cater for the organisers wishes and raced anyway.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: The rest of the drivers were there for qualifying, and Ferrari took the front row, with Lauda on pole from Regazzoni, and Hunt third in the Hesketh. There was chaos at the start when Mario Andretti in his Parnelli tapped the car of polesitter Lauda, sending it into the sister car of Regazzoni and knocking both Ferraris out of contention. Hunt gratefully took the lead, and Andretti, whose car was undamaged was second. Hunt led until he crashed after spinning on oil on the track, leaving Andretti leading from John Watson in the Surtees and Rolf Stommelen's Hill. Watson then had to pit with a vibration and the leader Andretti retired after a suspension failure sent him into the guardrail. This promoted Pace to second and Peterson to third, but the Swede retired after colliding with backmarker François Migault while lapping him.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: On lap 26, Stommelen's rear wing broke, and the car bounced into the barriers and flew back onto the road, hitting the barrier on the other side but the momentum of the car was enough for it to fly over the barrier where spectators were watching. The car hit some of them, and five spectators were killed, and Stommelen and other spectators were injured. Pace also crashed while trying to avoid the Hill as it bounced back off the road. The race went on for the moment, with Jochen Mass passing Jacky Ickx's Lotus to lead. The organizers stopped the race on lap 30 due to the debris on the track caused by Stommelen's crash. Mass was declared the winner, with Ickx second and Reutemann third. Only half points were awarded as the race was stopped before it had run 75% of its full course.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: After the chaotic and tragic Spanish GP, the race on the streets of Monaco was next. Lauda took pole ahead of the Shadow of Tom Pryce, with Pryce's teammate Jarier third. Rain before the race meant that it was started on a damp track. Lauda took off into the lead and Jarier climbed up to second but crashed on the first lap. Peterson was up to second, and Pryce was third. Pryce spun off after 20 laps, giving third to Scheckter. The field soon pitted for dry weather tyres and this shuffled up the order, with Scheckter dropping back after pitting too late. Fittipaldi was up to second behind Lauda, and Pace jumped up to third. That is how it stayed, with Lauda winning, Fittipaldi second and Pace third.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: The next race took place in Belgium, and Lauda was on pole with Pace with him on the front row, and Vittorio Brambilla in the March a surprising third. It was Pace who got the better of Lauda at the start, to lead into the first corner. Pace was leading from Lauda and Brambilla at the end of the first lap, but Brambilla was on the move, and shocked everyone by overtaking both the front-row starters to lead. But this spurred Lauda into action, and after almost immediately passing Pace, he took the lead from Brambilla on the sixth lap. Scheckter was also on the move and was up to second, after passing Brambilla on lap 9. Brambilla held third until he was forced to pit with tyre troubles. Lauda won, becoming the first driver to take two wins this season, with Scheckter second and Reutemann third.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: In Sweden, it was Brambilla who took his first career pole, with Depailler second and Jarier third on the grid. The order was unchanged at the start, with Brambilla leading but Reutemann was up to third after three laps. Brambilla continued to lead, whereas second-placed Depailler dropped out of contention with brake problems. Reutemann was up to second, and now took the lead from Brambilla. Brambilla had to pit for new tyres almost immediately. Jarier ran second now, but his engine blew up and this gave the position to Pace until he spun off and retired. Lauda was now second, and towards the end of the race Reutemann began to suffer from oversteer, allowing Lauda to take the lead with 10 laps left. Lauda went on to win, with Reutemann and Regazzoni completing the podium.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: The first race in the second half of the season took place in the Netherlands, and pole went to Lauda as usual, with teammate Regazzoni alongside, and Hunt's Hesketh third. The race started on a damp track and Lauda took the lead, with Scheckter up to second ahead of Regazzoni. The order was unchanged until the drivers had to pit for dry tyres. Hunt and Jarier pitted early, and their gamble paid off as they were first and second, with Lauda, Scheckter and Regazzoni third, fourth and fifth respectively. Lauda passed Jarier for second midway through the race, and started closing on Hunt. Jarier almost immediately retired with a tyre failure, and Scheckter who inherited third had his engine blow up with just 12 laps left. Hunt held off Lauda to take his first career win, with Regazzoni completing the podium.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: France was host to the 9th round of the season, and it was Lauda on pole ahead of Scheckter and Hunt. The top three maintained their starting positions into the first corner. In the early laps, Regazzoni was on a charge, and got up to second on the sixth lap but his engine blew up and he had to retire. Scheckter soon faded away, giving Hunt second. That was how it ended, with Lauda winning to take a large championship lead, Hunt finishing second and Mass third.