title: The Death Cure

text: Critical reception for "The Death Cure" was mixed. "Common Sense Media" gave the book three out of five stars, commenting that the book's oppressiveness kept it from being more memorable than they wanted it to be. The "Deseret News" also commented on the book's bleak nature, but praised it as being "both conclusive and satisfying". The "Horn Book Guide" and "Kirkus Reviews" both gave positive reviews, with the "Horn Book Guide" opining that the book's conclusion was "thought-provoking".


title: The Death Cure

text: Wes Ball, who directed the previous films in the series, confirmed that, if he returned to direct, the final novel would not be split into two films. In March 2015, T.S. Nowlin was confirmed to write the script. On 9 July 2015 Defy Media revealed that filming was set to begin in February 2016. On 16 September 2015 Variety confirmed that Ball would return to direct the third film. The film began principal photography on 14 March 2016 in Cache Creek, British Columbia. On 19 March 2016, "Maze Runner" star Dylan O'Brien was critically injured on-set when he was struck by a car during a stunt sequence. On 20 March 2016, director Wes Ball announced production was shut down to allow O'Brien time to recuperate from his injuries. On 22 April 2017, the studio again delayed the release in order to allow more time for post-production. "Maze Runner: The Death Cure" was released on January 26, 2018.


title: Rialto Bridge

text: The Rialto Bridge (; ) is the oldest of the four bridges spanning the Grand Canal in Venice, Italy. Connecting the "" (districts) of San Marco and San Polo, it has been rebuilt several times since its first construction as a pontoon bridge in 1173, and is now a significant tourist attraction in the city.


title: Rialto Bridge

text: The first dry crossing of the Grand Canal was a pontoon bridge built in 1181 by Nicolò Barattieri. It was called the Ponte della Moneta, presumably because of the mint that stood near its eastern entrance.


title: Rialto Bridge

text: The development and importance of the Rialto market on the eastern bank increased traffic on the floating bridge, so it was replaced in 1255 by a wooden bridge. This structure had two ramps meeting at a movable central section, that could be raised to allow the passage of tall ships. The connection with the market eventually led to a change of name for the bridge. During the first half of the 15th century, two rows of shops were built along the sides of the bridge. The rents brought an income to the State Treasury, which helped maintain the bridge.


title: Rialto Bridge

text: Maintenance was vital for the timber bridge. It was partly burnt in the revolt led by Bajamonte Tiepolo in 1310. In 1444, it collapsed under the weight of a crowd rushing to see the marriage of the Marquis of Ferrara and it collapsed again in 1524.


title: Rialto Bridge

text: The idea of rebuilding the bridge in stone was first proposed in 1503. Several projects were considered over the following decades. In 1551, the authorities requested proposals for the renewal of the Rialto Bridge, among other things. Plans were offered by famous architects, such as Jacopo Sansovino, Palladio and Vignola, but all involved a Classical approach with several arches, which was judged inappropriate to the situation. Michelangelo also was considered as designer of the bridge.


title: Rialto Bridge

text: The present stone bridge, a single span designed by Antonio da Ponte, began to be constructed in 1588 and was completed in 1591. It is similar to the wooden bridge it succeeded. Two ramps lead up to a central portico. On either side of the portico, the covered ramps carry rows of shops. The engineering of the bridge was considered so audacious that architect Vincenzo Scamozzi predicted future ruin. The bridge has defied its critics to become one of the architectural icons, and top tourist attractions, in Venice.


title: Umaid Bhawan Palace

text: Umaid Bhawan Palace, located in Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India, is one of the world's largest private residences. A part of the palace is managed by Taj Hotels. It is named after Maharaja Umaid Singh, grandfather of the present owner, Gaj Singh. The palace has 347 rooms and is the principal residence of the former Jodhpur royal family. A part of the palace is a museum.


title: Umaid Bhawan Palace

text: The groundbreaking for the foundations of the building was carried out on 18 November 1929 by Maharaja Umaid Singh and the construction work was completed in 1943.


title: Umaid Bhawan Palace

text: The history of building the Umaid Bhawan Palace is linked to a curse by a saint who had said that a period of drought would follow the good rule of the Rathore Dynasty. Thus, after the end of the about 50-year reign of Pratap Singh, Jodhpur faced severe drought and famine in the 1920s for a period of three consecutive years. The farmers of the area, faced with this hardship, sought the help of the then Maharaja, Umaid Singh, who was the 37th Rathore ruler of Marwar at Jodhpur, to provide them with some employment so that they could survive the harsh conditions. The Maharaja, in order to help the farmers, decided to build a lavish palace. He commissioned Henry Vaughan Lanchester as the architect to prepare the plans for the palace; Lanchester was a contemporary of Edwin Lutyens, who had planned the buildings of the New Delhi government complex. Lanchester patterned the Umaid Palace on the lines of the New Delhi building complex by adopting the theme of domes and columns. The palace was designed as a blend of western technology and Indian architectural features.


title: Umaid Bhawan Palace

text: The palace was built at a slow pace as its initial objective was to provide employment to the famine-stricken farmers in the area. The foundation stone was laid in 1929. About 2,000 to 3,000 people were employed in its construction. Occupation of the palace by the Maharaja came after its completion in 1943, and close to the period of Indian Independence. There was some criticism for embarking on an expensive project but it had served the main purpose of helping the citizens of Jodhpur to face the famine situation. The estimated cost of building the palace was Rs 11 million. When it opened in 1943 it was considered one of the largest royal residences in the world.


title: Umaid Bhawan Palace

text: The site chosen for the palace was on a hill known as Chittar hill in the outer limits of Jodhpur, after which the palace is also known, where no water supply was available nearby and hardly any vegetation grew as hill slopes were rocky. The building material required was not close by as sandstone quarries were at quite a distance. Since the Maharaja had the foresight to bring his project to fruition, he built a railway line to the quarry site to transport the building material. Donkeys were inducted to haul soil to the site. The sandstone transported by rail was dressed at the site into large blocks with interlocking joints so that they could be laid without the use of mortar.


title: Umaid Bhawan Palace

text: The palace was built with "dun-coloured" (golden – yellow) sandstone with two wings. Makrana marble has also been used, and Burmese teak wood has been used for the interior woodwork. When completed the palace had 347 rooms, several courtyards, and a large banquet hall which could accommodate 300 people. The architectural style is considered representing the then in vogue Beaux Arts style, also known as Indo-Deco style. However, for many years the palace did not fully function following tragic events in the royal family. Umaid Singh who stayed in the place for only four years died in 1947. Hanwant Singh who succeeded him also died at a young age; he had just won in the 1952 General Elections and was returning home after this win when his plane crashed and he died. Gaj Singh II who succeeded his father then decided in 1971 to convert a part of the palace into a hotel.


title: Umaid Bhawan Palace

text: The Palace is divided into three functional parts – the residence of the royal family, a luxury Taj Palace Hotel, and a Museum focusing on the 20th-century history of the Jodhpur Royal Family.


title: Umaid Bhawan Palace

text: The palace complex is set in an area of of land including of gardens. The palace consists of a throne chamber, a private meeting hall, a Durbar Hall to meet the public, a vaulted banquet hall, private dining halls, a ballroom, a library, an indoor swimming pool and spa, a billiards room, four tennis courts, two marble squash courts, and long passages.


title: Umaid Bhawan Palace

text: The interior central dome sits above the sky blue inner dome. The inner vaulted dome is a major attraction in the palace which rises to in the interior part which is capped by an outer dome of height. The entry to the palace has decorations of the Coat of arms of the Rathore Royal family. The entry leads to the lobby which has polished black granite flooring. The lounge area has pink sandstone and marble floors. Maharaja Gaj Singh, known as "bapji", stays in a part of the palace. The principal architecture of the palace is an amalgam of Indo-Saracenic, Classical Revival and Western Art Deco styles. It is also said the Maharaja and his architect Lanchester had considered the features of Buddhist and Hindu edifices such as the Temple Mountain-Palaces of Burma and Cambodia, and in particular the Angkor Wat in preparing the layout and design of the palace. The interior of the palace is in art deco design. The interior decoration is credited to J.S. Norblin, a refugee from Poland, who created the frescoes in the throne room on the east wing. An architectural historian commented that "it is the finest example of Indo-deco. The forms are crisp and precise".


