title: Aviator sunglasses

text: Aviator sunglasses are a style of sunglasses that were developed by a group of American firms. The original Bausch & Lomb design is now commercially marketed as Ray-Ban Aviators, although other manufacturers also produce aviator-style sunglasses.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: Aviator style sunglasses are intended to be worn under headgear and are characterised by dark, sometimes reflective lenses and thin monel, steel or titanium metal frames with double or triple bridge and bayonet earpieces or flexible cable temples that hook more securely behind the ears. The large lenses are not flat but slightly convex. The design attempts to cover the entire field of vision of the human eye and significantly reduce the amount of transmitted visible light and (near) infrared radiation and prevent (erythemal) ultraviolet radiation from entering the eye from any angle.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: For selecting sunglasses, the United States Federal Aviation Administration has published an aeromedical safety brochure for general aviation pilots, commercial pilots and physicians. Polarized and photochromic lenses are not recommended for use by pilots. The UK Civil Aviation Authority has also provided guidance on the use of sunglasses by pilots.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: The first aviator style sunglasses contracted by the US military in 1935 were the U.S. Army Air Corps D-1 Sunglasses made by American Optical. They have a conspicuous USAC engraving on the hinged bridge. The D-1 flying goggle assembly was standardized on 13 August 1935, and was actually a pair of sun glasses with a rigid frame and plastic insulated arms. The D-1 sunglasses were superseded by the more comfortable AN6531 flying sun glasses (comfort cable) in November 1941.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: In the second half of the 1930s and early 1940s, a group of American firms kept developing sunglasses. The military "flying sun glasses (comfort cable)" were standardized in November 1941. They were produced in huge quantities (several million pieces) for pilots and sailors. The lenses were made to a joint standard shared by the U.S. Army Air Corps and the U.S. Navy. As a result, the lens carried an "AN" (Army/Navy) specification number: the AN6531. The U.S. Government specified the shape of the lens and the color, which was initially a green tinted lens that transmitted 50% of incoming visible daylight. This AN6531 Type 1 lens proved insufficient to protect pilot's eyes from sun glare so this lens was superseded by the darker AN6531 Type 2 lens in rose smoke. Various contractors made the frames and ground the lenses. These included American Optical, Bausch & Lomb, The Chas. Fischer Spring Co., Willson Optical and Rochester Optical Co. Frame and hinge design varied slightly from contractor to contractor.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: Despite being designed for utility, these glasses had advanced properties: teardrop-shaped and convex lenses, plastic nose pads and a prominent brow bar and featured flexible cable temples. The nickel plated frame was made of a copper based alloy to prevent offsetting compasses. The "teardrop" shape lens of the AN 6531 was designed to accommodate Air Force pilots who were constantly looking down at their instrument panel while in flight, and influenced all future Aviator style lens shapes.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: The AN6531 Comfort Cable aviator sunglasses frame kept being issued by the U.S. military as No. MIL-G-6250 glasses after World War II with different lenses as Type F-2 (arctic) and Type G-2 aviator sunglasses but fitted with darker lenses until their substitute the Type HGU-4/P aviator sunglasses became available in the late 1950s.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: After World War II AN6531 Comfort Cable aviator sunglasses were available for civilians on the surplus market.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: Subsequently, civilian models and options appeared without a frontal brow bar and with plastic earhooks. Since everything military was in fashion in those years, these glasses became popular among the people and companies got their bearings on time and began to promote such glasses for civilian use in the 1940s and 1950s.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: In 1929, US Army Air Corps Colonel John A. Macready worked with Bausch & Lomb, a Rochester, New York-based medical equipment manufacturer, to create aviation sunglasses that would reduce the distraction for pilots caused by the intense blue and white hues of the sky. Specifically, MacCready was concerned about how pilots' goggles would fog up, greatly reducing visibility at high altitude. The prototype, created in 1936 and known as "Anti-Glare", had plastic frames and green lenses that could cut out the glare without obscuring vision. It went on sale to the public in 1937. Impact-resistant lenses were added in 1938.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: The sunglasses were redesigned with a metal frame in 1939 and patented by Bausch & Lomb as the Ray-Ban Aviator. According to the BBC, the glasses used "Kalichrome lenses designed to sharpen details and minimise haze by filtering out blue light, making them ideal for misty conditions." In 1936 Ray-Ban had been founded as a civilian division of Bausch & Lomb. This style of sunglasses is credited with being one of the first popularized style of sunglasses to be developed. In its military usage, the sunglasses replaced the outmoded flight goggles used previously, as they were lighter, thinner, and "more elegantly designed". Writing about the transition of aviators from military gear to a commercial product, Vanessa Brown wrote that, "The War was a ... revelation of the sheer might, scale, power, and horror of the modern world ... [which] necessitated a new kind of military demeanor and gave rise to new definitions of the heroic stance which was to have a profound influence on modern fashion." Eventually, the aviator sunglasses produced by Bausch & Lomb were trademarked as "Ray-Bans".


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: Aviators became a well-known style of sunglasses when US General Douglas MacArthur landed on a beach in the Philippines in World War II and newspaper photographers snapped several pictures of him in October 1944 wearing them that became a lasting image of the Second World War. Bausch & Lomb dedicated a line of sunglasses to him in 1987.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: The first advertisements for Ray-Ban Aviators stated they would provide "real scientific glare protection" and were sold as sporting equipment. At this time, they had not yet taken on their name of "aviators", the Second World War having not yet begun. During the 1950s, aviator sunglasses were a part of the cultural style, mimicking military style. In addition to popularity in the 1950s, aviators were popular in the 1970s and 1980s, being worn by public figures like Slash, Michael Jackson, George Michael, Tom Cruise, Freddie Mercury, Jeff Lynne, Roger Waters and Elvis Presley.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: Besides flexible cable temples and bayonet temples, non-military issued glasses often feature traditional skull temples.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: Besides the standard model there are several different Ray-Ban Aviator sunglasses variations designed as functional, technical and recreational sunglasses . The Ray-Ban Shooter variant was introduced in 1938 and the Ray-Ban Outdoorsman variant in 1939. These sunglasses both feature a large brow bar above the nose intended to keep sweat and debris from inhibiting the wearer's vision. The brow bar and temple end pieces of the Shooter and Outdoorsman variants have been covered through years with different materials. Aimed at the sports enthusiast and outdoorsman, The Ray-Ban Shooter variant incorporates a cigarette holder, a circular device located at the center of the nose bridge originally intended to free the sportsman's hands while taking aim. In 1953 Ray-Ban introduced G-15 tempered glass lenses. These neutral gray/green lenses transmit 15% of incoming visible light whilst providing 'true' color and contrast distribution.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: In 1958, American Optical created the Flight Goggle 58 according to the then-new U.S. Air Force Type HGU-4/P aviator sunglasses standard.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: Type HGU-4/P sunglasses feature semi-rectangular lenses with less lens surface area and are lighter compared to the preceding Type G-2 sunglasses.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: The HGU-4/P design frame allowed the visor to reliably clear the aviator's spectacles when a flight helmet is worn, and covers the full field of vision. The frame additionally features bayonet temples designed to slip under a flight helmet or other headgear and were more compatible with oxygen masks. They are commercially known as "Original Pilot Sunglass", and were issued by the U.S. military since 1959 to pilots shortly after the HGU4/P was officially recommended by military optometrists in November 1958.<ref name="HGU4/P"></ref> The HGU-4/P design frame is also issued to military personnel that require various corrective clear or other type of lenses and allows corrected vision through the full field of vision. Besides the military, Type HGU-4/P aviator sunglasses were also issued to and used by NASA astronauts.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: By 1982, Randolph Engineering had become the prime contractor for military-style Type HGU-4/P aviation flight glasses for the United States Department of Defense. They are commercially known as "Randolph Aviator" sunglasses.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: HGU-4/P aviation flight glasses are still built to the guidelines of the MIL-S-25948 military specification, a document detailing the manufacturing specifications. One of the many specifications is that the neutral grey lenses used in Type HGU-4/P aviator sunglasses must transmit between 12% to 18% of incoming visible daylight whilst providing 'true' color and contrast distribution.


title: Aviator sunglasses

text: The military HGU-4/P Aviator and the Modified HGU-4/P Apache spectacles intended for Apache attack helicopter aircrew are under regular review to determine their functionality.


title: Oromia

text: Oromia (Amharic: ) () is a regional state in Ethiopia and the homeland of the Oromo people. Oromia capital city is Addis Ababa (Oromo: Finfinne), however Adama serves as the meeting place of the regional government. Oromia is the largest region in Ethiopia.


title: Oromia

text: It is bordered by the Somali Region to the east; the Amhara Region, the Afar Region and the Benishangul-Gumuz Region to the north; Dire Dawa to the northeast; the South Sudanese state of Upper Nile, Gambela Region, South West Ethiopia Region, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region and Sidama Region to the west; the Eastern Province of Kenya to the south; as well as Addis Ababa as an enclave surrounded by a Special Zone in its centre and the Harari Region as an enclave surrounded by East Hararghe in its east.


title: Oromia

text: In August 2013, the Ethiopian Central Statistics Agency projected the 2022 population of Oromia as 35,467,001; making it the largest regional state by population. It is also the largest regional state covering Oromia is the world's 42nd most populous subnational entity, and the most populous subnational entity in Africa.


title: Oromia

text: The Oromo people are one of the oldest cushitic peoples inhabiting the Horn of Africa, as there is still no correct estimate of the history of their settlement in the region.An evidence is given that they are the womb from which most of the eastern Cushitic peoples emerged, such as the Somalis, Afaris, and the Saho in Eritrea and Sudan. Oromos make up the largest aboriginal people Horn of Africa, mainly Ethiopia until the 10th century. After the influx of Abyssinian people of Northern Ethiopia, who claim to have an Arabian and Jewish ancestry, Oromos and other native Ethiopian people such as Agaw, Kimant, Gafat, Ifates, etc. were gradually driven out of North-Central Ethiopia. These newly arriving South Arabian settlers who refer themselves as Habesha gradually expanded South-ward, intermarried with native people of Ethiopia and seized power around 1270, establishing the so called Solomonic Dynasty which ruled Ethiopia from 1270-1974. Despite their well-documented Arabian and Jewish origin, these newly arriving groups of Ethiopians often refer to aboriginal people of Central and Southern Ethiopia as immigrants as they say "Accuse Your Enemy Of What You Are Doing, As You Are Doing It To Create Confusion".


