title: Huntington Ingalls Industries

text: Newport News Shipbuilding (NNS) is the only shipyard to perform RCOH work on "Nimitz"-class aircraft carriers. The nearly four-year project is performed once during a carrier's 50-year life and includes refueling of nuclear reactors, as well as significant repair, upgrade and modernization work.


title: Huntington Ingalls Industries

text: NNS completed RCOH work on the fifth ship, USS "Abraham Lincoln" (CVN-72), in May 2017, and USS "George Washington" (CVN-73) arrived in August 2017 to begin its RCOH. NNS is currently supporting the pre-advanced planning effort for the USS "John C. Stennis" (CVN-74) RCOH.


title: Huntington Ingalls Industries

text: Newport News is the only shipyard to provide for the inactivation of nuclear-powered aircraft carriers. Once the service life of a carrier is complete, the ship comes to the shipyard for defueling of its nuclear reactors. The inactivation of the USS "Enterprise" (CVN-65) is complete, and is the first nuclear carrier to undergo the process.


title: Huntington Ingalls Industries

text: Newport News is one of only two US shipyards capable of designing and building nuclear-powered submarines. Currently, NNS is building the most advanced attack submarines in the world—the "Virginia" class. NNS has delivered 17 Virginia-class boats and work continues on 11 boats. "Indiana" (SSN 789) was delivered to the U.S. Navy in June 2018.


title: Huntington Ingalls Industries

text: Newport News Shipbuilding designs and provides on-site installation of state-of-the-art technologies for the "Los Angeles"-class and "Seawolf"-class attack submarines. NNS also supports Electric Boat on the "Columbia"-class ballistic missile submarine program.


title: Huntington Ingalls Industries

text: USS "America" (LHA 6) was delivered in April 2014 and commissioned October 11, 2014. It is first in the new class of amphibious assault ships for the U.S. Navy, replacing USS "Tarawa" (LHA 1). Ingalls’ next ship in the class, "Tripoli" (LHA 7), is scheduled to be delivered in 2019. The ship was christened on Sept. 16, 2017.


title: Huntington Ingalls Industries

text: On June 16, 2017, Ingalls Shipbuilding was awarded $3.1 billion contract to build "Bougainville" (LHA 8). Construction started on LHA 8 on October 15, 2018, and the ship's keel was laid on March 13, 2019.


title: Huntington Ingalls Industries

text: On September 27, 2018, Ingalls Shipbuilding won a $5.1 billion multi-year contract to build an additional six DDG-51s. These destroyers are equipped with the Navy's Aegis Combat System. The first Flight III ship, "Jack. H. Lucas" (DDG-125), started fabrication on May 7, 2018. Ingalls has built and delivered 31 ships to the U.S. Navy, with four more under construction. "Paul Ignatius" (DDG-117), is scheduled for commissioning on July 27 in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.


title: Huntington Ingalls Industries

text: Ingalls Shipbuilding is building the entire "San Antonio" class of ships, the newest addition to the Navy's 21st century amphibious assault force. LPDs 17 to 27 have been delivered to the U.S. Navy. Ingalls currently has two "San Antonio"-class ships under construction. The keel of "Fort Lauderdale" (LPD-28) was authenticated in the fall of 2017, and the ship is scheduled to be launched in the first quarter of 2020. The keel of "Richard M. McCool" "Jr." (LPD-29) was authenticated on April 12, 2019. On March 26, 2019, Ingalls received a $1.4 billion detailed design and construction contract for the first Flight II ship, LPD-30.


title: Huntington Ingalls Industries

text: National Security Cutters, also referred to as the Legend Class, are the flagships of the Coast Guard's cutter fleet, and are designed to replace the 378-foot "Hamilton"-class high-endurance cutters, which entered service during the 1960s. The current Program of Record is for 11 ships, of which the first eight have been successfully delivered to the U.S. Coast Guard. Construction is underway on the company's ninth NSC, Stone (WMSL 758). On December 21, 2018, Ingalls received two contracts from the U.S. Coast Guard to build a 10th and 11th NSC. The contracts are valued at $468.75 million and $462.13 million, respectively.


title: Sally Clark

text: Sally Clark (August 1964 – 15 March 2007) was an English solicitor who, in November 1999, became the victim of a miscarriage of justice when she was found guilty of the murder of her two infant sons. Clark's first son died in December 1996 within a few weeks of his birth, and her second son died in similar circumstances in January 1998. A month later, Clark was arrested and tried for both deaths. The defence argued that the children had died of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). The prosecution case relied on flawed statistical evidence presented by paediatrician Professor Sir Roy Meadow, who testified that the chance of two children from an affluent family suffering SIDS was 1 in 73 million. He had arrived at this figure by squaring his estimate of a chance of 1 in 8500 of an individual SIDS death in similar circumstances. The Royal Statistical Society later issued a statement arguing that there was no statistical basis for Meadow's claim, and expressed concern at the "misuse of statistics in the courts".


title: Sally Clark

text: Clark was convicted in November 1999. The convictions were upheld on appeal in October 2000, but overturned in a second appeal in January 2003, after it emerged that Alan Williams, the prosecution forensic pathologist who examined both babies, had failed to disclose microbiological reports that suggested the second of her sons had died of natural causes. Clark was released from prison having served more than three years of her sentence. Journalist Geoffrey Wansell called Clark's experience "one of the great miscarriages of justice in modern British legal history". As a result of her case, the Attorney General Lord Goldsmith ordered a review of hundreds of other cases, and two other women had their convictions overturned. Clark's experience caused her to develop severe psychiatric problems and she died in her home in March 2007 from alcohol poisoning.


title: Sally Clark

text: Sally Clark was born Sally Lockyer in Devizes, Wiltshire, and was an only child. Her father was a senior police officer with Wiltshire Constabulary and her mother was a hairdresser. She was educated at South Wilts Grammar School for Girls in Salisbury. She studied geography at Southampton University, and worked as a management trainee with Lloyds Bank and then at Citibank. She married solicitor Steve Clark in 1990, and left her job in the City of London to train in the same profession. She studied at City University, London, and trained at Macfarlanes, a city law firm. She moved with her husband to join the law firm Addleshaw Booth & Co in Manchester in 1994. They bought a house in Wilmslow in Cheshire.


title: Sally Clark

text: Clark's first son, Christopher, was born on 22 September 1996. Court documents describe him as a healthy baby. On 13 December Clark called an ambulance to the family home. The baby had fallen unconscious after being put to bed, and was declared dead after being transported to the hospital. Clark had post-natal depression and received counselling at the Priory Clinic, but was in recovery by the time her second son, Harry, was born three weeks premature on 29 November 1997. However, he was also found dead on 26 January 1998, aged 8 weeks. On both occasions, Clark was at home alone with her baby and there was evidence of trauma, which could have been related to attempts to resuscitate them.


title: Sally Clark

text: Clark and her husband were arrested on 23 February 1998 on suspicion of murdering their children. On the advice of her lawyers she twice refused to answer questions. She was later charged with two counts of murder while the case against her husband was dropped. Clark always denied the charge, and was supported throughout by her husband. During the court proceedings she gave birth to a third son.


title: Sally Clark

text: Clark was tried at Chester Crown Court, before Mr Justice Harrison and a jury. The 17-day trial began on 11 October 1999. The prosecution, led by Robin Spencer QC, was controversial for its involvement of the paediatrician Professor Sir Roy Meadow, former Professor of Paediatrics at the University of Leeds, who testified at Clark's trial that the chance of two children from an affluent family suffering cot death was 1 in 73 million. He likened the probability to the chances of backing an 80–1 outsider in the Grand National four years running, and winning each time.


title: Sally Clark

text: Home Office pathologist Dr Alan Williams withheld the results of bacteriology tests on Clark's second baby which showed the presence of the bacterium "Staphylococcus aureus" in multiple sites including his cerebro-spinal fluid. During the trial the jury asked specifically if there were any 'blood' test results for this child. Williams returned to the witness box to deal with their query. He was specifically asked about an entry in the notes referring to 'C&S' results. These referred to samples taken for culture and sensitivity (bacteriology) tests. In his responses, he failed to reveal the existence of these withheld test results.


title: Sally Clark

text: Clark was convicted by a 10–2 majority verdict on 9 November 1999, and given the mandatory sentence of life imprisonment. She was widely reviled in the press as the murderer of her children. Despite recognition of the flaws in Meadow's statistical evidence, the convictions were upheld at appeal in October 2000. She was imprisoned at Styal women's prison, near her home in Wilmslow, and then Bullwood Hall women's prison in Hockley in Essex. The nature of her conviction as a child-killer, and her background as a solicitor and daughter of a police officer, made her a target for other prisoners. Her husband left his partnership at a Manchester law firm to work as a legal assistant nearer the prison, selling the family house to meet the legal bills from the trial and first appeal.


title: Sally Clark

text: Later, it came to light that microbiological tests showed that Harry had a colonisation of "Staphylococcus aureus" bacteria, indicating that he had died from natural causes, but the evidence had not been disclosed to the defence. This exculpatory evidence had been known to the prosecution's pathologist, Alan Williams, since February 1998, but was not shared with other medical witnesses, police or lawyers. The evidence was unearthed by her husband from hospital records obtained by the divorce lawyer Marilyn Stowe, who provided her services free of charge because she felt that "something was not right about the case". It also became clearer that the statistical evidence presented at Clark's trial was seriously flawed.


title: Sally Clark

text: For her second appeal a report regarding the medical evidence was provided by Sam Gulino, a prosecution forensic pathologist for the State of Florida, US. He commented scathingly about the poor quality of the pathologists' work in these cases:


title: Sally Clark

text: Her case was referred back to the Court of Appeal by the Criminal Cases Review Commission, and her convictions were overturned in a second appeal in January 2003. She was released from prison having served more than three years of her sentence.


