title: Sailing

text: "Jibing" or "gybing" is a sailing maneuver by which a sailing craft turns its stern past the eye of the wind so that the apparent wind changes from one side to the other, allowing progress on the opposite tack. This maneuver can be done on smaller boats by pulling the tiller towards yourself (the opposite side of the sail). As with tacking, the type of sailing rig dictates the procedures and constraints for jibing. Fore-and-aft sails with booms, gaffs or sprits are unstable when the free end points into the eye of the wind and must be controlled to avoid a violent change to the other side; square rigs as they present the full area of the sail to the wind from the rear experience little change of operation from one tack to the other; and windsurfers again have flexibly pivoting and fully rotating masts that get flipped from side to side.


title: Sailing

text: Winds and oceanic currents are both the result of the sun powering their respective fluid media. Wind powers the sailing craft and the ocean bears the craft on its course, as currents may alter the course of a sailing vessel on the ocean or a river.


title: Sailing

text: Trimming refers to adjusting the lines that control sails, including the sheets that control angle of the sails with respect to the wind, the halyards that raise and tighten the sail, and to adjusting the hull's resistance to heeling, yawing or progress through the water.


title: Sailing

text: In their most developed version, square sails are controlled by two each of: sheets, braces, clewlines, and reef tackles, plus four buntlines, each of which may be controlled by a crew member as the sail is adjusted. Towards the end of the Age of Sail, steam-powered machinery reduced the number of crew required to trim sail.


title: Sailing

text: Adjustment of the angle of a fore-and-aft sail with respect to the apparent wind is controlled with a line, called a "sheet". On points of sail between close-hauled and a broad reach, the goal is typically to create flow along the sail to maximize power through lift. Streamers placed on the surface of the sail, called tell-tales, indicate whether that flow is smooth or turbulent. Smooth flow on both sides indicates proper trim. A jib and mainsail are typically configured to be adjusted to create a smooth laminar flow, leading from one to the other in what is called the "slot effect".


title: Sailing

text: On downwind points of sail, power is achieved primarily with the wind pushing on the sail, as indicated by drooping tell-tales. Spinnakers are light-weight, large-area, highly curved sails that are adapted to sailing off the wind.


title: Sailing

text: In addition to using the sheets to adjust the angle with respect to the apparent wind, other lines control the shape of the sail, notably the outhaul, halyard, boom vang and backstay. These control the curvature that is appropriate to the windspeed, the higher the wind, the flatter the sail. When the wind strength is greater than these adjustments can accommodate to prevent overpowering the sailing craft, then reducing sail area through reefing, substituting a smaller sail or by other means.


title: Sailing

text: Reducing sail on square-rigged ships could be accomplished by exposing less of each sail, by tying it off higher up with reefing points. Additionally, as winds get stronger, sails can be furled or removed from the spars, entirely until the vessel is surviving hurricane-force winds under "bare poles".


title: Sailing

text: On fore-and-aft rigged vessels, reducing sail may furling the jib and by reefing or partially lowering the mainsail, that is reducing the area of a sail without actually changing it for a smaller sail. This results both in a reduced sail area but also in a lower centre of effort from the sails, reducing the heeling moment and keeping the boat more upright.


title: Sailing

text: Each is a reaction to forces on sails and is achieved either by weight distribution or by management of the center of force of the underwater foils (keel, daggerboard, etc.), compared with the center of force on the sails.


title: Sailing

text: A sailing vessel's form stability (the resistance of hull shape to rolling) is the starting point for resisting heeling. Catamarans and iceboats have a wide stance that makes them resistant to heeling. Additional measures for trimming a sailing craft to control heeling include:


title: Sailing

text: The alignment of center of force of the sails with center of resistance of the hull and its appendices controls whether the craft will track straight with little steering input, or whether correction needs to be made to hold it away from turning into the wind (a weather helm) or turning away from the wind (a lee helm). A center of force behind the center of resistance causes a weather helm. The center of force ahead of the center of resistance causes a lee helm. When the two are closely aligned, the helm is neutral and requires little input to maintain course.


title: Sailing

text: Fore-and-aft weight distribution changes the cross-section of a vessel in the water. Small sailing craft are sensitive to crew placement. They are usually designed to have the crew stationed midships to minimize hull drag in the water.


title: Sailing

text: Seamanship encompasses all aspects of taking a sailing vessel in and out of port, navigating it to its destination, and securing it at anchor or alongside a dock. Important aspects of seamanship include employing a common language aboard a sailing craft and the management of lines that control the sails and rigging.


title: Sailing

text: Nautical terms for elements of a vessel: starboard (right-hand side), port or larboard (left-hand side), forward or fore (frontward), aft or abaft (rearward), bow (forward part of the hull), stern (aft part of the hull), beam (the widest part). Spars, supporting sails, include masts, booms, yards, gaffs and poles. Moveable lines that control sails or other equipment are known collectively as a vessel's running rigging. Lines that raise sails are called "halyards" while those that strike them are called "downhauls". Lines that adjust (trim) the sails are called "sheets". These are often referred to using the name of the sail they control (such as "main sheet" or "jib sheet"). "Guys" are used to control the ends of other spars such as spinnaker poles. Lines used to tie a boat up when alongside are called "docklines", "docking cables" or "mooring warps". A "rode" is what attaches an anchored boat to its anchor.


title: Sailing

text: The physics of sailing arises from a balance of forces between the wind powering the sailing craft as it passes over its sails and the resistance by the sailing craft against being blown off course, which is provided in the water by the keel, rudder, underwater foils and other elements of the underbody of a sailboat, on ice by the runners of an iceboat, or on land by the wheels of a sail-powered land vehicle.


title: Sailing

text: Forces on sails depend on wind speed and direction and the speed and direction of the craft. The speed of the craft at a given point of sail contributes to the "apparent wind"—the wind speed and direction as measured on the moving craft. The apparent wind on the sail creates a total aerodynamic force, which may be resolved into drag—the force component in the direction of the apparent wind—and lift—the force component normal (90°) to the apparent wind. Depending on the alignment of the sail with the apparent wind ("angle of attack"), lift or drag may be the predominant propulsive component. Depending on the angle of attack of a set of sails with respect to the apparent wind, each sail is providing motive force to the sailing craft either from lift-dominant attached flow or drag-dominant separated flow. Additionally, sails may interact with one another to create forces that are different from the sum of the individual contributions of each sail, when used alone.


title: Sailing

text: The term "velocity" refers both to speed and direction. As applied to wind, "apparent wind velocity" (V) is the air velocity acting upon the leading edge of the most forward sail or as experienced by instrumentation or crew on a moving sailing craft. In nautical terminology, wind speeds are normally expressed in knots and wind angles in degrees. All sailing craft reach a constant "forward velocity" (V) for a given "true wind velocity" (V) and "point of sail". The craft's point of sail affects its velocity for a given true wind velocity. Conventional sailing craft cannot derive power from the wind in a "no-go" zone that is approximately 40° to 50° away from the true wind, depending on the craft. Likewise, the directly downwind speed of all conventional sailing craft is limited to the true wind speed. As a sailboat sails further from the wind, the apparent wind becomes smaller and the lateral component becomes less; boat speed is highest on the beam reach. To act like an airfoil, the sail on a sailboat is sheeted further out as the course is further off the wind. As an iceboat sails further from the wind, the apparent wind increases slightly and the boat speed is highest on the broad reach. In order to act like an airfoil, the sail on an iceboat is sheeted in for all three points of sail.


title: Sailing

text: "Lift" on a sail, acting as an airfoil, occurs in a direction "perpendicular" to the incident airstream (the apparent wind velocity for the headsail) and is a result of pressure differences between the windward and leeward surfaces and depends on the angle of attack, sail shape, air density, and speed of the apparent wind. The lift force results from the average pressure on the windward surface of the sail being higher than the average pressure on the leeward side. These pressure differences arise in conjunction with the curved airflow. As air follows a curved path along the windward side of a sail, there is a pressure gradient perpendicular to the flow direction with higher pressure on the outside of the curve and lower pressure on the inside. To generate lift, a sail must present an "angle of attack" between the chord line of the sail and the apparent wind velocity. The angle of attack is a function of both the craft's point of sail and how the sail is adjusted with respect to the apparent wind.


title: Sailing

text: As the lift generated by a sail increases, so does lift-induced drag, which together with parasitic drag constitute total "drag", which acts in a direction "parallel" to the incident airstream. This occurs as the angle of attack increases with sail trim or change of course and causes the lift coefficient to increase up to the point of aerodynamic stall along with the lift-induced drag coefficient. At the onset of stall, lift is abruptly decreased, as is lift-induced drag. Sails with the apparent wind behind them (especially going downwind) operate in a stalled condition.


title: Sailing

text: Lift and drag are components of the total aerodynamic force on sail, which are resisted by forces in the water (for a boat) or on the traveled surface (for an iceboat or land sailing craft). Sails act in two basic modes; under the "lift-predominant" mode, the sail behaves in a manner analogous to a "wing" with airflow attached to both surfaces; under the "drag-predominant" mode, the sail acts in a manner analogous to a "parachute" with airflow in detached flow, eddying around the sail.


title: Sailing

text: Sails allow progress of a sailing craft to windward, thanks to their ability to generate lift (and the craft's ability to resist the lateral forces that result). Each sail configuration has a characteristic coefficient of lift and attendant coefficient of drag, which can be determined experimentally and calculated theoretically. Sailing craft orient their sails with a favorable angle of attack between the entry point of the sail and the apparent wind even as their course changes. The ability to generate lift is limited by sailing too close to the wind when no effective angle of attack is available to generate lift (causing luffing) and sailing sufficiently off the wind that the sail cannot be oriented at a favorable angle of attack to prevent the sail from stalling with flow separation.


title: Sailing

text: When sailing craft are on a course where the angle between the sail and the apparent wind (the angle of attack) exceeds the point of maximum lift, separation of flow occurs. Drag increases and lift decreases with increasing angle of attack as the separation becomes progressively pronounced until the sail is perpendicular to the apparent wind, when lift becomes negligible and drag predominates. In addition to the sails used upwind, spinnakers provide area and curvature appropriate for sailing with separated flow on downwind points of sail, analogous to parachutes, which provide both lift and drag.


title: Sailing

text: Wind speed increases with height above the surface; at the same time, wind speed may vary over short periods of time as gusts.