title: Oromia

text: The Oromo and their country Oromia (biyyi Oromiyaa) remained independent until the last quarter of the 19th century, when they lost their sovereignty. From 1881 to 1886, Emperor Menelik II conducted several unsuccessful invasion campaigns against their territory. The Arsi Oromo demonstrated fierce resistance against this Abyssinian conquest, putting up stiff opposition against an enemy equipped with modern European firearms. They were ultimately defeated in 1886.


title: Oromia

text: In the 1940s some Arsi Oromo together with people from Bale province joined the Harari Kulub movement, an affiliate of the Somali Youth League that opposed Amhara Christian domination of Hararghe. The Ethiopian government violently suppressed these ethno-religious movements. During the 1970s the Arsi formed alliances with Somalia.


title: Oromia

text: In 1967, the imperial regime of Haile Selassie I outlawed the Mecha and Tulama Self-Help Association (MTSHA), an Oromo social movement, and conducted mass arrests and executions of its members. The group's leader, Colonel General Tadesse Birru, who was a prominent military officer, was among those arrested. The actions by the regime sparked outrage among the Oromo community, ultimately leading to the formation of the Oromo Liberation Front in 1973. The Oromos perceived the rule of Emperor Haile Selassie as oppressive, as the Oromo language was banned from education and use in administration, and speakers were privately and publicly mocked. The Amhara culture dominated throughout the eras of military and monarchic rule.


title: Oromia

text: Both the imperial and the Derg government relocated numerous Amharas into southern Ethiopia, including the present day Oromia region, in order to alleviate drought in the north of the country. They also served in government administration, courts, church and even in school, where Oromo texts were eliminated and replaced by Amharic. Further disruption under the Derg regime came through the forced concentration and resettlement of peasant communities in fewer villages. The Abyssinian elites perceived the Oromo identity and languages as opposing the expansion of an Ethiopian national identity.


title: Oromia

text: In the early 1990s, the Ethiopian Democratic People's Republic began to lose its control over Ethiopia. The OLF failed to maintain strong alliances with the other two rebel groups at the time: the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) and the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF). In 1990, the TPLF created an umbrella organization for several rebel groups in Ethiopia, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). The EPRDF's Oromo subordinate, the Oromo People's Democratic Organization (OPDO) was seen as an attempted replacement for the OLF.


title: Oromia

text: On 28 May 1991, the EPRDF seized power and established a transitional government. The EPRDF and the OLF pledged to work together in the new government; however, they were largely unable to cooperate, as the OLF saw the OPDO as an EPRDF ploy to limit their influence. In 1992, the OLF announced that it was withdrawing from the transitional government because of "harassment and [the]assassinations of its members". In response, the EPRDF sent soldiers to destroy OLA camps. Despite initial victories against the EPRDF, the OLF were eventually overwhelmed by the EPRDF's superior numbers and weaponry, forcing OLA soldiers to use guerrilla warfare instead of traditional tactics. In the late 1990s, most of the OLF's leaders had escaped Ethiopia, and the land originally administered by the OLF had been seized by the Ethiopian government, now led by the EPRDF.


title: Oromia

text: Prior to the establishment of present-day Addis Ababa the location was called Finfinne in Oromo, a name which refers to the presence of hot springs. The area was previously inhabited by various Oromo clans.


title: Oromia

text: In 2000, Oromia's capital was moved from Addis Ababa to Adama. Because this move sparked considerable controversy and protests among Oromo students, the Oromo Peoples' Democratic Organization (OPDO), part of the ruling EPRDF coalition, on 10 June 2005, officially announced plans to move the regional capital back to Addis Ababa.


title: Oromia

text: Further protests sparked on 25 April 2014, against the Addis Ababa Master Plan, then resumed on 12 September 2015 and continued into 2016, when renewed protests broke out across Ethiopia, centering around the Oromia region. Dozens of protesters were killed in the first days of the protests and internet service was cut in many parts of the region. In 2019, the Irreecha festival was celebrated in Addis Ababa after 150 years of being banned.


title: Oromia

text: Oromia includes the former Arsi Province along with portions of the former Bale, Illubabor, Kaffa, Shewa and Sidamo provinces. Oromia shares a boundary with almost every region of Ethiopia except for the Tigray Region. These boundaries have been disputed in a number of cases, most notably between Oromia and the Somali Region. One attempt to resolve the dispute between the two regions was the October 2004 referendum held in about 420 kebeles in 12 districts across five zones of the Somali Region. According to the official results of the referendum, about 80% of the disputed areas have fallen under Oromia administration, though there were allegations of voting irregularities in many of them. The results led over the following weeks to minorities in these kebeles being pressured to leave. In Oromiya, estimates based on figures given by local district and kebele authorities suggest that 21,520 people have become internally displaced persons (IDPs) in border districts, namely Mieso, Doba, and Erer in the West Hararghe Zone and East Hararghe Zones. Federal authorities believe that this number may be overstated by as much as 11,000. In Doba, the Ministry of Federal Affairs put the number of IDPs at 6,000. There are also more than 2,500 displaced persons in Mieso. In addition, there were reports of people being displaced in the border area of Moyale and Borena zones due to this conflict.


title: Oromia

text: Towns in the region include Adama, Ambo, Asella, Badessa, Bale Robe, Bedele, Bishoftu, Begi, Bule Hora, Burayu, Chiro, Dembidolo, Fiche, Gimbi, Goba, Haramaya, Holeta, Jimma, Koye Feche, Metu, Negele Arsi, Nekemte, Sebeta, Shashamane and Waliso, among many others.


title: Oromia

text: At the time of the 2007 census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA), Oromia region had a total population of 26,993,933, consisting of 13,595,006 men and 13,398,927 women; urban inhabitants numbered 3,317,460 or 11.3% of the population. With an estimated area of , the region had an estimated population density of . For the entire region 5,590,530 households were counted, which resulted in an average for the region of 4.8 persons to a household, with urban households having on average 3.8 and rural households 5.0 people. The projected population for 2017 was 35,467,001.


title: Oromia

text: In the previous census, conducted in 1994, the region's population was reported to be 17,088,136; urban inhabitants number 621,210 or 14% of the population.


title: Oromia

text: According to the CSA, , 32% of the population had access to safe drinking water, of whom 23.7% were rural inhabitants and 91.03% were urban. Values for other reported common indicators of the standard of living for Oromia include the following: 19.9% of the inhabitants fall into the lowest wealth quintile; adult literacy for men is 61.5% and for women 29.5%; and the regional infant mortality rate is 76 infant deaths per 1,000 live births, which is about the same as the nationwide average of 77; at least half of these deaths occurred in the infants' first month of life.


title: Oromia

text: Oromo is written with Latin characters known as "Qubee", only formally adopted in 1991 after various other Latin-based orthographies had been used previously.


title: Oromia

text: Oromo is one of the official working languages of Ethiopia and is also the working language of several of the states within the Ethiopian federal system including Oromia, Harari and Dire Dawa regional states and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region. It is a language of primary education in Oromia, Harari and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region. It is used as an internet language for federal websites along with Tigrinya.


title: Oromia

text: There are more than 33.8% Oromo speakers in Ethiopia and it is considered the most widely spoken language in Ethiopia. It is also the most widely spoken Cushitic language and the fourth-most widely spoken language of Africa, after Arabic, Hausa and Swahili languages. Forms of Oromo are spoken as a first language by more than 35 million Oromo people in Ethiopia and by an additional half-million in parts of northern and eastern Kenya. It is also spoken by smaller numbers of emigrants in other African countries such as South Africa, Libya, Egypt and Sudan.


title: Oromia

text: Besides first language speakers, a number of members of other ethnicities who are in contact with the Oromo speak it as a second language. See, for example, Harari, Omotic-speaking Bambassi and the Nilo-Saharan-speaking Kwama in northwestern, eastern and south Oromia.


title: Oromia

text: Oromia is a major contributor to Ethiopia's main exports - gold, coffee, khat and cattle. Lega Dembi in Guji Zone, owned by MIDROC has exported more than 5000 kilograms of gold, followed by Tulu Kapi gold deposit in West Welega Zone. Awoday in East Hararghe Zone is the biggest market of khat exporting to Djibouti and Somalia. Oromia also has more abundant livestock than any other region of Ethiopia, including camels. It is also the largest producer of cereals and coffee.


title: Oromia

text: The CSA reported that, from 2004 to 2005, 115,083 tons of coffee were produced in Oromia, based on inspection records from the Ethiopian Coffee and Tea Authority. This represents 50.7% of the total production in Ethiopia. Farmers in the Region had an estimated total of 17,214,540 cattle (representing 44.4% of Ethiopia's total cattle), 6,905,370 sheep (39.6), 4,849,060 goats (37.4%), 959,710 horses (63.25%), 63,460 mules (43.1%), 278,440 asses (11.1%), 139,830 camels (30.6%), 11,637,070 poultry of all species (37.7%), and 2,513,790 beehives (57.73%).


title: Oromia

text: According to a March 2003 World Bank publication, the average rural household has 1.14 hectares of land compared to the national average of 1.01 hectares. 24% of the population work in non-farm related jobs compared to the national average of 25%.


title: Amur Oblast

text: Amur Oblast () is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast), located on the banks of the Amur and Zeya Rivers in the Russian Far East. The administrative center of the oblast, the city of Blagoveshchensk, is one of the oldest settlements in the Russian Far East, founded in 1856. It is a traditional center of trade and gold mining. The territory is accessed by two railways: the Trans-Siberian Railway and the Baikal–Amur Mainline. As of the 2010 Census, the oblast's population was 830,103.


title: Amur Oblast

text: Amur Krai () or Priamurye () were unofficial names for the Russian territories by the Amur River used in the late Russian Empire that approximately correspond to modern Amur Oblast.


title: Amur Oblast

text: Amur Oblast is located in the southeast of Russia, between Stanovoy Range in the north and the Amur River in the south, and borders with the Sakha Republic in the north, Khabarovsk Krai and the Jewish Autonomous Oblast in the east, Heilongjiang of China in the south, and with Zabaykalsky Krai in the west. The Stanovoy Range forms the dividing line between the Sakha Republic and Amur Oblast and spreads across the oblast's entire northern border. The Amur–Zeya and Zeya–Bureya Plains cover about 40% of the oblast's territory, but the rest is hilly. Several mountain ranges rise to the south of Stanovoy Range, including the Selemdzha Range parallel to it, as well as the Ezop, Yam-Alin and the Turan ranges stretching along the oblast's southeastern border with Khabarovsk Krai.