title: Umaid Bhawan Palace

text: The hotel wing of the palace is run by the Taj Group of Hotels and is called the 'Taj Umaid Bhawan Palace Jodhpur. Bollywood actress Priyanka Chopra married Nick Jonas here in 2018.


title: Umaid Bhawan Palace

text: The museum has exhibits of stuffed leopards, a very large symbolic flag given to Maharaja Jaswant Singh by Queen Victoria in 1877, lighthouse shapes. The classic cars of the Maharajas are also on display in the garden in front of the museum.


title: Big Brother 18 (American season)

text: Big Brother 18 is the eighteenth season of the American reality television series "Big Brother." The season premiered on June 22, 2016 with a two-hour season premiere, broadcast on CBS in the United States and Global in Canada, and ended with a 90-minute season finale on September 21, 2016, after 99 days of competition. Julie Chen returned as host. On September 21, 2016, season 16 HouseGuest Nicole Franzel was crowned the winner defeating Paul Abrahamian in a 5-4 jury vote. Victor Arroyo was voted as the season's America's Favorite HouseGuest.


title: Big Brother 18 (American season)

text: "Big Brother" follows a group of contestants, known as HouseGuests, who live inside a custom-built house outfitted with cameras and microphones recording their every move 24 hours a day. The HouseGuests are sequestered with no contact with the outside world. During their stay, the HouseGuests share their thoughts on their day-to-day lives inside the house in a private room known as the Diary Room. Each week, the HouseGuests compete in competitions in order to win power and safety inside the house. At the start of each week, the HouseGuests compete in a Head of Household (abbreviated as "HOH") competition. The winner of the HoH competition is immune from eviction and selects two HouseGuests to be nominated for eviction. Six HouseGuests are then selected to compete in the Power of Veto (abbreviated as "PoV") competition: the reigning HoH, the nominees, and three other HouseGuests chosen by random draw. The winner of the PoV competition has the right to either revoke the nomination of one of the nominated HouseGuests or leave them as is. If the veto winner uses this power, the HoH must immediately nominate another HouseGuest for eviction. The PoV winner is also immune from being named as the replacement nominee. On eviction night, all HouseGuests vote to evict one of the nominees, though the Head of Household and the nominees are not allowed to vote. This vote is conducted in the privacy of the Diary Room. In the event of a tie, the Head of Household casts the tie-breaking vote. The nominee with the most votes is evicted from the house. The last nine evicted HouseGuests comprise the Jury and are sequestered in a separate location following their eviction and ultimately decide the winner of the season. The Jury is only allowed to see the competitions and ceremonies that include all of the remaining HouseGuests; they are not shown any interviews or other footage that might include strategy or details regarding nominations. The viewing public is able to award an additional prize of by choosing "America's Favorite HouseGuest". All evicted HouseGuests are eligible to win this award except for those who either voluntarily leave or are forcibly removed for rule violations.


title: Big Brother 18 (American season)

text: The twelve new HouseGuests were announced on June 14, 2016. Among them were two siblings of former "Big Brother" HouseGuests: Paulie Calafiore, brother of "Big Brother 16" runner-up Cody Calafiore, and Tiffany Rousso, sister of "Big Brother 17" HouseGuest Vanessa Rousso. This was also the fifth season to feature former HouseGuests returning to the game. The four returning players were announced during the premiere episode on June 22, 2016. As part of the House's travel theme, the returning HouseGuests were referred to as "stowaways," entering the House in suitcases shortly prior to the new HouseGuests' arrival.


title: Big Brother 18 (American season)

text: Jozea Flores was one of two former "Big Brother" HouseGuests included in a public vote to compete in "", but he was not chosen to return. Paul Abrahamian returned for "Big Brother 19" as a HouseGuest while Nicole Franzel returned to host the first HoH Competition of the season. Abrahamian made a cameo appearance on the series premiere of "Celebrity Big Brother" during the first HoH competition. In 2020, Da'Vonne Rogers and Nicole Franzel returned to compete for a third time on "Big Brother: All Stars".


title: Big Brother 18 (American season)

text: Paulie Calafiore appeared on the first season of "Ex on the Beach", while Corey and Jozea appeared on the second season. Paulie Calafiore, Natalie Negrotti, Victor Arroyo, Da'Vonne Rogers, and Jozea Flores have all appeared on "The Challenge".


title: Big Brother 18 (American season)

text: Paul Abrahamian, Nicole Franzel, and Victor Arroyo appeared on "Big Brother 20" to celebrate Nicole and Victor's engagement. Nicole and Victor later competed on the 31st season of "The Amazing Race".


title: Big Brother 18 (American season)

text: Similar to the cliques twist in "Big Brother 11," the HouseGuests initially competed in teams, which were selected by school-yard pick before the first competition. When a HouseGuest won Head of Household, their entire team also earned immunity from nominations, while the team with the worst performance in each Head of Household competition became the Have-Nots for the week.


title: Big Brother 18 (American season)

text: Following the nomination ceremony, the HouseGuests competed in the BB Roadkill competition, with the winner earning the power to privately nominate a third HouseGuest for eviction. For each Roadkill competition, an RV was placed in the backyard; one at a time, the HouseGuests entered the RV to complete the task. Following the competition, the HouseGuests were privately informed whether they had won or lost the challenge, with no obligation to ever reveal their results. The winner then named a third nominee in the Diary Room. Unlike the Head of Household, the Roadkill winner could nominate a member of his or her own team, provided their intended nominee did not have immunity. If the Roadkill nominee were saved by the Power of Veto, the Roadkill winner had to privately name a replacement nominee. On Day 37, the BB Roadkill competition was officially ended.


title: Big Brother 18 (American season)

text: Instead of permanent eviction, the first five evicted HouseGuests received a chance to return to the game. The first two evictees faced off in a duel, with the winner advancing to face the next evicted HouseGuest, permanently eliminating the losers; the remaining evictee will re-enter the house, following four duels. All four duels aired in a special episode on July 22; Jozea defeated Glenn in the first competition, but Victor defeated Jozea, Bronte, and Tiffany in the subsequent competitions to return to the house.


title: Big Brother 18 (American season)

text: Shortly after the end of the Battle Back, Teams and Roadkill twists, the HouseGuests were alerted to the existence of a secret room within the house. To find it, HouseGuests deciphered a series of clues hidden on decorations throughout the house to uncover a five-digit code, and then dialed the code into a phone booth in the house to reveal a tunnel to the room; only one HouseGuest was allowed to enter the room at a time. Inside the room were twelve envelopes, and each HouseGuest could only claim one envelope. Inside one of the envelopes was a "Round Trip Ticket," which would allow the HouseGuest who picked it to re-enter the house immediately following eviction. Envelopes could only be opened by a HouseGuest following their eviction. If a HouseGuest opened their envelope prior to their eviction, their card would be voided. Once all remaining HouseGuests entered the room and picked tickets, they were free to enter the room with no restrictions. The tickets were valid until Day 65; Paul had the Round Trip Ticket, but was not evicted while the tickets were still valid.


title: Big Brother 18 (American season)

text: Beginning in Week 6, Julie announced that for the next five weeks, viewers would be able to give one HouseGuest per week a special power, or "care package", as determined by a public vote. All five powers were revealed to the public upon the twist's introduction. The HouseGuests were made aware of this twist, though the weekly rewards were left unspecified until the package was dropped in the backyard for public unboxing. Once a HouseGuest received a care package, they were no longer eligible to win future packages.


title: Big Brother 18 (American season)

text: On September 24, 2014, CBS announced that it had renewed "Big Brother" for its 17th and 18th editions for broadcast in summer 2015 and 2016, respectively. The series would continue to be hosted by Julie Chen.