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: The tenth round was held at the Silverstone airfield circuit in Great Britain, and Tom Pryce took a home pole position, with Pace second and championship leader Lauda third. Pace beat Pryce into the first corner, with Regazzoni third ahead of Lauda. After 10 laps, Regazzoni passed Pryce for second, and soon both of them passed Pace. It soon began to rain, and Regazzoni was pulling away until he spun off, hit a barrier and damaged his rear wing. He rejoined two laps down. Pryce now led, but he crashed out as well, two laps later. Scheckter had meanwhile passed both Lauda and Pace, and he was now leading.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: Scheckter pitted for wet tyres from the lead, and most drivers followed suit. Hunt (after passing Pace) was the leader from Pace and Emerson Fittipaldi as they had not pitted for dries. Scheckter and Jarier both caught and passed the trio, but the track was drying out, and both had to pit for dries soon after. Hunt began to lose power in his engine, and was passed by Fittipaldi, and then Pace, and even a recovering Scheckter. On lap 56 out of 70, the rain fell again, in a massive shower with the whole field on dries. Nearly all the drivers spun off and crashed, and race was stopped. Only 6 drivers were left (notably Fittipaldi). The race was stopped, and the results were declared on the lap before the storm struck. Fittipaldi was the winner, and Pace and Scheckter, despite crashing out, were given second and third.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: The drivers had to go to West Germany, in the legendary Nordschleife track, for round 11- and this proved to be the most crucial round in the championship (the German Grand Prix often was). Lauda was on pole, lapping the 14.2 mi (22.8 km) circuit in under 7 minutes- becoming the first driver to accomplish this feat. Pace was on the front row, and the two Tyrrell drivers Scheckter and Depailler third and fourth respectively. At the start, Lauda led from Pace, with Depailler getting third from his teammate Scheckter, who made a dreadful start and dropped to 20th. Depailler was past Pace early on, but by midway through the race, both drivers were out of contention, Pace retiring with a puncture, and Depailler having to pit after a suspension failure. Lauda continued to lead with Regazzoni up to second, until the latter's engine failed. Lauda then suffered a puncture and a damaged spoiler and had to pit, leaving Reutemann to lead from Hunt and Pryce. Hunt was next to retire, with a wheel hub failure on the straight behind the pits, and Pryce took second, but only briefly as he had to back off towards the end with fuel-feed troubles. At the front, Reutemann took his first win of the season, with Jacques Laffite's Williams second, and Lauda recovering to third.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: The Austrian GP on 17 August had a very large attendance, as Lauda had a chance of getting close to the championship at his home race. Lauda did not disappoint them, as he took pole position, with Hunt second and Fittipaldi third. His chief rival, Reutemann, was only 11th. On a morning practice lap, Mark Donohue's March slid off the track after a tyre failure and hit two marshals. Donohue died two days later, and one of the marshals also died.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: It began to rain just before the race started, but it did not deter Lauda, who led from Hunt and Depailler. Depailler soon dropped back, and it was Vittorio Brambilla who was up to third. Lauda also began to struggle as the rain became heavier, and Hunt took the lead and Brambilla second on lap 15. Brambilla went to take the lead from Hunt four laps later when they were lapping a backmarker, whereas Pryce passed Lauda for third. Conditions became so bad that the organizers showed the chequered flag early, with Brambilla the winner (he spun off on the slowing down lap and crashed, and drove around to the pits waving to the fans with a badly damaged car), Hunt second and Pryce completing the podium. Only half points were given, as the race was stopped early, just like in Spain.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: The penultimate round was in Italy, and after the cancellation of the Canadian GP, Lauda needed only half a point to be the 1975 world champion. The Ferrari fans were very happy as their team locked out the front row, with Lauda on pole from Regazzoni, and Fittipaldi third. Regazzoni took the lead at the start, with Lauda and Mass following. Soon Reutemann was up to third, but he needed to win to keep any faint hopes alive. However, he was passed by Fittipaldi, and towards the end, Lauda backed off and let Fittipaldi through. It was Regazzoni who won the race, with Fittipaldi second, and Lauda's third was enough to seal the championship.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: The final round took place in the US, and it was no surprise that at the spectacular Watkins Glen track in upstate New York (which had a new chicane at the Esses introduced), new World Champion Lauda took pole again, with Fittipaldi alongside and Reutemann third. Lauda led into the first corner from Fittipaldi, and it was Jarier in third. Lauda and Fittipaldi drove away from the rest of the field, whereas Jarier retired with a wheel failure one-third into the race. This left Hunt in third, but Mass had other ideas and took the place midway through the race. Lauda went on to win, his fifth of the season, as he signed off in style, with Fittipaldi close behind in second, and Mass also on the podium.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: Points were awarded on a 9–6–4–3–2–1 basis to the first six finishers at each Grand Prix. Only the six best results from the first seven races and the six best results from the last seven races counted towards the World Championship.