title: Amur Oblast

text: Many rivers flow through the oblast, especially in the north, accounting for 75% of the hydropower resources in the Russian Far East. Most of the oblast is in the Amur's drainage basin, although the rivers in the northwest drain into the Lena and the rivers in the northeast drain into the Uda. The longest rivers include the Amur, Bureya, Gilyuy, Nyukzha, Olyokma, Selemdzha, and Zeya. The Zeya begins in the mountains in the northeast, and its middle reaches are dammed to create the huge Zeya Reservoir, which sprawls over .


title: Amur Oblast

text: Climate is temperate continental, with cold, dry winters and hot, rainy summers. Average January temperatures vary from in the south to in the north. Average July temperatures are in the south and in the north. Annual precipitation is about .


title: Amur Oblast

text: Dwarf Siberian pine and alpine tundra grow at higher elevations and larch forests with small stands of flat-leaved birch and pine forests grow alongside the river plains. These larch and fir-spruce forests form the watershed of the Selemdzha River. The Bureya and Arkhara Rivers, southeast of the Selemdza, have the richest remaining forests in the oblast with Korean pine, Schisandra chinensis, Mongolian Oak, and other Manchurian flora. The Zeya–Bureya Plain, located between the Zeya, Amur, and Bureya Rivers, has the highest biodiversity in Amur Oblast. Much of this plain has been burned for agriculture, but large patches still remain. Japanese Daurian and Far Eastern western cranes nest here, as well as a host of other rare birds.


title: Amur Oblast

text: Amur Oblast has considerable reserves of many types of mineral resources; proven reserves are estimated to be worth US$400 billion. Among the most important are gold (the largest reserves in Russia), silver, titanium, molybdenum, tungsten, copper, and tin. There are also an estimated 70 billion tons of Black coal and lignite reserves. Probable iron deposits are estimated to be 3.8 billion tons. The Garin deposit is fully explored and known to contain 389 million tons of iron ore. Estimated reserves of the deposit are 1,293 million tons. The deposit's ore contains a low concentration of detrimental impurities; the ore contains 69.9% iron. Amur Oblast is also a promising source of titanium, with the Bolshoy Seyim deposit being the most important.


title: Amur Oblast

text: According to the "Bei Shi" (Dynastic History of Northern Dynasties) and the "Sui Shu" (Chronicles of the Sui Dynasty), both Chinese records, this area belonged originally to the territory one of the five semi-nomadic Shiwei, the Bo Shiwei tribes (). Their settlements were located on the north of the Yilehuli Mountains in the upper reaches of the Nen River, south of the Stanovoy Range, west of the Bureya and the Malyi Khingan ranges and reaching the Okhotsk Sea on the northeast. They brought tributary presents to the Tang court and disappeared at the dawn of the tenth century with the foundation of the Liao empire.


title: Amur Oblast

text: Later, in the 13th century, the middle-Amur and the Zeya River basin area became the homeland of the Daurs and (further south) the Duchers. The ancestors of the Daurs are thought to be closely related to the Khitans and the Mongols, while the Duchers may have been a branch of the Jurchen people, later known as the Manchus.


title: Amur Oblast

text: The area was conquered by the Manchus in 1639–1640, after defeating the Evenk Federation led by Bombogor. It was returned to the Qing Dynasty in the Treaty of Nerchinsk and annexed by Russia in 1858 by the Treaty of Aigun between Russia and Qing Dynasty.


title: Amur Oblast

text: The region received its first influx of Russian settlers in the mid-seventeenth century. They were looking for a more temperate climate as an escape from the north. After the Opium War, when the Chinese Empire was exposed to the outside world, Russian explorers once again moved to the region (mostly Cossacks and peasant farmers). The last influx of people arrived upon the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railroad.


title: Amur Oblast

text: In April 1920, the Far Eastern Republic, with its capital in Chita, was formed from Amur, Transbaikal, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, and Primorye regions as a democratic "buffer" state in order to avoid war with Japan. It existed until November 1922, when it joined the RSFSR. In January 1926, the territory of Amur Region was split between the East Siberian Krai and the Far Eastern Krai. The East Siberian Oblast was divided into Irkutsk Oblast and Chita Oblast in 1937 and the part of Amur within it became part of Chita Oblast. The Far Eastern Krai was divided into Khabarovsk Krai and Primorye Krai in 1938. The territory of Amur Oblast that was in Far Eastern Krai was included in Khabarovsk Krai.


title: Amur Oblast

text: In 1948, Amur Oblast was finally separated from Khabarovsk Krai and Chita Oblast to become an independent region of the RSFSR. Rapid economic growth based on gold production began at that time, and living standards improved with the arrival of young specialists. As the Far Eastern District expanded, the demand for services such as electric power and housing also increased, which stimulated a new round of construction projects. New cities were built, along with the Zeya Hydroelectric Power Plant (Zeiskaya GES), which still supplies electricity to most of the Far Eastern District. On 21 May 1998 Amur alongside Ivanovo, Kostroma, Voronezh Oblast, and the Mari El Republic signed a power-sharing agreement with the federal government, granting it autonomy. This agreement would be abolished on 18 March 2002.


title: Amur Oblast

text: The largest urban localities of the oblast are Blagoveshchensk, Belogorsk, Svobodny, Tynda, and Raychikhinsk.


title: Amur Oblast

text: According to the 2010 Census, ethnic Russians, at 775,590, made up 94.3% of the population. Other prominent ethnic groups include Ukrainians at 16,636 (2%), Belarusians at 4,162 (0.5%), and Tatars at 3,406 (0.4%). The rest of the residents identified with over 120 different ethnic groups, with each ethnic group making up less than 0.5% of the population. Additionally, 7,879 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group.


title: Amur Oblast

text: The economically active population amounts to 463,100 people (52.6% of total resident population.) Unemployment in 2006 was 5.5%.


title: Amur Oblast

text: 2009 – 1.67 | 2010 – 1.69 | 2011 – 1.70 | 2012 – 1.83 | 2013 – 1.84 | 2014 – 1.85 | 2015 – 1.84 | 2016 – 1.83(e)


title: Amur Oblast

text: According to a 2012 survey 25.1% of the population of Amur Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 5% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 1% is an Orthodox believer without belonging to any church or adheres to other (non-Russian) Orthodox churches, and 1% is an adherent of Islam. In addition, 41% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious", 24% is atheist, and 2.9% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.


title: Amur Oblast

text: Gross regional product per capita in 2007 was 131,039.60 rubles, while the national average was 198,817 rubles.


title: Amur Oblast

text: The industrial section contributes 18.3% to the total GRP. The most important industrial sector in 2007 was manufacturing, constituting 25.7% of the industrial output. The sector is dominated by food products and beverages, which constitute 13% of industrial output. Machine building includes shipbuilding machinery, lifting and transport vehicles, mining equipment, agricultural machinery, metal assemblies and goods, electrical appliances and electrical machines and tools. The largest engineering companies in the oblast include OAO Svobodny Railroad Car Repair Plant, OAO Blagoveshchensk October Revolution Ship Building Plant and OAO Bureya-Kran.


title: Amur Oblast

text: Mining and quarrying amounted to 19.9% of industrial output in 2007. Amur Oblast ranks sixth in Russia for gold mining, and has the largest gold reserves in the country. The largest gold mine in the region is Pioneer, part of Petropavlovsk PLC who also own the Albyn, Malomir and Pokrovskiy mines in the region. There is a large site of uranium mining and processing facilities in Oktyabrsky, near the Russia–China border. There are plans to develop other mineral deposits as well, such as titanium, iron, copper, nickel, apatite, etc. Total coal production amounts to 3,398 tons. As of 2007, four coal deposits are being operated by the company OOO Amur Coal, and two more have been explored. In total, the oblast is estimated to have over 90 deposits of lignite and black coal, with overall reserves of 70 billion tons. In addition, fuel extraction amounted to 2.9% of industrial output.


title: Amur Oblast

text: Amur Oblast enjoys an energy surplus: its energy consumption in 2007 was 6.9 TWh, while production was 9.3 TWh. Electricity output in 2007 was 9.9 TWh. The most important electricity producer is the Zeyskaya Hydroelectric Power Station with an installed capacity of 1,330 MW and a yearly output of 4.91 TWh. The station is owned by RusHydro. The company also owns the 2,010 MW Bureyskaya Hydroelectric Power Station, opened in 2009. Its annual output is 7.1 TWh.


title: Amur Oblast

text: The Amur Region is the primary producer of soybean in Russia. By 1940, 65 thousand hectares of land in Amur had been cultivated with soybeans, and by 1972 soybean made up 592 thousand hectares of land in Amur, compared to 650 thousand hectares of soybean crops in the whole of the USSR. During the Soviet period, this made up a significant proportion of the economy of Far Eastern Russia. By 2019, the Amur Region's share of Russian soybean production had declined to 28 percent due to increased cultivation of soybean in other regions, though it still remains Russia's largest soybean producer. The region in 2019 produced approximately 1 million tonnes of soybean, many of which are exported to neighboring China. While in the past the harvested soybean was shipped west, in recent years due to increased Chinese demands multiple soybean oil plants have opened in the region. In 2019, Chinese companies owned or leased some 100 thousand hectares out of the 1.3 million hectares of farmland.


title: Amur Oblast

text: The oblast's main foreign exports are raw timber (1,172,900 cubic meters going to China, North Korea, Japan, Kazakhstan and Ukraine), metal goods (68,300 tons to China and Kazakhstan), and machinery, equipment and transport (12,300 tons to China, Japan, South Korea, Kazakhstan and Ukraine.) Main foreign imports are food and beverages from China, Kazakshtan, Uzbekistan and Philippines; textiles and footwear from China; and machinery and equipment from Ukraine and Japan.


title: Amur Oblast

text: In July 2010, Prime Minister Vladimir Putin announced that the area would be the site of a new Vostochny Cosmodrome ("Eastern Spaceport"), to reduce Russian dependence on the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. The first rocket launch from the site took place on 28 April 2016.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Padmasambhava ("Born from a Lotus"), also known as Guru Rinpoche (Precious Guru) and the Lotus from Oḍḍiyāna, was a tantric Buddhist Vajra master from India who may have taught Vajrayana in Tibet (circa 8th – 9th centuries). According to some early Tibetan sources like the "Testament of Ba", he came to Tibet in the 8th century and helped construct Samye Monastery, the first Buddhist monastery in Tibet. However, little is known about the actual historical figure other than his ties to Vajrayana and Indian Buddhism.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Padmasambhava later came to be viewed as a central figure in the transmission of Buddhism to Tibet. Starting from around the 12th century, hagiographies concerning Padmasambhava were written. These works expanded the profile and activities of Padmasambhava, now seen as taming all the Tibetan spirits and gods, and concealing various secret texts ("terma") for future tertöns. Nyangral Nyima Özer (1124–1192) was the author of the "Zangling-ma" (Jeweled Rosary), the earliest biography of Padmasambhava. He has been called "one of the main architects of the Padmasambhava mythos – who first linked Padmasambhava to the Great Perfection in a high-profile manner."