title: Sally Clark

text: The first trial was widely criticised for the misrepresentation of statistical evidence, particularly by Meadow. He stated in evidence as an expert witness that "one sudden infant death in a family is a tragedy, two is suspicious and three is murder unless proven otherwise" (Meadow's law). He claimed that, for an affluent non-smoking family like the Clarks, the probability of a single cot death was 1 in 8,543, so the probability of two in the same family was around "1 in 73 million" (8543 × 8543). Given that there are around 700,000 live births in Britain each year, Meadow argued that a double cot death would be expected to occur once every hundred years.


title: Sally Clark

text: In October 2001, the Royal Statistical Society (RSS) issued a public statement expressing its concern at the "misuse of statistics in the courts". It noted that there was "no statistical basis" for the "1 in 73 million" figure. In January 2002, the RSS wrote to the Lord Chancellor pointing out that "the calculation leading to 1 in 73 million is false".


title: Sally Clark

text: Meadow's calculation was based on the assumption that two SIDS deaths in the same family are independent. The RSS argued that "there are very strong reasons for supposing that the assumption is false. There may well be unknown genetic or environmental factors that predispose families to SIDS, so that a second case within the family becomes much more likely than would be a case in another, apparently similar, family." The prosecution did not provide any evidence to support its different assumption. In a 2004 article in "Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology", Professor of Mathematics Ray Hill of Salford University concluded, using extensive SIDS statistics for England, that "after a first cot death the chances of a second become greatly increased" by a dependency factor of between 5 and 10.


title: Sally Clark

text: The ruling was also subject to a statistical error known as the "prosecutor's fallacy". Many press reports of the trial reported that the "1 in 73 million" figure was the probability that Clark was innocent. However, even if the "1 in 73 million" figure were valid, this should not have been interpreted as the probability of Clark's innocence. In order to calculate the probability of Clark's innocence, the jury needed to weigh up the relative likelihood of the two competing explanations for the children's deaths. In other words, murder was not the only alternative explanation for the deaths in the way that one might have inferred from asserted probability of double SIDS. Although double SIDS is very rare, double infant murder is likely to be rarer still, so the probability of Clark's innocence was quite high. Hill calculated the odds ratio for double SIDS to double homicide at between 4.5:1 and 9:1.


title: Sally Clark

text: Hill raised a third objection to the "1 in 73 million" figure. Meadow arrived at the 1 in 8,500 figure by taking into account three key characteristics possessed by the Clark family, all of which make SIDS less likely. However, Hill said that Meadow "conveniently ignored factors such as both the Clark babies being boys – which make cot death more likely". Hill also argued:


title: Sally Clark

text: During the second appeal, the court noted that Meadow's calculations were subject to a number of qualifications, but "none of these qualifications were referred to by Professor Meadow in his evidence to the jury and thus it was the headline figures of 1 in 73 million that would be uppermost in the jury's minds". The appeal court concluded that "the evidence should never have been before the jury in the way that it was when they considered their verdicts". The judges continued, "we rather suspect that with the graphic reference by Professor Meadow to the chances of backing long odds winners of the Grand National year after year it may have had a major effect on [the jury's] thinking notwithstanding the efforts of the trial judge to down play it".


title: Sally Clark

text: Clark's release in January 2003 prompted the Attorney General Lord Goldsmith to order a review of hundreds of other cases. Two other women convicted of murdering their children, Donna Anthony and Angela Cannings, had their convictions overturned and were released from prison. Trupti Patel, who was also accused of murdering her three children, was acquitted in June 2003. In each case, Roy Meadow had testified about the unlikelihood of multiple cot deaths in a single family.


title: Sally Clark

text: Meadow was struck off the medical register by the General Medical Council in 2005 for serious professional misconduct. It was during the GMC hearing that, when questioned directly, he made his first public apology for the effect of his 'misleading' evidence. He cited 'legal advice' and 'professional etiquette' as the reasons for the delay. Then current GMC professional conduct guidance did not support his 'professional etiquette' reason. He was reinstated in 2006 after he appealed and the court ruled (2 to 1) that his actions in court had amounted to misconduct though not serious enough to warrant him being struck off. The senior judge on the panel, Master of the Rolls Sir Anthony Clarke, dissented from the view of his two colleagues. In his opinion Meadow's actions had amounted to serious professional misconduct.


title: Sally Clark

text: In June 2005, Alan Williams, the Home Office pathologist who conducted the postmortem examinations on both the Clark babies, was banned from Home Office pathology work and coroners' cases for three years after the General Medical Council found him guilty of "serious professional misconduct" in the Clark case. At the same time he had chosen to withhold evidence of infection as a possible cause of the death of the second baby, he changed his original opinion regarding the first baby from death caused by lower respiratory infection to unnatural death by smothering. He failed to give any good reason for this change in opinion and his competence was called into question. His conduct was severely criticised by other experts giving evidence and opinion to the court and in the judicial summing up of the successful second appeal. He was given the opportunity to address the court to explain his decision to withhold the laboratory results. He declined to do so. The decision of the GMC was upheld by the High Court in November 2007. Earlier that year he had successfully appealed against the decision to ban him from performing Home Office postmortem examinations; the ban was replaced by an 18-month suspension which by then had passed.


title: Sally Clark

text: The nature of Sally Clark's wrongful conviction as a child-killer, and her background as a solicitor and daughter of a police officer, made her a target for other prisoners. According to her family, Clark was unable to recover from the effects of her conviction and imprisonment. After her release, her husband said she would "never be well again". A family spokesman stated "Sally was unable to come to terms with the false accusations, based on flawed medical evidence and the failures of the legal system, which debased everything she had been brought up to believe in and which she herself practised." It was stated in the later inquest that she was diagnosed with a number of severe psychiatric problems, "these problems included enduring personality change after catastrophic experience, protracted grief reaction and alcohol dependency syndrome." Clark was found dead in her home in Hatfield Peverel in Essex on 16 March 2007. It was originally thought that she had died of natural causes, but an inquest ruled that she had died of acute alcohol intoxication, though the coroner stressed that there was no evidence that she had intended to commit suicide.


title: Gary Sandy

text: Gary Lee Sandy (born December 25, 1945) is an American actor. He is best known for playing program director Andy Travis on the television sitcom "WKRP in Cincinnati" (1978-1982).


title: Gary Sandy

text: Sandy was born in Dayton, Ohio, the son of Austin and Dolores Sandy. He attended Fairmont High School in Kettering, Ohio, and lived in Moraine, Ohio. He later attended Wilmington College in Wilmington, Ohio, and the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York City.


title: Gary Sandy

text: Sandy's early TV career included appearances on several soap operas in the early 1970s, and a number of appearances as a guest on shows including "Medical Center", "Barnaby Jones", and "Starsky & Hutch".


title: Gary Sandy

text: Sandy's most notable role was as Andy Travis, the new program director at a struggling radio station on the CBS sitcom "WKRP in Cincinnati". The idea for the show was based on the real experiences of several people who had worked in the industry, including creator Hugh Wilson.


title: Gary Sandy

text: In 1982, he replaced Kevin Kline as The Pirate King on Broadway in "The Pirates of Penzance". In 1986, he replaced Tony Roberts as Mortimer Brewster in the fiftieth anniversary production of "Arsenic and Old Lace" opposite Jean Stapleton and Marion Ross, and continued the role in the North American tour. Beginning in 2001, he starred opposite Ann-Margret in a stage production of "The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas", which toured for two years.


title: Gary Sandy

text: He continues to perform in regional theater and has performed such roles as Elliot Garfield in "The Goodbye Girl" and Mike Hammer. He has said that it bothers him being known for a '70s TV show.


title: Languages of Luxembourg

text: The linguistic situation in Luxembourg is characterized by the practice and the recognition of three official languages: French, German, and the national language Luxembourgish, established in law in 1984. These three languages are also referred to as the three administrative languages. As of 2018, 98% of the population was able to speak French at more or less a high level (usually as a second language), 78% spoke German, and 77% Luxembourgish (which is the most common native language).


title: Languages of Luxembourg

text: Upon the founding of the country, French enjoyed the greatest prestige, and therefore gained preferential use as the official and administrative language. German was used in the political field to comment on the laws and the ordinances in order to make them comprehensible to everyone. At the primary-school level, teaching was limited to German, while French was taught in secondary education. The law of 26 July 1843 reinforced bilingualism by introducing the teaching of French in primary school.


title: Languages of Luxembourg

text: Luxembourgish ("Lëtzebuergesch"), a Franconian language of the Moselle region similar to German and Dutch, was introduced in primary school in 1912. It is similar to Mosel-Frankish dialects like the dialects in Germany bordering Luxembourg, and the dialects in Moselle, France. Unlike its German counterparts, it uses many French loanwords, and is recognized as a separate language rather than a German dialect. The formalization of regional German dialects into national languages arose from the desire to impress a distinct national identity, not associated with the German State. In Switzerland, written German was maintained, albeit with some differences in vocabulary, differing strongly from the spoken Swiss-German speech which the average German cannot understand. In Luxembourg, the dialect was phonetically transcribed into a new language, and while Luxembourgish and a mix of other different languages are spoken on the street, French is often the main language spoken next to German and sometimes Luxembourgish in shops or other commercial sites.


title: Languages of Luxembourg

text: The first printed sentences in Luxembourgish appeared in 1821 in a weekly journal the "Luxemburger Wochenblatt". The first book in Luxembourgish was released in 1829 by Antoine Meyer: "E' Schrek ob de' Lezeburger Parnassus". Until the 1980s, the language had been used mainly for poetry and drama but has since become increasingly popular for fiction which now represents a significant contribution to Luxemburgish literature. Between 2000 and 2002, Luxembourgish linguist Jerome Lulling developed a lexical database of 185,000 word forms for the very first Luxembourgish spellchecker, thus launching the computerization of the Luxembourgish language.


title: Languages of Luxembourg

text: Until 1984, the official use of the languages was based on the grand-ducal decrees of 1830, 1832 and 1834, which allowed the free choice between German and French. French was preferred in the administration. Luxembourgish had no official status at all.