title: Big Brother 18 (American season)

text: Bronte D'Acquisto and Paul Abrahamian were captured on live feed making racist remarks about fellow HouseGuest James Huling, who is ethnically Korean. Although Huling is a lifelong resident of the United States, D'Acquisto stated that she "will send [Huling] back to Hong Kong". In another incident, while discussing Huling, D'Acquisto said: "I want to kick his little Asian ass back to Hong Kong. Wherever he came from." Furthermore, Abrahamian referred to Huling as a "little Korean man" on multiple occasions. These incidents were not aired on the CBS television broadcasts.


title: Big Brother 18 (American season)

text: Jozea Flores also created controversy during the beginning of the live feeds, saying that the 4th of July should not be a holiday. When a comment became brought up that "a lot of Americans died for our freedom," Flores replied with, "ain't nobody told them to do that." While his remarks did not make the live feeds, many of the HouseGuests talked about it.


title: Big Brother 18 (American season)

text: Corey Brooks faced some criticism due to homophobic tweets that were found on his Twitter account, as well as homophobic remarks he made while inside the house. Brooks also faced more controversy after telling a story on the live feeds of his friend attempting to burn a goat. This was not shown on the CBS television broadcasts.


title: Big Brother 18 (American season)

text: Paulie Calafiore made a series of offensive remarks to fellow HouseGuest Natalie Negrotti about her breast implants. Upon realizing that the house had grown weary of his abuse and running the game, including Negrotti, Calafiore began a campaign of harassment referring to Negrotti's implants and body. Calafiore routinely referring to Natalie as "F.T." (Fake Tits) and telling Negrotti that she was "as fake as those things on her chest." Calafiore also received criticism for his misogynistic and sexist comments about women from New Jersey, stating they "play" men and "spit them out and eat them for breakfast, lunch and dinner." He referred to these type of women as "Jersey Girls" and afterward received backlash from female viewers, particularly those from New Jersey, viewing it as a derogatory comment and reinforcing stereotypes.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The Second Federal Republic of Mexico () is the name given to the second attempt to achieve a federalist government in Mexico after a period of centralism. Officially called the United Mexican States (), a federal republic was established again on August 22, 1846 when interim president José Mariano Salas issued a decree restoring the 1824 constitution. The Second Republic continued to be rocked by the political instability that had characterized Mexico since independence. Mexico's loss in the war with the United States during this time saw half of Mexican territory become part of the United States.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Antonio López de Santa Anna who had played a major role in the war, and been disgraced as a result, afterwards returned to the presidency, selling more territory to the United States and becoming increasingly autocratic. In response, liberals promulgated of the Plan of Ayutla in 1854, calling for the overthrow of Santa Anna's dictatorship. Santa Anna was overthrown and liberals enacted a series of sweeping reforms, including a new federalist constitution, collectively known as the Liberal Reform, which then sparked a civil war with conservatives, known as the War of the Reform, from 1857 to 1860. The conservatives lost the war, but the liberals' triumph was soon interrupted by a French-backed campaign in 1861, resulting from collaboration with the recently defeated conservatives.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The French attempted to help the Mexican Conservative party set up a sovereign, or independent, Mexican monarchy known as the Second Mexican Empire, which some refer to as a client state. They invited Archduke Maximilian of Austria to serve as monarch of the Mexican Empire. Mexican republicans nonetheless fought against the French who they regarded as invaders, led by Benito Juárez's government in exile, which was backed, at first unofficially, by the United States. The French, supplemented by the local Mexican Imperial Army, were able to consolidate control of most of the nation. Later, as pressure from wars in Europe mounted, and pressure also from the United States (which after the end of the American Civil War, could more effectively enforce the Monroe Doctrine), French forces withdrew from Mexico, leading to the weakening and then final collapse of the Mexican Empire in 1867.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The period of the Second Republic following the end of the Second Empire, is known as the Restored Republic.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: In the midst of war with the United States (1846–48), Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga staged a coup against the government of interim President José Joaquín de Herrera. Shortly afterwards, the Congress appointed him interim president; the vice presidency went to Nicolás Bravo.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: On July 28, 1846 Mariano Paredes left the presidency to command the army in battle against the invaders from the United States, and vice president Bravo took office. On August 4 the federalists (headed by José Mariano Salas and Valentín Gómez Farías) led an uprising, causing the resignation of President Bravo. Mariano Salas took office as provisional president on August 6; on August 22, he reestablished the 1824 Constitution and called an election. With the constitution again in force, centralism ended and the federal system was restored.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The war between Mexico and the United States officially began on May 13, 1846 (when the United States Congress declared war on Mexico), but there had already been battles before that date. Mexico, in turn, declared war on the United States on May 23. After the declarations of war, US forces invaded Mexican territory in Tamaulipas, Nuevo León, Coahuila and Alta California, while at the same time blocking the ports of Tampico, Carmen, Guaymas, Mazatlan and San Blas (among others) and occupying Santa Fe, San Diego and Los Angeles.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The main US force (led by Zachary Taylor) continued through to the Rio Grande and into Mexico, defeating the forces of Pedro Ampudia in the Battle of Monterrey. On December 24, the Congress declared Antonio López de Santa Anna acting president and Valentín Gómez Farías vice president. Gómez Farías assumed the presidency in place of Santa Anna, who was fighting the US.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: After the battles of Angostura, Padierna, Churubusco and Molino del Rey, the Castle of Chapultepec was defended by young cadets who became known as Niños Héroes ("boy heroes"). During the assault, the castle's commanders, generals (Mariano Monterde, director of the Military College of Mexico and Nicolas Bravowere), were taken prisoner. The fall of Chapultepec had two immediate consequences: the US occupation of Mexico City and the resignation of Santa Anna from the presidency on September 16, 1847.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Following the resignation of Santa Anna (and under the law of the time), Manuel de la Peña y Peña (president of the Supreme Court) assumed the office. On September 26 he established the seat of federal power in nearby Toluca and (soon afterwards) in Querétaro, where Congress convened. On November 11, De la Peña left office to serve as chancellor and negotiate peace with the United States Congress; General Pedro Maria Anaya was appointed substitute president. Anaya, refusing to satisfy the land claims of the United States, resigned on January 8, 1848. Manuel de la Pena y Pena was again named provisional president, and was dedicated to negotiating peace. On February 2 the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, in which Mexico ceded of northern territory. De la Peña was able to save for Mexico the Baja Peninsula and its union by land with Sonora and sovereignty over the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Tehuantepec became increasingly of interest since it was a narrow point between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean, which could be a closer transit point than the Isthmus of Panama. The cash-strapped Juárez government in 1859 negotiated the McLane-Ocampo Treaty with the U.S., which would have given the U.S. considerable control over Tehuantepec. The treaty failed to take effect because the U.S. Senate did not ratify it.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Facing criticism for the signing of the treaties ending the Mexican–American War in 1848, De la Peña wrote:


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Manuel de la Peña y Peña called for elections; Congress chose José Joaquin de Herrera, who took over as president June 3, 1848. Herrera used the money for war damages stipulated in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to pay foreign debt, pacify the country and pay salaries. He also achieved re-annexation of Yucatán, which was in a precarious situation caused by the Caste War (which led to the government of the Republic of Yucatán to offer sovereignty of the peninsula to the United States). Congress also sent a request for the creation of the State of Guerrero, and contracted the construction of the Mexico City-Veracruz railway (the first in the country), and awarded another contract for a telegraph line between Mexico City and Puebla.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Mariano Arista was elected in the disputed election of 1850, which had involved former presidents Manuel Gómez Pedraza, Nicolás Bravo and General Juan Nepomuceno Almonte. Herrera was the second president of Mexico to complete his term, and handed over power to Mariano Arista on January 5, 1851. Arista attempted unsuccessfully to overcome bankruptcy and encourage mining. Agriculture and industry were almost nonexistent. Foreign claims were financed on bonds and building permits, and Arista had to overcome several uprisings against his rule. However, the telegraph proceeded to the city and the port of Veracruz and the same route was granted to a railroad company.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The financial plight sparked a revolt that aimed to return Santa Anna to power. Unable to cope due to lack of resources and the refusal of Congress to grant him extraordinary powers to govern, Arista resigned the presidency on January 5, 1853. In his resignation letter, Arista asked Congress to name Juan Bautista Ceballos (president of the Supreme Court) to assume the duties of government during the organizing of elections. After a quick vote, Congress named Ceballos interim president. He ordered the dissolution of both houses of Congress, which were plotting for the return of Santa Anna. Members of Congress instigated the garrison in Mexico City, which rose in support of Santa Anna and sparked riots. Ceballos resigned the presidency on February 7.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: A military group appointed Manuel Maria Lombardini acting president; Lombardini arranged the return of Santa Anna, organized a sham election and on March 17, issued a decree making Santa Anna president. Before Lombardini left office, a decree was issued declaring Santa Anna "Captain General of sea and land, with absolute powers". Lombardini left the presidency on April 20, which began the dictatorship of Santa Anna.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna again assumed the presidency on April 20, 1853 at age 59. Two days after using his extraordinary-powers decree, the Rules for the Administration of the Republic were put into effect. These rules eliminated any control over the executive.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Officials recessed state and territorial legislatures. On September 21, it was decreed that the states again be known as departments. A number of territorial changes followed:


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: During 1853, Santa Anna issued several other decrees arranging for printing, reordering public finances, expropriation, the right to work, the restoration of the Society of Jesus and the return of their former property held by the government (with some exceptions, such as the Colegio de San Ildefonso and military schools). On December 16 he issued the most controversial decree of his dictatorship, stating that the nation would continue with "extraordinary powers" as long as necessary and he would be addressed as "His Most Serene Highness". On December 30 Santa Anna signed the Gadsden Purchase, selling in the states of Sonora and Chihuahua to the United States for 10 million pesos.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: On January 9, 1854, he imposed a tax levy on doors and windows and on February 23, a tax on the exterior lights of houses.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Because of this series of decrees and the sale of national territory, on March 1, Colonel Florencio Villareal proclaimed the Plan of Ayutla which, if enacted, would remove Santa Anna from office. This marked the beginning of the Revolution of Ayutla which resulted in the end of Santa Anna's rule.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Preoccupied with the revolt, Santa Anna issued a new series of decrees. Among these were exceptions to the tax on doors, windows and lights, prohibitions on a Republic and attacks on the government, and decreeing the death penalty for those with a copy of the Plan of Ayutla who would not surrender to government troops. He then conscripted and led an army of 6,000.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Confronted in Guerrero against the army of Ignacio Comonfort, Santa Anna's army was decimated in large part by the defection of soldiers forced to fight. He decided to return to Mexico City; on his way back, he punished several people who had supported the Plan of Ayutla.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: In 1853, he sponsored a contest for the best "Ode to the Motherland". On September 15, 1854, in the midst of the Revolution of Ayutla, it was presented in the National Grand Theatre (then known as the "Gran Teatro de Santa Anna") as the national anthem.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: In 1855, despite repression and terrorism against civilians Santa Anna considered suspects, the Ayutla Revolution was gradually conquering the states of the Republic. On August 12, Santa Anna resigned the presidency and fled to Colombia.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: He tried unsuccessfully several times to return to political life. He offered his services to Benito Juárez, to the French during their war with Mexico and to Maximilian I, but all refused. Santa Anna tried to return to Mexico during the Second Empire, but was arrested in Veracruz and deported. He lived a while in St. Thomas, and again tried to return to Mexico after the triumph of the Republic. Juárez banned him on pain of death, but he landed in Yucatán and was arrested July 30, 1867.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Although the charges against him carried the death penalty, the court-martial that tried him in the Castle of San Juan de Ulua sentenced him to eight years in exile. The judges who sentenced him spent six months in prison for similar charges. Santa Anna lived in St. Thomas, Puerto Plata, the Dominican Republic, and Nassau. Before his sentence, he unsuccessfully requested amnesty several times from President Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada. Santa Anna died in Mexico City on June 21, 1876.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: After the fall of Santa Anna, Martin Carrera was named interim president by the military garrison of Mexico City on August 15, 1855. When Carrera resigned, Romulo Diaz de la Vega (military commander of the capital) took over as "de facto" president on September 12. On October 4, liberals under the Plan of Ayutla named John N. Álvarez interim president. The most important act of the Álvarez government was the convening of a Constituent Assembly to draft a new constitution that would replace the Constitution of 1824.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The Constituent Congress of 1856 convened amid a clerical uprising on February 18, 1856 with a speech by President Ignacio Comonfort (who had replaced Alvarez on December 11, 1855). Topics discussed were the attribution of powers, division of territory, individual rights and freedom of worship.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The Constituent Congress divided into two parties, the liberals and the conservatives. Among the liberals were former President Valentín Gómez Farías, Santos Degollado and Melchor Ocampo. Among the conservatives were Antonio Aguado, Mariano Arizcorreta and the governor of Durango, Marcelino Castañeda.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The Constituent of 1857 was a watershed event in the history of Mexico. It maintained the basic principles of political liberalism: equality before the law and abolition of the privileges of the army and the church. It claimed to uphold individual and political rights. The delegates, under pressure from conservatives, were unable to establish the principle of freedom of religion. Still, the church was strongly opposed to the Constitution and threatened to excommunicate any public official who took the oath. This atmosphere of discontent led to the liberal-conservative civil war known as the Reform War.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The Constitution of 1857 approved several changes in the political division of the Mexican territory: the merger of Nuevo León and Coahuila, the creation of the state of Guerrero, three of the four federal territories and the free states of the federation.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The only federal territory was Baja California. The Federal District (Mexico City) was called the Valley of Mexico State, but only if the Federation retained the power to move it to another site. On February 26, 1864, Nuevo León was separated from Coahuila and regained its status as a sovereign state.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: On November 23, 1855 President Alvarez issued the Decree of Law on the Administration of Justice and the Courts Organic Federation (better known as the Law of Juarez). It abolished church and military privilege, and declared all citizens equal before the Catholic Church. The Church almost immediately protested against the law, arguing that it "directly undermines the rights of the church". Several bishops declared that they would abide by the Law of Juarez, and demanded that the law be revised by the Vatican. Opposition to this law resulted in several popular uprisings, such as the Plan of Sierra Gorda (which, among other things, sought the creation of the State of Iturbide) and the Zacapoaxtla Plan (which the government UUI