title: Padmasambhava

text: In modern Tibetan Buddhism, Padmasambhava is considered to be a Buddha that was foretold by Buddha Shakyamuni. According to traditional hagiographies, his students include the great female masters Yeshe Tsogyal and Mandarava. The contemporary Nyingma school considers Padmasambhava to be a founding figure. The Nyingma school also traditionally holds that its Dzogchen lineage has its origins in Garab Dorje through a direct transmission to Padmasambhava.


title: Padmasambhava

text: In Tibetan Buddhism, the teachings of Padmasambava are said to include an oral lineage ("kama"), and a lineage of the hidden treasure texts ("termas"). Tibetan Buddhism holds that Padmasambhava's termas are discovered by fortunate beings and tertöns (treasure finders) when conditions are ripe for their reception. Padmasambhava is said to appear to tertöns in visionary encounters, and his form is visualized during guru yoga practice, particularly in the Nyingma school. Padmasambhava is widely venerated by Buddhists in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, the Himalayan states of India, and in countries around the world.


title: Padmasambhava

text: According to Lewis Doney, while his historical authenticity was questioned by earlier Tibetologists, it is now "cautiously accepted".


title: Padmasambhava

text: One of the earliest chronicle sources for Padmasambhava as a historical figure is the "Testament of Ba" ("Dba' bzhed", c. 9th–12th centuries), which records the founding of Samye Monastery under the reign of King Trisong Detsen (r. 755–797/804). Other early manuscripts from Dunhuang also mention a tantric master associated with kilaya rituals named Padmasambhava who tames demons, though they do not associate this figure with Trisong Detsen.


title: Padmasambhava

text: According to the "Testament of Ba", Trisong Detsen had invited the Buddhist abbot and philosopher Śāntarakṣita (725–788) to Tibet to propagate Buddhism and help found the first Buddhist monastery at Samye ('The Inconceivable'). However, certain events like the flooding of a Buddhist temple and lightning striking the royal palace had caused some at the Tibetan court to believe that the local gods were angry.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Śāntarakṣita was sent back to Nepal, but was then asked to return after the anti-Buddhist sentiments had subsided. On his return, Śāntarakṣita brought Padmasambhava who was an Indian tantric adept from Oddiyana, in present-day Swat Valley, Pakistan. Padmasambhava's task was to tame the local spirits and impress the Tibetans with his magical and ritual powers. The Tibetan sources then explain how Padmasambhava identified the local gods and spirits, called them out and threatened them with his powers. After they had been tamed, the construction of Samye went ahead. Padmasambhava was also said to have taught various forms of tantric Buddhist yoga.


title: Padmasambhava

text: When the royal court began to suspect that Padmasambhava wanted to seize power, he was asked to leave by the king. The Testament of Ba also mentions other miracles by Padmasambhava, mostly associated with the taming of demons and spirits as well as longevity rituals and water magic.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Evidence shows that Padmasambhava's tantric teachings were being taught in Tibet during the 10th century. Recent evidence suggests that Padmasambhava already figured in spiritual hagiography and ritual, and was already seen as the enlightened source of tantric scriptures up to 200 years before Nyangrel Nyima Özer (1136–1204), the primary source of the traditional hagiography of Padmasambhava.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Lewis Doney notes that while numerous texts are associated with Padmasambhava, the most likely of these attributions are the "Man ngag lta ba'i phreng ba" ("The Garland of Views")"," a commentary on the 13th chapter of the "Guhyagarbha tantra" and the "Thabs zhags padma 'phreng" ("A Noble Noose of Methods, The Lotus Garland")"," an exposition of Mahayoga. The former work is mentioned in the work of Nubchen Sangye Yeshe (c. 9-10th centuries) and attributed to Padmasambhava.


title: Padmasambhava

text: While in the eleventh and twelfth centuries there were several parallel narratives of important founding figures like Padmasambhava, Vimalamitra, Songtsän Gampo, and Vairotsana, by the end of the 12th century, the Padmasambhava narrative grew to dominate the others, becoming the most influential legend of the introduction of Buddhism to Tibet.


title: Padmasambhava

text: The first full biography of Padmasambhava is a terma (treasure text) said to have been revealed by Nyangrel Nyima Özer, abbot of Mawochok Monastery. This biography, ""The Copper Palace" (bka' thang zangs gling ma)," was very influential on the Padmasambhava hagiographical tradition. The narrative was also incorporated into Nyima Özer's history of Buddhism, the ""Flower Nectar: The Essence of Honey" (chos 'byung me tog snying po sbrang rtsi'i bcud)".


title: Padmasambhava

text: The tertön Guru Chöwang (1212–1270) was the next major contributor to the Padmasambhava tradition, and may have been the first full life-story biographer of Yeshe Tsogyal.


title: Padmasambhava

text: The basic narrative of "The Copper Palace" continued to be expanded and edited by Tibetans. In the 14th century, the Padmasambhava hagiography was further expanded and re-envisioned through the efforts of the Orgyen Lingpa (1323 – c. 1360). It is in the works of Orgyen Lingpa, particularly his "Padma bka' thang" (Lotus Testament, 1352), that the "11 deeds" of Padmasambhava first appear in full. The "Lotus Testament" is a very extensive biography of Padmasambhava, which begins with his ordination under Ananda and contains numerous references to Padmasambhava as a "second Buddha."


title: Padmasambhava

text: According to Khenchen Palden Sherab, there are traditionally said to be nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine biographies of Padmasambhava. They are categorized in three ways: Those relating to Padmasambhava's Dharmakaya buddhahood, those accounts of his Sambhogakaya nature, and those chronicles of his Nirmanakaya activities.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Hagiographies of Padmasambhava such as "The Copper Palace," depict Padmasambhava being born as an eight-year-old child appearing in a lotus blossom floating in Lake Dhanakosha surrounded by a host of dakinis, in the kingdom of Oddiyana.


title: Padmasambhava

text: However there are other birth stories as well, another common one states that he was born from the womb of Queen Jalendra, the wife of king Sakra of Oddiyana and received the name Dorje Duddul (Vajra Demon Subjugator) because of the auspicious marks on his body were identified as those of a demon tamer.


title: Padmasambhava

text: In "The Copper Palace," King Indrabhuti of Oddiyana is searching for a wish fulfilling jewel and finds Padmasambhava, who is said to be an incarnation of Buddha Amitabha. The king adopts him as his own son and Padmasambhava is enthroned as the Lotus King ("Pema Gyalpo"). However, Padmasambhava kills one of his ministers with his khaṭvāṅga staff and is exiled from the kingdom, which allows him to live as a mahasiddha and practice tantra in charnel grounds throughout India.


title: Padmasambhava

text: In Himachal Pradesh, India at Rewalsar Lake, known as Tso Pema in Tibetan, Padmasambhava secretly gave tantric teachings to princess Mandarava, the local king's daughter. The king found out and tried to burn both him and his daughter, but it is said that when the smoke cleared they were still alive and in meditation, centered in a lotus arising from a lake. Greatly astonished by this miracle, the king offered Padmasambhava both his kingdom and Mandarava.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Padmasambhava is then said to have returned home with Mandarava and together they converted the kingdom to Vajrayana Buddhism.


title: Padmasambhava

text: They are also said to have travelled together to the Maratika Cave in Nepal to practice long life rituals of Amitāyus. According to Tibetan Buddhist legends of the local Monpa tribe, Chumi Gyatse Falls, also known as the '108 waterfalls' got created after a mythical showdown between Guru Padmasambhava and a high priest of the Bonpa sect that ruled supreme in Tibet and surrounding areas including Arunachal Pradesh in the pre-Buddhist times. The waterfall was formed when Guru Padmasambhava flung his rosary against a rock and 108 streams gushed out. Chumi Gyatse waterfall is revered and holy for the Monpas, the Tibetan Buddhists.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Padmasambhava hagiographies also discuss the activities of Padmasambhāva in Tibet, beginning with the invitation by King Trisong Detsen to help in the founding of Samye. Padmasambhava is depicted as a great tantric adept who tames the spirits and demons of Tibet and turns them into guardians for the Buddha's Dharma (specifically, the deity Pe har is made the protector of Samye). He is also said to have spread Vajrayana Buddhism to the people of Tibet, and specifically introduced its practice of Tantra.


title: Padmasambhava

text: The subjection of subduing deities and demons is a recurrent theme in Buddhist literature, as noted also in Vajrapani and Mahesvara and Steven Heine's "Opening a Mountain".


title: Padmasambhava

text: Because of his role in the founding of Samye monastery, the first monastery in Tibet, Padmasambhava is regarded as the founder of the Nyingma school ("Ancients") of Tibetan Buddhism. Padmasambhava's activities in the Tibet include the practice of tantric rituals to increase the life of the king as well as initiating king Trisong Detsen into tantric rites.


title: Padmasambhava

text: The various biographies also discuss stories of Padmasambhava's main Tibetan consort, princess Yeshe Tsogyal ("Knowledge Lake Empress"), who became his student while living in the court of Trisong Deutsen. She was among Padmasambhava's three special students (along with the King, and Namkhai Nyingpo) and is widely revered in Tibet as the "Mother of Buddhism". Yeshe Tsogyal became a great master with many disciples and is widely considered to be a female Buddha.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Padmasambhava hid numerous termas in Tibet for later discovery with her aid, while she compiled and elicited Padmasambhava's teachings through the posing of questions, and then reached Buddhahood in her lifetime. Many thangkas and paintings depict Padmasambhava with consorts at each side, Mandarava on his right and Yeshe Tsogyal on his left.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Many of the Nyingma school's terma texts are said to have originated from the activities of Padmasambhava and his students. These hidden treasure texts are believed to be discovered and disseminated when conditions are ripe for their reception. The Nyingma school traces its lineage of Dzogchen teachings to Garab Dorje through Padmasambhava's termas.


title: Padmasambhava

text: In "The Copper Palace," after the death of Trisong Detsen, Padmasambhava is said to have treveled to Lanka in order to convert its blood thirsty raksasa demons to the Dharma. His parting words of advice advocates for the worship of Avalokiteshvara.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Bhutan has many important pilgrimage places associated with Padmasambhava. The most famous is Paro Taktsang or "Tiger's Nest" monastery which is built on a sheer cliff wall about 900m above the floor of Paro valley. It was built around the "Taktsang Senge Samdup (stag tshang seng ge bsam grub) cave" where Padmasambhava is said to have meditated.