title: 1975 Formula One season

text: Points were awarded on a 9-6-4-3-2-1 basis to the first six finishers at each Grand Prix, but only one car per constructor could score points at each Grand Prix. Only the six best results from the first seven races and the six best results from the last seven races counted towards the International Cup for F1 Manufacturers.


title: Piano pedals

text: Piano pedals are foot-operated levers at the base of a piano that change the instrument's sound in various ways. Modern pianos usually have three pedals, from left to right, the soft pedal (or una corda), the sostenuto pedal, and the sustaining pedal (or damper pedal). Some pianos omit the sostenuto pedal, or have a middle pedal with a different purpose such as a muting function also known as silent piano.


title: Piano pedals

text: The development of the piano's pedals is an evolution that began from the very earliest days of the piano, and continued through the late 19th century. Throughout the years, the piano had as few as one modifying stop, and as many as six or more, before finally arriving at its current configuration of three.


title: Piano pedals

text: The "soft pedal", or "una corda" pedal, was invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori. It was the first mechanism invented to modify the piano's sound. This function is typically operated by the left pedal on modern pianos. Neither of its common names—soft pedal or una corda pedal—completely describe the pedal's function. The una corda primarily modifies the timbre, not just the volume of the piano. Soon after its invention, virtually all makers integrated the una corda as a standard fixture. On Cristofori's pianos, the una corda mechanism was operated by a hand stop, not a pedal. The stop was a knob on the side of the keyboard. When the una corda was activated, the entire action shifted to the right so that the hammers hit one string (una corda) instead of two strings (due corde). Dominic Gill says that when the hammers strike only one string, the piano "...produces a softer, more ethereal tone."


title: Piano pedals

text: By the late 18th century, piano builders had begun triple stringing the notes on the piano. This change, affecting the una corda's function, is described by Joseph Banowetz:


title: Piano pedals

text: The sound of the una corda on early pianos created a larger difference in color and timbre than it does on the modern piano. On the modern piano, the una corda pedal makes the hammers of the treble section hit two strings instead of three. In the case of the bass strings, the hammer normally strikes either one or two strings per note. The lowest bass notes on the piano are a single thicker string. For these notes, the action shifts the hammer so that it strikes the string on a different, lesser-used part of the hammer nose.


title: Piano pedals

text: Beethoven took advantage of the ability of his piano to create a wide range of tone color in two of his piano works. In his Piano Concerto No. 4, Beethoven specifies the use of una corda, due corde, and tre corde. He calls for una corda, then "poco a poco due ed allora tutte le corde", gradually two and then all strings, in Sonata Op. 106.


title: Piano pedals

text: On the modern upright piano, the left pedal is not truly an una corda, because it does not shift the action sideways. The strings run at such an oblique angle to the hammers that if the action moved sideways, the hammer might strike one string of the wrong note. A more accurate term for the left pedal on an upright piano is the half-blow pedal. When the pedal is activated, the hammers move closer to the strings, so that there is less distance for the hammer to swing.


title: Piano pedals

text: The last pedal added to the modern grand was the middle pedal, the "sostenuto", which was inspired by the French. Using this pedal, a pianist can sustain selected notes, while other notes remain unaffected. The sostenuto was first shown at the French Industrial Exposition of 1844 in Paris, by Boisselot & Fils, a Marseille company. French piano builders Alexandre François Debain and Claude Montal built sostenuto mechanisms in 1860 and 1862, respectively. These innovative efforts did not immediately catch on with other piano builders. In 1874, Albert Steinway perfected and patented the sostenuto pedal. He began to advertise it publicly in 1876, and soon the Steinway company was including it on all of their grands and their high-end uprights.


title: Piano pedals

text: Other American piano builders quickly adopted the sostenuto pedal into their piano design. The adoption by European manufacturers went far more slowly and was essentially completed only in recent times.


title: Piano pedals

text: The term "sostenuto" is perhaps not the best descriptive term for what this pedal actually does. "Sostenuto" in Italian means "sustained". This definition alone would make it sound as if the sostenuto pedal accomplishes the same thing as the damper, or "sustaining" pedal. The sostenuto pedal was originally called the "tone-sustaining" pedal. That name would be more accurately descriptive of what the pedal accomplishes, i.e., sustainment of a single tone or group of tones. The pedal holds up only dampers that were already raised at the moment that it was depressed. So if a player: (i) holds down a note or chord, and (ii) while so doing depresses this pedal, and then (iii) lifts the fingers from that note or chord while keeping the pedal depressed, then that note or chord is not damped until the foot is lifted—despite subsequently played notes being damped normally on their release. Uses for the sostenuto pedal include playing transcriptions of organ music (where the selective sustaining of notes can substitute for the organ's held notes in its pedals), or in much contemporary music, especially spectral music. Usually, the sostenuto pedal is played with the right foot.


title: Piano pedals

text: The "damper pedal", "sustain pedal", or "sustaining pedal" is to the right of the other pedals, and is used more often than the other pedals. It raises all the dampers off the strings so that they keep vibrating after the player releases the key. In effect, the damper pedal makes every string on the piano a sympathetic string, creating a rich tonal quality. This effect may be behind the saying that the damper pedal is "...the soul of the piano." The damper pedal has the secondary function of allowing the player to connect into a "legato" texture notes that otherwise could not thus be played.