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: On January 27, 1856 Comonfort decreed a Civil Registry Law (by which the government would record births, deaths and marriages), and on June 23 decreed a law confiscating property owned by corporations and the church (better known as the Law of Lerdo). This law required civil and ecclesiastical bodies to sell their houses and land, and prohibited the church from purchasing property (except that necessary for worship). The Catholic Church protested against both laws, and began inciting people to civil disobedience.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The 1857 Constitution was liberal, and divided Mexican society into two groups. The liberals, known as "pure" or "red", were largely composed of former insurgents, landowners, Creole merchants and artisans. They sought to establish a regime of freedom and equality among citizens. The conservatives (known as the "Moche") were composed of civilian and military officials, lawyers, the Spanish and most of the clergy. They sought to preserve the social and political institutions inherited from the colonial era.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: On April 11 Comonfort enacted a law on rights and parish perquisites (better known as the Law of Churches). This law prohibited the charging of fees, parish perquisites and tithing. This was the last of the three reform laws which threatened the privileges of the Catholic Church.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: On September 16, 1857 the new Constitution came into force. Legislative power was integrated on 8 October, with the executive branch headed by Ignacio Comonfort (as constitutional president); the judiciary, headed by Benito Juárez as president of the Supreme Court, started on December 1.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The new constitution was rejected by a large part of society, which had the support of the clergy and the army. Comonfort, aware of the limitations imposed by the new regime, proposed reforms to strengthen the government and mitigate "radical" measures; however, Congress rejected them.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Given the delicate situation, Félix Zuloaga and other generals convinced Comonfort to convene another congress to draft a new constitution more in keeping with the customs of the nation. On December 17, Zuloaga proclaimed the Plan of Tacubaya. Comonfort joined the Plan of Tacubaya, which began the three-year war.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The Plan of Tacubaya demanded the repeal of the Constitution of 1857, the abolition of Ignacio Comonfort's permanence in office with absolute powers and the convening of an extraordinary congress, which would develop another charter to "guarantee the true interests of the people". On December 19, Comonfort published a manifesto explaining the reason for his coup d'état. Under the Constitution, Supreme Court president Benito Juárez had been the constitutional interim president since December 18. Juárez took office that day and was imprisoned along with Isidoro Olvera, president of Congress.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The states of the country were divided into those who supported the Plan of Tacubaya and those defending the constitutional order. Conservatives, meanwhile, lobbied for repeal of the Comonfort liberal reforms; he refused. On January 11, 1858, Comonfort dissolved Congress and released Juárez. He tried to seek reconciliation with the liberal wing, and armed clashes took place against the conservatives. The Zuloaga brigade rebelled, and called for reform to the Plan of Tacubaya with Comonfort removed as president. Félix Zuloaga was named president that day; Comonfort, ten days afterwards, declared himself defeated and went into exile.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Benito Juarez (who, according to the Constitution of 1857, had been acting president since December 18) restored a constitutional government in Guanajuato on January 19, 1858. The states supporting the constitutional government recognized Juarez as the legitimate president of Mexico. Félix Zuloaga, declared president by a board of representatives of the states supporting the Plan of Tacubaya, was established in Mexico City.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The progression of conservative troops forced Juárez to move to Guadalajara on February 13. When Guadalajara was attacked, he moved to Colima on March 20. Since Juárez needed a place controlled by liberals and resources to support his government, he sailed for Panama and on to Veracruz.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: At first, the conservatives had the advantage; they were in Mexico City, and had the support of the clergy and the army. The liberals lacked a professional army, and the states with militias supported Juárez alone.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The United States proposed to both governments (liberal and conservative) the purchase of Baja California, which was rejected by both. Finally, the United States recognized the government of Juárez on April 28, 1859. In July, he issued three decrees from Veracruz: the law nationalizing church property, the Civil Marriage Act and the organic law governing civil registration. The liberals supported the law under its new political banner, and emphasized the religious nature of their struggle.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The second half of 1859 was the same as the previous year: winning battles, the conservatives and liberals quickly recovered. On the conservative side Félix María Zuloaga, who was overthrown by Manuel Robles Pezuela's Christmas Plan, was restored to office in January 1859; Miguel Miramon was released in February. Lacking financial resources, in September the Conservatives signed the Mon-Almonte Treaty (by which Spain recognized the conservative government as the legitimate government of Mexico).


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: In December the liberals, contesting the usurpation of the Nationalization Law, signed the McLane-Ocampo Treaty (which virtually made Mexico a protectorate of the United States) for $4 million. Juárez, receiving $2 million as an advance payment and military aid, was to capture the maritime squadron off Veracruz Miramon. However, the treaty was not approved by the United States Senate; Juarez received the money (and military aid) without giving anything in return.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The civil war, which had exhausted and impoverished the country, wound down in 1860. On December 4 Juárez decreed laws on religious freedom, which allowed each person to be free to practice and choose their religion and forbade ceremonies outside churches.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: On November 6, Juarez called for elections of deputies and a president of the republic. Liberal victories began in the battles of Peñuelas and Silao. Liberals won decisively at the Battle of Calpulalpan on December 22, in which the conservative army disintegrated. The liberal army made its triumphal entry into Mexico City on January 1, 1861, which marked the end of the War of Reform.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The civil war was costly and had a negative balance on all sectors of the Mexican government, especially agriculture and the diplomatic arena. Both sides acted in ways affecting Mexicans and foreign interests such as forced loans, confiscations, murder and debts from foreign powers. The most important deal was that of Miguel Miramon, who signed a loan of 15 million pesos (of which only 750,000 were received; this would be part of the claim as the debt owed to the foreign powers).


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: When Juárez occupied Mexico City he expelled the representatives of Spain, Guatemala and Ecuador; the papal nuncio, Archbishop of Mexico; and the bishop of Michoacán for openly supporting the conservative government.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The end of the War of Reform was not the end of the civil war. With the conservative army decimated, it became a guerrilla operation under the leadership of Leonardo Marquez, who in June 1861 murdered Melchor Ocampo, Santos Degollado and Leandro Valle.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Juárez won the elections held in November, and took office as constitutional president July 15, 1861. The country's precarious economic situation led Juárez to suspend foreign debt payments for two years.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Napoleon III called Spain and the United Kingdom to a meeting in London to discuss a joint convention against the government of Mexico. On October 31, 1861, the three countries signed a document known as the London Convention, in which contained an agreement by the three powers to dispatch an expedition to Mexico to ensure the Mexican government repaid its debts.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Upon hearing the shocking news, the Congress reluctantly granted extraordinary powers to Juárez on December 11. When foreign ships arrived in Veracruz Juárez offered no resistance and allowed them to disembark at the port, seeking to resolve the conflict diplomatically. Foreign Minister Manuel Bent met with commissioners of the foreign powers; Spanish and British diplomats quickly came to an agreement upon realising the Mexicans were telling the truth concerning their poor economic situation. Both nations signed treaties with Mexico, and accepted the temporary suspension of payments along with peacefully withdrawing their forces. The French stayed on, intending to use the debt issue as an excuse to set up a puppet regime in Mexico under their control.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: During 1862, battles between Mexico and the French continued. The battles of Dry Canyon and Cerro del Borrego followed the Battle of Puebla; both were French victories. After the arrival of reinforcements from France was the siege of Puebla, in which the city fell to the French on May 17, 1863. After the fall of Puebla, French troops went to Mexico City.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: On May 31 Juárez and his cabinet left Mexico City and moved to San Luis Potosí and began his "errant government", which finally settled in Paso del Norte (now Ciudad Juárez). On June 1, 1863 garrison commander General Bruno Martinez issued a manifesto favoring French intervention in Mexico and recognizing Frédéric Forey as ultimate authority in the country. José Mariano Salas, former president of Mexico and restorer of the Federal Republic, took over Mexico City from June 1–10 (when French troops occupied the capital).


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: On June 16, General Forey decreed the formation of a Superior Board of Governors, which on June 24 named a triumvirate to take over the executive branch: Juan Nepomuceno Almonte, Jose Mariano Salas and Pelagius Antonio de Labastida (who, due to his absence, was temporarily replaced by John B. Ormachea).


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: On July 8, a 215 Notables Assembly was installed (in conjunction with the High Board of Government). On July 10, it established a monarchy and offered the crown of empire to Maximilian of Austria. This decree marked the end of the Second Federal Republic, beginning the Second Mexican Empire.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: On July 11 the board consisted of Almonte, Salas, Labastida and the Regency of the Empire, which ruled until the arrival of Maximilian in Mexico. On October 3 at the Castle of Miramar, the Mexican delegation (headed by Jose Maria Gutierrez de Estrada, Juan Nepomuceno Almonte and Miguel Miramon Maximilian) was read the official request of Mexican monarchists for occupation of the throne of Mexico. Maximilian accepted the crown of the Mexican Empire, and arrived in Veracruz on May 28, 1864. He went to Mexico City with his wife Charlotte, where he was crowned on April 10, 1864 in the Metropolitan Cathedral.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: In the nearly 17 years of the Second Federal Republic there were 14 presidents in 18 governments, of which only José Joaquín de Herrera completed his term. Herrera, Arista, Comonfort and Juárez were the only four constitutional presidents during this period (although two of them, Comonfort and Juárez, began their governments as interim presidents).