title: Padmasambhava

text: He is said to have flown there from Tibet on the back of Yeshe Tsogyal, whom he transformed into a flying tigress for the purpose of the trip. Later he travelled to Bumthang district to subdue a powerful deity offended by a local king. According to legend, Padmasambhava's body imprint can be found in the wall of a cave at nearby Kurje Lhakhang temple.


title: Padmasambhava

text: The eight manifestations are also seen as Padmasambhava's biography that spans 1500 years. As Khenchen Palden Sherab Rinpoche states,


title: Padmasambhava

text: In accord, Rigpa Shedra also states the eight principal forms were assumed by Guru Rinpoche at different points in his life. Padmasambhava's eight manifestations, or forms (Tib. "Guru Tsen Gye"), represent different aspects of his being as needed, such as wrathful or peaceful for example.


title: Padmasambhava

text: The Eight Manifestations of Padmasambhava belong to the tradition of Terma, the Revealed Treasures (Tib.: ter ma), and are described and enumerated as follows:


title: Padmasambhava

text: Padmasambhava's various Sanskrit names are preserved in mantras such as those found in the "Yang gsang rig 'dzin youngs rdzogs kyi blama guru mtshan brgyad bye brag du sgrub pa ye shes bdud rtsi'i sbrang char zhe bya ba".


title: Padmasambhava

text: Padmasambhava has one face and two hands. He is wrathful and smiling. He blazes magnificently with the splendour of the major and minor marks. His two eyes are wide open in a piercing gaze. He has the youthful appearance of an eight-year-old child. His complexion is white with a tinge of red. He is seated with his two feet in the royal posture.


title: Padmasambhava

text: On his head he wears a five-petalled lotus hat, which has three points symbolizing the three kayas, five colours symbolizing the five kayas, the sun and moon symbolizing skillful means and wisdom, a vajra top to symbolize unshakable samadhi, and a vulture's feather to represent the realization of the highest view.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Padmasambhava wears a white vajra undergarment. On top of this, in layers, a red robe, a dark blue mantrayana tunic, a red monastic shawl decorated with a golden flower pattern, and a maroon cloak of silk brocade. Also, he wears a silk cloak, Dharma robes and gown. He is wearing the dark blue gown of a mantra practitioner, the red and yellow shawl of a monk, the maroon cloak of a king, and the red robe and secret white garments of a bodhisattva.


title: Padmasambhava

text: In his right hand, he holds a five-pronged vajra at his heart. His left hand rests in the gesture of equanimity, In his left hand he holds a skull-cup brimming with nectar, containing the vase of longevity that is also filled with the nectar of deathless wisdom and ornamented on top by a wish-fulfilling tree.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Cradled in his left arm he holds the three-pointed khatvanga (trident) symbolizing the Princess consort Mandarava, one of his two main consorts. who arouses the wisdom of bliss and emptiness, concealed as the three-pointed khatvanga. Other sources say that the khatvanga represents the Lady Yeshe Tsogyal, his primary consort and main disciple. Its three points represent the essence, nature and compassionate energy (ngowo, rangshyin and tukjé). Below these three prongs are three severed heads, dry, fresh and rotten, symbolizing the dharmakaya, sambhogakaya and nirmanakaya. Nine iron rings adorning the prongs represent the nine yanas. Five-coloured strips of silk symbolize the five wisdoms The khatvanga is also adorned with locks of hair from dead and living mamos and dakinis, as a sign that the Master subjugated them all when he practised austerities in the Eight Great Charnel Grounds.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Around him within a lattice of five-coloured light, appear the eight vidyadharas of India, the twenty-five disciples of Tibet, the deities of the three roots, and an ocean of oath-bound protectors


title: Padmasambhava

text: From the earliest sources to today, Padmasambhava has remained closely associated with the Kila ("phurba") dagger and also with the deity Vajrakilaya (a meditation deity based on the kila).


title: Padmasambhava

text: Like most Sanskrit mantras in Tibet, the Tibetan pronunciation demonstrates dialectic variation and is generally "Om Ah Hung Benza Guru Pema Siddhi Hung".


title: Padmasambhava

text: In the Tibetan Buddhist traditions, particularly in Nyingma, the Vajra Guru mantra is held to be a powerful mantra engendering communion with the Three Vajras of Padmasambhava's mindstream and by his grace, all enlightened beings. The 14th century tertön Karma Lingpa wrote a famous commentary on the mantra.


title: Padmasambhava

text: The Seven Line Prayer to Padmasambhava (Guru Rinpoche) is a famous prayer that is recited by many Tibetans daily and is said to contain the most sacred and important teachings of Dzogchen. It is as follows:


title: Padmasambhava

text: bahuḍākībhirāvṛta । tavaivānusarāmi । āyāhyadhiṣṭhānārtham । guru padma siddhi hūm ॥ Jamgon Ju Mipham Gyatso composed a famous commentary to the Seven Line Prayer called "White Lotus". It explains the meaning of the prayer in five levels of meaning intended to catalyze a process of realization. These hidden teachings are described as ripening and deepening, in time, with study and with contemplation. There is also a shorter commentary by Tulku Thondup.


title: Padmasambhava

text: The life of Padmasambhava is widely depicted in the Cham dances which are masked and costumed dances associated with religious festivals in the Tibetan Buddhist world. In Bhutan, the dances are performed during the annual religious festivals or tshechu.


title: Padmasambhava

text: There are numerous Terma cycles which are believed to contain teachings of Padmasambhava. According to Tibetan tradition, the "Bardo Thodol" (commonly referred to as the Tibetan Book of the Dead) was among these hidden treasures, subsequently discovered by a Tibetan tertön, Karma Lingpa (1326–1386).


title: Padmasambhava

text: Tantric cycles related to Padmasambhava are not just practiced by the Nyingma, they even gave rise to a new offshoot of Bön which emerged in the 14th century called the New Bön. Prominent figures of the Sarma (new translation) schools such as the Karmapas and Sakya lineage heads have practiced these cycles and taught them. Some of the greatest scholars who revealed teachings related to Padmasambhava have been from the Kagyu or Sakya lineages. The hidden lake temple of the Dalai Lamas behind the Potala Palace, called Lukhang, is dedicated to Dzogchen teachings and has murals depicting the eight manifestations of Padmasambhava.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Many of the students gathered around Padmasambhāva became advanced Vajrayana tantric practitioners, and became enlightened. They also founded and propagated the Nyingma school. The most prominent of these include Padmasambhāva's five main female consorts, often referred to as wisdom dakinis, and his twenty five main students along with king Trisong Detsen.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Padmasambhāva had five main female tantric consorts, beginning in India before his time in Tibet and then in Tibet as well. When seen from an outer, or perhaps even historical or mythological perspective, these five women from across South Asia were known as the "Five Consorts." That the women come from very different geographic regions is understood as a mandala, a support for Padmasambhāva in spreading the dharma throughout the region.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Yet, when understood from a more inner tantric perspective, these same women are understood not as ordinary women but as wisdom dakinis. From this point of view, they are known as the "Five Wisdom Dakinis" (Wylie: "Ye-shes mKha-'gro lnga"). Each of these consorts is believed to be an emanation of the tantric yidam, Vajravārāhī. As one author writes of these relationships:


title: Padmasambhava

text: While there are very few sources on the lives of Kalasiddhi, Sakya Devi, and Tashi Kyedren, there are extant biographies of both Yeshe Tsogyal and Mandarava that have been translated into English and other western languages.


title: Padmasambhava

text: Padmasambhava has twenty five main students () in Tibet during the Nyingma's school's Early Translation period. These students are also called the "Twenty-five King and subjects" and "The King and 25" of Chimphu.


title: Padmasambhava

text: In addition to Yeshe Tsogyal, 15 other women practitioners became accomplished Nyingma masters during this Early Translation period of the Nyingma school:


title: Ten Summoner's Tales

text: Ten Summoner's Tales is the fourth solo studio album by English rock musician Sting. The title is a combined pun of his family name, Sumner, and a character in Geoffrey Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales", the summoner. Released in 1993, it explores themes of love and morality in a noticeably upbeat mood compared to his previous release, the introspective "The Soul Cages" released in 1991 after the loss of both his parents in the 1980s.


title: Ten Summoner's Tales

text: This album contains two US hits; "If I Ever Lose My Faith in You" reached No. 17 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 while "Fields of Gold" got to No. 23.


title: Ten Summoner's Tales

text: "Ten Summoner's Tales" was shortlisted for the 1993 Mercury Prize. In 1994, it was nominated for six Grammy awards including Album of the Year (losing to Whitney Houston‘s "The Bodyguard"), winning Best Engineered Album, Non-Classical, Best Male Pop Vocal Performance ("If I Ever Lose My Faith in You") and Best Long Form Music Video, while "If I Ever Lose My Faith in You" was also nominated for Record and Song of the Year.


title: Ten Summoner's Tales

text: A laser disc and VHS of the album were released, containing live performances of all songs on the album at Lake House.


title: Ten Summoner's Tales

text: A promotional disc was made where Sting discusses some of the songs on the album. There was also an unofficial live album produced during the "Ten Summoner's Tales" era, entitled "Meadowlands of Gold", which contained 13 tracks performed at the Meadowlands Arena on February 26, 1994 in East Rutherford, New Jersey. The songs consisted of tracks from the album, and a few songs by The Police plus a cover of the Beatles' "A Day in the Life".


title: Ten Summoner's Tales

text: The album was recorded at Lake House, Wiltshire, mixed at The Town House, London and mastered at Masterdisk, New York. The cover of the album was photographed at Wardour Old Castle in Wiltshire, featuring Hrímnir, an Icelandic horse Sting owned for a period.


title: Ten Summoner's Tales

text: A long form 'performance' video of the entire album was filmed at Sting's Lake House property. The audio used is partly from the album, but partly recorded as played by the band during the filming. This film was released in conjunction with the album. The video went on to win a Grammy Award for Best Long Form Video in 1994, and was directed by Doug Nichol and produced by Julie Fong.


title: Ten Summoner's Tales

text: On 11 August 1994, a compact disc of "Ten Summoner's Tales" became the first item ever securely purchased over the Internet, for $12.48 plus shipping. There was also an interview disc released for the album, in which Sting talks about all tracks on the album.


title: Ten Summoner's Tales

text: The second track on the album, "Love Is Stronger Than Justice (The Munificent Seven)", was named as a homage to the films "Seven Samurai" and "The Magnificent Seven". According to the interview disc, the idea came to Sting when he wanted to write a song in the 7/4 time signature. The song "Seven Days" is also noted for the sophisticated playing of drummer Vinnie Colaiuta in the 5/4 time signature.