title: Sailing

text: Wind shear affects sailing craft in motion by presenting a different wind speed and direction at different heights along the mast. Wind shear occurs because of friction above a water surface slowing the flow of air. The ratio of wind at the surface to wind at a height above the surface varies by a power law with an exponent of 0.11-0.13 over the ocean. This means that a wind at 3 m above the water would be approximately at above the water. In hurricane-force winds with at the surface the speed at would be This suggests that sails that reach higher above the surface can be subject to stronger wind forces that move the centre of effort on them higher above the surface and increase the heeling moment. Additionally, apparent wind direction moves aft with height above water, which may necessitate a corresponding twist in the shape of the sail to achieve attached flow with height.


title: Sailing

text: Gusts may be predicted by the same value that serves as an exponent for wind shear, serving as a gust factor. So, one can expect gusts to be about 1.5 times stronger than the prevailing wind speed (a 10-knot wind might gust up to 15 knots). This, combined with changes in wind direction suggest the degree to which a sailing craft must adjust sail angle to wind gusts on a given course.


title: Sailing

text: Waterborne sailing craft rely on the design of the hull and keel to provide minimal forward drag in opposition to the sails' propulsive power and maximum resistance to the sails' lateral forces. In modern sailboats, drag is minimized by control of the hull's shape (blunt or fine), appendages, and slipperiness. The keel or other underwater foils provide the lateral resistance to forces on the sails. Heeling increases both drag and the ability of the boat to track along its desired course. Wave generation for a displacement hull is another important limitation on boat speed.


title: Sailing

text: Drag from its form is described by a prismatic coefficient, C = displaced volume of the vessel divided by waterline length times maximum displaced section area—the maximum value of C = 1.0 being for a constant displace cross section area, as would be found on a barge. For modern sailboats, values of 0.53 ≤ C ≤ 0.6 are likely because of the tapered shape of the submerged hull towards both ends. Reducing interior volume allows creating a finer hull with less drag. Because a keel or other underwater foil produces lift, it also produces drag, which increases as the boat heels. Wetted area of the hull affects total the amount of friction between the water and the hull's surface, creating another component of drag.


title: Sailing

text: Sailboats use some sort of underwater foil to generate lift that maintains the forward direction of the boat under sail. Whereas sails operate at angles of attack between 10° to 90° incident to the wind, underwater foils operate at angles of attack between 0° to 10° incident to the water passing by. Neither their angle of attack nor surface is adjustable (except for moveable foils) and they are never intentionally stalled. Heeling the vessel away from perpendicular into the water significantly degrades the boat's ability to point into the wind.


title: Sailing

text: Hull speed is the speed at which the wavelength of a vessel's bow wave is equal to its waterline length and is proportional to the square root of the vessel's length at the waterline. Applying more power does not significantly increase the speed of a displacement vessel beyond hull speed. This is because the vessel is climbing up an increasingly steep bow wave with the addition of power without the wave propagating forward faster.


title: Sailing

text: Planing and foiling vessels are not limited by hull speed, as they rise out of the water without building a bow wave with the application of power. Long narrow hulls, such as those of catamarans, surpass hull speed by piercing through the bow wave. Hull speed does not apply to sailing craft on ice runners or wheels because they do not displace water.


title: Berthier rifle

text: The Berthier rifles and carbines were a family of bolt-action small arms in 8mm Lebel, used in the French Army, and French Colonial Forces, from the 1890s to the beginning of World War II (1940). After the introduction of the Lebel rifle in 1886, the French Army wanted a repeating carbine using the same ammunition as the Lebel to replace their single shot carbine based on the Gras rifle. At the time, many armies based their carbines on their standard rifle model, however the Lebel rifle's tube magazine made it difficult to follow this approach. The Modele 1890 Berthier Cavalry Carbine addressed this issue by combining a modified Lebel action with an en-bloc clip magazine. With its successful cavalry introduction, the Berthier would go on to be produced in many different carbine and full-length rifle versions.


title: Berthier rifle

text: The Berthier was originally introduced as a partial replacement for the French 1886 Lebel rifle. The Lebel, a revolutionary concept at the time of its introduction because of its smokeless high-velocity, small-caliber cartridge, still used a tube-fed magazine and other details carried over from black-powder designs. By 1900, the Lebel was already obsolete in comparison to other newer magazine-fed rifles introduced by Mauser, Lee, and Mannlicher. With its tube-fed magazine, the Lebel was long, ungainly and distinctly muzzle-heavy when loaded, difficult to manufacture, was overly complex in construction. Most notably, the Lebel proved very slow in reloading compared to newer rifle designs. On horseback, carbine versions of the Lebel proved almost impossible to reload while on the move, while shortening the barrel to carbine length resulted in feeding problems due to an unreliable tube magazine that were never resolved. Mounted security forces, cavalry units, and artillery units in colonial services were forced to use single shot Mle 1874 carbines, most not even converted to fire the modern 8mm Lebel ammunition, against insurrectionist forces who were sometimes better armed than government forces. A replacement for the Lebel was clearly required, at least for mounted troops.


title: Berthier rifle

text: Named after its inventor, André Virgile Paul Marie Berthier, a French civilian engineer in the Algerian railways, the Berthier's three-shot vertical-feed Mannlicher-type en bloc magazine could be loaded by clips, greatly increasing reloading speed, a particular convenience for cavalry and other mounted troops. A spring-loaded arm fed cartridges to the breech, and when all cartridges had been loaded, the empty clip fell out by gravity through an opening in the bottom of the magazine. The small 3-shot magazine capacity was adopted after field testing, where the cavalry expressed a preference for a non-protruding magazine that did not interfere with the balance or handling of the rifle. The Berthier carbine was adopted by the French Army on March 14, 1890, and a short rifle version of the Berthier rifle was adopted in 1907. French records indicate that in excess of two million Berthier rifles and carbines were manufactured by the French State manufactures supplemented by civilian industries. Like the Mle 1886 lebel, the Berthier lacked a mechanical safety; French training protocols called for soldiers to carry their rifle with loaded magazine but without a round in the chamber until ordered to load rifles by an NCO or officer in charge. France employed large numbers of colonial troops with limited technological experience, and since colonial combat conditions in North Africa and Indochina were extremely hard on service weapons, carrying with an empty chamber was considered superior to reliance on a mechanical safety, since a rifle with no round in the chamber could never go off, unlike a rifle whose safety was not properly engaged or had malfunctioned due to grit or wear.


title: Berthier rifle

text: At the outbreak of World War I, the Model 1907 Berthier rifle was modified for mass manufacturing, resulting in the Mdle 07/15. The sights, barrel band, and stacking hook were simplified to increase the rate of production. While the original 1907 rifle incorporated a cruciform bayonet, the 07/15 was modified to take the same bayonet as the Lebel, simplifying supply. The turned-down bolt handle was changed to a simpler straight bolt.


title: Berthier rifle

text: During World War I, it was quickly recognized that the Berthier's three-shot magazine was simply too small in comparison to foreign weapons, requiring too-frequent reloading. Additionally, it was found that trench mud and grit could enter the weapon through the opening in the bottom of the magazine. To correct these issues, the Model 1916 Berthier rifle was introduced with a five-round en-bloc clip. The clip discharge opening at the bottom of the protruding magazine was replaced by a spring loaded trapdoor to keep out dirt and debris. This improved 5-shot design was then fitted to existing rifle and carbine-length Berthier models (Mle 1907/15, Mle 1890M16, 1892M16 and Mle 1916 ""mousquetons"" ). In response to changing combat situations at the front, which had evolved from a war of maneuever into static trench warfare and frequent night raids, many Berthier rifles were also fitted with sights designed specifically for close range or night combat, using radium paint to improve visibility in poor light or darkness.


title: Berthier rifle

text: The Kingdom of Greece, fighting alongside the allies, received large number of Berthiers during the war, especially Mle 07/15 rifles and Mle 1892 M16 carbines.


title: Berthier rifle

text: Many Model 1916 rifles and carbines were produced too late to see service in World War I, but were used after the war, particularly in colonial service.


title: Berthier rifle

text: The Greek Army of Asia Minor received 10,000 Berthier Mle 07/15 and Mle 1892 M16 to fight against the Turks.


title: Berthier rifle

text: The Spanish Republic received between 37,400 and 50,000 Berthier rifles and carbines from Poland during the Spanish Civil War.


title: Berthier rifle

text: Berthier rifles and carbines continued in service during the Second World War in all branches of French service, including infantry and mounted units. Colonial and Foreign Legion forces in particular continued to use the Mle 1916 Berthier due to a shortage of the new MAS-36 bolt-action rifle. Despite the advent of the MAS-36, the French Army did not have enough of the new rifles to equip even half of its frontline interior troops. Berthier Model 1916 (original and converted) 5-shot rifles and carbines saw action in both France and Norway. After the fall of France in 1940, the Berthier could be found in service with both Vichy and Free French units. Selected Berthier Mle 1907/15-M16 (Fusil Mle 1916) rifles were fitted with telescopic sights and used, along with scoped Mle 1886/M93 rifles, by marksmen detailed to serve with some French units. In September 1938, the French Army also introduced the "corps franc", special formations of infiltration and deep reconnaissance soldiers formed into "l'equipe" or assault teams. These elite reconnaissance and infiltration troops were equipped with a variety of small arms, including a combat knife, a handgun, grenades, and Berthier Mle 1892/M16 carbines.


title: Berthier rifle

text: The Mle 1890M16, 1892M16 and Mle 1916 ""mousquetons"" ) were again used by French Foreign Legion and some colonial infantry and cavalry units, including the French Spahis. The Greek Army still fielded Berthier Mle 07/15M16 rifles during the Greco-Italian War, most being used in second-line units. The Third Reich issued many captured Berthier carbines to German occupation forces in France, mainly to Atlantic Wall units, the M34 variant received the German identification code Gewehr 241(f). Some were used by police units fighting partisans in various eastern European countries including security units operating at the rear of German front lines in Soviet Union.


title: Berthier rifle

text: After World War II, most Berthier rifles were retired, except for some rifles held by indigenous units and reserve forces. However, the Berthier carbine with a five-round clip ( Mle 1890 M16, 1892 M16 and Mle 1916 ""mousquetons"" ) was again utilized by French Foreign Legion and some overseas colonial infantry and cavalry units, including the French Spahis, French motorized cavalry units, and frontier border guards. Mdle 1916 and later versions of Berthier carbines were retained in some French law enforcement units (e.g. the "Compagnies Republicaines de Securite" or "CRS") as late as the 1980s.