title: Piano pedals

text: It is common to find uprights and even grand pianos that lack a middle pedal. Even if a piano has a middle pedal, one cannot assume it is a true sostenuto, for there are many other functions a middle pedal can have other than that of sostenuto. Often an upright's middle pedal is another half-blow pedal, like the one on the left, except that the middle pedal slides into a groove to stay engaged. Sometimes, the middle pedal may only operate the bass dampers. The middle pedal may sometimes lower a muffler rail of felt between the hammers and the strings to mute and significantly soften the sound, so that one can practice quietly (also known as a "Practice Rail"). True sostenuto is rare on uprights, except for more expensive models such as those from Steinway and Bechstein. They are more common on digital pianos as the effect is straightforward to mimic in software.


title: Piano pedals

text: Among other pedals sometimes found on early pianos are the lute stop, moderator or celeste, bassoon, buff, cembalo, and swell. The lute pedal created a pizzicato-type sound. The moderator, or celeste mechanism used a layer of soft cloth or leather between hammers and strings to provide a sweet, muted quality. According to Good, "[The piece of leather or cloth was] graduated in thickness across its short dimension. The farther down one pushed the pedal, the farther the rail lowered and the thicker the material through which the hammer struck the strings. With the thicker material, the sound was softer and more muffled. Such a stop was sometimes called a pianissimo stop."


title: Piano pedals

text: The moderator stop was popular on Viennese pianos, and a similar mechanism is still sometimes fitted on upright pianos today in the form of the practice rail (see Sostenuto pedal, above). Joseph Banowetz states that for the bassoon pedal, paper or silk was placed over the bass strings to create "...a buzzing noise that listeners of the day felt resembled the sound of the bassoon." The buff stop and cembalo stops seem similar to each other in method of manipulation and sound produced. The buff ("leather") stop used "...a narrow strip of soft leather ... pressed against the strings to give a dry, soft tone of little sustaining power." The cembalo stop pressed leather weights on the strings and modified the sound to make it resemble that of the harpsichord. Johannes Pohlmann used a swell pedal on his pianos to raise and lower the lid of the piano to control the overall volume. Instead of raising and lowering the lid, the swell was sometimes operated by opening and closing slots in the sides of the piano case.


title: Piano pedals

text: Famous for his pianos, Muzio Clementi was a composer and musician who founded a piano-building company, and was active in the designing of the pianos that his company built. The Clementi piano firm was later renamed Collard and Collard in 1830, two years before Clementi's death. Clementi added a feature called a harmonic swell. "[This pedal] introduced a kind of reverberation effect to give the instrument a fuller, richer sound. The effect uses the sympathetic vibrations set up in the untuned non-speaking length of the strings. Here the soundboard is bigger than usual to accommodate a second bridge (the 'bridge of reverberation')."


title: Piano pedals

text: The Dolce Campana pedal pianoforte c. 1850, built by Boardman and Gray, New York, demonstrated yet another creative way of modifying the piano's sound. A pedal controlled a series of hammers or weights attached to the soundboard that would fall onto an equal number of screws, and created the sound of bells or the harp. The Fazioli concert grand piano model F308 includes a fourth pedal to the left of the traditional three pedals. This pedal acts similarly to the "half-blow" pedal on an upright piano, in that it collectively moves the hammers somewhat closer to the strings to reduce the volume without changing the tone quality, as the una-corda does. The F308 is the first modern concert grand to offer such a feature.


title: Piano pedals

text: In the early years of piano development, many novelty pedals and stops were experimented with before finally settling on the three that are now used on the modern piano. Some of these pedals were meant to modify levels of volume, color, or timbre, while others were used for special effects, meant to imitate other instruments. Banowetz speaks of these novelty pedals: "At their worst, these modifications threatened to make the piano into a vulgar musical toy."


title: Piano pedals

text: During the late 18th century, Europeans developed a love for Turkish band music, and the Turkish music style was an outgrowth of this. According to Good, this possibly began "...when King Augustus the Strong of Poland received the gift of a Turkish military band at some time after 1710." "Janissary" or "janizary" refers to the Turkish military band that used instruments including drums, cymbals, and bells, among other loud, cacophonous instruments. Owing to the desire of composers and players to imitate the sounds of the Turkish military marching bands, piano builders began including pedals on their pianos by which snare and bass drums, bells, cymbals, or the triangle could be played by the touch of a pedal while simultaneously playing the keyboard.


title: Piano pedals

text: Up to six pedals controlled all these sound effects. Alfred Dolge states, "The Janizary pedal, one of the best known of the early pedal devices, added all kinds of rattling noises to the normal piano performance. It could cause a drumstick to strike the underside of the soundboard, ring bells, shake a rattle, and even create the effect of a cymbal crash by hitting several bass strings with a strip of brass foil." Mozart's Rondo alla Turca, from Sonata K. 331, written in 1778, was sometimes played using these Janissary effects.


title: Piano pedals

text: The sustaining, or damper stop, was first controlled by the hand, and was included on some of the earliest pianos ever built. Stops operated by hand were inconvenient for the player, who would have to continue playing with one hand while operating the stop with the other. If this was not possible, an assistant would be used to change the stop, just as organists do even today. Johannes Zumpe's square piano, made in London in 1767, had two hand stops in the case, which acted as sustaining stops for the bass strings and the treble strings.