title: Ten Summoner's Tales

text: The international-exclusive track "Everybody Laughed But You" was excluded from Canadian and American pressings of the album. However, US singles from the album included the song, as well as a version of the song with different lyrics titled "January Stars".


title: Ten Summoner's Tales

text: The singles for "Ten Summoner's Tales" also give credit to Fernandes Guitars, as Dominic Miller played a Fernandes P-Project Acoustic Electric Nylon guitar throughout the album.


title: Ten Summoner's Tales

text: "Ten Summoner's Tales" was remastered and re-released in 1998. The new CD issue included a bonus video track of "If I Ever Lose My Faith in You". It also featured the song "Everybody Laughed But You", which was excluded from the original 1993 release in the US and Canada. The song did appear on the original release in the UK, Europe, Japan and other territories, and on the single "If I Ever Lose My Faith in You". The instrumental track for "Everybody Laughed But You" was also used with an alternate lyric and released as "January Stars" on the singles "Seven Days" and "If I Ever Lose My Faith in You".


title: Ten Summoner's Tales

text: The backing track of "Shape of My Heart" was used, in a slightly altered way, by rapper Nas on his song "The Message" from his 1996 album "It Was Written". In the later 1990s and the 2000s, it became a popular sample in R&B and hip hop songs, possibly inspired by Nas' usage. It has since been sampled or interpolated over 40 times, in the following list of songs:


title: Ten Summoner's Tales

text: "Shape Of My Heart" is also used as the backing music for a popular card manipulation illusion by Canadian magician and illusionist Shawn Farquhar.


title: Ten Summoner's Tales

text: A different version of "It's Probably Me", featuring Eric Clapton, was featured in the opening titles of "Lethal Weapon 3". (This version was available as a single.) The song "Shape of My Heart" was featured in the end credits of the 1994 French thriller "", replacing Éric Serra's "The Experience of Love" (a track that Serra eventually used in his 1995 soundtrack for the James Bond film "GoldenEye"). In 2011, "Shape of My Heart" was used to conclude the final episode of the seventh series of British television drama "Hustle".


title: AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills

text: Part of the AFI 100 Years… series, AFI's 100 Years…100 Thrills is a list of the top 100 most exciting movies in American cinema. The list was unveiled by the American Film Institute on June 12, 2001, during a CBS special hosted by Harrison Ford.


title: San Diego Loyal SC

text: San Diego Loyal Soccer Club is an American professional soccer team based in San Diego, California. The team was founded by Warren Smith and Landon Donovan. San Diego Loyal made its debut in 2020 as an expansion team in the USL Championship.


title: San Diego Loyal SC

text: On June 20, 2019, San Diego was awarded an expansion team in the USL Championship to debut in 2020 or 2021. Warren Smith, one of the co-founders of Sacramento Republic FC, was named the President of the new club. Former USMNT, LA Galaxy, and San Jose Earthquakes player Landon Donovan, was named the Executive Vice President of Soccer Operations. He was named as the club's first manager on November 14. The team's name and crest were developed through fan engagement to reflect the interests of the city. On March 7, 2020, the team played their first competitive match, a 1–1 draw against Las Vegas Lights FC at their home stadium, Torero Stadium.


title: San Diego Loyal SC

text: The Loyal forfeited a league match against LA Galaxy II on September 25, 2020 following an alleged use of a racial slur by Omar Ontiveros against Elijah Martin, one of the Loyal's Black players. The match had been played to a 1–1 draw and Ontiveros was later suspended for seven matches by the USL Championship. A week later, the team forfeited another match against Phoenix Rising FC by walking out after halftime following the alleged use of a homophobic slur against Collin Martin, an openly gay player, by Junior Flemmings. As a result of the two forfeits, the Loyal failed to qualify for the USL playoffs.


title: San Diego Loyal SC

text: The team signed a three-year letter of commitment to play at Torero Stadium, with a series of one-year options for the following four years. The team will initially focus on building a fan base and brand at Torero, noting that the stadium could be expanded to a capacity of 8,000. Moreover, the team noted the possibility of sharing the prospective San Diego State University Snapdragon Stadium, at a 35,000 capacity, as a potential site for future years if they can cultivate the fan support.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The Nabataean Kingdom (Nabataean Aramaic: 𐢕𐢃𐢋𐢈 "Nabāṭū"), also named Nabatea (), was a political state of the Arab Nabataeans during classical antiquity.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The Nabataean Kingdom controlled many of the trade routes of the region, amassing large wealth and drawing the envy of its neighbors. It stretched south along the Red Sea coast into the Hejaz, up as far north as Damascus, which it controlled for a short period (85–71 BC).