title: Languages of Luxembourg

text: The constitutional revision of 1984 gave the legislature the power to regulate the language by law. On February 24, 1984, a law, passed by the constitutional chamber, made Luxemburgish the national language. Furthermore, this law recognizes the three languages of Luxembourg (Luxembourgish, French and German) as administrative languages. French remains the language of legislation, due to the application of the Napoleonic civil code in Luxembourg.


title: Languages of Luxembourg

text: Despite having German as one of its official languages, Luxembourg, which was not involved in devising the German orthography reform of 1996, is merely a non-voting observer in the "Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung" (Council for German Orthography). The government of Luxembourg unilaterally adopted the reform and, due to its efficiency, it is well-accepted by the country's teachers. According to the Grand Duchy's largest newspaper, the "Luxemburger Wort", Luxembourg does not perceive itself as a "German-speaking country" (the only national language is Luxembourgish) and thus had no right to take part in the council. Despite this, Luxembourg takes part in the annual meetings of German-speaking countries.


title: Languages of Luxembourg

text: Luxembourg does however fully participate in the Francophonie and has members in the Académie française, despite French also only being an official, and not national, language. This might be due to the fact that Francophonie as an organization seeks to promote the use of the French language around the world, rather than regulate it, and thus includes many members that are not French-speaking, such as Romania and Greece.


title: Languages of Luxembourg

text: Luxembourgish is taught at pre-primary level, there is an introductory program in French since 2017/18. When Luxembourgish children are first taught to read and write in public schools, it is in German. The language of instruction in public primary school is German. Moreover, Luxembourgish is taught only one hour per week at secondary school and only in the first years. In secondary school, besides German, French and Luxembourgish, English is taught. Optionally Latin, Spanish and/or Italian in the "Lycée Classique" where most subjects are taught in French after "4e". At the university level, multilingualism makes it possible for Luxembourgish students to continue their higher education in French, German or English-speaking countries.


title: Languages of Luxembourg

text: German and French are the primary languages for public service information. German is the main language of the written press and for recording police case files.


title: Languages of Luxembourg

text: Foreign-born persons and guest workers make up almost half (47%) of the population of Luxembourg. The most common languages spoken by them, other than German and French, are Portuguese, English


title: Languages of Luxembourg

text: In addition to Luxembourgish, French, and German; English is frequently an acceptable language for use in and with government services.


title: Languages of Luxembourg

text: The following tables list the percentage of inhabitants who are able to speak a language natively or as a second language.


title: Antony Beevor

text: Sir Antony James Beevor, (born 14 December 1946) is a British military historian. He has published several popular historical works on the Second World War and the Spanish Civil War.


title: Antony Beevor

text: Born in Kensington, Beevor was educated at two independent schools; Abberley Hall School in Worcestershire, followed by Winchester College in Hampshire. He then went to the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, where he studied under the military historian John Keegan before receiving a commission in the 11th Hussars on 28 July 1967. Beevor served in England and Germany and was promoted to lieutenant on 28 January 1969 before resigning his commission on 5 August 1970.


title: Antony Beevor

text: Beevor has been a visiting professor at the School of History, Classics and Archaeology at Birkbeck, University of London, and at the University of Kent.


title: Antony Beevor

text: His best-known works, the best-selling "Stalingrad" (1998) and "" (2002), recount the World War II battles between the Soviet Union and Germany. They have been praised for their vivid, compelling style, their treatment of the ordinary lives of combatants and civilians, and the use of newly disclosed documents from Soviet archives.


title: Antony Beevor

text: His "The Spanish Civil War" (1982) was later re-written as "The Battle for Spain" (2006), keeping the structure and some content from the earlier work, but using the updated narrative style of his "Stalingrad" book and also adding characters and new archival research from German and Russian sources.


title: Antony Beevor

text: Beevor's book "The Second World War" (2012) is notable for its focus on the conditions and grief faced by women and civilians and for its coverage of the war in East Asia, which has been called "masterful". Beevor's expertise has been the subject of some commentary; his publications have been praised as revitalizing interest in World War II topics and have allowed readers to reevaluate events such as from a new perspective. He has also appeared as an expert in television documentaries related to World War II.


title: Antony Beevor

text: In August 2015, Russia's Yekaterinburg region considered banning Beevor's books, accusing him of Nazi sympathies, citing his lack of Russian sources when writing about Russia, and claiming he had promoted false stereotypes introduced by Nazi Germany during World War II. Beevor responded by calling the banning "a government trying to impose its own version of history", comparing it to other "attempts to dictate a truth", such as denial of the Holocaust and the Armenian genocide.


title: Antony Beevor

text: In January 2018, Beevor's book about the Battle of Stalingrad was banned in Ukraine. Beevor told Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty: "I must say, this sounds absolutely astonishing. There's certainly nothing inherently anti-Ukrainian in the book at all.".


title: Antony Beevor

text: Beevor is descended from a long line of writers, being a son of Kinta Beevor (born Janet Carinthia Waterfield, 22 December 191129 August 1995), who was the daughter of Lina Waterfield, an author and foreign correspondent for "The Observer" and a descendant of Lucie, Lady Duff-Gordon (author of a travelogue on Egypt). Kinta Beevor wrote "A Tuscan Childhood". Antony Beevor is married to biographer Artemis Cooper; they have two children, Nella and Adam.


title: Antony Beevor

text: Beevor was appointed a Knight Bachelor in the 2017 New Year Honours for "services in support of Armed Forces Professional Development".


title: Antony Beevor

text: He is a "Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres", a member of Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana and a commander of the Belgian Order of the Crown.


title: Antony Beevor

text: Beevor was elected an honorary Fellow of King's College London in July 2016. He was also awarded an Honorary D.Litt. from the University of Bath in 2010, and an honorary doctorate from the University of Kent, awarded in 2004.


title: Antony Beevor

text: His book "" won the Runciman Prize, administered by the Anglo-Hellenic League for stimulating interest in Greek history and culture.


title: Antony Beevor

text: Beevor has been recognised with the 2014 Pritzker Military Museum & Library's Literature Award for Lifetime Achievement in Military Writing. Tim O'Brien, the 2013 recipient, made the announcement on behalf of the selection committee. The award carried a purse of US$100,000.


title: Antony Beevor

text: In July 2016, he was awarded the Medlicott Medal for services to history by the UK-based Historical Association.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Physical cosmology is a branch of cosmology concerned with the study of cosmological models. A cosmological model, or simply cosmology, provides a description of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and allows study of fundamental questions about its origin, structure, evolution, and ultimate fate. Cosmology as a science originated with the Copernican principle, which implies that celestial bodies obey identical physical laws to those on Earth, and Newtonian mechanics, which first allowed those physical laws to be understood.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Physical cosmology, as it is now understood, began with the development in 1915 of Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, followed by major observational discoveries in the 1920s: first, Edwin Hubble discovered that the universe contains a huge number of external galaxies beyond the Milky Way; then, work by Vesto Slipher and others showed that the universe is expanding. These advances made it possible to speculate about the origin of the universe, and allowed the establishment of the Big Bang theory, by Georges Lemaître, as the leading cosmological model. A few researchers still advocate a handful of alternative cosmologies; however, most cosmologists agree that the Big Bang theory best explains the observations.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Dramatic advances in observational cosmology since the 1990s, including the cosmic microwave background, distant supernovae and galaxy redshift surveys, have led to the development of a standard model of cosmology. This model requires the universe to contain large amounts of dark matter and dark energy whose nature is currently not well understood, but the model gives detailed predictions that are in excellent agreement with many diverse observations.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Cosmology draws heavily on the work of many disparate areas of research in theoretical and applied physics. Areas relevant to cosmology include particle physics experiments and theory, theoretical and observational astrophysics, general relativity, quantum mechanics, and plasma physics.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Modern cosmology developed along tandem tracks of theory and observation. In 1916, Albert Einstein published his theory of general relativity, which provided a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time. At the time, Einstein believed in a static universe, but found that his original formulation of the theory did not permit it. This is because masses distributed throughout the universe gravitationally attract, and move toward each other over time. However, he realized that his equations permitted the introduction of a constant term which could counteract the attractive force of gravity on the cosmic scale. Einstein published his first paper on relativistic cosmology in 1917, in which he added this "cosmological constant" to his field equations in order to force them to model a static universe. The Einstein model describes a static universe; space is finite and unbounded (analogous to the surface of a sphere, which has a finite area but no edges). However, this so-called Einstein model is unstable to small perturbations—it will eventually start to expand or contract. It was later realized that Einstein's model was just one of a larger set of possibilities, all of which were consistent with general relativity and the cosmological principle. The cosmological solutions of general relativity were found by Alexander Friedmann in the early 1920s. His equations describe the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker universe, which may expand or contract, and whose geometry may be open, flat, or closed.


title: Physical cosmology

text: In the 1910s, Vesto Slipher (and later Carl Wilhelm Wirtz) interpreted the red shift of spiral nebulae as a Doppler shift that indicated they were receding from Earth. However, it is difficult to determine the distance to astronomical objects. One way is to compare the physical size of an object to its angular size, but a physical size must be assumed to do this. Another method is to measure the brightness of an object and assume an intrinsic luminosity, from which the distance may be determined using the inverse-square law. Due to the difficulty of using these methods, they did not realize that the nebulae were actually galaxies outside our own Milky Way, nor did they speculate about the cosmological implications. In 1927, the Belgian Roman Catholic priest Georges Lemaître independently derived the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker equations and proposed, on the basis of the recession of spiral nebulae, that the universe began with the "explosion" of a "primeval atom"—which was later called the Big Bang. In 1929, Edwin Hubble provided an observational basis for Lemaître's theory. Hubble showed that the spiral nebulae were galaxies by determining their distances using measurements of the brightness of Cepheid variable stars. He discovered a relationship between the redshift of a galaxy and its distance. He interpreted this as evidence that the galaxies are receding from Earth in every direction at speeds proportional to their distance. This fact is now known as Hubble's law, though the numerical factor Hubble found relating recessional velocity and distance was off by a factor of ten, due to not knowing about the types of Cepheid variables.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Given the cosmological principle, Hubble's law suggested that the universe was expanding. Two primary explanations were proposed for the expansion. One was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by George Gamow. The other explanation was Fred Hoyle's steady state model in which new matter is created as the galaxies move away from each other. In this model, the universe is roughly the same at any point in time.