title: Piano pedals

text: The knee lever to replace the hand stop for the damper control was developed in Germany sometime around 1765. According to David Crombie, "virtually all the fortepianos of the last three decades of the eighteenth century were equipped with a knee lever to raise and lower the dampers ... "


title: Piano pedals

text: Sometime around 1777, Mozart had an opportunity to play a piano built by Johann Andreas Stein, who had been an apprentice of Gottfried Silbermann. This piano had knee levers, and Mozart speaks highly of their functionality in a letter: "The machine which you move with the knee is also made better by [Stein] than by others. I scarcely touch it, when off it goes; and as soon as I take my knee the least bit away, you can't hear the slightest after-sound."


title: Piano pedals

text: The only piano Mozart ever owned was one by Anton Walter, c. 1782-1785. It had two knee levers; the one on the left raised all the dampers, while the one on the right raised only the treble dampers. A moderator stop to produce a softer sound (see Other pedals, above) was centrally above the keyboard.


title: Piano pedals

text: Although there is some controversy among authorities as to which piano builder was actually the first to employ pedals rather than knee levers, one could say that pedals are a characteristic first developed by manufacturers in England. James Parakilas states that the damper stop was introduced by Gottfried Silbermann, who was the first German piano builder. Parakilas, however, does not specify whether Silbermann's damper stop was in the form of a hand lever, knee lever, or pedal. However, many successful English piano builders had apprenticed with Silbermann in Germany, and then left for London as a result of the disturbances of the Seven Years' War in Saxony. Among those who re-located to England were Johannes Zumpe, Americus Backers, and Adam Beyer. Americus Backers, Adam Beyer, and John Broadwood, all piano builders in England, are credited as being among the first to incorporate the new feature. Americus Backers' 1772 grand, his only surviving instrument, has what are believed to be original pedals, and is most likely the first piano to use pedals rather than knee levers. A square piano built by Adam Beyer of London in 1777 has a damper pedal, as do pianos built by John Broadwood, ca. 1783.


title: Piano pedals

text: After their invention, pedals did not immediately become the accepted form for piano stops. German and Viennese builders continued to use the knee levers for quite some time after the English were using pedals. Pedals and knee levers were even used together on the same instrument on a Nannette Streicher grand built in Vienna in 1814. This piano had two knee levers that were Janissary stops for bell and drum, and four pedals for una corda, bassoon, dampers, and moderator.


title: Piano pedals

text: Throughout his lifetime, Ludwig van Beethoven owned several different pianos by different makers, all with different pedal configurations. His pianos are fine examples of some experimental and innovative pedal designs of the time. In 1803, the French piano company Erard gave him a grand, "[thought to be] the most advanced French grand piano of the time... It had... four pedals, including an una-corda, a damper lift, a lute stop, and a moderator for softening the tone."


title: Piano pedals

text: Beethoven's Broadwood grand, presented as a gift to him from the Broadwood company in 1817, had an una corda pedal and a split damper pedal — one half was the damper for the treble strings, the other half for the bass strings. In an effort to give Beethoven an instrument loud enough for him to hear when his hearing was failing, Conrad Graf designed an instrument in 1824 especially for Beethoven with quadruple stringing instead of triple. Graf made only three instruments of this nature. David Crombie describes this instrument: "By adding an extra string, Graf attempted to obtain a tone that was richer and more powerful, though it didn't make the instrument any louder than his Broadwood." This extra string would have provided a bigger contrast when applying keyboard-shifting stops, because this keyboard shift pedal moved the action from four to two strings. Crombie states: "These provide a much wider control over the character of the sound than is possible on Graf's usual instruments."


title: Piano pedals

text: This piano included five pedals: a keyboard shift (quad to due corde); bassoon; moderator 1; moderator 2; and dampers. A different four-string system, aliquot stringing, was invented by Julius Blüthner in 1873 and remains a feature of Blüthner pianos. The Blüthner aliquot system uses an additional (fourth) string in each note of the upper three octaves. This string is slightly higher than the other three strings so that it is not struck by the hammer. When the hammer strikes the three conventional strings, the aliquot string vibrates sympathetically.


title: Piano pedals

text: As a composer and pianist, Beethoven experimented extensively with pedal. His first marking to indicate use of a pedal in a score was in his first two piano concertos, in 1795. Earlier than this, Beethoven had called for the use of the knee lever in a sketch from 1790–92; "with the knee" is marked for a series of chords. According to Joseph Banowetz, "This is the earliest-known indication for a damper control in a score." Haydn did not specify its use in a score until 1794. In all, there are nearly 800 indications for pedal in authentic sources of Beethoven's compositions, making him by far the first composer to be highly prolific in pedal usage.