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: Nabataea remained an independent political entity from the mid-3rd century BC until it was annexed in AD 106 by the Roman Empire, which renamed it Arabia Petraea.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The Nabataeans were one among several nomadic Bedouin tribes that roamed the Arabian Desert and moved with their herds to wherever they could find pasture and water. They became familiar with their area as seasons passed, and they struggled to survive during bad years when seasonal rainfall diminished. Although the Nabataeans were initially embedded in Aramaic culture, theories about them having Aramean roots are rejected by modern scholars. Instead, archaeological, religious and linguistic evidence confirm that they are a northern Arabian tribe.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The precise origin of the specific tribe of Arab nomads remains uncertain. One hypothesis locates their original homeland in today's Yemen, in the southwest of the Arabian peninsula, but their deities, language and script share nothing with those of southern Arabia. Another hypothesis argues that they came from the eastern coast of the peninsula.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The suggestion that they came from the Hejaz area is considered to be more convincing, as they share many deities with the ancient people there; "nbtw", the root consonant of the tribe's name, is found in the early Semitic languages of Hejaz.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: Similarities between late Nabataean Arabic dialect and the ones found in Mesopotamia during the Neo-Assyrian period, as well as a group with the name of "Nabatu" being listed by the Assyrians as one of several rebellious Arab tribes in the region, suggests a connection between the two.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The Nabataeans might have originated from there and migrated west between the 6th and 4th centuries BC into northwestern Arabia and much of what is now modern-day Jordan. Nabataeans have been falsely associated with other groups of people. A people called the "Nabaiti", who were defeated by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, were associated by some with the Nabataeans because of the temptation to link their similar names. Another misconception is their identification with the Nebaioth of the Hebrew Bible, the descendants of Ishmael, Abraham's son.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: Unlike the rest of the Arabian tribes, the Nabataeans later emerged as vital players in the region during their times of prosperity. However, their influence then faded, and the Nabataeans were forgotten.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The literate Nabataeans left no lengthy historical texts. However, thousands of inscriptions have been found in their settlements, including graffiti and on minted coins. The Nabataeans appear in historical records from the fourth century BC, although there seems to be evidence of their existence before that time. Aramaic ostraca finds indicate that the Achaemenid province Idumaea must have been established before 363 B.C. after the failed revolt of Hakor of Egypt and Evagoras I of Salamis against the Persians. The Qedarites joined the failed revolt, and consequently lost significant territory and their privileged position in the frankincense trade, and were presumably replaced by the Nabataeans. It has been argued that the Persians lost interest in the former territory of the Edomite Kingdom after 400 BC, allowing the Nabataeans to gain prominence in that area. All of these changes would have allowed Nabataeans to control the frankincense trade from Dedan to Gaza.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The first historical reference to the Nabataeans is by Greek historian Diodorus Siculus who lived around 30 BC. Diodorus refers accounts made 300 years earlier by Hieronymus of Cardia, one of Alexander the Great's generals, who had a first-hand encounter with the Nabataeans. Diodorus relates how the Nabataeans survived in a waterless desert and managed to defeat their enemies by hiding in the desert until the latter surrendered for lack of water. The Nabataeans dug cisterns that were covered and marked by signs known only to themselves. Diodorus wrote about how they were "exceptionally fond of freedom" and includes an account about unsuccessful raids that were initiated by Greek general Antigonus I in 312 BC.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: After Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC, his empire split among his generals. During the conflict between Alexander's generals, Antigonus I conquered the Levant, and this brought him to the borders of Edom, just north of Petra. According to Diodorus Siculus, Antigonus sought to add ""the land of the Arabs who are called Nabataeans"" to his existing territories of Syria and Phoenicia. The Nabataeans were distinguished from the other Arab tribes by wealth. The Nabataeans generated revenues from the trade caravans that transported frankincense, myrrh and other spices from Eudaemon in today's Yemen, across the Arabian peninsula, passing through Petra and ending up in the Port of Gaza for shipment to European markets.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: Antigonus ordered one of his officers, Athenaeus, to raid the Nabataeans with 4000 infantry and 600 cavalry, and loot herds and processions. Athenaeus learned that, every year, the Nabataeans gathered for a festival, during which women, children, and elders were left at "a certain rock" (later interpreted by some as the future city of "Petra", "rock" in Greek.) The Antigonids attacked "the rock" in 312 BC while the Nabataeans were away trading; the inhabitants were taken by surprise and tonnes of spices and silver were looted. The Antigonids departed before nightfall and made camp to rest 200 stadion away, where they thought they would be safe from Nabataean counter-attack. The camp was attacked by 8000 pursuing Nabataean soldiers and - as Diodorus describes it - "all the 4000 foot-soldiers were slain, but of the 600 horsemen about fifty escaped, and of these the larger part were wounded"; Athenaeus himself was killed. The Antigonids had deployed no scouts, a failure that Diodorus ascribes to Athenaeus's failure to anticipate the rapidity of the Nabataean response. After the Nabataeans returned to their rock, they wrote a letter to Antigonus accusing Athenaeus and declaring that they had destroyed the Antigonid army in self-defence. Antigonus replied by blaming Athenaeus for acting unilaterally, intending to lull the Nabataeans into a false sense of security. But the Nabataeans, though pleased with Antigonus response, remained suspicious and established outposts on the edge of the mountains in preparation for future Antigonid attacks.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The Antigonids' second attack was with an army of 4000 infantry and 4000 cavalry led by Antigonus's son, Demetrius "the Besieger". The Nabataean scouts spotted the marching enemy and used smoke signals to warn of the approaching Antigonid army. The Nabataeans dispersed their herds and possessions to guarded locations in harsh terrain - such as deserts and mountain tops - which would be difficult for the Antigonids to attack, and garrisoned "the rock" to defend what remained. The Antigonids attacked "the rock" through its "single artificial approach", but the Nabataeans managed to repulse the invading force. A Nabataean called out to Demetrius pointing out that Antigonid aggression made no sense, for the land was semi-barren and the Nabataeans had no desire to be their slaves. Realizing his limited supplies and the determination of the Nabataean fighters, Demetrius eventually was forced to accept peace, and withdraw with hostages and gifts. Demetrius drew Antigonus's displeasure for the peace, but this was ameliorated by Demetrius's reports of bitumen deposits in the Dead Sea, a valuable commodity that was essential for the embalming process.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: Antigonus sent an expedition, this time under Hieronymus of Cardia, to extract bitumen from the Dead Sea. A force of 6000 Arabs sailing on reed rafts approached Hieronymus's troops and killed them with arrows. These Arabs were almost certainly Nabataeans. Antigonus thus lost all hope of generating revenue in that manner. The event is described as the first conflict caused by a Middle Eastern petroleum product.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The series of wars among the Greek generals ended in a dispute over the lands of modern-day Jordan between the Ptolemies based in Egypt and the Seleucids based in Syria. The conflict enabled the Nabataeans to extend their kingdom beyond Edom.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: Diodorus mentions that the Nabataeans had attacked merchant ships belonging to the Ptolemies in Egypt at unspecified date, but were soon targeted by a larger force and "punished as they deserved". While it is unknown why the wealthy Nabataeans turned to piracy, one possible reason is that they felt that their trade interests were threatened by the understanding of the nature of monsoon in the Red Sea from the third century BC.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The Nabataean Arabs did not emerge as a political power suddenly; their rise instead went through two phases. The first phase was in the 4th century BC (ruled then by an elders' council), which was marked by the growth of Nabataean control over trade routes and various tribes and towns. Their presence in Transjordan by the end of the fourth century BC is guaranteed by Antigonus's operations in the region, and despite recent suggestions that there is no evidence of Nabataean occupation of the Hauran in the early period, the Zenon papyri firmly attest the penetration of the Hauran by the Nabataeans in the mid-third century BC beyond all doubt, and according to Bowersock, it ""establish[es] these Arabs in one of the principal areas of subsequent splendor"". Simultaneously, the Nabataeans had probably moved across the 'Araba to the west into the desert tracts of the Negev. In their early history, before establishing urban centers, the Nabataeans demonstrated on several occasions their impressive and well organized military prowess by successfully defending their territory against larger powers.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The second phase saw the creation of the Nabataean political state in the mid-3rd century BC. Kingship is regarded as a characteristic of a state and urban society. The Nabataean institution of kingship came about as a result of multiple factors, such as the indispensabilities of trade organization and war; the subsequent outcomes of the Greek expeditions on the Nabataeans played a role in the political centralization of the Nabatu tribe. The earliest evidence of Nabataean kingship comes from a Nabataean inscription in the Hauran region, probably Bosra, which mentions a Nabataean king whose name was lost, dated by Stracky to the early third century BC. The dating is significant, since the available evidence does not attest the existence of Nabataean monarchy until the second century BC. This nameless Nabataean king perhaps could be linked with a reference from the Zenon archive (the second historical mention of the Nabataeans) to deliveries of grain to "Rabbel's men", Rabbel being a characteristically royal Nabataean name, it is thus possible to link Rabbel of the Zenon archive with the nameless king of Bosra's inscription, though it is highly speculative.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: A recent papyrological discovery, the Milan Papyrus, provides further evidence. The relevant part of the Lithika section of the papyrus describes an Arabian cavalry of a certain Nabataean king, providing an early 3rd century BC reference to a Nabataean monarch. The word Nabataean stands alone beside a missing word that start with the letter M; one of the suggested words for filling the gap is the traditional name of Nabataean kings, Malichus. Furthermore, the anonymous Nabataean coins dated by Barkay to the second half of the 3rd century BC, found mainly in Nabataean territory, support such an early date of the Nabataean Kingdom. This is in line with Strabo's account (whose description of Arabia derives ultimately from reports by 3rd century BC Ptolemaic officials) that the Nabataean kingship was old and traditional. In conclusion, Rachel Barkay states that "the Nabataean economy and political regime were in existence by the third century BC". The Kingship of the Nabataeans, was in the view of Strabo, an effective one, where the Nabataean kingdom was "very well governed" and the king was "a man of the people". For more than four centuries the Nabataean kingdom dominated, politically and commercially, a large territory and was arguably the first Arab kingdom in the area.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The testimony of the 4th and 3rd century external accounts and local materialistic evidence demonstrate that the Nabataeans played a relatively substantial political and economic role in the sphere of the early Hellenistic world. While the Nabataeans didn't attain observable characteristics of a Hellenistic state (i.e. monumental architecture) in their early period, similar to contemporary Seleucid Syria, the Milan papyrus speaks of their wealth and prestige in this period. In that respect, the Nabataeans must be considered a unique entity.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: Aretas I, mentioned in II Macc as "the tyrant of the Arabs" (169-168 BC), is regarded as the first explicitly named king of the Nabataeans. His first appearance in history is in the II Macc, where the high-priest Jason, driven by his rival Menelaus, sought the protection of Aretas. Upon his arrival at the land of the Nabataeans, Aretas imprisoned Jason. It is not clear why or when that happened; his arrest by Aretas was either after he escaped Jerusalem, where Aretas, fearing the retaliation of Antiochus IV Epiphanes for "openly demonstrating pro-Ptolemaic stand" (in Hammond's view however, Aretas hoped to use Jason as a political bargaining counter with the Seleucids), arrested Jason. Or his imprisonment might have happened at a later date (167 BC), as a result of the established friendship between the Nabataeans and Judas Maccabaeus, aimed to hand Jason to the Jews. "Either suggestion is feasible and so the riddle remains unresolved", according to Kasher.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: A Nabataean inscription in the Negev, mentions a Nabataean king called Aretas, the date given by Starcky is not later than 150 BC. However, the dating is difficult. It has been claimed that the inscription dates to the 3rd century BC, based on the pre-Nabataean writing style, or somewhere in the 2nd century BC. Generally, the inscription is attributed to Aretas I of II Macc, or perhaps as suggested by others, to Aretas II.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: Around the same time, the Arab Nabataeans and the neighboring Jewish Maccabees had maintained a friendly relationship, the former had sympathized with the Maccabees, who were being mistreated by the Seleucids. The Romano-Jewish historian Josephus report that Judas Maccabeus and his brother Jonathan marched three days into the wilderness before encountering the Nabataeans in the Hauran, where they were settled in for at least a century. The Nabataeans treated them peacefully and told them of what happened to the Jews residing in the land of Galaad. This peaceful meeting between the Nabataeans and two brothers in the first book of Maccabees seems to contradict a parallel account from the second book where a pastoral Arab tribe launched a surprise attack on the two brothers. Despite open contradiction between the two accounts, scholars tend to identify the plundering Arab tribe of the second book with the Nabataeans in the first book. They were evidently not Nabataeans, for good relations between the Maccabees and their "friends", the Nabataeans, continued to exist. The friendly relations between them is further emphasized by Jonathan decision to send his brother John to "lodge his baggage" with the Nabataeans until the battle with the Seleucids is over. Again, the Maccabean caravan suffered an attack by a murderer Arab tribe in the vicinity of Madaba. This tribe was clearly not Nabataean, for they were identified as the sons of Amrai. In Bowersock view, the interpretation of the evidence in the books of Maccabees "illustrates the danger of assuming that any reference to Arabs in areas known to have been settled by the Nabataeans must automatically refer to them". But the picture is different, many Arab tribes in the region continued to be nomadic and moved in and out of the emerging Nabataean kingdom, and the Nabataeans, as well as invading armies and eventually the Romans also, had to cope with these people.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The Nabataeans began to mint coins during the second century BC, revealing the extensive economic and political independence they enjoyed.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: Petra was included in a list of major cities in the Mediterranean area to be visited by a notable from Priene, a sign of the significance of Nabataea in the ancient world. Petra was counted with Alexandria, which was considered to be a supreme city in the civilized world.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The Nabataeans were allies of the Maccabees during their struggles against the Seleucid monarchs. They then became rivals of their successors, the Judaean Hasmonean dynasty, and a chief element in the disorders which invited Pompey's intervention in Judea. The Port of Gaza was the last stop for spices that were carried by trade caravans before shipment to European markets, giving the Nabataeans considerable influence over the Gazans.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The Hasmonean King Alexander Jannaeus, besieged the city of Gaza around 100 BC, on the grounds that the Gazans had favoured the Ptolemies over the Judaeans in their recent battles. Gaza was occupied and its inhabitants put to the sword by Jannaeus.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The Hasmoneans, under Jannaeus, launched a campaign that captured several territories in Transjordan north of Nabataea, along the road to Damascus, including northern Moab and Gilead. The territorial acquisitions threatened Nabataean trade interests, both to Gaza and to the Seleucids in Damascus. The Nabataean King, Obodas I fought to restore the areas. Obodas managed to defeat Jannaeus in the Battle of Gadara around 93 BC, when he ambushed him and his forces in a steep valley where Jannaeus "was lucky to escape alive".


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: After the Nabataean victory over the Judaeans, the former were now at odds with the Seleucids, who were not impressed with the increasing influence of the Nabataeans to the south of their territories. The Nabataeans were again victorious over the Greeks, and this time over the Seleucids. During the Battle of Cana, the Seleucid king Antiochus XII waged war against the Nabataeans; the king himself was slain during combat. His demoralized army fled and perished in the desert from starvation. After Obodas's victories over the Judaeans and the Greeks, he became the first Nabataean king to be worshipped as a god by his people.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: Avdat was a temple built in the Negev desert by the Nabataeans to commemorate Obodas. He was buried there and inscriptions have been found referring to "Obodas the god".