title: Physical cosmology

text: For a number of years, support for these theories was evenly divided. However, the observational evidence began to support the idea that the universe evolved from a hot dense state. The discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1965 lent strong support to the Big Bang model, and since the precise measurements of the cosmic microwave background by the Cosmic Background Explorer in the early 1990s, few cosmologists have seriously proposed other theories of the origin and evolution of the cosmos. One consequence of this is that in standard general relativity, the universe began with a singularity, as demonstrated by Roger Penrose and Stephen Hawking in the 1960s.


title: Physical cosmology

text: An alternative view to extend the Big Bang model, suggesting the universe had no beginning or singularity and the age of the universe is infinite, has been presented.


title: Physical cosmology

text: The lightest chemical elements, primarily hydrogen and helium, were created during the Big Bang through the process of nucleosynthesis. In a sequence of stellar nucleosynthesis reactions, smaller atomic nuclei are then combined into larger atomic nuclei, ultimately forming stable iron group elements such as iron and nickel, which have the highest nuclear binding energies. The net process results in a "later energy release", meaning subsequent to the Big Bang. Such reactions of nuclear particles can lead to "sudden energy releases" from cataclysmic variable stars such as novae. Gravitational collapse of matter into black holes also powers the most energetic processes, generally seen in the nuclear regions of galaxies, forming "quasars" and "active galaxies".


title: Physical cosmology

text: Cosmologists cannot explain all cosmic phenomena exactly, such as those related to the accelerating expansion of the universe, using conventional forms of energy. Instead, cosmologists propose a new form of energy called dark energy that permeates all space. One hypothesis is that dark energy is just the vacuum energy, a component of empty space that is associated with the virtual particles that exist due to the uncertainty principle.


title: Physical cosmology

text: There is no clear way to define the total energy in the universe using the most widely accepted theory of gravity, general relativity. Therefore, it remains controversial whether the total energy is conserved in an expanding universe. For instance, each photon that travels through intergalactic space loses energy due to the redshift effect. This energy is not obviously transferred to any other system, so seems to be permanently lost. On the other hand, some cosmologists insist that energy is conserved in some sense; this follows the law of conservation of energy.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Different forms of energy may dominate the cosmos – relativistic particles which are referred to as radiation, or non-relativistic particles referred to as matter. Relativistic particles are particles whose rest mass is zero or negligible compared to their kinetic energy, and so move at the speed of light or very close to it; non-relativistic particles have much higher rest mass than their energy and so move much slower than the speed of light.


title: Physical cosmology

text: As the universe expands, both matter and radiation become diluted. However, the energy densities of radiation and matter dilute at different rates. As a particular volume expands, mass-energy density is changed only by the increase in volume, but the energy density of radiation is changed both by the increase in volume and by the increase in the wavelength of the photons that make it up. Thus the energy of radiation becomes a smaller part of the universe's total energy than that of matter as it expands. The very early universe is said to have been 'radiation dominated' and radiation controlled the deceleration of expansion. Later, as the average energy per photon becomes roughly 10 eV and lower, matter dictates the rate of deceleration and the universe is said to be 'matter dominated'. The intermediate case is not treated well analytically. As the expansion of the universe continues, matter dilutes even further and the cosmological constant becomes dominant, leading to an acceleration in the universe's expansion.


title: Physical cosmology

text: The history of the universe is a central issue in cosmology. The history of the universe is divided into different periods called epochs, according to the dominant forces and processes in each period. The standard cosmological model is known as the Lambda-CDM model.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Within the standard cosmological model, the equations of motion governing the universe as a whole are derived from general relativity with a small, positive cosmological constant. The solution is an expanding universe; due to this expansion, the radiation and matter in the universe cool down and become diluted. At first, the expansion is slowed down by gravitation attracting the radiation and matter in the universe. However, as these become diluted, the cosmological constant becomes more dominant and the expansion of the universe starts to accelerate rather than decelerate. In our universe this happened billions of years ago.


title: Physical cosmology

text: During the earliest moments of the universe, the average energy density was very high, making knowledge of particle physics critical to understanding this environment. Hence, scattering processes and decay of unstable elementary particles are important for cosmological models of this period.


title: Physical cosmology

text: As a rule of thumb, a scattering or a decay process is cosmologically important in a certain epoch if the time scale describing that process is smaller than, or comparable to, the time scale of the expansion of the universe. The time scale that describes the expansion of the universe is formula_1 with formula_2 being the Hubble parameter, which varies with time. The expansion timescale formula_1 is roughly equal to the age of the universe at each point in time.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Observations suggest that the universe began around 13.8 billion years ago. Since then, the evolution of the universe has passed through three phases. The very early universe, which is still poorly understood, was the split second in which the universe was so hot that particles had energies higher than those currently accessible in particle accelerators on Earth. Therefore, while the basic features of this epoch have been worked out in the Big Bang theory, the details are largely based on educated guesses.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Following this, in the early universe, the evolution of the universe proceeded according to known high energy physics. This is when the first protons, electrons and neutrons formed, then nuclei and finally atoms. With the formation of neutral hydrogen, the cosmic microwave background was emitted. Finally, the epoch of structure formation began, when matter started to aggregate into the first stars and quasars, and ultimately galaxies, clusters of galaxies and superclusters formed. The future of the universe is not yet firmly known, but according to the ΛCDM model it will continue expanding forever.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Below, some of the most active areas of inquiry in cosmology are described, in roughly chronological order. This does not include all of the Big Bang cosmology, which is presented in "Timeline of the Big Bang."


title: Physical cosmology

text: The early, hot universe appears to be well explained by the Big Bang from roughly 10 seconds onwards, but there are several problems. One is that there is no compelling reason, using current particle physics, for the universe to be flat, homogeneous, and isotropic "(see the cosmological principle)". Moreover, grand unified theories of particle physics suggest that there should be magnetic monopoles in the universe, which have not been found. These problems are resolved by a brief period of cosmic inflation, which drives the universe to flatness, smooths out anisotropies and inhomogeneities to the observed level, and exponentially dilutes the monopoles. The physical model behind cosmic inflation is extremely simple, but it has not yet been confirmed by particle physics, and there are difficult problems reconciling inflation and quantum field theory. Some cosmologists think that string theory and brane cosmology will provide an alternative to inflation.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Another major problem in cosmology is what caused the universe to contain far more matter than antimatter. Cosmologists can observationally deduce that the universe is not split into regions of matter and antimatter. If it were, there would be X-rays and gamma rays produced as a result of annihilation, but this is not observed. Therefore, some process in the early universe must have created a small excess of matter over antimatter, and this (currently not understood) process is called "baryogenesis". Three required conditions for baryogenesis were derived by Andrei Sakharov in 1967, and requires a violation of the particle physics symmetry, called CP-symmetry, between matter and antimatter. However, particle accelerators measure too small a violation of CP-symmetry to account for the baryon asymmetry. Cosmologists and particle physicists look for additional violations of the CP-symmetry in the early universe that might account for the baryon asymmetry.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Both the problems of baryogenesis and cosmic inflation are very closely related to particle physics, and their resolution might come from high energy theory and experiment, rather than through observations of the universe.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Big Bang nucleosynthesis is the theory of the formation of the elements in the early universe. It finished when the universe was about three minutes old and its temperature dropped below that at which nuclear fusion could occur. Big Bang nucleosynthesis had a brief period during which it could operate, so only the very lightest elements were produced. Starting from hydrogen ions (protons), it principally produced deuterium, helium-4, and lithium. Other elements were produced in only trace abundances. The basic theory of nucleosynthesis was developed in 1948 by George Gamow, Ralph Asher Alpher, and Robert Herman. It was used for many years as a probe of physics at the time of the Big Bang, as the theory of Big Bang nucleosynthesis connects the abundances of primordial light elements with the features of the early universe. Specifically, it can be used to test the equivalence principle, to probe dark matter, and test neutrino physics. Some cosmologists have proposed that Big Bang nucleosynthesis suggests there is a fourth "sterile" species of neutrino.


title: Physical cosmology

text: The ΛCDM (Lambda cold dark matter) or Lambda-CDM model is a parametrization of the Big Bang cosmological model in which the universe contains a cosmological constant, denoted by Lambda (Greek Λ), associated with dark energy, and cold dark matter (abbreviated CDM). It is frequently referred to as the standard model of Big Bang cosmology.


title: Physical cosmology

text: The cosmic microwave background is radiation left over from decoupling after the epoch of recombination when neutral atoms first formed. At this point, radiation produced in the Big Bang stopped Thomson scattering from charged ions. The radiation, first observed in 1965 by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson, has a perfect thermal black-body spectrum. It has a temperature of 2.7 kelvins today and is isotropic to one part in 10. Cosmological perturbation theory, which describes the evolution of slight inhomogeneities in the early universe, has allowed cosmologists to precisely calculate the angular power spectrum of the radiation, and it has been measured by the recent satellite experiments (COBE and WMAP) and many ground and balloon-based experiments (such as Degree Angular Scale Interferometer, Cosmic Background Imager, and Boomerang). One of the goals of these efforts is to measure the basic parameters of the Lambda-CDM model with increasing accuracy, as well as to test the predictions of the Big Bang model and look for new physics. The results of measurements made by WMAP, for example, have placed limits on the neutrino masses.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Newer experiments, such as QUIET and the Atacama Cosmology Telescope, are trying to measure the polarization of the cosmic microwave background. These measurements are expected to provide further confirmation of the theory as well as information about cosmic inflation, and the so-called secondary anisotropies, such as the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect and Sachs-Wolfe effect, which are caused by interaction between galaxies and clusters with the cosmic microwave background.