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Interim President José Mariano Salas handed the presidency to vice president-elect Valentín Gómez Farías on December 23, 1846, who took office in place of Antonio López de Santa Anna (who was fighting the U.S. Army). On March 21, 1847, Santa Anna returned to Mexico and dismissed Gómez Farías, who went into exile. On April 1 Santa Anna had Congress set aside the vice presidency, and left the presidency to Pedro Maria Anaya on April 2.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Anaya gave the presidency back to Santa Anna on May 20, when he left to fight the U.S. Santa Anna resigned the presidency on September 16, and fled the capital when U.S. troops occupied Mexico City. Following the resignation of Santa Anna, Manuel de la Pena y Pena (president of the Supreme Court) became president.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: De la Peña gave the presidency to Pedro Maria Anaya on November 13, when he left office to negotiate peace with the United States. Anaya resigned the presidency on January 8, 1848, refusing to cede territory to the United States, and de la Pena y Pena took office the same day. Concluding peace treaties with the United States, de la Peña called an election in which was elected José Joaquín de Herrera, who took office on June 2. Herrera concluded his term, and handed the presidency to President-elect Mariano Arista on January 15, 1851.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Arista resigned the presidency on January 5, 1853, when Congress denied him "extraordinary powers" to rule the country. On January 6, Juan Bautista Ceballos (president of the Supreme Court) assumed the presidency in place of Arista. Ceballos resigned on February 8; Manuel Maria Lombardini served as president "de facto" until April 20, when Lombardini granted to Santa Anna "extraordinary powers" to rule and handed the presidency over.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Santa Anna ruled as dictator until August 12, 1855, when he was overthrown by the Revolution of Ayutla. Martin Carrera, president since April 15, gave the charge to Romulo Diaz de la Vega on September 12. Diaz de la Vega left office on October 3; on October 4, Juan Álvarez became president. Alvarez, after calling the election of a constituent congress, handed the presidency to Ignacio Comonfort on December 11. Comonfort ruled as interim president until October 31, 1857, and from December 1 as president. After ignoring the Constitution of 1857 and supporting the Plan of Tacubaya, Comonfort ceased to be president December 17.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Under the Constitution the president of the Supreme Court, Benito Juárez, was acting president beginning on December 18; however, he did not set up his government until January 19, 1858 after being released from jail. Juárez was the constitutionally-elected president until July 18, 1872, keeping pace with presidents, presidents recognized by conservatives, the regency of the empire and Maximilian.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Since most of Juárez's rule was marked by civil wars and foreign invasions, he did not always have authority over much of Mexican territory. However, even during the Second Mexican Empire Juárez was recognized as President of Mexico by republican liberal forces and also importantly the United States. With the end of the American Civil War (1861–65), the U.S. gave material aid to the Juárez government to oust the French and their conservative Mexican supporters. Mexican republicans finally defeated the empire, and restored the republic. Juárez is recognized as president from December 18, 1857 to July 18, 1872.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: The Plan of Tacubaya, which did not recognize the Constitution of 1857, originally recognized Ignacio Comonfort as president of Mexico. Comonfort was recognized by conservatives until January 11 of 1858, and resigned on January 21. Félix María Zuloaga was recognized as the conservative president on January 11; he formally assumed office on January 23, but was ousted by the Christmas Plan on December 24 and replaced by Manuel Robles Pezuela. Pezuela Robles remained conservative president until January 21, 1859; on January 24, Zuloaga resumed office. Zuloaga held a second term until February 2, when he was replaced by Miguel Miramón. Miramón (a conservative) left the presidency in the hands of José Ignacio Pavón on August 13, 1860—a position he held only two days, since Miramón resumed the presidency on August 15. Miramón ruled until December 24, having a rotating presidency with Zuloaga. Zuloaga, assisted by several military conservatives, became president of a conservative faction that was divided by internal conflicts and his term ended August 13. Despite being defeated by the liberals, the conservatives continued to recognize Zuloaga as president. On December 28, 1862, his term ended; by ending with a conservative government, this would prepare the way for what became the Second Mexican Empire.


title: Second Federal Republic of Mexico

text: Before filing the change of government in the Federal Republic to a monarchy, a meeting of conservatives supported by the French army appointed a triumvirate to take on the executive duties of the country. This was composed of Juan Nepomuceno Almonte, José Mariano Salas and Pelagius Antonio de Labastida (and as interim, Juan Ormachea). This triumvirate ruled from June 24 to July 10, 1863, and from July 11 became the Regency of the Empire.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: There are a number of languages used in Ireland. Since the late eighteenth century, English has been the predominant first language, displacing Irish. A large minority claims some ability to use Irish, and it is the first language for a small percentage of the population.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: In the Republic of Ireland, under the Constitution of Ireland, both languages have official status, with Irish being the national and first official language. Northern Ireland has no official language, but English is the "de facto" official language of the United Kingdom and Irish and Ulster-Scots are recognised regional languages.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: The earliest linguistic records in Ireland are of Primitive Irish, from about the 17th century BCE. Languages spoken in Iron Age Ireland before then are now irretrievable, although there are some claims of traces in Irish toponymy.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: Middle English was first introduced by the Cambro-Norman settlers in the 12th century. It did not initially take hold as a widely spoken language, as the Norman élite spoke Anglo-Norman. In time, many Norman settlers intermarried and assimilated to the Irish cultures and some even became "more Irish than the Irish themselves". Following the Tudor conquest of Ireland and the 1610–15 Ulster Plantation, particularly in the old Pale, Elizabethan English became the language of court, justice, administration, business, trade and of the landed gentry. Monolingual Irish speakers were generally of the poorer and less educated classes with no land. Irish was accepted as a vernacular language, but then as now, fluency in English was an essential element for those who wanted social mobility and personal advancement. After the legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland's succession of Irish Education Acts that sponsored the Irish national schools and provided free public primary education, Hiberno-English replaced the Irish language. Since the 1850s, English medium education was promoted by both the UK administration and the Roman Catholic Church. This greatly assisted the waves of immigrants forced to seek new lives in the US and throughout the Empire after the Famine. Since then the various local Hiberno-English dialects comprise the vernacular language throughout the island.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: The 2002 census found that 103,000 British citizens were living in the Republic of Ireland, along with 11,300 from the US and 8,900 from Nigeria, all of whom would speak other dialects of English. The 2006 census listed 165,000 people from the UK, and 22,000 from the US. The 2016 Census reported a decline in UK nationals to the 2002 level: 103,113.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: The original Primitive Irish was introduced by Celtic speakers. Primitive Irish gradually evolved into Old Irish, spoken between the 5th and the 10th centuries, and then into Middle Irish. Middle Irish was spoken in Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man through the 12th century, when it began to evolve into modern Irish in Ireland, Scottish Gaelic in Scotland, and the Manx language in the Isle of Man. Today, Irish is recognized as the first official language of the Republic of Ireland and is officially recognized in the European Union. Communities that speak Irish as their first language, generally in sporadic regions on the island's west coast, are collectively called the Gaeltacht.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: In the 2016 census, 8,068 census forms were completed in Irish, and just under 74,000 said they spoke it daily. 70% of the population confirmed that they couldn't or didn't speak Irish, with 1.7% speaking it daily. The total number of people who answered 'yes' to being able to speak Irish to some extent in April 2016 was 1,761,420, which represents 39.8 percent of respondents out of a population of 4,921,500 (2019 estimate) in the Republic of Ireland.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: Although the use of Irish in educational and broadcasting contexts has soared with the 600 plus Irish-language primary/secondary schools and creches , English is still overwhelmingly dominant in almost all social, economic, and cultural contexts. In the media, there is an Irish-language TV station TG4, Cúla 4 a children's channel on satellite, 5 radio stations such as the national station RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta, Raidió na Life in Dublin, Raidió Fáilte in Belfast as well as a youth radio station Raidió Rí-Rá. There are also several newspapers, such as Tuairisc.ie, Meon Eile, Seachtain (a weekly supplement in the Irish Independent), and several Magazines including Comhar, Feasta, and An Timire. There are also occasional columns written in Irish in English-language newspapers, including The Irish Times, The Irish News, The Irish Examiner, Metro Éireann, Irish Echo, Evening Echo and Andersonstown News. All of the 40 or so radio stations in the Republic have to have some weekly Irish-language programming to obtain their broadcasting license. Similarly, RTÉ runs Nuacht, a news show, in Irish and Léargas, a documentary show, in Irish with English subtitles. The Official Languages Act 2003 gave many new rights to Irish citizens concerning the Irish language, including the use of Irish in court proceedings. All Dáil debates are to be recorded in Irish also. In 2007, Irish became the 21st official language of the European Union.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: Ulster Scots sometimes called Ullans is a dialect of Scots spoken in some parts of County Donegal and Northern Ireland. It is promoted by the Ulster Scots Agency, a cross-border body. Its status as an independent language as opposed to a dialect of Scots has been debated.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: Shelta is a cant, based upon both Irish and English, generally spoken by the Irish Traveller community. It is known as Gammon to Irish speakers and Shelta by the linguistic community. It is a mixture of English and Irish, with Irish being the lexifier language.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: Shelta is a secret language, with a refusal by the Travellers to share with non-travellers, named "Buffers". When speaking Shelta in front of Buffers, Travellers will disguise the structure so as to make it seem like they aren't speaking Shelta at all. There is fear that if outsiders know the entirety of the language, it will be used to bring further discrimination to the Traveller community.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: Irish Sign Language (ISL) is the sign language of most of Ireland. It has little relation to either spoken Irish or English, and is more closely related to French Sign Language (LSF).