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: During the reign of Aretas III (87 to 62 BC) the kingdom seems to have reached its territorial zenith; it was defeated by a Roman army under the command of Marcus Aemilius Scaurus. Scaurus's army even besieged Petra; eventually a compromise was negotiated. Paying a tribute, Aretas III received formal recognition by the Roman Republic.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The Nabataean kingdom saw itself slowly surrounded by the expanding Roman Empire, which conquered Egypt and annexed Hasmonean Judea. While the Nabataean kingdom managed to preserve its formal independence, it became a client kingdom under the influence of Rome.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: In 106 AD, during the reign of Roman emperor Trajan, the last king of the Nabataean kingdom Rabbel II Soter died. That might have prompted the official annexation of Nabatea to the Roman Empire, but the formal reasons and the exact manner of annexation are unknown. Some epigraphic evidence suggests a military campaign, commanded by Cornelius Palma, the governor of Syria. Roman forces seem to have come from Syria and also from Egypt. It is clear that by 107 AD Roman legions were stationed in the area around Petra and Bosra, as is shown by a papyrus found in Egypt. The kingdom was annexed by the empire to become the province of Arabia Petraea. Trade seems to have largely continued thanks to the Nabataeans' undiminished talent for trading. Under Hadrian, the "limes Arabicus" ignored most of the Nabatæan territory and ran northeast from Aila (modern Aqaba) at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba. A century later, during the reign of Alexander Severus, the local issue of coinage came to an end. There was no more building of sumptuous tombs, apparently because of a sudden change in political ways, such as an invasion by the neo-Persian power under the Sassanid Empire.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The city of Palmyra, for a time the capital of the breakaway Palmyrene Empire, grew in importance and attracted the Arabian trade away from Petra.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: The Nabataean Kingdom was situated between the Arabian and Sinai Peninsulas. Its northern neighbour was the kingdom of Judea, and its south western neighbour was Ptolemaic Egypt. Its capital was the city of Raqmu in Jordan, and it included the towns of Bosra, Hegra (Mada'in Saleh), and Nitzana/Nessana.


title: Nabataean Kingdom

text: Raqmu, now called Petra, was a wealthy trading town, located at a convergence of several important trade routes. One of them was the Incense Route which was based around the production of both myrrh and frankincense in southern Arabia, and ran through Mada'in Saleh to Petra. From there, aromatics were distributed throughout the Mediterranean region.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: The original Plymouth Duster is a semi-fastback two-door coupe version of the compact-sized Plymouth Valiant automobile that was marketed by Plymouth in the U.S. from 1970 to 1976 model years.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: The Duster coupe provided the compact-sized Plymouth Valiant with a sporty body style to attract customers. The car was a $15 million effort to update the Valiant for the 1970 model year. The Valiant badge appeared only on the first model year Dusters, and continued to be used on all the companion 4-door sedan and 2-door Valiant Scamp hardtop models. The Duster was built on the Valiant platform and shared the same front end sheet metal, but featured a different design from the cowl back.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: The Duster was also positioned to compete with Ford's slightly smaller semi-fastback Maverick compact car and the AMC Hornet that were both also introduced in 1970, and the slightly larger semi-fastback Chevrolet Nova whose design was introduced in 1968. While the Maverick, Hornet, and Nova were offered in a 4-door sedan body style, the Duster nameplate was used only for the 2-door coupe. The Duster was also marketed as an alternative to the original Volkswagen Beetle, as well as the new class of domestic subcompact cars such as the Chevrolet Vega.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: Numerous trim and option package variants of the Duster were offered with names that included Feather Duster, Gold Duster, Silver Duster, Space Duster, Duster Twister, Duster 340, and Duster 360. These marketing variations of the basic Duster design targeted customers seeking economy, cargo capacity, and/or performance.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: After failed negotiations with Warner Brothers for use of the Tasmanian Devil cartoon, the Duster's "twister" logo and font logo was created by Chrysler's Thomas Bertsch (1952–1987). Bertsch was the director of the interior styling and design studio for much of his career. Many corresponding graphics were used for different trim packages over the years.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: The Plymouth Duster introduced in late-1969 for the 1970 model year was all Valiant from the cowl forward, but the rest of the car's sheet metal, save door skins, was completely different. The design incorporated a semi-fastback roof and a special rear valance having no bezels. The door glass was operated by a new regulator mechanism, required to fit the much more radical tumblehome (reduced side glass radius), and the windshield was more steeply raked. For 1970 only, a small Valiant badge went on the front fenders just above the Duster badge.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: The 1970 Duster was available in two models – the standard Duster and a performance-oriented Duster 340. Engine options were and versions of Chrysler's Slant Six, as well as the and LA-series V8s.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: At midyear, a Gold Duster trim package was added. The Gold Duster package came with gold badging, gold stripes on the sides and rear, wall-to-wall carpeting, pleated, all-vinyl seats, whitewalls, wheel covers, a deluxe insulation package, and a canopy vinyl roof. The Gold Duster was offered through 1975 of which 24,817 were equipped with the 340 engine.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: The Duster was a success for Plymouth, so much so that in 1971 Dodge requested and received their own version, the Demon. In response, Plymouth was given a version of the Dodge Dart Swinger 2-door hardtop named the Plymouth Valiant Scamp.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: For 1971, only small changes were made to the Duster. The "Valiant" fender badges and "Plymouth" grille logotype were deleted. A new trim package was released, called the Duster Twister. The Twister package presented the appearance of the Duster 340, but came only with the base I6 or 318 V8. The Twister's appearance package included special side stripes that mimicked the Duster 340 Wedge stripes, a matte-black hood, and the 340's special shark-tooth grille. A nonfunctional dual hood scoop and rear spoiler appearance package were available, as were high-back bucket seats and dual exhaust.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: A new electronic "breakerless" ignition became optional on the 340 V8 late in 1971 model year. In 1971, 186,478 Plymouth Dusters were built, with 12,886 equipped with the higher horsepower 340 cubic inch engines.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: The Duster was not changed significantly for 1972. New surface-mount sidemarker lights replaced the previous flush-mount items, the taillamps became larger, one-piece units. The power rating of the 340 V8 was reduced from to due in part to a reduction in compression ratio from 10.2:1 to 8.5:1, as well as changing the intake valves from to . All horsepower rating numbers, even on unchanged engines, decreased for 1972 due to a new rating protocol. Chrysler's electronic ignition became standard on the 340 models in 1972. Also, there was a 1-year only air cleaner that had a vacuum-operated door at the bottom to allow for additional airflow when the throttle is depressed.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: Following the design changes on the Valiant models, the Duster also received a new hood, grille, front fenders, bumpers, and taillights for 1973. The taillights on previous years mounted from the inside and had a flush appearance. Starting in 1973, the taillights were mounted from the outside and were trimmed in chrome. These remained unchanged through 1976. The Dodge version, the Demon, was rebranded "Dart Sport" in response to church groups opposition to the word, "Demon."


title: Plymouth Duster

text: Other changes were in store for the Plymouth Duster. Simpler single-piston slider-type disc brake calipers were introduced for 1973 (standard on 318-powered cars and with power-assist on 340 models), replacing the Kelsey Hayes four-piston calipers. Disc brake-equipped Dusters now had the more-common 5-lugs on a 4.5-inch wheel bolt pattern. All 340 and some 318 engine-equipped cars received the simplified 8.25-inch rear axle assembly (with wheel bearings riding directly on the axle shaft and endplay being taken by C-clips); these axles also featured the 5 on a 4.5-inch wheel bolt pattern. (This axle assembly replaced the 8.75-inch "drop-out" arrangement seen on some 1966-1972 A-bodies). The 225-powered cars retained the 5-lugs on a 4-inch pattern on vehicles with the standard drum brakes. A three-speed Torque Flight automatic along with a manual transmission was offered with the 225 slant six. All models received larger front wheel bearings and increased spindle diameter. Electronic ignition became standard across the board.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: Also, a Space Duster package was offered. This allowed the back bench seat to be folded down, allowing more space to carry cargo. There is also a security flap to hide cargo from outside view.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: A new, metal sunroof was optional for 1973. The rear window defroster/defogger was upgraded to an electric-grid style for 1973, which replaced the previous recessed package shelf air blower.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: For 1974, Plymouth replaced the 340 with a version of the corporate LA-series V8, de-tuned to meet new emissions regulations. The new for 1974 "E58" 360 engine produced by utilizing the camshaft, heads, intake manifold, carburetor, and dual-exhaust set up from the past 340 engine. New retractable front seat belts were added. In the midst of the first oil crisis, 1974 would be the Duster's best sales year, with a total of 281,378 Duster-bodied cars produced, the majority of which being the six-cylinder and 318 V8 models.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: In 1974 there was a separate model called the Duster 360. Standard equipment included the 360 engine, dual exhaust, power disc brakes, full side tape stripe, rear tape stripe, heavier suspension, shocks, added sway bar, and 8 1/4" rear end. Plymouth built 3,969 of these models and most came with automatic transmissions. Duster 360 options included Goodyear raised white letter tires on rally wheels. Air conditioning, fold-back sunroof, and flip-down rear seat were also available.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: The 1975 models were mostly unchanged from the previous two years, with some exceptions: a new grille with a return of the Plymouth 3-pointed-'spear' affixed to the grille's center; catalytic converters were added to 225 Slant Six and 318 V8 models (the 360 was not equipped with a converter and its power was now , due to the addition of a secondary air injection system, commonly referred to as a "smog pump". Fewer than 2000 of the 1975 model Dusters left the factory equipped with the 360 engine.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: The grille-mounted park and turn signal lenses were amber; prior years had colorless lenses with amber bulbs. The interior rearview mirror was mounted directly to the windshield rather than to the previous double-pivot roof bracket, and the parking brake was now foot- rather than hand-operated. Disc brakes became standard equipment on cars built after 1 January 1976.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: The Duster 360 option was deleted as a separate model as the engine became an option on any trim level Duster, and about 1,300 cars were equipped with it. The 1976 360-powered Duster (and Dart Sport 360) was still without a catalytic converter, and while its power was down to , the car could still manage 0-60 mph in 7.9 seconds when equipped with the 3.21 rear axle gearing.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: In mid-1976 the Dodge Aspen and Plymouth Volare twins replaced the Dodge Dart and Plymouth Duster, which were still based on bodies originally sold in 1967. The fastback coupes featured a solid B-pillar with fixed rear glass. These new models were introduced to compete with the more upscale Ford Granada and Mercury Monarch.


title: Plymouth Duster

text: From 1974 to 1975, actress Judy Strangis was a TV pitchwoman for the Plymouth Duster in the role of "Mean Mary Jean," wearing a football jersey and short denim hot-pants. Strangis also promoted Plymouth's Volare and Road Runner models and appeared at Chrysler-Plymouth promotions and auto shows.


title: Object (philosophy)

text: An object is a philosophical term often used in contrast to the term "subject". A subject is an observer and an object is a thing observed. For modern philosophers like Descartes, consciousness is a state of cognition that includes the subject—which can never be doubted as only it can be the one who doubts—and some object(s) that may be considered as not having real or full existence or value independent of the subject who observes it. Metaphysical frameworks also differ in whether they consider objects existing independently of their properties and, if so, in what way.


title: Object (philosophy)

text: The pragmatist Charles S. Peirce defines the broad notion of an object as anything that we can think or talk about. In a general sense it is any entity: the pyramids, gods, Socrates, Alpha Centauri, the number seven, a disbelief in predestination or the fear of cats. In a strict sense it refers to any definite being.