title: Physical cosmology

text: On 17 March 2014, astronomers of the BICEP2 Collaboration announced the apparent detection of "B"-mode polarization of the CMB, considered to be evidence of primordial gravitational waves that are predicted by the theory of inflation to occur during the earliest phase of the Big Bang. However, later that year the Planck collaboration provided a more accurate measurement of cosmic dust, concluding that the B-mode signal from dust is the same strength as that reported from BICEP2. On 30 January 2015, a joint analysis of BICEP2 and Planck data was published and the European Space Agency announced that the signal can be entirely attributed to interstellar dust in the Milky Way.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Understanding the formation and evolution of the largest and earliest structures (i.e., quasars, galaxies, clusters and superclusters) is one of the largest efforts in cosmology. Cosmologists study a model of hierarchical structure formation in which structures form from the bottom up, with smaller objects forming first, while the largest objects, such as superclusters, are still assembling. One way to study structure in the universe is to survey the visible galaxies, in order to construct a three-dimensional picture of the galaxies in the universe and measure the matter power spectrum. This is the approach of the "Sloan Digital Sky Survey" and the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Another tool for understanding structure formation is simulations, which cosmologists use to study the gravitational aggregation of matter in the universe, as it clusters into filaments, superclusters and voids. Most simulations contain only non-baryonic cold dark matter, which should suffice to understand the universe on the largest scales, as there is much more dark matter in the universe than visible, baryonic matter. More advanced simulations are starting to include baryons and study the formation of individual galaxies. Cosmologists study these simulations to see if they agree with the galaxy surveys, and to understand any discrepancy.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Other, complementary observations to measure the distribution of matter in the distant universe and to probe reionization include:


title: Physical cosmology

text: Evidence from Big Bang nucleosynthesis, the cosmic microwave background, structure formation, and galaxy rotation curves suggests that about 23% of the mass of the universe consists of non-baryonic dark matter, whereas only 4% consists of visible, baryonic matter. The gravitational effects of dark matter are well understood, as it behaves like a cold, non-radiative fluid that forms haloes around galaxies. Dark matter has never been detected in the laboratory, and the particle physics nature of dark matter remains completely unknown. Without observational constraints, there are a number of candidates, such as a stable supersymmetric particle, a weakly interacting massive particle, a gravitationally-interacting massive particle, an axion, and a massive compact halo object. Alternatives to the dark matter hypothesis include a modification of gravity at small accelerations (MOND) or an effect from brane cosmology. TeVeS is a version of MOND that can explain gravitational lensing.


title: Physical cosmology

text: If the universe is flat, there must be an additional component making up 73% (in addition to the 23% dark matter and 4% baryons) of the energy density of the universe. This is called dark energy. In order not to interfere with Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the cosmic microwave background, it must not cluster in haloes like baryons and dark matter. There is strong observational evidence for dark energy, as the total energy density of the universe is known through constraints on the flatness of the universe, but the amount of clustering matter is tightly measured, and is much less than this. The case for dark energy was strengthened in 1999, when measurements demonstrated that the expansion of the universe has begun to gradually accelerate.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Apart from its density and its clustering properties, nothing is known about dark energy. "Quantum field theory" predicts a cosmological constant (CC) much like dark energy, but 120 orders of magnitude larger than that observed. Steven Weinberg and a number of string theorists "(see string landscape)" have invoked the 'weak anthropic principle': i.e. the reason that physicists observe a universe with such a small cosmological constant is that no physicists (or any life) could exist in a universe with a larger cosmological constant. Many cosmologists find this an unsatisfying explanation: perhaps because while the weak anthropic principle is self-evident (given that living observers exist, there must be at least one universe with a cosmological constant which allows for life to exist) it does not attempt to explain the context of that universe. For example, the weak anthropic principle alone does not distinguish between:


title: Physical cosmology

text: Other possible explanations for dark energy include quintessence or a modification of gravity on the largest scales. The effect on cosmology of the dark energy that these models describe is given by the dark energy's equation of state, which varies depending upon the theory. The nature of dark energy is one of the most challenging problems in cosmology.


title: Physical cosmology

text: A better understanding of dark energy is likely to solve the problem of the ultimate fate of the universe. In the current cosmological epoch, the accelerated expansion due to dark energy is preventing structures larger than superclusters from forming. It is not known whether the acceleration will continue indefinitely, perhaps even increasing until a big rip, or whether it will eventually reverse, lead to a Big Freeze, or follow some other scenario.


title: Physical cosmology

text: Gravitational waves are ripples in the curvature of spacetime that propagate as waves at the speed of light, generated in certain gravitational interactions that propagate outward from their source. Gravitational-wave astronomy is an emerging branch of observational astronomy which aims to use gravitational waves to collect observational data about sources of detectable gravitational waves such as binary star systems composed of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes; and events such as supernovae, and the formation of the early universe shortly after the Big Bang.


title: Physical cosmology

text: In 2016, the LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration teams announced that they had made the first observation of gravitational waves, originating from a pair of merging black holes using the Advanced LIGO detectors. On 15 June 2016, a second detection of gravitational waves from coalescing black holes was announced. Besides LIGO, many other gravitational-wave observatories (detectors) are under construction.


Sophie, Hereditary Princess of Liechtenstein, Countess of Rietberg (born Duchess Sophie in Bavaria; 28 October 1967) was born a member of the House of Wittelsbach, with the courtesy title of Duchess in Bavaria, and second in line for the Jacobite succession. She is married to Alois, Hereditary Prince and Regent of Liechtenstein.


title: Sophie, Hereditary Princess of Liechtenstein

text: Princess Sophie of Bavaria was born in Munich, the eldest of the five daughters of Prince Max, Duke in Bavaria, and Princess Elisabeth, Duchess in Bavaria (née Countess Douglas), as well as a patrilineal great-great-granddaughter of the last King of Bavaria, Ludwig III. She was born in Munich on 28 October 1967 and baptised as Sophie Elizabeth Marie Gabrielle in the chapel of her family's Kreuth home on 18 November. Her godparents were her maternal aunt the Duchess of Marlborough and Archduchess Gabriela of Austria.


text: Sophie spent her childhood together with her parents and sisters in Wildbad Kreuth. From 1978 to 1980, Sophie attended the Girls' Home Primary School of the English Lady in Heiligenstadt. She then moved to the Girls' Secondary Boarding School Hohenburg in Lenggries. Sophie then studied history and English language and literature at the Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt. She also attended Inchbald School of Design in London.


text: Duchess Sophie in Bavaria met Alois, Hereditary Prince of Liechtenstein at her cousin's birthday party in Munich. The couple married on 3 July 1993 at Cathedral of St. Florin in Vaduz, Liechtenstein. They lived in London from September 1993 until May 1996, and have since then resided in Vaduz, Liechtenstein. They have four children:


text: At the beginning of 2003, it was made public that Sophie had been diagnosed with a benign brain tumor, from which she has recovered.


text: Hereditary Princess Sophie serves as a patron for many organizations and events, often relating to children, education and the arts. She regularly visited social institutions such as hospitals, nursing homes and auctions. The Hereditary Princess often accompanies her husband on foreign visits, as well as many events within Liechtenstein itself.


text: In 2006, the Hereditary Princess founded the "Sophie von Liechtenstein Stiftung für Frau und Kind" (Sophie of Liechtenstein Foundation for Woman and Child). The foundation's purpose is to give women who unintentionally became pregnant a more positive life perspective for themselves and their children. The foundation have three office in Liechtenstein, Vorarlberg and St. Gallen and funded by the Liechtenstein princely family and by private donations. The Hereditary Princess serves as president and trustee. Sophie also founded a pregnancy counseling service named schwanger.li in Schaan, Buchs and Feldkirch. In April 2022, the foundation and Liechtenstein Red Cross launch the "Liechtenstein Family Network" project to support parents with young children from the age of 0 to 5 years in order to promote healthy development of children.


text: Hereditary Princess Sophie served as a president of the Liechtenstein Red Cross since 2015. In March 2022, as president of the Red Cross, Hereditary Princess Sophie was interviewed by Radio Liechtenstein where she talk about Liechtenstein contribution to the International Red Cross's Ukraine relief funds during Russian invasion of Ukraine. She's also a patron of the Liechtenstein Animal Welfare Association. In addition, she supports Caritas Liechtenstein, an organisation provides financial support to those facing severe financial troubles. She also visited Gamander Children's Home, a shelter home for orphaned and abandoned children. In September 2022, Sophie became the patron of the "Heilpädagogische Zentrum in Liechtenstein" (Special Education Center in Liechtenstein).


text: From her birth in 1967, Sophie was styled "HRH Princess Sophie of Bavaria". In 1973, her father inherited the family name and style Duke in Bavaria from his great-uncle Duke Ludwig Wilhelm who had adopted him as heir in 1965; Sophie was then styled as "HRH Duchess Sophie in Bavaria, Princess of Bavaria". On her marriage in 1993, she became "HRH The Hereditary Princess of Liechtenstein, Countess of Rietberg", the Principality of Liechtenstein recognising and retaining her use of the style "Royal Highness".


title: Juhi Parmar

text: Juhi Parmar (born 14 December 1980) is an Indian anchor, actress, presenter, singer and dancer predominantly known for her work in Hindi television industry. She gained recognition for her portrayal as Kumkum in the long-running soap opera "Kumkum – Ek Pyara Sa Bandhan" (2002–09) and that of Sangya and Chhaya in "Karmaphal Daata Shani". She then won the reality show "Bigg Boss 5" (2011–12).


title: Juhi Parmar

text: After a short break, she began the next century of 2000s with Sony Entertainment Television's "Choodiyan". It featured her as Meghna, a caring and lovely sister who lost her mother in a horrific accident. Her first titular protagonistic role was in "Shaheen". The same year she appeared in "Yeh Jeevan Hai" and first season of "Rishtey". In 2001, she was cast in the second season of "Rishtey" and ventured into Gujarati cinema with "Rangai Jaane Rangma" followed by her Hindi foraying with "Madhur Milan".