title: Berthier rifle

text: Berthiers were chambered in the same cartridge as the Lebel, the 8x50mm Lebel, which was the first to be loaded with smokeless powder (Poudre B). The Berthier used a simplified and smoother version of the Lebel bolt, but the main differences were a great reduction in weight, moving parts, tooling and an increase in operating speed. This is due in no small part to the magazine system, which was redesigned more similar to a Mannlicher-type design, where it was loaded with 3-round (later 5-round) clips, chargers, or packets. Though the Lebel's original capacity of 8 rounds was reduced, the Berthier was more popular due to the efficiency of operation and the increased speed of reloading, which more closely matched the capabilities of foreign rifles such as the Mauser and the Lee-Enfield. The occasional use, outside France, of the term "Mannlicher" to designate weapons of the Berthier system is due to the "en bloc" clip disposition which was borrowed from the real Mannlicher rifles and carbines. Otherwise the Berthier weapons, and particularly their bolts, are not derived from Mannlicher rifles or carbines but rather from the Lebel rifle system. Like Carcanos, Berthiers; other than using a Mannlicher-type magazine system, bear no other resemblance to true Mannlichers and should not be addressed as such.


title: Berthier rifle

text: Berthier rifles and carbines do not have any form of applied (mechanical) safety. If the bolt is cocked and closed and the trigger is pulled, the firing pin "will" be released. Extreme care must be exercised when handling a loaded Berthier rifle or carbine. To safely unload a Berthier rifle or carbine once a clip has been inserted in the magazine, point the rifle in a safe direction, open the bolt and depress the clip release button located at the front of the trigger guard. The clip should spring up and out of the rifle. If it appears to stick, insert a finger into the opening at the bottom of the magazine and gently push up on the bottom of the follower, pushing the clip release button at the same time. The loaded clip should slide up out of the magazine.


title: Berthier rifle

text: The Berthier design began as the "Mousquetons Berthier" - a series of bolt-action cavalry and artillery carbines with distinctly different actions from the Mle 1886/M93 8mm Lebel rifle. For instance, the Berthier carbine's bolt lugs lock vertically into the receiver instead of horizontally as in the Lebel rifle. Berthier carbines were first issued in 1890 and 1892, and had been designed by Emile Berthier, an engineer at the French Algerian Railways, to be used with standard 8mm Lebel ammunition.


title: Berthier rifle

text: The Berthier design was introduced as a replacement for the various aging Mle 1874 Gras single-shot carbines - still standard for French cavalry, artillery, and gendarme forces even after the introduction of the Mle 1886/M93 Lebel. Prior experiments with several carbine versions of the Lebel action proved unacceptably heavy and slow to load while on horseback. While retaining most of the action's strong points, the Berthier carbine improved on the earlier Mle 1886 rifle by using a one-piece stock and a Mannlicher-style, charger-loaded "en bloc" 3 shot clip. These Berthier carbines were progressively allocated to all cavalry, artillery and gendarmerie troops during the 1890s.


title: Berthier rifle

text: After the adoption of the new Lebel Model 1886 rifle, French military authorities attempted to develop a carbine version of the rifle for mounted troops. A prototype carbine was created by simply shortening the existing barrel, forearm, and magazine tube of the Mle 1886 rifle. However, this design was soon rejected for insufficient accuracy, as well as being too slow and cumbersome to reload with single cartridges while on horseback. In response, the French Army held a series of rifle trials in 1887 to select a suitable carbine. One of the prototypes submitted was designed by Émile Berthier, a mechanical engineer in the Compagnie Bône-Guelma (one of the five subsidiary companies of the Algerian Railway System). Berthier's design for the original carbine was adopted in 1890 as the Mle 1890, utilizing a 3-round en-bloc clip. The first Berthier carbine came into production as the "Carabine de Cavalerie Modèle 1890", which was officially adopted for service on March 14, 1890. The main production facilities were the Manufacture d'Armes de St Etienne or MAS and the Manufacture d'Armes de Chatellerault or MAC. The search for a suitable small arm for mounted troops was given greater urgency by the Germans' development of the Karabiner Modell 1888, a carbine variant of the Gewehr 1888. It was issued to essentially all French artillery and cavalry troops. As the high Command appreciated the performance of the Mle 1890 Berthier carbine, a second version was specifically produced for artillery service, the " Mousqueton Mle 1892" which could mount a short blade bayonet and thus had a re-designed forend stock. However it continued to feature the 3-round En-bloc clip of the Model 1890 carbine. During the First World War it became obvious that the 3-round clip was a handicap compared to German short weapons such as the German Kar98AZ which had a 5-round clip.


title: Berthier rifle

text: The Berthier carbines (and later the rifles) used a lighter, streamlined receiver and a one-piece stock that departed from the Lebel Mle 1886/M93 rifle system. For instance, the locking lugs present on the bolt of Berthier weapons lock into the receiver vertically, instead of horizontally as in the Lebel rifle. Like the Mle 1886/M93, the Berthier carbine was designed for the 8mm Lebel cartridge, but it was loaded by a three-round en-bloc Mannlicher-style clip. In line with the usual Mannlicher magazine design, designers included a large opening at the bottom of the magazine well, in part to verify if the carbine was loaded with a charger of cartridges. During World War I, after complaints from combat troops regarding the limited capacity of the 3-round charger and mud ingress into the well opening, the Berthier's magazine was increased to hold a 5-round "en bloc" charger. Furthermore, a hinged metal plate covering the bottom opening of the magazine well was added. The final result was the Mle 1892 M16 5-shot carbine which was well received, but did not appear on the front lines until the summer of 1918. Though inferior overall to Mauser's double-column box magazines, the Berthier weapons had to retain the Mannlicher "en bloc" system, as the rimmed and tapered 8mm Lebel cartridge could not feed properly from a Mauser-style box magazine. The Berthier Mle 1892 M16 carbine, with a 5-round charger, had a deserved reputation of solidity and reliability that kept it in service until the early 1960s.


title: Berthier rifle

text: After the success of the Berthier carbines or mousquetons, two full-length Berthier rifles were introduced during the years preceding World War I. They were the "fusil Mle 1902" ("rifle, model of 1902") and the "fusil Mle 1907", which were issued respectively to Indochinese and Senegalese Tirailleur troops. Lighter and easier to handle and load than the Mle 1886/M93 Lebel rifle, the Berthier rifles proved more suitable for offhand shooting and easier to maintain in tropical environments. In comparison to the Mle 1886 Lebel, the Berthier's sights were also wider, higher and more substantial. Like their shorter carbine counterparts, these Berthier rifles also featured a Mannlicher-type 3-round "en bloc" clip-loaded magazine and used 8 mm Lebel ammunition. The Mle 1902 and Mle 1907 were made on special order and in small numbers (altogether about 5,000 rifles) by the Manufacture d'Armes de Châtellerault.


title: Berthier rifle

text: During World War I, a modified version of the 3-round clip "Mle" 1907 rifle called "Fusil Mle 1907/15" was manufactured in large numbers (altogether 435,000 rifles) and issued to colonial troops, to the French Foreign Legion and to many minor allies (e.g. Russian Legion in France, Serbia, Greece, American Expeditionary Force African-American regiments detached to the French Army). It was also issued to some French regular infantry regiments after 1916 in order to bring relief to an endemic shortage of the Lebel rifle although well over 2 million Lebel rifles had already been produced between 1887 and 1917. Both the MAS (Manufacture d'armes de Saint-Étienne) and the MAC (Manufacture d'armes de Châtellerault) were the principal state contractors for the Mle 1907/15 rifle. French civilian contractors ("Automobiles Delaunay-Belleville", "Établissement Continsouza" and "Manufacture Parisienne d'Armes et de Mecanique Generale") also participated massively in the industrial production of the Mle 1907/15 rifle.


title: Berthier rifle

text: Remington UMC also contracted to produce a French Army order for 200,000 Mle 1907/15 rifles. Although very well finished, the Remington order was rejected by French Government acceptance inspectors, who alleged that the rifles did not meet French barrel rifling and chamber dimensional standards. The contract was canceled after approximately half of the rifles were manufactured; and those rifles were sold on the private market. Rifles issued to American 'African-American soldiers of the US 93rd Division', were of French manufacture and not US made (B. Canfield, US Weapons of WW1). Many of these rifles subsequently appeared on the surplus market in the United States, often converted for hunting or sporting purposes. These rifles hold special significance to African-American historians. In combat service, most infantrymen found the Berthier rifles and carbines, with their one-piece stocks and fast-loading "en bloc" magazine, to be an improvement. However, the limited ammunition capacity of the Berthier Mle 1907/15's magazine (3 rounds) was viewed as a great disadvantage by troops in close contact with the enemy or participating in assaults or trench raids.


title: Berthier rifle

text: In response, French military authorities introduced a modified Berthier rifle in 1916, designated "Fusil Mle 1907/15-M16 " but generally called the 1916 rifle ("Fusil Modele 1916"). The new rifle had a re-designed magazine well, which now could hold "en-bloc" clips with a 5-round capacity, though they would still accept the original 3-round chargers. These rifles saw service in all branches of the French army mostly after 1918. They were still used by Compagnies Republicaines de Securite or C.R.S. until the 1960s for law enforcement purposes. The Mle 1916 Berthier infantry rifle only appeared on the front lines in small numbers during the late summer of 1918. With its greater cartridge capacity, it was better received than the Mle 1907/15 rifle and later became widely issued to infantry troops during the post-war years after their production had intensified . Nevertheless, some commanders continued to lobby for reissuance of the older Mle 1886/M93 Lebel for their infantry troops. After World War I, the French Foreign Legion, which carried the 3-shot Mle 1907-15 during most of its post-1916 combat operations, was re-equipped with the older Mle 1886/M93 Lebel rifle.


title: Berthier rifle

text: The most successful and long-lived variant of the Berthier system was the short and handy carbine version of the five-shot Mle 1916 Berthier rifle, designated "'Mousqueton Berthier Mle 1892/M16". Contrary to the Mle 1916 Berthier five-shot infantry rifle whose manufacture had barely started during the late summer of 1918, the mass production ( "over 800.000 "mousquetons"" ) of the Berthier Mle 1916 five-shot carbines had begun much earlier, in May 1917, at the Manufacture d'Armes de Chatellerault (MAC) . The Berthier M-16 five-shot carbine immediately proved to be very popular with mounted cavalry, artillery, and reconnaissance troops. It was still in service with some French law enforcement units as late as the 1960s.