title: Piano pedals

text: Along with the development of the pedals on the piano came the phenomenon of the pedal piano, a piano with a pedalboard. Some of the early pedal pianos date back to 1815. The pedal piano developed partially for organists to be able to practice pedal keyboard parts away from the pipe organ. In some instances, the pedal piano was actually a special type of piano with a built-in pedal board and a higher keyboard and bench, like an organ. Other times, an independent pedal board and set of strings could be connected to a regular grand piano. Mozart had a pedalboard made for his piano. His father, Leopold, speaks of this pedalboard in a letter: "[the pedal] stands under the instrument and is about two feet longer and extremely heavy".


title: Piano pedals

text: Alfred Dolge writes of the pedal mechanisms that his uncle, Louis Schone, constructed for both Robert Schumann and Felix Mendelssohn in 1843. Schumann preferred the pedal board to be connected to the upright piano, while Mendelssohn had a pedal mechanism connected to his grand piano. Dolge describes Mendelssohn's pedal mechanism:


title: Piano pedals

text: "The keyboard for pedaling was placed under the keyboard for manual playing, had 29 notes and was connected with an action placed at the back of the piano where a special soundboard, covered with 29 strings, was built into the case".


title: Piano pedals

text: In addition to using his pedal piano for organ practice, Schumann composed several pieces specifically for the pedal piano. Among these compositions are Six Studies Op. 56, Four Sketches Op. 58, and Six Fugues on Bach Op. 60. Other composers who used pedal pianos were Mozart, Liszt, Alkan and Gounod.


title: Piano pedals

text: The piano, and specifically the pedal mechanism and stops underwent much experimentation during the formative years of the instrument, before finally arriving at the current pedal configuration. Banowetz states, "These and a good number of other novelty pedal mechanisms eventually faded from existence as the piano grew to maturity in the latter part of the nineteenth century, finally leaving as survivors of this tortuous evolution only today's basic three pedals".


title: Piano pedals

text: The location of pedals on the piano was another aspect of pedal development that fluctuated greatly during the evolution of the instrument. Piano builders were quite creative with their pedal placement on pianos, which sometimes gave the instruments a comical look, compared to what is usually seen today. The oldest surviving English grand, built by Backers in 1772, and many Broadwood grands had two pedals, una corda and damper, which were attached to the legs on the left and right of the keyboard. James Parakilas describes this pedal location as giving the piano a "pigeon-toed look", for they turned in slightly. A table piano built by Jean-Henri Pape in the mid-19th century had pedals on the two front legs of the piano, but unlike those on the Backers and Broadwood, these pedals faced straight in towards each other rather than out.


title: Piano pedals

text: A particularly unusual design is demonstrated in the "Dog Kennel" piano. It was built by Sebastien Mercer in 1831, and was nicknamed the "Dog Kennel" piano because of its shape. Under the upright piano where the modern pedals would be located is a semi-circular hollow space where the feet of the player could rest. The una corda and damper pedals are at the left and right of this space, and face straight in, like the table piano pedals. Eventually during the 19th century, pedals were attached to a frame located centrally underneath the piano, to strengthen and stabilize the mechanism. According to Parakilas, this framework on the grand piano "often took the symbolic shape and name of a lyre", and it still carries the name "pedal lyre" today.


title: Piano pedals

text: Although the piano and its pedal configuration has been in its current form since the late 19th century, there was a development in 1987. The Fazioli piano company in Sacile, Italy, designed the longest grand piano produced up to now (). This piano includes four pedals: damper; sostenuto; una corda; and half-blow.


title: Piano pedals

text: In the 21st century, electronic keyboards and stage pianos typically have a jack for an external pedal, while digital pianos have them built in. The pedal itself is usually a simple switch, although more sophisticated pedals can detect and transmit a signal for half-pedaling.


title: Piano pedals

text: More sophisticated and expensive electronic keyboards and sound modules may have Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) support for a range of user-selected articulations, and the keyboard itself may have an assignable jack or multiple jacks. Standard MIDI continuous controller (CC) messages that users can select for pedals include: CC 64 (sustain pedal, the most commonly-used option); CC 65 (portamento); CC 66 (sostenuto pedal); CC 67 (soft pedal); CC 68 (legato pedal); and CC 69 ("hold 2 pedal"). Some digital pianos have three pedals, like a grand piano.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The Russian Naval Infantry (MPR; ), often referred to as Russian Marines in the West, operate as the naval infantry of the Russian Navy. Established in 1705, they are capable of conducting amphibious operations as well as operating as more traditional light infantry.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The Naval Infantry also fields the Russian Navy's only special operations unit, known as the ‘commando frogmen’. Frogmen are typically drawn from the Naval Infantry's ranks, and they are capable of a wide range of special operations tasks and missions. Colloquially, Russian-speakers may refer to Naval Infantrymen using the abbreviation морпехи (morpekhi (plural), singular form: морпех (morpekh)).