title: Juhi Parmar

text: The most beneficial break and major popularity for Parmar came in 2002, when she took on the titular lead part of Kumkum opposite Hussain Kuwajerwala in "Kumkum — Ek Pyara Sa Bandhan", a long-running soap opera that aired on Star Plus. Her performance as Kumkum made her a household name and was awarded with Best Actress (Critics) at Indian Telly Awards. One of the most longest-running Indian television series, it wrapped up in 2009 after a successful run of continuously seven years.


title: Juhi Parmar

text: In 2003, Parmar won The Miss Rajasthan beauty pageant. She started her career with television serial "Woh" on Zee TV. Her biggest break came when she became a household name for her portrayal as Kumkum in Star Plus's Indian soap opera "Kumkum – Ek Pyara Sa Bandhan" opposite Hussain Kuwajerwala for which she also won the "Best Actress (Critics)" at the Indian Telly Awards in 2005. Juhi participated and became a finalist in the reality shows "Say Shava Shava" and "Saas v/s Bahu". She also became the winner of "Comedy Circus".


title: Juhi Parmar

text: In October 2011, Juhi was a contestant in the fifth season of the Indian version of the reality TV show "Big Brother", "Bigg Boss". She survived for full 14 weeks and became the winner of the show In January 2012.


title: Juhi Parmar

text: She was also seen in a cameo role in &TV's popular mythological Drama Series "Santoshi Maa" along with her then husband Sachin Shroff and was seen in another successful mythological show "Shani" from 2016 to 2018.


title: Juhi Parmar

text: Parmar was originally from a Rajasthani background. She married Sindhi businessman and actor Sachin Shroff on 15 February 2009 at a palace in Jaipur. The couple have a daughter, Samaira Shroff, born on 27 January 2013.


title: Juhi Parmar

text: In early January 2018, Parmar confirmed that they had recently filed for divorce. After several months of arguing, the couple were granted a divorce in July 2018. Parmar was granted custody of their daughter.


title: Josh Swickard

text: Joshua Swickard is an American model and actor. In 2017, he was cast in the role of Harrison Chase on the ABC soap opera "General Hospital".


title: Josh Swickard

text: Swickard was born in Quincy, Illinois to parents Bob, senior pastor at St. Matthew's United Methodist Church in Belleville, and Gina, a vocal coach. He has three sisters Elyssa Carlisle (who is married and has a son named Alistair), Kalia, and Elayna Swickard. He studied at Glenwood High School and attended the College of DuPage where he studied accounting for 2 years.


title: Josh Swickard

text: Swickard is managed by Factor Chosen Chicago, and Wilhelmina Models. He started his modeling career in 2010, when he appeared in the Oh lala Magazine, and again in 2012. In 2013, he appeared in "Q". He made his acting debut in 2015 by guest-starring in an episode of "K.C. Undercover" as a football dude. In the same year, he landed the recurring role of Todd Stetson in another television series Liv and Maddie. In early 2017, he was cast in a film called "Roped" as Colton, which he confirmed on Instagram in September. In late 2017, Swickard was cast in the soap opera "General Hospital" as Harrison Chase. He debuted on February 21, 2018.


title: Josh Swickard

text: In December 2018, Josh announced his engagement to girlfriend, actress Lauren York. The pair married on July 6, 2019. In 2021, the couple welcomed their first child together, a daughter, named Savannah Kaye Swickard.


title: A Very Long Engagement

text: A Very Long Engagement (, "A long Sunday of engagement") is a 2004 French-American romantic war drama film, co-written and directed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet and starring Audrey Tautou, Gaspard Ulliel and Marion Cotillard. It is a fictional tale about a young woman's desperate search for her fiancé who might have been killed during World War I. It was based on the 1991 novel of the same name by Sébastien Japrisot.


title: A Very Long Engagement

text: The film was nominated for the Academy Awards for Best Art Direction and Best Cinematography at the 77th Academy Awards. Marion Cotillard won the César Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance, and Gaspard Ulliel won the César Award for Most Promising Actor.


title: A Very Long Engagement

text: Five French soldiers are convicted of self-mutilation in order to escape military service during World War I. They are condemned to face near-certain death in no man's land between the French and German trench lines. It appears that all of them were killed in a subsequent battle, but Mathilde, the fiancée of one of the soldiers, refuses to give up hope and begins to uncover clues as to what actually took place on the battlefield. She is all the while driven by the constant reminder of what her fiancé had carved into one of the bells of the church near their home, MMM for "Manech Aime Mathilde" (Manech Loves Mathilde; a pun on the French word "aime", which is pronounced like the letter "M". In the English-language version, this is changed to "Manech's Marrying Mathilde").


title: A Very Long Engagement

text: Along the way, she discovers the brutally corrupt system used by the French government to deal with those who tried to escape the front. She also discovers the stories of the other men who were sentenced to no man's land as a punishment. She, with the help of a private investigator, Germain Pire, attempts to find out what happened to her fiancé. The story is told both from the point of view of the fiancée in Paris and the French countryside—mostly Brittany—of the 1920s, and through flashbacks to the battlefield.


title: A Very Long Engagement

text: Eventually, Mathilde finds out her fiancé is alive, but he suffers from amnesia. Seeing Mathilde, Manech seems to be oblivious of her. At this, Mathilde sits on the garden chair silently watching Manech with tears in her eyes and a smile on her lips.


title: A Very Long Engagement

text: "A Very Long Engagement" was filmed entirely in France over an 18-month period, with about 30 French actors, approximately 500 French technicians and more than 2,000 French extras. Right before the film's New York City and Hollywood debut, the film's production company ("2003 Productions"), which is one-third owned by Warner Brothers and two-thirds owned by Warner France, was ruled an American production company by a French court, denying the studio $4.8 million in government incentives. The ruling is consistent with the fact that Warner France is owned by Warner Spain, which is owned by Warner Nederland, itself a subsidiary of Warner Brothers.


title: A Very Long Engagement

text: Warner Independent released the film theatrically in the US, followed by VHS and DVD release on July 12, 2005. It was Warner Independent's final VHS release. The only Blu-ray to date is a region B disc from Warner Home Video in France.


title: A Very Long Engagement

text: In the film, Manech and Mathilde are from Brittany, whereas in the novel, they are from Capbreton, in the Landes department of southwest France.


title: A Very Long Engagement

text: The film received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, 78% of critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 148 reviews, and an average rating of 7.40/10. The website's critical consensus states, "A well-crafted and visually arresting drama with a touch of whimsy". On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 76 out of 100, based on reviews from 39 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". The film had a production budget of $56.6 million USD and earned $69.4 million in theaters worldwide.


title: A Very Long Engagement

text: Peter Travers of Rolling Stone praised "miracle worker" Jean-Pierre Jeunet and called the film "an emotional powerhouse".


title: A Very Long Engagement

text: Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times wrote: "Jeunet brings everything together—his joyously poetic style, the lovable Tautou, a good story worth the telling—into a film that is a series of pleasures stumbling over one another in their haste to delight us."


title: A Very Long Engagement

text: Manohla Dargis of The New York Times, gave a negative review on this film stating that "Mr. Jeunet shows no interest in animating the characters in his dollhouse world".


title: A Very Long Engagement

text: The film received Academy Award nominations for Best Art Direction and Best Cinematography at the 77th Oscars, losing both to "The Aviator". It was not selected as the French submission for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, in favor of "The Chorus". Marion Cotillard won the César Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance, while Audrey Tautou was nominated for Best Actress.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: Indo-Islamic architecture is the architecture of the Indian subcontinent produced by and for Islamic patrons and purposes. Despite an initial Arab presence in Sindh, the development of Indo-Islamic architecture began in earnest with the establishment of Delhi as the capital of the Ghurid dynasty in 1193. Succeeding the Ghurids was the Delhi Sultanate, a series of Central Asian dynasties that consolidated much of North India, and later the Mughal Empire by the 15th century. Both of these dynasties introduced Persianate architecture and art styles from Western Eurasia into the Indian subcontinent.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: The types and forms of large buildings required by Muslim elites, with mosques and tombs much the most common, were very different from those previously built in India. The exteriors of both were very often topped by large domes, and made extensive use of arches. Both of these features were hardly used in Hindu temple architecture and other indigenous Indian styles. Both types of building essentially consist of a single large space under a high dome, and completely avoid the figurative sculpture so important to Hindu temple architecture.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: Islamic buildings initially adapted the skills of a workforce trained in earlier Indian traditions to their own designs. Unlike most of the Islamic world, where brick tended to predominate, India had highly skilled builders well used to producing stone masonry of extremely high quality. Alongside the architecture developed in Delhi and prominent centres of Mughal culture such as Agra, Lahore and Allahabad, a variety of regional styles developed in regional kingdoms like the Bengal, Gujarat, Deccan, Jaunpur and Kashmir Sultanates. By the Mughal period, generally agreed to represent the peak of the style, aspects of Islamic style