title: Berthier rifle

text: After World War I, the French military sought to replace the 8mm Lebel cartridge, which was poorly suited to large-capacity rifle magazines and to automatic or semi-automatic weapons. After considerable delay, a modern 7.5mm mle 1929 rimless cartridge was finally introduced for the FM 24/29 light machine gun. Berthier rifles were converted ("Fusil Mle 1907/15-M34") or newly manufactured ("Fusil Mle 1934") to make use of the new round. However, this was merely an interim measure, as the French Army adopted the MAS-36 as its new standard bolt-action rifle. In the end, the production of converted Mle 1907/15-M34 Berthier rifles was limited to approximately 80,000 units.


title: Berthier rifle

text: In 1948, The Turkish Forest Service began issuing three-shot Berthier carbines, full-length rifles were altered to utilize a Mannlicher-style stock. These rifles, known to collectors as "Turkish Forestry Carbines", were used to protect the Caucasian walnut forests from illegal logging.


title: Johnny Strong

text: John Christopher Strong (born July 22, 1974) is an American actor, composer, and musician. He is best known for his roles in "Black Hawk Down" (as Medal of Honor recipient Randy Shughart) and "The Fast and the Furious" as Leon. Aside from acting, Strong is also the lead vocalist and founder of the band Operator, movie composer, movie writer and movie producer.


title: Johnny Strong

text: Strong was born in Los Angeles County, California. At the age of 7 he began studying martial arts, taking up Judo in the San Fernando Valley. He went on to learn Kickboxing, Jeet Kune Do, Boxing, and eventually earned a black belt in Brazilian jiu-jitsu under Chris Lisciandro. At 12, he began to play guitar and taught himself to play drums, bass, and piano.


title: Johnny Strong

text: He was signed to two major labels RCA and Atlantic Records. He has released nine albums: "Bombthreat: Before She Blows" and "Fly" and "Lick My Neck Good Sleep" with his former band, and "Can You Hear Me Now?", "La Luna Del Diablo" "Blanco, Soulcrusher", "The War of Art", "Close to Extinction", "War Horse" and "White Light with" Operator band.


title: Johnny Strong

text: Strong has had various roles in television, and landed a role in the Steven Seagal film "The Glimmer Man". He then worked on Sylvester Stallone's "Get Carter", "The Fast and The Furious", and "Black Hawk Down". Strong stars in "Sinners & Saints", a New Orleans-based police thriller featuring Sean Patrick Flanery and Tom Berenger released in 2012.


title: Johnny Strong

text: 2010 marked his return to the screen, starring in "Sinners and Saints", an action-thriller film, as Detective Sean Riley.


title: Apna Dal (Sonelal)

text: Apna Dal (Sonelal) is an Indian political party active in the Uttar Pradesh. The party finds its support base mainly in the Kurmi community in the region of Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh.


title: Apna Dal (Sonelal)

text: The Apna Dal (Sonelal) is a breakaway party of Apna Dal which was founded in 1995 by Dr. Sone Lal Patel, a politician belonging to the Kurmi caste. Apna Dal (Sonelal) founded by Jawahar Lal Patel who was also founding member of Apna Dal and had the backing of Anupriya Patel.


title: Apna Dal (Sonelal)

text: After winning the election to parliament seat from Mirzapur, Anupriya Patel resigned her state assembly seat and therefore a by-election from Rohaniya became necessary. Anupriya wanted that her husband, Ashish Singh Patel, should be made the party candidate for the by-election.


title: Apna Dal (Sonelal)

text: However, the Apna Dal's governing body, headed by her mother Krishna Singh, decided that Krishna Singh should herself be the candidate. This was intended to limit the influence of Anupriya and her husband in party affairs, where they were taking charge of all matters without any invitation or authorization, which was resented by Krishna Singh and her younger daughter. In the by-election which was held in October 2014, Anupriya not only failed to campaign for her mother, but allegedly also worked actively to ensure her defeat.


title: Apna Dal (Sonelal)

text: However, the Apna Dal's governing body, headed by her mother Krishna Patel, decided that Krishna Patel should herself be the candidate and Anupriya and six of her associates were expelled from the party. The dispute between Krishna Patel and Anupriya Patel over the party is still in court.


title: Apna Dal (Sonelal)

text: As part of the National Democratic Alliance, Apna Dal (Sonelal) contested Uttar Pradesh elections with the Bhartiya Janata Party and won 9 seats with 851,336 votes. Jamuna Prasad won the Soraon constituency with 77814 votes. Apna Dal (Sonelal) had won more seats than Indian National Congress who won only 7 seats.


title: Apna Dal (Sonelal)

text: As part of the National Democratic Alliance, Apna Dal (Sonelal) contested Uttar Pradesh elections with the Bhartiya Janata Party and won 12 seats with 1,493,181 votes. Apna Dal (Sonelal) had won more seats than Indian National Congress who won only 2 seats. Apna Dal reached 3'rd spot after Bharatiya Janata Party and Samajwadi Party in terms of number of seats in UP assembly.


title: Apna Dal (Sonelal)

text: In 2019 Indian general election, ADS joined hands with Bhartiya Janata Party and fielded two candidates Anupriya Patel Singh from Mirzapur and Pakauri Lal from Robertsganj and won both the seats.


title: Pontiac G6

text: The Pontiac G6 is a mid-size car that was produced by General Motors under the Pontiac brand. It was introduced in 2004 for the 2005 model year to replace the Grand Am.


title: Pontiac G6

text: The G6 shared the GM Epsilon platform with the Chevrolet Malibu, Saab 9-3 and other General Motors vehicles. Features included a remote starting system (standard on GT, optional on base model), traction control/ABS, electronic stability control, automatic headlights as well as a panoramic sunroof option. A retractable hardtop convertible was offered for model years 2006-2009. Production ended in 2010 with the discontinuation of the Pontiac line.


title: Pontiac G6

text: With the G6, Pontiac introduced a two-digit naming convention, with the Pontiac G8 a class above the G6 and the Pontiac G5 a class below. In the case of the G6, the nameplate designated it as the sixth generation of its predecessor, the Pontiac Grand Am.


title: Pontiac G6

text: The Pontiac G6 was first introduced at the 2003 North American International Auto Show as a concept car. The concept used a supercharged V6 that made 285 horsepower and 272 lb ft of torque mated to a 4T65-E electronically controlled automatic transmission. When the G6 was introduced in 2005, it had two trim levels, base "V6" and sportier "GT". Both trims, however, used a pushrod V6 producing and of torque. Matched to a four-speed automatic transmission, the GT featured TAPshift, where the driver could select the gears manually.


title: Pontiac G6

text: Base models were well equipped, featuring power locks, windows and mirrors with keyless entry, six-speaker CD stereo, power drivers seat, air conditioning and split folding rear seat. GTs added an eight-speaker Monsoon stereo, premium cloth seats with six-way adjustment, remote start, ABS and traction control.


title: Pontiac G6

text: In 2006, the G6 added two new trim levels and two new bodystyles, a coupe and a retractable hard top convertible. The new trim levels were a new base four-cylinder trim (sometimes referred to as "SE"), and the high performance "GTP". Coupes and convertibles were available in GT and GTP trims only. The new base model used a 169-horsepower, DOHC inline-4, mated to a four-speed automatic transmission. The V6 was now part of a sport-package on the base/SE, and remained standard on the GT. The new GTP used a version of the GT's V6, but also utilizes variable valve timing (VVT), increasing output to 240 horsepower. A four-speed automatic transmission was standard, but for no cost, a six-speed manual transmission was available. The GTP convertible was not available with the manual transmission and reduced its power to , due to a more restrictive exhaust system. The GTP also featured standard electronic stability control.


title: Pontiac G6

text: The 2007 G6 saw more engine changes, and standard side torso and side curtain airbags (actually introduced late in the 2006 model year) were new. The GT now featured VVT on its V6, raising power from to . The V6 became an option on the GT, producing 227 horsepower in automatic transmission form and 240 horsepower in manual transmission form. The GTP was given a new DOHC V6 with 24 valves and VVT, producing 252 horsepower at 6300 RPM. It is mated to a six-speed automatic transmission. Midway through the model year the six-speed manual was dropped with the , along with its 240-horsepower output. The GTP convertible was also discontinued. For 2008, the GTP became the GXP with more dramatic styling cues, and the engine became an exclusive convertible option, with horsepower down to 222. SAE ratings also dropped the horsepower ratings on the and models to and ( on convertibles), respectively.


title: Pontiac G6

text: For 2009, 2.4 L four-cylinder engines were added to the coupe lineup. An all new 6 speed automatic transmission, which debuted on the Chevrolet Malibu, became optional on 4 cylinder models. GM revised the G6 in the middle of 2009, creating a "2009.5" model year. Changes consisted of a revised front and rear fascia as well as a revision of the dashboard, most notably adding an updated radio with Bluetooth capability. Coupes and convertibles ceased production at the end of the 2009 model year, making examples with the 2009.5 changes fairly rare. Subsequent to this model's introduction, General Motors entered bankruptcy, and announced that the G6 sedan would be discontinued in 2010. Most other Pontiac models had been discontinued, but the G6 was in high-demand for fleet vehicle orders, facilitating production to continue while the brand was wound down. In 2010, the G6 had white back-lit dashboard lights instead of the traditional red, Pontiac color scheme.


title: Pontiac G6

text: GM began marketing the Buick brand in Mexico to replace Pontiac after the 2009 model year, GM replaced the Pontiac G6 competitively with the Buick Regal, and later in the United States & Canada, the G6 & the Saturn Aura were ultimately replaced by GM's revived Buick Regal nameplate.


title: Pontiac G6

text: Introduced in 2006, the G6's power-operated hydraulic retractable hardtop was engineered by the Pontiac, Michigan offices of Karmann Technical Development, L.L.C. It was manufactured as a roof module by Karmann and delivered in-sequence to General Motors’ Orion Assembly center.


title: Pontiac G6

text: Originally, development of the roof system was to be a joint venture with Karmann and ASC Inc., with Karmann later assuming the complete project. Subsequently, during Karmann's initial development, prototypes failed durability testing, delaying the convertible's launch, and threatening to scuttle the program if GM could not amortize the convertible's cost before the G6 was projected for redesign. The top needed to survive 16,000-20,000 cycles, but initially failed after fewer than 10,000. As well, prototypes had poor fit between the deck lid and rear fenders.