title: Languages of Ireland

text: Northern Ireland Sign Language is used in Northern Ireland, and is related to both ISL and BSL in various ways. ISL is also used in Northern Ireland.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: With increased immigration into Ireland, there has been a substantial increase in the number of people speaking languages. The table below gives figures from the 2016 census of population usually resident and present in the state who speak a language other than English, Irish or a sign language at home.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: None of these languages were spoken by a majority of the population, but are of historical interest, giving loan words to Irish and Hiberno-English.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: Late Latin was introduced by the early Christians by c. 500. It remained a church language, but also was the official written language before and after the Norman conquest in 1171. Ecclesiastical Latin was used by the Roman Catholic church for services until the Vatican II reforms in 1962–65. Latin is still used in a small number of churches in Dublin, Cork, Limerick and Stamullen.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: Norman settlers (especially their élite) introduced the Norman or Anglo-Norman language during the Norman invasion of Ireland of 1169. From Norman derived "Law French", a few words of which continue to be used today for certain legal purposes in both jurisdictions on the island.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: Yola was a language which evolved from Middle English, surviving in County Wexford up to the 19th century.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: In primary schools, most pupils are taught to speak, read and write in Irish and English. The vast majority of schools teach through English, although a growing number of "gaelscoil" teach through Irish. Most students at second level choose to study English as an L1 language and Irish and other Continental European languages as L2 languages. Irish is not offered as an L1 language by the Department of Education. Prof. David Little (November 2003) said that there was an urgent need to introduce an L1 Irish Gaelic Curriculum. He quoted from a report by An Bord Curaclaim agus Scrúduithe (The Curriculum and Examinations Board) Report of the Board of Studies for Languages, Dublin 1987: "It must be stressed … that the needs of Irish as L1 at post-primary level have been totally ignored, as at present there is no recognition in terms of curriculum and syllabus of any linguistic differences between learners of Irish as L1 and L2.". The Continental European languages available for the Junior Certificate and the Leaving Certificate include French, German, Italian and Spanish; Leaving Certificate students can also study Arabic, Japanese and Russian. Some schools also offer Ancient Greek, Hebrew Studies and Latin at second level.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: Students who did not immigrate to Ireland before the age of ten may receive an exemption from learning Irish. Pupils with learning difficulties can also seek exemption. A recent study has revealed that over half of those pupils who got exemption from studying Irish went on to study a Continental European language.


title: Languages of Ireland

text: The following is a list of foreign languages taken at Leaving Certificate level in 2007, followed by the number as a percentage of all students taking Mathematics for comparison (mathematics is a mandatory subject).


title: Languages of Ireland

text: The predominant language in the education system in Northern Ireland is English with the Irish Medium schools teaching exclusively in the Irish language. The ULTACH Trust coordinates the promotion of Irish in English Medium Schools, in the GCSE and A Level qualification it is the 3rd most picked Modern Language in the Northern Ireland and in the top ten in the UK. Intakes in GCSE Irish and A Level Irish are increasing, the usage of the language is also increasing.


title: Tom Dwan

text: Thomas Dwan Jr. (born 1986) is an American professional poker player who played online in the highest-stakes No-Limit Texas hold 'em and Pot-Limit Omaha games, primarily on Full Tilt Poker under the screen name "durrrr". Dwan has won prize money in live poker tournaments and has appeared on NBC's "National Heads-Up Poker Championship", the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh seasons of "Poker After Dark", the third, fourth, and fifth seasons of Full Tilt Poker's "Million Dollar Cash Game", and the fifth, sixth, eighth and ninth seasons of GSN's "High Stakes Poker".


title: Tom Dwan

text: Dwan was born on July 30, 1986, in Edison, New Jersey. In season 5, week 7 of NBC’s "Poker After Dark", Dwan revealed that he worked for McDonalds prior to playing poker full time. He attended Engineering class in Boston University before dropping out after the first year to pursue playing poker full-time.


title: Tom Dwan

text: Dwan began playing online poker with a $50 bankroll. He initially focused on sit-and-go tournaments, later switching to multiplayer cash games then to heads-up cash games.


title: Tom Dwan

text: According to HighStakesDB.com, a site that tracks high-stakes online poker, Dwan earned $312,800 in 2007 on Full Tilt Poker and $5.41 million in 2008. Before the 2007 World Series of Poker, Dwan claimed to have lost, at the time, $2 million of his $3 million bankroll, over a four-month period. He recovered from this loss within a year. In January 2009, Dwan lost more than $3.5 million, which he recovered after six months. However, from late October to late December 2009, Dwan suffered his then-largest downswing, losing approximately $2 million to Phil Ivey, Ilari "Ziigmund" Sahamies and $5 million to then-19-years-old Swedish professional Viktor Blom aka Isildur1.


title: Tom Dwan

text: In mid-November 2009, Blom challenged Dwan to a series of heads-up No Limit Hold'em cash games. Blom's foray into online high-stakes cash games began in late October 2009, when he initially lost $1.1 million to Patrik Antonius, Brian Townsend, and other high-stakes players. By the beginning of November, Blom had recovered his losses; he then challenged Dwan to a heads-up marathon that would take place simultaneously on six tables at a time with over a million dollars in play. By the end of the first week of play, Blom had gone on ostensibly the largest run in the history of online poker, winning approximately $5 million from Dwan, prompting Dwan to issue a live challenge to Blom at the Full Tilt Poker Durrrr Million Dollar Challenge.


title: Tom Dwan

text: At the end of 2009, HighStakesDB.com reported that Dwan had lost $4.35 million in 2009, which lowered his cumulative online poker winnings at Full Tilt since January 2007 at approximately $1.4 million. HighStakesDB.com also reported that after stepping down in limits following his loss to Blom/Isildur1, Dwan won $2.7 million in December 2009. According to the same site, Dwan had more than recouped his 2009 losses in the first few months of 2010; he was reported to have won $1.6 million in the first two weeks of April 2010, and after a session in which he won $1.6 million from Sahamies in a little over two hours, was ahead $7.3 million for the year as of April 21. However, Dwan lost about $4 million in the next three weeks, leaving him ahead about $3.3 million for 2010.