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: began to influence architecture made for Hindus, with even temples using scalloped arches, and later domes. This was especially the case in palace architecture. Following the collapse of the Mughal Empire, regional nawabs such as in Lucknow, Hyderabad and Mysore continued to commission and patronize the construction of Mughal-style architecture in the princely states.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: Indo-Islamic architecture has left a large impact on modern Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi architecture, as in the case of its influence on the Indo-Saracenic Revivalism of the late British Raj. Both secular and religious buildings are influenced by Indo-Islamic architecture.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: The best-preserved example of a mosque from the days of the infancy of Islam in South Asia is the ruined mosque at Banbhore in Sindh, Pakistan, from the year 727, from which only the plan can be deduced.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: The start of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 under Qutb ud-Din Aibak introduced a large Islamic state to India, using Central Asian styles. The important Qutb Complex in Delhi was begun under Muhammad of Ghor, by 1199, and continued under Qutb al-Din Aibak and later sultans. The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, now a ruin, was the first structure. Like other early Islamic buildings it re-used elements such as columns from destroyed Hindu and Jain temples, including one on the same site whose platform was reused. The style was Iranian, but the arches were still corbelled in the traditional Indian way.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: Beside it is the extremely tall Qutb Minar, a minaret or victory tower, whose original four stages reach 73 meters (with a final stage added later). Its closest comparator is the 62-metre all-brick Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan, of c.1190, a decade or so before the probable start of the Delhi tower. The surfaces of both are elaborately decorated with inscriptions and geometric patterns; in Delhi the shaft is fluted with "superb stalactite bracketing under the balconies" at the top of each stage. In general minarets were slow to be used in India, and are often detached from the main mosque where they exist.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: The Tomb of Iltutmish was added by 1236; its dome, the squinches again corbelled, is now missing, and the intricate carving has been described as having an "angular harshness", from carvers working in an unfamiliar tradition. Other elements were added to the complex over the next two centuries.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: Another very early mosque, begun in the 1190s, is the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer, Rajasthan, built for the same Delhi rulers, again with corbelled arches and domes. Here Hindu temple columns (and possibly some new ones) are piled up in threes to achieve extra height. Both mosques had large detached screens with pointed corbelled arches added in front of them, probably under Iltutmish a couple of decades later. In these the central arch is taller, in imitation of an iwan. At Ajmer the smaller screen arches are tentatively cusped, for the first time in India.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: By around 1300 true domes and arches with voussoirs were being built; the ruined Tomb of Balban (d. 1287) in Delhi may be the earliest survival. The Alai Darwaza gatehouse at the Qutb complex, from 1311, still shows a cautious approach to the new technology, with very thick walls and a shallow dome, only visible from a certain distance or height. Bold contrasting colours of masonry, with red sandstone and white marble, introduce what was to become a common feature of Indo-Islamic architecture, substituting for the polychrome tiles used in Persia and Central Asia. The pointed arches come together slightly at their base, giving a mild horseshoe arch effect, and their internal edges are not cusped but lined with conventionalized "spearhead" projections, possibly representing lotus buds. Jali, stone openwork screens, are introduced here; they already had been long used in temples.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: The tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam (built 1320 to 1324) in Multan, Pakistan is a large octagonal brick-built mausoleum with polychrome glazed decoration that remains much closer to the styles of Iran and Afghanistan. Timber is also used internally. This was the earliest major monument of the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413), built during the unsustainable expansion of its massive territory. It was built for a Sufi saint rather than a sultan, and most of the many Tughlaq tombs are much less exuberant. The tomb of the founder of the dynasty, Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (d. 1325) is more austere, but impressive; like a Hindu temple, it is topped with a small amalaka and a round finial like a kalasha. Unlike the buildings mentioned previously, it completely lacks carved texts, and sits in a compound with high walls and battlements. Both these tombs have external walls sloping slightly inwards, by 25° in the Delhi tomb, like many fortifications including the ruined Tughlaqabad Fort opposite the tomb, intended as the new capital.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: The Tughlaqs had a corps of government architects and builders, and in this and other roles employed many Hindus. They left many buildings, and a standardized dynastic style. The third sultan, Firuz Shah (r. 1351-88) is said to have designed buildings himself, and was the longest ruler and greatest builder of the dynasty. His Firoz Shah Palace Complex (started 1354) at Hisar, Haryana is a ruin, but parts are in fair condition. Some buildings from his reign take forms that had been rare or unknown in Islamic buildings. He was buried in the large Hauz Khas Complex in Delhi, with many other buildings from his period and the later Sultanate, including several small domed pavilions supported only by columns.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: By this time Islamic architecture in India had adopted some features of earlier Indian architecture, such as the use of a high plinth, and often mouldings around its edges, as well as columns and brackets and hypostyle halls. After the death of Firoz the Tughlaqs declined, and the following Delhi dynasties were weak. Most of the monumental buildings constructed were tombs, although the impressive Lodi Gardens in Delhi (adorned with fountains, "charbagh" gardens, ponds, tombs and mosques) were constructed by the late Lodi dynasty. The architecture of other regional Muslim states was often more impressive.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: Significant regional styles developed in the independent sultanates formed when the Tughlaq empire weakened in the mid-14th century, and lasted until most were absorbed into the Mughal Empire in the 16th century. The sultanates of the Deccan Plateau, Gujarat, Bengal and Kashmir are discussed below. The architecture of the Malwa and Jaunpur sultanates has also left some significant buildings.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: The Bahmani Sultanate in the Deccan broke away from the Tughlaqs in 1347, and ruled from Gulbarga, Karnataka and then Bidar until overrun by the Mughals in 1527. The main mosque (1367) in the large Gulbarga Fort or citadel is unusual in having no courtyard. There are a total of 75 domes, all small and shallow and small except for a large one above the "mihrab" and four lesser ones at the corners. The large interior has a central hypostyle space, and wide aisles with "transverse" arches springing from unusually low down (illustrated). This distinctive feature is found in other Bahmanid buildings, and probably reflects Iranian influence, which is seen in other features such as a four-iwan plan and glazed tiles, some actually imported from Iran, used elsewhere. The architect of the mosque is said to have been Persian.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: Some later Bahminid royal tombs are double, with two units of the usual rectangle-with-dome form combined, one for the ruler and the other for his family, as at the Haft Dombad ("Seven Domes") group of royal tombs outside Gulbarga. The Mahmud Gawan Madrasa (begun 1460s) is a large ruined madrasa "of wholly Iranian design" in Bidar founded by a chief minister, with parts decorated in glazed tiles imported by sea from Iran. Outside the city the Ashtur tombs are a group of eight large domed royal tombs. These have domes which are slightly pulled in at the base, predating the onion domes of Mughal architecture.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: The Qutb Shahi dynasty of Hyderabad, not absorbed by the mughals until 1687, greatly developed the city and its surrounding region, building many mosques such as the Mecca Masjid, Khairtabad Mosque, Hayat Bakshi Mosque and Toli Mosque, as well as the Golconda Fort, tombs of the Qutb Shahis, Charminar, Char Kaman and Taramati Baradari.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: The Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576) normally used brick as the primary construction material of large buildings, as pre-Islamic buildings had done. Stone had to be imported to most of Bengal, whereas clay for bricks is plentiful. But stone was used for columns and prominent details, usually re-used from Hindu or Buddhist temples. The early 15th century Eklakhi Mausoleum at Pandua, Malda or Adina, is often taken to be the earliest surviving square single-domed Islamic building in Bengal, the standard form of smaller mosques and mausoleums. But there is a small mosque at Molla Simla, Hooghly district, that is possibly from 1375, earlier than the mausoleum. The Eklakhi Mausoleum is large and has several features that were to become common in the Bengal style, including a slightly curved cornice, large round decorative buttresses at the corners, and decoration in carved terracotta brick.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: These features are also seen in the Choto Sona Mosque (around 1500), which is in stone, unusually for Bengal, but shares the style and mixes domes and a curving "paddy" roof based on village house roofs made of vegetable thatch. Such roofs feature even more strongly in later Bengal Hindu temple architecture, with types such as the do-chala, jor-bangla, and char-chala. For larger mosques, Bengali architects multiplied the numbers of domes, with a nine-domed formula (three rows of three) being one option, surviving in four examples, all 15th or 16th century and now in Bangladesh, although there were others with larger numbers of domes.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: Buildings in the style are the Nine Dome Mosque and the Sixty Dome Mosque (completed 1459) and several other buildings in the Mosque City of Bagerhat, an abandoned city in Bangladesh now featured as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. These show other distinctive features, such as a multiplicity of doors and "mihrab"s; the Sixty Dome Mosque has 26 doors (11 at the front, 7 on each side, and one in the rear). These increased the light and ventilation. Further mosques include the Baro Shona Masjid; the Pathrail Mosque, the Bagha Mosque, the Darasbari Mosque, and the Kusumba Mosque. Single-domed mosques include the Singar Mosque, and the Shankarpasha Shahi Masjid.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: Both capitals of the Bengal Sultanate, first Pandua or Adina, then from 1450 Gauda or Gaur, started to be abandoned soon after the conquest of the sultanate by the Mughals in 1576, leaving many grand buildings, mostly religious. The materials from secular buildings were recycled by builders in later periods. While minarets are conspicuously absent in most mosques, the Firoz Minar was built in Gauda to commemorate Bengali military victories.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: The ruined Adina Mosque (1374–75) is very large, which is unusual in Bengal, with a barrel vaulted central hall flanked by hypostyle areas. It is said to be the largest mosque in the sub-continent, and modeled after the Ayvan-e Kasra of Ctesiphon, Iraq, as well as the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus. The heavy rainfall in Bengal necessitated large roofed spaces, and the nine-domed mosque, which allowed a large area to be covered, was more popular there than anywhere else. After the Islamic consolidation of Bengal was complete, some local features continued, especially in smaller buildings, but the Mughals used their usual style in imperial commissions.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: The distinctive Indo-Islamic architecture style of Gujarat drew micro-architectural elements from earlier Maru-Gurjara architecture and employed them in mihrab, roofs, doors, minarets and facades. In the 15th century, the Indo-Islamic style of Gujarat is especially notable for its inventive and elegant use of minarets. They are often in pairs flanking the main entrance, mostly rather thin and with elaborate carving at least at the lower levels. Some designs push out balconies at intervals up the shaft; the most extreme version of this was in the lost upper parts of the so-called "shaking minarets" at the Jama Mosque, Ahmedabad, which fell down in an earthquake in 1819. This carving draws on the traditional skills of local stone-carvers, previously exercised on Hindu temples in the Māru-Gurjara and other local styles.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: Under the Gujarat Sultanate, independent between 1407 and 1543, Gujarat was a prosperous regional sultanate under the rule of the Muzaffarid dynasty, who built lavishly, particularly in the capital, Ahmedabad. The sultanate commissioned mosques such as the Jami Masjid of Ahmedabad, Jama Masjid at Champaner, Jami Masjid at Khambhat, Qutbuddin Mosque, Rani Rupamati Mosque, Sarkhej Roza, Sidi Bashir Mosque, Kevada Mosque, Sidi Sayyed Mosque, Nagina Mosque and Pattharwali Masjid, as well as structures such as Teen Darwaza, Bhadra Fort and the Dada Harir Stepwell in Ahmedabad.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: The Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park, the 16th century capital of Gujarat Sultanate, documents the early Islamic and pre-Mughal city that has remained without any change.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: Indo-Islamic architecture style of Gujarat presages many of the architectural elements later found in Mughal architecture, including ornate "mihrabs" and minarets, "jali" (perforated screens carved in stone), and "chattris" (pavilions topped with cupolas).