title: Pontiac G6

text: In production, the two-piece metal top featured insulation to provide internal sound and interior thermal levels commensurate with its coupe counterpart. Integrated into a structural member wrapping behind the rear seats, the top module was affixed to the car's structure with six bolts. The final structure achieved a stiffness measure of 25 hertz, comparable to industry competitors. A four-bar linkage system provided the rigidity and lateral stability necessary to cantilever retractable top components in various parked conditions, i.e., when parked on uneven surfaces. Top operation used seven hydraulic cylinders that activated and latched/unlatched the folding top, powered by one hydraulic pump.


title: Pontiac G6

text: General Motors reported that in production form, each top module successfully tested for 12,000 cycles, about twice the cycles the typical convertible endures in its lifetime. The convertible was tested under a variety of weather conditions, from arid desert to arctic conditions, and was extensivley water and environmental tested. In a 2006 road test, Autoweek note considerable cowl shake, as well as squeek-and-rattle issues.


title: Pontiac G6

text: After the transmission's Park function was engaged and the trunk's cargo panel deployed, top retraction took 30 seconds, with the two-piece top stacking in the trunk and the trunk lid, doubling as a tonneau cover. Cargo area with the top up was 5.8 cubic feet, and with the top down, 1.8 cubic feet (4.5 cubic feet with spare tire removed). GM said the G6 convertible had 34" of rear-seat legroom.


title: Pontiac G6

text: Ward's Automotive reported in 2008, that Karmann provided a revised, more robust retractable top, improving the panel-to-panel latch on the 2-piece clamshell lid, to eliminate squeaks and rattles issues. With its the quality issues, a late launch due to development problems, and slow sales, the G6 convertible was discontinued after model year 2009 and replaced by the Opel Cascada, marketed as a Buick in the U.S., in early 2016.


title: Pontiac G6

text: The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety gave the Pontiac G6 an overall "Good" score in the frontal offset crash test but an "Acceptable" score in the side impact crash test even though side airbags were introduced late in the 2006 model year. The lower side impact score was due in part to a marginal rating for the structure/safety cage category.


title: Pontiac G6

text: The 2005 GXP concept was built by General Motors Performance Division. It includes a HO VVTI V6 engine rated at , F40 six-speed manual transmission, performance intake, GM Performance cat-back exhaust with bright tips, and 19-inch wheels with Bridgestone Potenza RE040 255 series tires. It was unveiled at the 2004 SEMA Show, and was later sold on the eBay Motors website. The auction ended on May 3, 2009 with winning bid price of .


title: Pontiac G6

text: In a launch publicity stunt: "The Oprah Winfrey Show" gave 276 of the G6s to audience members on fall 2004 season premiere, complemented by a US$110 million publicity campaign.


title: Pontiac G6

text: On September 12, 2014, "Autoblog" followed up with the G6 winners on the tenth anniversary of the telecast. The winners interviewed learned that although they did "get a car" from Winfrey during the broadcast, in actuality they had to go to the Pontiac dealership in their area to pick up the G6 because the vehicles that were shown in the studio's parking lot were used as a promotion. One couple had to sell their G6s because they learned of tax implications that came with owning the car. Another kept hers even though her two friends who came with her to the taping no longer have theirs (one was sold, another was totaled in an accident) and hopes to give the G6 to her daughter in time for college, saying "I'm hoping to drive it until we can't drive it any more."


title: Pontiac G6

text: The G6 was used in the GT class of Rolex Sports Car Series as a replacement for the Pontiac GTO.R after the GTO went out of production. The cars are referred to as "GXP.R"s and built by GM's endorsed chassis constructor, Pratt & Miller.


title: Pontiac G6

text: It is powered by the LS2 V8 engine that produces approximately . Weight saving features include carbon fiber body panels, shatter-resistant polycarbonate windows. The custom tube-frame chassis is not related to the road car's chassis and the 6-speed gearbox delivers power to the rear wheels. The front and rear fenders flared to cover the wide, 18-inch wheels and class-spec Hoosier racing tires. A rear wing reminiscent of sports option package on the race car is fitted at the back, underneath the proper racing rear wing.


title: Pontiac G6

text: The G6 GXP also raced in the NHRA Powerade Drag Racing Series Pro Stock class for Warren Johnson Racing.


title: Pontiac G6

text: The first recall (NHTSA Campaign 06V417000) was for Pontiac G6 cars with aftermarket seat upgrades. To expedite sales at some dealerships, GM authorized seats to be replaced with leather seats as a dealer-installed option. This change could cause the passenger air bag sensor to not detect an occupant. GM took the rare step of buying back any cars that had this dealer installed option.


title: Pontiac G6

text: The second recall (NHTSA Campaign 09V036000) affected 8,012 MY 2005-2006 G6 vehicles, and corrected a potential corrosion that affected brake light wiring, and could cause brake lights to not illuminate.


title: Pontiac G6

text: On September 21, 2012, General Motors recalled 473,841 vehicles involving the Chevy Malibu, Pontiac G6 and Saturn Aura from model years 2007 through 2010 equipped with four-speed automatic transmissions. The problem is a condition that could make cars roll when in park. The recall affects 426,240 in the United States, 40,029 in Canada and 7,572 in other markets.


title: Pontiac G6

text: This recall is an expansion of a much smaller 2011 recall on certain 2009/2009.5 MY vehicles which experienced the same condition. GM expanded the recall in 2012 after finding the problem was not isolated to that model year.


title: Pontiac G6

text: In 2014 GM has recalled the vehicle regarding a condition in which the transmission shift cable may fracture. The fracture prevents the driver from selecting gears and may cause the vehicle to move in an unintended direction.


title: Hwarang

text: Hwarang, also known as Hwarang Corps, and Flowering Knights, were an elite warrior group of male youth in Silla, an ancient kingdom of the Korean Peninsula that lasted until the 10th century. There were educational institutions as well as social clubs where members gathered for all aspects of study, originally for arts and culture as well as religious teachings stemming mainly from Korean Buddhism. Chinese sources referred only to the physical beauty of the "Flower Youths". The history of the hwarang was not widely known until after the National Liberation Day of Korea in 1945, after which the hwarang became elevated to a symbolic importance.


title: Hwarang

text: The Hwarang were also referred to as "Hyangdo" ("fragrant ones" or "fragrant disciples" – 향도; 香徒), the word hwarang and its colloquial derivatives being used for everything from playboy to shaman or husband of a female shaman. The word remained in common use until the 12th century but with more derogatory connotations.


title: Hwarang

text: Information on the Hwarang are mainly found in the historiographical works "Samguk Sagi" (1145) and "Samgungnyusa" (c. 1285), and the partially extant "Haedong Goseungjeon" (1215), a compilation of biographies of famous monks of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.


title: Hwarang

text: All three of these works cite primary sources no longer existent, including 1) a memorial stele to Nallang (presumably a Hwarang based upon the suffix "nang") by the 9th–10th century Silla scholar Choe Chiwon; 2) an early Tang account of Silla titled the "Xinluo guoji" by the Tang official Ling Hucheng; and 3) "Hwarang Segi" (, "Chronicle of the Hwarang") by Kim Dae-mun, compiled in the early eighth century. In the late 1980s, an alleged "Hwarang Segi" manuscript was discovered in Gimhae, South Korea. Scholar Richard McBride regards it as a forgery.


title: Hwarang

text: According to the "Samguk Sagi" and "Samgungnyusa", two groups of women called Wonhwa (, , "original flowers") preceded the Hwarang. The precise nature and activities of the Wonhwa are also unclear, with some scholars positing they may have actually been court beauties or courtesans. However, considering that they were trained in ethics, this may be a later patriarchal reading into the Wonhwa. Women played a much more prominent social role in pre-Joseon Korea, especially in Silla, which had three reigning queens in its history.


title: Hwarang

text: Both sources record that during the reign of Jinheung of Silla, groups of beautiful girls were chosen and taught filial and fraternal piety, loyalty, and sincerity (no firm date is given for this, and some scholars express doubt this even occurred during Jinheung‘s reign). However, the leaders of the two bands of Wonhwa, Nammo (南毛) and Junjeong (俊貞), grew jealous of one another. When Junjeong murdered her rival, the Wonhwa were disbanded.


title: Hwarang

text: No doubt the details of this origin story are most likely based on myth and legend, despite the facts surrounding the foundation of the sect being true, as supported by various documented sources. First note that the term "wonhwa" is composed of won 源, "source", and undoubtedly refers to the founders of the sect, while hwa 花, "flower", is a euphemism for someone who has spent a great deal of time or money in the pursuit of something, i.e. a devotee. In the case of the Wonhwa, devotion to philosophy and the arts. Furthermore, while the names "nammo" and "junjeong" could have been appellations adopted by these two ladies for use in court, one cannot overlook the obvious descriptions they portray. "Nammo" hints at one who is careless yet lucky, or perhaps someone who is innately insightful and therefore lackadaisical about further erudition. "Junjeung" clearly indicates a person who is talented and virtuous, despite the fact that she was the one who succumbed to homicidal tendencies. It would be logical to assume that if someone had to work hard, maybe even struggle with attaining certain goals, that envy might consume them if their counterpart, especially if viewed more as a rival, seemed to reach the same objectives with substantially less effort.


title: Hwarang

text: Although some historians believe that the Hwarang played a big part in the unification of the Three Kingdoms, some historians are unclear about the role that the Hwarang played in the unification; An excerpt about Sadaham in the Samguk Sagi . According to the "Samguk Yusa", the Silla king, "concerned about the strengthening of the country ... again issued a decree and chose boys from good families who were of good morals and renamed them "hwarang"." The actual word used in this chronicle is "hwanang" (花娘), meaning "flower girls". This suggests that the Hwarang were not originally military in character, as the Wonhwa were not soldiers.