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The first Russian naval infantry force formed in 1705, and since that time it has fought in the Napoleonic Wars, the Crimean War (1853-1856), the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), the First World War (1914-1918) and the Second World War (1939-1945). Under Admiral Gorshkov (Soviet Navy Commander-in-Chief from 1956 to 1985), the Soviet Navy expanded the reach of the Naval Infantry and deployed it worldwide on numerous occasions.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: Since 2009 Lieutenant General (NI) (Lieutenant General (NI) since 2014) has commanded the Naval Infantry in his capacity as the Deputy Commander for Coastal Troops/Commandant of the Coastal Troops of the Russian Navy.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The Naval Infantry, alongside the Coastal Defense Missile Artillery Forces, form part of a larger institution—the Coastal Troops of the Russian Navy (, "Beregovye voyska VMF Rossii").


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: Little is known about the Russian Naval infantrymen during the Imperial era of Russia because many of the units formed consisted of supernumerary ship crews of destroyed or immobilised Russian warships.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The history of the Russian Navy could be traced back to the 16th century with Ivan the Terrible with the formation of his special team of Streltsy "sea soldiers" as part of his crew of flotilla ships.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The official history of the Naval Infantry could be traced back to the creation of the Russian ship Oryol (lit., Eagle), which launched in 1668 & sailed with a crew of 23 sailors & 35 soldiers, with the soldiers duties of boarding & capturing enemy ships & providing sentinel service under the command of Ivan Domozhirov.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: During the Azov campaign of the Russo-Turkish War, under Peter the Great, the soldiers in these units; many of whom were recruited by the Preobrazhensky & the Semyonovsky Regiments of the later-to-become Imperial Guards, were shown to be particularly effective in carrying out those duties. Those soldiers would later on form the Russian Navy's very first infantry regiment consisting of 4300 men.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The first admiral of the regiment was appointed by no less than Tsar Peter I himself, General Admiral Fyodor Golovin, who later gave the respective order to Vice Admiral Cornelius Kruys on November 16, 1705, marking the glorious years following for the Russian Naval Infantry.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: In November 16 (27), 1705, following a decree of Peter I, the first regiment "of naval equipage" () (or in other words, equipped and supplied by the Russian Imperial Navy) was formed for boarding and landing operations, on the ships of the Baltic Fleet. The regiment had 1200 men (two battalions of five companies; 45 officers, & 70 non-commissioned officers), and from this pioneer regiment began the long history of Naval Infantry within Russia.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: In 1714, the regiment won a victory against the Swedes during the Battle of Gangut. However, after the war, a review of the Regiment's performance during the war concluded that the regimental organization of the unit did not work with the organizational structure of the Navy's fleet and did not allow it to be correctly utilized in combat conditions. As a result, the naval regiment was disbanded, and in replace of it, five naval battalions of consisting of men drawn from the army was created in 1712-1714 & attached to the fleet:


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The Russian naval infantry were involved in a series of victories against the Ottoman Empire including the rout of the Turkish Navy at the Battle for Cesme Harbor in 1770, and the taking of Izmail Fortress on the Danube, in 1790.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: During the prelude to the war, in 1799 the Russian naval infantry took the French fortress at Corfu after a four-month siege. In 1806, a Russian landing force took Naples by storm and entered the Papal States.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: During the War of the Sixth Coalition, the Russian naval infantry distinguished itself against "La Grande Armée" at the Battle of Borodino (1812), Battle of Kulm (1813) and the Siege of Danzig.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: By 1813, significant parts of the naval infantry were transferred to the Army & subsequently lost naval connections. For almost 100 years, there were no large infantry units in the Russian Navy. Nevertheless, in 1854–1855, during the Siege of Sevastopol against British, French and Turkish troops, there were renewed calls for revival of the military's Naval Infantry units. 17 separate sea battalions were formed and they participated in the defense of Sevastopol.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: During 1904 Russo-Japanese War, the naval infantry defended Port Arthur against Japanese forces. Personnels were recruited from regular sailors & naval crews to make up the numbers. Seven separate naval rifle battalions, a separate landing squad of sailors, three separate sea rifle companies and several machine-gun teams were formed.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The question of the formation of permanent Naval Infantry Units were raised only in 1910 and in 1911, projects were underway under the Chief Naval Staff for the development of permanent infantry units in the main naval bases of the country: an infantry regiment under the Baltic Fleet, an infantry battalion in the Black Sea Fleet and the Vladivostok Battalion for the Pacific Fleet.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: In August 1914, two separate battalions from the personnel of the Guards Fleet Crew and one battalion of personnel from the 1st Baltic Fleet Crew were created in Kronstadt. In March 1915, a separate naval battalion of the 2nd Baltic Fleet Crew was transformed into the Marine Regiment of Special Purpose. It included a mine company, a machine-gun team, a communications team, regimental artillery, a technical workshop, a convoy, and individual commands of the steamer Ivan-town and boats.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: At the end of 1916 and the beginning of 1917, the first two divisions of marines were formed; the Baltic Division and Black Sea Division.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The naval infantry was deployed to the Baltic to defend the homeland against German attack as well as the Caspian Sea for operations against Ottoman forces.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: These naval infantrymen, who served under the Navy of the Imperial State, would later on form the core of the naval infantry service of the young Soviet Navy in 1918, which distinguished itself during the long Russian Civil War (1918-1922). Many of their fellow servicemen though supported the White movement and distinguished themselves as part of anti-Soviet military operations during those years. Many were shot upon capture by Soviet authorities. Others were tortured and killed.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: During World War II about 350,000 Soviet Navy sailors fought on land operations. At the beginning of the war, the navy had only one naval infantry brigade in the Baltic Fleet, but began forming and training other battalions. These eventually were:


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: Many of the new units were raised as part of the Black Sea, Pacific and Northern Fleets. The military situation demanded the deployment of large numbers of naval infantry on land, so the Naval Infantry contributed to the defense of Odessa, Moscow, Leningrad, Sevastopol, Stalingrad, Novorossiysk and Kerch.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The Naval Infantry conducted over 114 landings, most of which were carried out by platoons and companies. In general, however, Naval Infantry served as regular infantry, without any amphibious training. They conducted four major operations: two during the Battle of the Kerch Peninsula, one during the Caucasus Campaign and one as part of the Landing at Moonsund, in the Baltic.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: During the war, five brigades and two battalions of naval infantry were awarded Guards status. Nine brigades and six battalions were awarded decorations, and many were given honorary titles. The title Hero of the Soviet Union was bestowed on 122 Naval Infantry servicemen.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The Soviet experience in amphibious warfare in World War II contributed to the development of Soviet operational art in combined arms operations. Many members of the Naval Infantry were parachute trained; they conducted more drops and successful parachute operations than the Soviet Airborne Troops (VDV).


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The Naval Infantry was disbanded in 1947, with some units being transferred to the Coastal Defence Force.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: In 1961, the Naval Infantry was re-formed and became a combat arm of the Soviet Navy. Each Fleet was assigned a Naval Infantry unit of regiment (and later brigade) size. The Naval Infantry received amphibious versions of standard armoured fighting vehicles, including tanks used by the Soviet Army.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: By 1989, the Naval Infantry numbered 18,000 troops, organised into the 55th Naval Infantry Division at Vladivostok and at least four independent brigades: the 61st "Kirkenneskaya" Brigade at Pechenga (Northern Fleet), 175th at Tumannyy in the North, 336th Guards Naval Infantry Brigade at Baltiysk (Baltic Fleet), and 810th at Sevastopol (Black Sea Fleet).


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: By the end of the Cold War, the Soviet Navy had over eighty landing ships, as well as two "Ivan Rogov"-class landing ships. The latter could transport one infantry battalion with 40 armoured vehicles and their landing craft. (One of the "Rogov" ships has since been retired.)


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: At 75 units, the Soviet Union had the world's largest inventory of combat air-cushion assault craft. In addition, many of the 2,500 vessels of the Soviet merchant fleet ("Morflot") could off-load weapons and supplies during amphibious landings.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: On November 18, 1990, on the eve of the Paris Summit where the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty and the Vienna Document on Confidence and Security-Building Measures (CSBMs) were signed, Soviet data were presented under the so-called initial data exchange. This showed a rather sudden emergence of three so-called coastal defence divisions (including the 3rd at Klaipėda in the Baltic Military District, the 126th in the Odessa Military District and seemingly the 77th Guards Motor Rifle Division with the Northern Fleet), along with three artillery brigades/regiments, subordinate to the Soviet Navy, which had previously been unknown as such to NATO.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: Much of the equipment, which was commonly understood to be treaty limited (TLE) was declared to be part of the naval infantry. The Soviet argument was that the CFE excluded all naval forces, including its permanently land-based components. The Soviet Government eventually became convinced that its position could not be maintained.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: A proclamation of the Soviet government on July 14, 1991, which was later adopted by its successor states, provided that all "treaty-limited equipment" (tanks, artillery and armoured vehicles) assigned to naval infantry or coastal defence forces, would count against the total treaty entitlement.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: In addition to the Landing Assault Troops of the Ground Forces similar units were also formed by the Soviet Naval Infantry with the main task to execute airborne landings (by parachute or by helicopters), take over and defend a beachhead for the amphibious landing of the main force. By 1989 these units were organized under their respective Fleet HQs as follows:


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: Red Banner Northern Fleet ("Краснознамённый Северный флот") - ZATO Severomorsk, Murmansk Oblast, RSFSR


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: Twice Red Banner Baltic Fleet ("Дважды Краснознамённый Балтийский флот") - Kaliningrad, Kaliningrad Oblast, RSFSS


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: Red Banner Black Sea Fleet ("Краснознамённый Черноморский флот") - Sevastopol, Crimean ASSR, Ukrainian SSR


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The Naval Infantry of the Russian Navy includes the 55th Naval Infantry Division of the Russian Pacific Fleet, the independent brigades of the Northern (61st Brigade at Sputnik, Murmansk Oblast) and Baltic Fleets and of the Caspian Military Flotilla, and the independent regiment of the Black Sea Fleet.