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: By 1339, Shams-ud-din Shah Mir of the Shah Mir dynasty established a sultanate encompassing the region of Kashmir (consisting of modern-day Gilgit-Baltistan, Azad Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, and Aksai Chin), allowing for the gradual Islamization of the region and the hybridization of Persianate culture and architecture with the indigenous Buddhist styles of Kashmir.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: In the capital at Srinagar in modern Indian-administered Kashmir, Sikandar Shah Mir (died 1413) constructed the Jamia Masjid, a large wooden congregational mosque that incorporates elements of Buddhist pagoda structure, as well as the wooden Khanqah-e-Moulah mosque. Also in Srinagar are the Aali Masjid and the Tomb of Zain-ul-Abidin. Two 14th-century wooden mosques in Gilgit-Baltistan are the Chaqchan Mosque in Khaplu (1370) and the Amburiq Mosque in Shigar. Both have stone-built cores with elaborately carved wooden exterior galleries, at Amburiq on two levels, in an adaptation of traditional local styles.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: The Mughal Empire, an Islamic empire that lasted in India from 1526 to 1857 left a mark on Indian architecture that was a mix of Islamic, Persian, Arabic, Central Asian and native Indian architecture. A major aspect of Mughal architecture is the symmetrical nature of buildings and courtyards. Akbar, who ruled in the 16th century, made major contributions to Mughal architecture. He systematically designed forts and towns in similar symmetrical styles that blended Indian styles with outside influences. The gate of a fort Akbar designed at Agra exhibits the Assyrian gryphon, Indian elephants, and birds.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: During the Mughal era design elements of Islamic-Persian architecture were fused with and often produced playful forms of the Hindustani art. Lahore, occasional residence of Mughal rulers, exhibits a multiplicity of important buildings from the empire, among them the Badshahi mosque (built 1673-1674), the fortress of Lahore (16th and 17th centuries) with the famous Alamgiri Gate, the colourful Wazir Khan Mosque, (Lahore, 1634-1635) as well as numerous other mosques and mausoleums. The Shahjahan Mosque at Thatta, Sindh was built under, and probably largely by Shah Jahan, but strongly reflects Central Asian Islamic style, as the emperor had recently been campaigning near Samarkand. Singularly, the innumerable Chaukhandi tombs are of eastern influence. Although constructed between 16th and 18th centuries, they do not possess any similarity to Mughal architecture. The stonemason works show rather typical Sindhi workmanship, probably from before Islamic times.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: Later Mughal architecture, built under Aurangzeb (ruled 1658–1707), include the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore and Bibi ka Maqbara in Aurangabad. By the late 18th century the style was effectively over. However, by this time versions of Mughal style, often called "post-Mughal", had been widely adopted by the rulers of the princely states and other wealthy people of all religions for their palaces and, where appropriate, tombs. Hindu patrons often mixed aspects of Hindu temple architecture and traditional Hindu palace architecture with Mughal elements and, later, European ones.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: The most well known example of Mughal architecture is the Taj Mahal. It was built for the wife of Shah Jahan, who died in 1631. The main ideas and themes of garden tombs had already been explored by earlier Mughal emperors, and this was the culmination of all those previous works into a national landmark. The 171 meter white tomb rises above a reflecting pool.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: The Red Fort in Delhi is also an important example of Mughal Architecture. It was built during the zenith of the Mughal Empire under Shah Jahan. It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007. As one of the largest forts in India, it served as the official residence of the emperor for nearly 200 years.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: Following the collapse of the Mughal Empire after the Mughal-Maratha Wars, the emergence of the Sikh Empire and the invasions of Nader Shah, Ahmad Shah Durrani and the British East India Company, prosperous provinces of the Mughal Empire such as Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad and Mysore emerged as powerful regional states independent of Delhi.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: In Awadh (encompassing modern eastern Uttar Pradesh), Lucknow emerged as a centre of Ganga-Jamuni culture and Urdu/Hindustani literature. The Nawabs of Awadh sponsored the construction of architectural masterpieces such as Bara Imambara, Rumi Darwaza, Chota Imambara, Sikandar Bagh and Ghantaghar in Lucknow, as well as Gulab Bari and Bahu Begum ka Maqbara in Faizabad.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: In Hyderabad, the Asaf Jahi dynasty became exceedingly wealthy and were one of the richest royal families in the world by the mid-20th century. The Nizam commissioned construction of various public works and buildings in their state (often in Indo-Saracenic and Mughal style) such as the Telangana High Court, City College, Public Gardens, (formerly "Bagh-e-Aaam"), Jubilee Hall, Asafia Library, The Assembly building, Niloufer Hospital, the Osmania Arts College and Osmania Medical College, as well as palaces like Hyderabad House and Chowmahalla Palace.


title: Indo-Islamic architecture

text: The so-called Indo-Saracenic architecture, beginning in the late 18th century, but mainly developing from the 1840s until independence a century later, was mostly designed by British or other European architects, and adopted Islamic or specifically Indian features, usually as a decorative skin on buildings whose essential forms reflected contemporary Western types and uses, whether as office buildings, palaces, courts of justice, railway stations or hotels. The style, which is very variable, thus became one of a number of revival architecture styles that were available to the Victorian architect. The usual type of Indian architecture borrowed from was Mughal architecture, or its Rajput palace version.


title: Nicholas

text: The Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Anglican Churches celebrate Saint Nicholas every year on December 6, which is the name day for "Nicholas". In Greece, the name and its derivatives are especially popular in maritime regions, as St. Nicholas is considered the protector saint of seafarers.


title: Nicholas

text: The name is derived from the Greek name Νικόλαος ("Nikolaos"), understood to mean 'victory of the people', being a compound of νίκη "nikē" 'victory' and λαός "laos" 'people'. An ancient paretymology of the latter is that originates from λᾶς "las" (contracted form of λᾶας "laas") meaning 'stone' or 'rock', as in Greek mythology, Deucalion and Pyrrha recreated the people after they had vanished in a catastrophic deluge, by throwing stones behind their shoulders while they kept marching on.


title: Nicholas

text: The name became popular through Saint Nicholas, Bishop of Myra in Lycia, the inspiration for Santa Claus, but it predates said Bishop by several centuries: the Athenian historian Thucydides for example, mentions that in the second year of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Sparta and Athens, the Spartans sent a delegation to the Persian king to ask for his help to fight the Athenians; a certain Nikolaos was one of the delegates.


title: Nicholas

text: The customary English spelling "Nicholas", using a "ch", as though the word were spelled in Greek with a chi, first came into use in the 12th century and has been firmly established since the Reformation, although the spelling "Nicolas" is occasionally used.


title: The Kingsmen

text: The Kingsmen are a 1960s rock band from Portland, Oregon, United States. They are best known for their 1963 recording of R&B singer Richard Berry's "Louie Louie", which held the No. 2 spot on the "Billboard" charts for six weeks and has become an enduring classic.


title: The Kingsmen

text: In total, the Kingsmen charted 13 singles from 1963 to 1968 and five consecutive albums from 1963 to 1966. Their first album, "The Kingsmen in Person", remained on the "Billboard" Top LPs chart for 131 weeks from January 1964 to August 1966. Their early albums were released internationally in Canada, the UK, France, Germany, Mexico, South Africa, and Taiwan.


title: The Kingsmen

text: Lynn Easton and Jack Ely started performing at an early age in local newspaper-sponsored reviews the Journal Juniors and the Young Oregonians, respectively. In 1957, they started performing together, with Ely singing and playing guitar and Easton on the drum kit. The two teenagers had grown up together, as their parents were close friends. Easton and Ely performed at local parties and events, and soon added Mike Mitchell on guitar and Bob Nordby on bass to round out the band. They called themselves the Kingsmen, taking the name from a recently disbanded group. The Kingsmen began their collective career playing at fashion shows, Red Cross events, and supermarket promotions, generally avoiding rock songs on their setlist. In 1962, Don Gallucci, a high school freshman at the time, was recruited from another local group, the Royal Notes, to play keyboards.


title: The Kingsmen

text: In 1962, while playing a gig at the Pypo Club in Seaside, Oregon, the band noticed Rockin' Robin Roberts's version of "Louie Louie" being played on the jukebox for hours on end with the entire club dancing. Ely convinced the Kingsmen to learn the song, which they played at dances to a great crowd response. Unknown to him, he changed the beat because he misheard it on a jukebox. Ken Chase, host of radio station KISN, formed his own club to capitalize on these dance crazes. Dubbed "The Chase", the Kingsmen became the club's house band and Ken Chase became the band's manager. On April 5, 1963, Chase booked the band an hour-long session at the local Northwestern Inc. studio for the following day to record a demo tape for a summer cruise ship gig. Adding to the hurried atmosphere, the band had just played a 90-minute "Louie Louie" marathon the night before.


title: The Kingsmen

text: Despite the band's annoyance at having so little time to prepare, on April 6 at 10 am the Kingsmen walked into the three-microphone recording studio. "Jamaica Farewell", one partial and one full take of "Louie Louie", and "Haunted Castle" were recorded. For "Louie Louie", the only vocal number, Ely was forced to lean back and sing to a microphone suspended from the ceiling. "It was more yelling than singing", Ely said, cause I was trying to be heard over all the instruments." In addition, he was wearing braces at the time of the performance, further compounding his infamously slurred words. Ely sang the beginning of the third verse two bars too early but realized his mistake and waited for the rest of the band to catch up. The Kingsmen were not proud of the recording and wanted to fix their mistakes, but Chase liked the energy and rawness and assured them that the demo version could be redone before a record was released. The one hour session cost either $36, $50, or somewhere in between and the band split the cost.