title: Hwarang

text: The youths who were chosen by the Silla Kingdom became the knights and warriors for the Silla Dynasty within the age of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. A close relationship did exist between the Hwarang and Buddhism because Buddhism was accepted as a state religion by the royalty and aristocrats within the Silla Kingdom. The Buddhist monks were often mentors for the Hwarang in both physical and spiritual ways. The Hwarang would seek the teachings of these Buddhist monks because they knew that the martial arts practiced by these Buddhist monks were a source through which they could strengthen themselves for greater success in the future and for the benefit of the Silla Kingdom. The monks would train themselves in physical fitness exercises through self-defense techniques, countering the weakening effects of long-term meditation and enabling them to protect themselves from bandits and robbers who tried to steal the donations and charities that were collected by the monks on their pilgrimages. Both the Buddhist monks and the Hwarang would go on journeys to famous mountains to heighten their training and would seek encounters with supernatural beings for protection and the success of the Silla Kingdom. Won Gwang Beop Sa (圓光法士) was a Buddhist monk who was asked by the Hwarang to teach them ways to develop ambition, bravery, and honor, in order to protect the Silla Kingdom from the other kingdoms inhabiting the peninsula. Won Gwang trained these youths in three areas:


title: Hwarang

text: Won Gwang taught the youths of the Hwarang to become warriors who could defend their beliefs with martial arts, to be confident in their actions, and to control themselves and their surroundings. Won Gwang gave to these Hwarang teachings in gwonbeop (martial methods or skills) that combined the secret Buddhist monk's physical and mental exercises. Won Gwang also proposed 5 principles or guidelines that were later called the "Five Precepts for Secular Life" (Se Sok O Gye; 세속오계; 世俗五戒) which became a list of ethics that the Hwarang could embrace (this is why he is commonly known as "Beop Sa" or "lawgiver"):


title: Hwarang

text: These commandments and teachings of Won Gwang were followed by the Hwarang to protect the Silla Kingdom from rival kingdoms and helped unify the nation of Ancient Korea until the fall of the Silla Kingdom.


title: Hwarang

text: In 520, King Beopheung had instituted Sino-Korean style reforms and formalized the golpum (bone rank) system. In 527, Silla formally adopted Buddhism as a state religion. The establishment of Hwarang took place in the context of tightening central state control, a complement to the "golpum" system and a symbol of harmony and compromise between the king and the aristocracy.


title: Hwarang

text: With the consolidation and expansion of Silla and intensification of military rivalries among the Three Kingdoms in the 6th century, the Silla court took a more active interest in the Hwarang. Hwarang groups were usually led by a youth of aristocratic standing, and the state appointed a high-ranking official to oversee the organization.


title: Hwarang

text: The Hwarang in the later 6th and 7th centuries trained in horsemanship, swordsmanship, archery, javelin and stone throwing, polo, and ladder-climbing. By the seventh century the organization had grown greatly in prestige and numbered several hundred bands.


title: Hwarang

text: The "Samguk Sagi", compiled by the general and official Gim Busik, emphasizes the military exploits of certain Hwarang, while the "Samgungnyusa" emphasizes the group's Buddhist activities. The biographies section of the "Samguk Sagi" describes young Hwarang who distinguished themselves in the struggles against the Gaya confederacy and later Baekje and Goguryeo. According to the "Hwarang Segi", as cited in the "Samguk Sagi" and "Haedong Goseungjeon", “...able ministers and loyal subjects are chosen from them, and good generals and brave soldiers are born therefrom.”


title: Hwarang

text: The Hwarang were greatly influenced by Buddhist, Confucian, and Daoist ideals. A Chinese official recorded, "They [Silla] choose fair sons from noble families and deck them out with cosmetics and fine clothes and call them Hwarang. The people all revere and serve them."


title: Hwarang

text: After establishing a Unified Silla, the Silla-Tang War, and reestablishing relations with the Tang Dynasty, the Hwarang lost much of their influence and prestige during peacetime. This group was reduced to a social club for Silla's elite through various names. They would eventually disappear after the fall of Silla, but they lasted through the Koryŏ Dynasty until they officially disbanded at the beginning of the Joseon Dynasty.


title: Hwarang

text: Historians have problems figuring out the leadership hierarchy within the Hwarang as they piece together different historical materials. For instance, historians thought the Pungwolju was a government position administering the Hwarang groups, a Hwarang leader, or a previous system within the Hwarang. Historians also dispute the Gukseon as Hwarang leaders appointed by the king or the Hwarang groups elect their members to lead their groups. Some historians believed the Pungwolju and Gukseon ranks might be synonymous with each other, and they both served as Hwarang leaders.


title: Hwarang

text: Two youths, Gwisan (귀산,貴山) and Chwihang (취항, 取項), approached the Silla monk Won Gwang (원광, 圓光) seeking spiritual guidance and teaching, saying, “We are ignorant and without knowledge. Please give us a maxim which will serve to instruct us for the rest of our lives.”


title: Hwarang

text: Won Gwang, who had gained fame for his period of study in Sui China, replied by composing the "Sesok-ogye" ("Five Commandments for Secular Life"; 세속 오계; 世俗五戒). These have since been attributed as a guiding ethos for the Hwarang:


title: Hwarang

text: The "Samguk Yusa" also records that Hwarang members learned the Five Cardinal Confucian Virtues, the Six Arts, the Three Scholarly Occupations, and the Six Ways of Government Service (五常六藝 三師六正).


title: Hwarang

text: Following the fall of Silla, the term "hwarang" survived and changed in meaning again. In Choe Sejin (최세진)'s 1527 book "Hunmong jahoe" (훈몽자회), the term "hwarang" is even referred to as a male prostitute. Today, Hwarang is often used in the names of various schools, organizations and companies.


title: Psychedelia

text: Psychedelia refers to the psychedelic subculture of the 1960s and the psychedelic experience. This includes psychedelic art, psychedelic music and style of dress during that era. This was primarily generated by people who used psychedelic drugs such as LSD, mescaline (found in peyote) and psilocybin (found in magic mushrooms) and also non-users who were participants and aficionados of this subculture. Psychedelic art and music typically recreate or reflect the experience of altered consciousness. Psychedelic art uses highly distorted, surreal visuals, bright colors and full spectrums and animation (including cartoons) to evoke, convey, or enhance the psychedelic experience. Psychedelic music uses distorted electric guitar, Indian music elements such as the sitar, tabla, electronic effects, sound effects and reverb, and elaborate studio effects, such as playing tapes backwards or panning the music from one side to another.


title: Psychedelia

text: A psychedelic experience is characterized by the striking perception of aspects of one's mind previously unknown, or by the creative exuberance of the mind liberated from its ostensibly ordinary fetters. Psychedelic states are an array of experiences including changes of perception such as hallucinations, synesthesia, altered states of awareness or focused consciousness, variation in thought patterns, trance or hypnotic states, mystical states, and other mind alterations. These processes can lead some people to experience changes in mental operation defining their self-identity (whether in momentary acuity or chronic development) different enough from their previous normal state that it can excite feelings of newly formed understanding such as revelation, enlightenment, confusion, and psychosis. Individuals who use psychedelic drugs for spiritual purposes or self-discovery are commonly referred to as "psychonauts".


title: Psychedelia

text: The term was first coined as a noun in 1956 by psychiatrist Humphry Osmond as an alternative descriptor for hallucinogenic drugs in the context of psychedelic psychotherapy. It is irregularly derived from the Greek words ψυχή "psychḗ" 'soul, mind' and δηλείν "dēleín" 'to manifest', with the meaning "mind manifesting," the implication being that psychedelics can develop unused potentials of the human mind. The term was loathed by American ethnobotanist Richard Schultes but championed by American psychologist Timothy Leary.


title: Psychedelia

text: Seeking a name for the experience induced by LSD, Osmond contacted Aldous Huxley, a personal acquaintance and advocate for the therapeutic use of the substance. Huxley coined the term "phanerothyme," from the Greek terms for "manifest" (φανερός) and "spirit" (θύμος). In a letter to Osmond, he wrote:


title: Psychedelia

text: It was on this term that Osmond eventually settled, because it was "clear, euphonious and uncontaminated by other associations." This mongrel spelling of the word 'psychedelic' was loathed by American ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes, but championed by Timothy Leary, who thought it sounded better. Due to the expanded use of the term "psychedelic" in pop culture and a perceived incorrect verbal formulation, Carl A.P. Ruck, Jeremy Bigwood, Danny Staples, Jonathan Ott, and R. Gordon Wasson proposed the term "entheogen" to describe the religious or spiritual experience produced by such substances.


title: Psychedelia

text: From the second half of the 1950s, Beat Generation writers like William Burroughs, Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg wrote about and took drugs, including cannabis and Benzedrine, raising awareness and helping to popularise their use. In the same period Lysergic acid diethylamide, better known as LSD, or "acid" (at the time a legal drug), began to be used in the US and UK as an experimental treatment, initially promoted as a potential cure for mental illness. In the early 1960s the use of LSD and other hallucinogens was advocated by proponents of the new "consciousness expansion", such as Timothy Leary, Alan Watts, Aldous Huxley and Arthur Koestler, their writings profoundly influenced the thinking of the new generation of youth. There had long been a culture of drug use among jazz and blues musicians, and use of drugs (including cannabis, peyote, mescaline and LSD) had begun to grow among folk and rock musicians, who also began to include drug references in their songs.


title: Psychedelia

text: By the mid-1960s, the psychedelic life-style had already developed in California, and an entire subculture developed. This was particularly true in San Francisco, due in part to the first major underground LSD factory, established there by Owsley Stanley. There was also an emerging music scene of folk clubs, coffee houses and independent radio stations catering to a population of students at nearby Berkeley, and to free thinkers that had gravitated to the city. From 1964, the Merry Pranksters, a loose group that developed around novelist Ken Kesey, sponsored the Acid Tests, a series of events based around the taking of LSD (supplied by Stanley), accompanied by light shows, film projection and discordant, improvised music known as the "psychedelic symphony". The Pranksters helped popularize LSD use through their road trips across America in a psychedelically-decorated school bus, which involved distributing the drug and meeting with major figures of the beat movement, and through publications about their activities such as Tom Wolfe's "The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test" (1968).


title: Psychedelia

text: Leary was a well-known proponent of the use of psychedelics, as was Aldous Huxley. However, both advanced widely different opinions on the broad use of psychedelics by state and civil society. Leary promulgated the idea of such substances as a panacea, while Huxley suggested that only the cultural and intellectual elite should partake of entheogens systematically.


title: Psychedelia

text: In the 1960s the use of psychedelic drugs became widespread in modern Western culture, particularly in the United States and Britain. The movement is credited to Michael Hollingshead who arrived in America from London in 1965. He was sent to the U.S. by other members of the psychedelic movement to get their ideas exposure. The Summer of Love of 1967 and the resultant popularization of the hippie culture to the mainstream popularized psychedelia in the minds of popular culture, where it remained dominant through the 1970s.


title: Psychedelia

text: The impact of psychedelic drugs on western culture in the 1960s led to semantic drift in the use of the word "psychedelic", and it is now frequently used to describe anything with abstract decoration of multiple bright colours, similar to those seen in drug-induced hallucinations. In objection to this new meaning, and to what some consider pejorative meanings of other synonyms such as "hallucinogen" and "psychotomimetic", the term "entheogen" was proposed and is seeing increasing use. However, many consider the term "entheogen" best reserved for religious and spiritual usage, such as certain Native American churches do with the peyote sacrament, and "psychedelic" left to describe those who are using these drugs for recreation, psychotherapy, physical healing, or creative problem solving. In science, hallucinogen remains the standard term.


title: Psychedelia

text: Advances in printing and photographic technology in the 1960s saw the traditional lithography printing techniques rapidly superseded by the offset printing system. This and other technical and industrial innovations gave young artists access to exciting new graphic techniques and media, including photographic and mixed media collage, metallic foils, and vivid new fluorescent "DayGlo" inks. This enabled them to explore innovative new illustrative styles including highly distorted visuals, cartoons, and lurid colors and full spectrums to evoke a sense of altered consciousness; many works also featured idiosyncratic and complex new fonts and lettering styles (most notably in the work of San Francisco-based poster artist Rick Griffin). Many artists in the late 1960s and early 1970s attempted to illustrate the psychedelic experience in paintings, drawings, illustrations, and other forms of graphic design.


title: Psychedelia

text: The counterculture music scene frequently used psychedelic designs on posters during the Summer of Love, leading to a popularization of the style. The most productive and influential centre of psychedelic art in the late 1960s was San Francisco; a scene driven in large measure by the patronage of the popular local music venues of the day like the Avalon Ballroom and Bill Graham's Fillmore West, which regularly commissioned young local artists like Robert Crumb, Stanley Mouse, Rick Griffin and others. They produced a wealth of distinctive psychedelic promotional posters and handbills for concerts that featured emerging psychedelic bands like Big Brother and the Holding Company, The Grateful Dead and Jefferson Airplane. Many of these works are now regarded as classics of the poster genre, and original items by these artists command high prices on the collector market today.


title: Psychedelia

text: Contemporary with the burgeoning San Francisco scene, a smaller but equally creative psychedelic art movement emerged in London, led by expatriate Australian pop artist Martin Sharp, who created many striking psychedelic posters and illustrations for the influential underground publication Oz magazine, as well as the famous album covers for the Cream albums "Disraeli Gears" and "Wheels of Fire". Other prominent London practitioners of the style included: design duo Hapshash and the Coloured Coat, whose work included numerous famous posters, as well as psychedelic "makeovers" on a piano for Paul McCartney and a car for doomed Guinness heir Tara Browne, and design collective The Fool, who created clothes and album art for several leading UK bands including The Beatles, Cream, and The Move. The Beatles loved psychedelic designs on their albums, and designer group called The Fool created psychedelic design, art, paint at the short-lived Apple Boutique (1967–1968) in Baker St, London.


title: Psychedelia

text: Blues rock singer Janis Joplin had a psychedelic car, a Porsche 356. The trend also extended to motor vehicles. The earliest, and perhaps most famous of all psychedelic vehicles was the famous "Further" bus, driven by Ken Kesey and The Merry Pranksters, which was painted inside and out in 1964 with bold psychedelic designs (although these were executed in primary colours, since the DayGlo colours that soon became "de rigueur" were then not widely available). Another very famous example is the Rolls Royce owned by John Lennon – originally black, he had it repainted in 1967 in a vivid psychedelic gypsy caravan style, prompting bandmate George Harrison to have his Mini Cooper similarly repainted with logos and devices that reflected his burgeoning interest in Indian spirituality.


title: Psychedelia

text: The fashion for psychedelic drugs gave its name to the style of psychedelia, a term describing a category of rock music known as psychedelic rock, as well as visual art, fashion, and culture that is associated originally with the high 1960s, hippies, and the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco, California. It often used new recording techniques and effects while drawing on Eastern sources such as the ragas and drones of Indian music.


title: Psychedelia

text: One of the first uses of the word in the music scene of this time was in the 1964 recording of "Hesitation Blues" by folk group the Holy Modal Rounders. The term was introduced to rock music and popularized by the 13th Floor Elevators 1966 album "The Psychedelic Sounds of the 13th Floor Elevators". Psychedelia truly took off in 1967 with the Summer of Love and, although associated with San Francisco, the style soon spread across the US, and worldwide.


title: Psychedelia

text: The electronic dance music scene is strongly linked to the consumption of psychedelic drugs, particularly MDMA. Drug usage in the EDM scene can primarily be traced to British acid house parties and the Second Summer of Love, which marked the beginnings of rave culture; these movements, however, were distinct from and mostly unrelated to 1960s psychedelia.


title: Psychedelia

text: A psychedelic festival is a gathering that promotes psychedelic music and art in an effort to unite participants in a communal psychedelic experience. Psychedelic festivals have been described as "temporary communities reproduced via personal and collective acts of transgression ... through the routine expenditure of excess energy, and through self-sacrifice in acts of abandonment involving ecstatic dancing often fuelled by chemical cocktails." These festivals often emphasize the ideals of peace, love, unity, and respect. Notable psychedelic festivals include the biennial Boom Festival in Portugal, Ozora Festival in Hungary, Universo Paralello in Brazil as well as Nevada's Burning Man and California's Symbiosis Gathering in the United States.


title: Psychedelia

text: In recent years there has been a resurgence in interest in psychedelic research and a growing number of conferences now take place across the globe. The psychedelic research charity Breaking Convention have hosted one of the world's largest since 2011. A biennial conference in London, UK, Breaking Convention: a multidisciplinary conference on psychedelic consciousness is a multidisciplinary conference on psychedelic consciousness. In the US MAPS held their first Psychedelic Science conference, devoted specifically to research of psychedelics in scientific and medical fields, in 2013.


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: Janney Marín Rivera (born June 26, 1985), better known as Chiquis Rivera, is an American singer and television personality. She is the eldest daughter of singer Jenni Rivera.


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: She began her singing career in early 2014, releasing her first single "Paloma Blanca" as a tribute to her mother. At Premios Juventud, she made her musical debut on international television with her performance of "Esa No Soy Yo".


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: She made her television debut with her reality show "" and also appeared on her mother's hit spin-off reality show "I Love Jenni". Rivera's debut album, "Ahora", was released on June 2, 2015. On April 7, 2015 she released her memoir titled "Forgiveness", and a second on February 2, 2022 titled "Unstoppable".


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: Janney Marín Rivera was born and raised in California. She is daughter of Regional Mexican star, Jenni Rivera and her first husband, José Trinidad Marín. She is the first child of both her parents, has one younger sister, Jacquelin, one brother, Mikey, and two half-siblings from her mother's second marriage. Rivera is Presbyterian and attends church regularly with her family.


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: On April 7, 2015 she released a memoir called "Forgiveness", she revealed the reasons she and her mother, Jenni Rivera, stopped speaking in October 2012. She revealed that she was molested by a woman. She confirmed that the reason for her and her mother's separation stemmed from the rumor that she had an affair with Esteban Loaiza. She denied the rumor and attributes it to "toxic voices" that surrounded her mother at a time when she was deeply lonely and confused, leading her to doubt her then-husband's fidelity and her own daughter's loyalty. She stated, in an attempt to find evidence of incriminating behavior, that Rivera looked at video footage from her home's security system and found an instance in which Chiquis is seen leaving the master bedroom which Rivera shared with Loaiza while they were married. Chiquis said that Rivera became fixated with the video, and watched it so many times that she had made herself believe her daughter actually "came back to the house and snuck back into the bedroom" to have a sexual encounter with Loaiza. Beto Cuevas, who was friends with Jenni, has stated that he gave her advice on how to deal with the rift with Chiquis three days before Jenni's death.


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: In 1997, her aunt, Rosie Rivera came forward and confessed to Jenni Rivera, that José Trinidad Marín, used to sexually molest her, and was now doing the same to Chiquis. Physical examination showed he had done the same with her younger sister Jacqie Marín. The molestation case was opened in 1997 and Marín spent 9 years as a fugitive before he was apprehended in April 2006 and convicted of sexual assault and rape. In May 2007, José Trinidad Marín was found guilty of 9 out of 9 charges and sentenced to more than 80 years in prison without parole.


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: On 9 December 2012, her mother and six others died in a plane crash following a concert at the Monterrey Arena in Monterrey, Nuevo León. The plane was en route to Toluca for an appearance by Rivera on "La Voz ... México".


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: Chiquis married Lorenzo E. Mendez Ronquillo (former vocalist of la Original Banda El Limón) in June 2019 and became stepmother to Lorenzo's daughter from his previous marriage. On September 17, 2020, Rivera announced her divorce with Méndez through social media, claiming it a decision from both parties. Chiquis would later claim in her 2022 Autobiography Unbreakable that Lorenzo was a drug addict with aggression issues. At one point spitting in her face and grabbing her by the neck, only stopping after her brother charged at him with a dumbbell.


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: She made her television debut with her reality show "Jenni Rivera Presents: Chiquis & Raq-C", "Chiquis 'n Control", and also appeared on her mother's hit spin-off reality show "I Love Jenni". She also starred in her mini web—series "Chiquis Confidential". She and her siblings started in a spin-off of "I Love Jenni" called "The Riveras". The series aired its fourth and final season on NBC Universo on August 11.


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: Rivera began her singing career in early 2014, releasing her first single "Paloma Blanca". It was written by her and dedicated as a tribute to her late mother. At Premios Juventud she made her musical debut on international television with her performance of "Esa No Soy Yo".


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: On April 6, 2015, Chiquis declared to the daily newspaper "Miami Herald", she would be releasing an album called "Ahora", on June 2, 2015. She stated, "I called it Ahora because it's about living in the moment and appreciating the now. I feel that's how my life can be summed up. It really has a little bit of everything – pop mixed with banda. I love all types of music and didn't want to limit myself since I am my own record label [Sweet Sound Records] I was able to take my time with it. I want to give that to people. I don't know anyone who listens to just one type of music – it's universal and brings everyone together."


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: In Spring of 2018, Rivera released her second studio album titled ‘Entre Botellas’ which feature songs made with Lorenzo Mendez, Jenni Rivera and Juan Rivera. Her two singles ‘Vas a Volver’ and ‘Horas Extras’ where featured in the album as well as ‘Quisieran Tener Mi Lugar’, a duet sang with her mother Jenni Rivera.


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: Rivera's musical style is classified as banda, a form of traditional Mexican music popular in Mexico and parts of the United States with large Mexican populations. Banda music originated in the state of Sinaloa and the music sound is primarily instruments such as tuba, clarinets and trumpets, i.e. Banda El Recodo and Banda La Costeña.


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: The "Billboard" Latin Music Awards are awarded annually by "Billboard" magazine in the United States. The "Billboard" awards are the Latin music industry's longest running and most prestigious award. Chiquis has received two nominations.


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by The Recording Academy. Chiquis has received one nomination.


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: The Juventud Awards are awarded annually by the television network Univision in the United States. Chiquis has received eight nominations.


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: The Latin American Music Awards are the Spanish-language version of the American Music Awards hosted on U.S. Spanish-language television network, Telemundo.


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: The Latin Grammy Awards are awarded annually by The Latin Recording Academy in the United States. Rivera has received two awards.


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: The Lo Nuestro Awards are awarded annually by the television network Univision in the United States. Chiquis has received two award from three nominations.


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: The "Premios De La Radio" are awarded annually by the television network Estrella TV in the United States for the Regional Mexican Music genre. Chiquis has received one nomination, and in 2014 she lost the award to her late mother Jenni Rivera.


title: Chiquis Rivera

text: The Tu Mundo Awards are produced by Telemundo awarded annually from the American Airlines Arena in Miami, Florida.


title: Universal joint

text: A universal joint (also called a universal coupling or U-joint) is a joint or coupling connecting rigid shafts whose axes are inclined to each other. It is commonly used in shafts that transmit rotary motion. It consists of a pair of hinges located close together, oriented at 90° to each other, connected by a cross shaft. The universal joint is not a constant-velocity joint.


title: Universal joint

text: The main concept of the universal joint is based on the design of gimbals, which have been in use since antiquity. One anticipation of the universal joint was its use by the ancient Greeks on ballistae. In Europe the universal joint is often called the Cardano joint (and a drive shaft that uses the joints, a Cardan shaft), after the Italian mathematician Gerolamo Cardano, who was an early writer on gimbals, although his writings mentioned only gimbal mountings, not universal joints.


title: Universal joint

text: The mechanism was later described in "Technica curiosa sive mirabilia artis" (1664) by Gaspar Schott, who mistakenly claimed that it was a constant-velocity joint. Shortly afterward, between 1667 and 1675, Robert Hooke analysed the joint and found that its speed of rotation was nonuniform, but that this property could be used to track the motion of the shadow on the face of a sundial. In fact, the component of the equation of time which accounts for the tilt of the equatorial plane relative to the ecliptic is entirely analogous to the mathematical description of the universal joint. The first recorded use of the term "universal joint" for this device was by Hooke in 1676, in his book "Helioscopes". He published a description in 1678, resulting in the use of the term "Hooke's joint" in the English-speaking world. In 1683, Hooke proposed a solution to the nonuniform rotary speed of the universal joint: a pair of Hooke's joints 90° out of phase at either end of an intermediate shaft, an arrangement that is now known as a type of constant-velocity joint. Christopher Polhem of Sweden later re-invented the universal joint, giving rise to the name "Polhemsknut" ("Polhem knot") in Swedish.


title: Universal joint

text: In 1841, the English scientist Robert Willis analyzed the motion of the universal joint. By 1845, the French engineer and mathematician Jean-Victor Poncelet had analyzed the movement of the universal joint using spherical trigonometry.


title: Universal joint

text: The term "universal joint" was used in the 18th century and was in common use in the 19th century. Edmund Morewood's 1844 patent for a metal coating machine called for a universal joint, by that name, to accommodate small alignment errors between the engine and rolling mill shafts. Ephriam Shay's locomotive patent of 1881, for example, used double universal joints in the locomotive's drive shaft. Charles Amidon used a much smaller universal joint in his bit-brace patented 1884. Beauchamp Tower's spherical, rotary, high speed steam engine used an adaptation of the universal joint circa 1885.


title: Universal joint

text: The term "Cardan joint" appears to be a latecomer to the English language. Many early uses in the 19th century appear in translations from French or are strongly influenced by French usage. Examples include an 1868 report on the "Exposition Universelle" of 1867 and an article on the dynamometer translated from French in 1881.


title: Universal joint

text: In the 20th century, Clarence W. Spicer and the Spicer Manufacturing Company, as well as the Hardy Spicer successor brand, helped further popularize universal joints in the automotive, farm equipment, heavy equipment, and industrial machinery industries.


title: Universal joint

text: The Cardan joint suffers from one major problem: even when the input drive shaft axle rotates at a constant speed, the output drive shaft axle rotates at a variable speed, thus causing vibration and wear. The variation in the speed of the driven shaft depends on the configuration of the joint, which is specified by three variables:


title: Universal joint

text: These variables are illustrated in the diagram on the right. Also shown are a set of fixed coordinate axes with unit vectors formula_4 and formula_5 and the planes of rotation of each axle. These planes of rotation are perpendicular to the axes of rotation and do not move as the axles rotate. The two axles are joined by a gimbal which is not shown. However, axle 1 attaches to the gimbal at the red points on the red plane of rotation in the diagram, and axle 2 attaches at the blue points on the blue plane. Coordinate systems fixed with respect to the rotating axles are defined as having their x-axis unit vectors (formula_6 and formula_7) pointing from the origin towards one of the connection points. As shown in the diagram, formula_6 is at angle formula_1 with respect to its beginning position along the "x" axis and formula_7 is at angle formula_2 with respect to its beginning position along the "y" axis.


title: Universal joint

text: formula_7 is confined to the "blue plane" in the diagram and is the result of the unit vector on the "x" axis formula_16 being rotated through Euler angles formula_17]:


title: Universal joint

text: A constraint on the formula_6 and formula_7 vectors is that since they are fixed in the gimbal, they must remain at right angles to each other. This is so when their dot product equals zero:


title: Universal joint

text: The solution for formula_2 is not unique since the arctangent function is multivalued, however it is required that the solution for formula_2 be continuous over the angles of interest. For example, the following explicit solution using the atan2(y, x) function will be valid for formula_26:


title: Universal joint

text: The angles formula_1 and formula_2 in a rotating joint will be functions of time. Differentiating the equation of motion with respect to time and using the equation of motion itself to eliminate a variable yields the relationship between the angular velocities formula_30 and


title: Universal joint

text: As shown in the plots, the angular velocities are not linearly related, but rather are periodic with a period half that of the rotating shafts. The angular velocity equation can again be differentiated to get the relation between the angular accelerations formula_32 and


title: Universal joint

text: A configuration known as a double Cardan joint drive shaft partially overcomes the problem of jerky rotation. This configuration uses two U-joints joined by an intermediate shaft, with the second U-joint phased in relation to the first U-joint to cancel the changing angular velocity. In this configuration, the angular velocity of the driven shaft will match that of the driving shaft, provided that both the driving shaft and the driven shaft are at equal angles with respect to the intermediate shaft (but not necessarily in the same plane) and that the two universal joints are 90 degrees out of phase. This assembly is commonly employed in rear wheel drive vehicles, where it is known as a drive shaft or propeller (prop) shaft.


title: Universal joint

text: Even when the driving and driven shafts are at equal angles with respect to the intermediate shaft, if these angles are greater than zero, oscillating moments are applied to the three shafts as they rotate. These tend to bend them in a direction perpendicular to the common plane of the shafts. This applies forces to the support bearings and can cause "launch shudder" in rear wheel drive vehicles. The intermediate shaft will also have a sinusoidal component to its angular velocity, which contributes to vibration and stresses.


title: Universal joint

text: Mathematically, this can be shown as follows: If formula_34 and formula_35 are the angles for the input and output of the universal joint connecting the drive and the intermediate shafts respectively, and formula_36 and formula_37 are the angles for the input and output of the universal joint connecting the intermediate and the output shafts respectively, and each pair are at angle formula_38 with respect to each other, then:


title: Universal joint

text: If the second universal joint is rotated 90 degrees with respect to the first, then Using the fact that formula_40 yields:


title: Universal joint

text: and it is seen that the output drive is just 90 degrees out of phase with the input shaft, yielding a constant-velocity drive.


title: Universal joint

text: NOTE: The reference for measuring angles of input and output shafts of universal joint are mutually perpendicular axes. So, in absolute sense the forks of the intermediate shaft are parallel to each other. (Since, one fork is acting as input and the other fork is acting as output for shafts and above 90 degree phase difference is mentioned between the forks.)


title: Universal joint

text: A double Cardan joint consists of two universal joints mounted back to back with a centre yoke; the centre yoke replaces the intermediate shaft. Provided that the angle between the input shaft and centre yoke is equal to the angle between the centre yoke and the output shaft, the second Cardan joint will cancel the velocity errors introduced by the first Cardan joint and the aligned double Cardan joint will act as a CV joint.


title: Universal joint

text: A Thompson coupling is a refined version of the double Cardan joint. It offers slightly increased efficiency with the penalty of great increase in complexity.


title: Bon Jovi (album)

text: Bon Jovi is the debut studio album by American rock band Bon Jovi, released on January 23, 1984, by Mercury Records. Produced by Tony Bongiovi and Lance Quinn, it is significant for being the only Bon Jovi album in which a song ("She Don't Know Me") appears that was not written or co-written by a member of the band. The album charted at number 43 on the US "Billboard" 200.


title: Bon Jovi (album)

text: Aside from the hit single "Runaway", songs from the album were rarely performed live after Bon Jovi released "Slippery When Wet" in 1986. However, on the band's 2010 Circle Tour, songs including "Roulette", "Shot Through the Heart" and "Get Ready" were performed. The album was ranked the 11th best rock album of 1984 by "Kerrang!" magazine.


title: Bon Jovi (album)

text: The song "Shot Through the Heart" should not be confused with the much better-known "You Give Love a Bad Name" from "Slippery When Wet".


title: Bon Jovi (album)

text: In 1980, Jon Bon Jovi (born John Francis Bongiovi) began work at Power Station Studios, a Manhattan recording facility where his cousin, Tony Bongiovi, was a co-owner. Jon made several demos and sent them out to record companies, but failed to make an impact.


title: Bon Jovi (album)

text: In 1982, Jon went to local radio station WAPP 103.5FM "The Apple". DJ Chip Hobart listened to the demos and loved "Runaway", deciding to include it on the station's compilation album of local homegrown talent. The studio musicians who helped record "Runaway" were known as The All Star Review. They were: guitarist Tim Pierce, keyboardist Roy Bittan, drummer Frankie LaRocka, bass guitarist Hugh McDonald, and additional singers David Grahmme and Mick Seeley (Seeley also composed the distinctive keyboard riff that opens the song). McDonald would later replace Alec John Such as Bon Jovi's bass guitarist.