title: Tom Dwan

text: In January 2009, Dwan issued a $1,000,000 challenge to play anyone online, "with the exception of Phil Galfond", heads up for 50,000 hands four-tabling at $200/$400 limits or higher No-Limit hold 'em or Pot-Limit Omaha. If his opponent is ahead after 50,000 hands, Dwan agreed to give them $1,500,000 more, while if Dwan is ahead, he will get $500,000. Regarding his challengers, Dwan has said, "I think all of them actually are better over-all poker players than me -- by quite a bit; I happen to think in this one area, I might have a little edge -- and we'll see if I do."


title: Tom Dwan

text: Patrik Antonius and Daniel Cates were playing Dwan as part of the challenge, but neither challenge was completed. In October 2013, Cates was ahead about $1.2 million after roughly 20,000 hands. Since then, however, Cates has publicly claimed that Dwan has stopped playing and is not responding to his queries. In August 2017, Cates stated that Dwan had paid him approximately $800,000 in penalties for not playing, that Dwan was committed to finishing the game, and they expected it to be completed by the end of 2018.


title: Tom Dwan

text: At the age of 19, Dwan cashed in at his first live tournament, finishing 12th in the £3,000 no limit Texas Hold 'em Main Event of the European Poker Tour's second season held in London, earning £7,000 ($12,398). His next cash was not until he was 21 years old, at the World Poker Tour's 2007 World Poker Finals $9,700 No Limit Hold 'em Championship Event, where he finished 4th earning $324,244. In January 2008, Dwan finished second at the Aussie Millions A$3,000 Pot Limit Omaha with Rebuys event, winning A$103,200 ($90,716) and later finished in 62nd place in the A$10,000 No Limit Hold 'em Main Event, good for A$25,000 ($21,976). Dwan finished second to James Michael Sowers at the 2008 WPT Borgata Winter Open in the preliminary $5,000 No Limit Hold 'em event, earning $226,100.


title: Tom Dwan

text: Dwan cashed twice in the first year that he could to play in a World Series of Poker (WSOP) event held in the United States. Dwan reached the final table in the $10,000 World Championship Mixed Event at the 2008 World Series of Poker finishing in 8th place, earning $54,144. He nearly made another in a seven-person final table, but finished again in 8th, this time in the $5,000 No Limit 2-7 Draw with Rebuys event, earning $45,110.


title: Tom Dwan

text: Dwan participated in the 2008 NBC National Heads-Up Poker Championship held at Caesars Palace Las Vegas, where in his first match he defeated Phil Hellmuth in the third hand. Dwan was eliminated in the next round by Mike Matusow. At the 2008 Five-Star World Poker Classic (the $25,500 WPT Championship), Dwan finished in ninth place, winning $184,670.


title: Tom Dwan

text: At the 2010 World Series of Poker in the $1,500 No Limit Hold 'em event, Dwan finished in second place for $381,885.


title: Tom Dwan

text: In 2011, Dwan cashed three times at the 2011 World Series of Poker, including a 5th-place finish in the $10,000 H.O.R.S.E. Championship for $134,480.


title: Tom Dwan

text: In 2016, Dwan went under the radar and was notably absent from that year's WSOP. It was rumored that he was traveling to Montenegro to play in Richard Yong's Casino. He was, however, present in two events including the Third Edition of the Triton Super High Roller Series in Manila and was seen in company of Daniel Cates.


title: Tom Dwan

text: In 2017, Dwan appeared at the Macau Billionaire's Poker 2017 Spring Challenge set at the Babylon Casino in Macau. Running from March 17 to 20, the Super High Roller saw Dwan lose the final against Belarus player Mikita Badziakouski. For his first live cash tournament since February 2014, Dwan pocketed the runner-up prize of US$275,000.


title: Tom Dwan

text: Dwan previously held the record for the largest pot won in a televised live game at over $1.1 million, which occurred during the fourth season of Full Tilt Poker's "Million Dollar Cash Game". This record broke the previous record of over $919,000 also won by Dwan in the fifth season of "High Stakes Poker". As of 2016, Dwan has spent much of his time playing high stakes cash games in Macau and Manila.


title: Tom Dwan

text: More recently, he has mostly (though not completely) abandoned standard Texas hold 'em in favor of short-deck hold 'em. In a 2018 interview with "Poker News", he said that he viewed poker as more of a game than a sport, and also tired of what he saw as the constant staredowns many players employed. While he admitted to having popularized staredowns, he objected to players doing so even when they were not in a crucial situation.


title: Tom Dwan

text: Dwan's Million Dollar Challenge was expanded to a 500-hand live heads-up format in the Full Tilt Poker Durrrr Million Dollar Challenge. The event was held November 17 to 19, 2009, at Les Ambassadeurs Club in London and televised by Sky Sports.


title: Tom Dwan

text: The rules of the Challenge were that each player paid $250,000 for the privilege of playing, blinds were set at $500/$1,000 with each opponent having the choice of playing either Texas hold 'em or Pot Limit Omaha (PLO). Neither player could leave the match until at least 500 hands had been completed or one of them lost all of his buy-in and decided not to re-buy. Dwan's opponents were Marcello "luckexpress" Marigliano, Ilari "Ziigmund" Sahamies, and Sammy "Any Two" George, respectively.


title: Tom Dwan

text: The first match between Dwan and Marigliano consisted mainly of Texas hold 'em, although the players did agree to play Pot Limit Omaha near the end of the match. Dwan lost $22,500 which was highlighted by two bluffs by Marigliano. In the second match between Dwan and Sahamies the players played only Pot Limit Omaha. Although the match started surprisingly slow considering the history of online competition between Dwan and Sahamies, the match eventually became aggressive as expected. There were several large pots resulting in large swings in both players’ stacks. After 12 hours, the match concluded with Dwan winning $68,000.


title: Tom Dwan

text: The final round pitted Dwan against George in an exclusively Texas hold 'em match. During the match, the parties agreed to a 7-2 prop bet wherein if a player wins a pot with 7-2 then he earns an additional $10,000. This led to one of the most memorable bluffs in television poker history when Dwan bet $479,500 on the river, all in, into a pot of only $162,000. Dwan was bluffing with 7–2 against George's two pair (aces and sixes). George folded his two pair after much consideration even though Dwan, after making a 6x pre-flop raise, had said he had 7-2 and just wanted the blinds. George went on to lose $750,000.


title: Tom Dwan

text: In November 2009, Dwan became a member of Team Full Tilt and re-signed as a brand ambassador for the site on October 15, 2012. In December 2013, Full Tilt Poker confirmed that they and Dwan "agreed to part ways following the recent expiration of Dwan’s contract".


title: Tom Dwan

text: Tom Dwan challenged the undefeated Phil Hellmuth in round 2 of the High Stakes Duel III by Poker Go. Dwan ended Hellmuth's winning streak and took home $200,000. The pair have agreed to a third round at double the stakes to take place in Las Vegas at some point during the 2021 World Series of Poker.


title: Tom Dwan

text: Dwan announced on January 27, 2018, on his Twitter account, that he and Bianca Rossi, plan to get married.


title: Albano Carrisi

text: Albano Antonio Carrisi (; born 20 May 1943), better known as Al Bano, is an Italian tenor, actor, and winemaker. He is one of the most recognisable Italian singers in the world whose career spans 7 decades. He has gained notability due to his vocal capabilities as well as mésalliance with Romina Power, daughter of Hollywood star Tyrone Power. In 2016, he was awarded Albanian citizenship due to his close ties with the country.


title: Albano Carrisi

text: He was born in the town of Cellino San Marco (province of Brindisi, Puglia in Southern Italy), where he still lives.


title: Albano Carrisi

text: His mother Iolanda Ottino named him Albano because, when he was born, his father Carmelo Carrisi was fighting in Albania for the Royal Italian Army during World War II. He has one brother, Franco Carrisi .


title: Albano Carrisi

text: He won the Disco per l'Estate, an Italian song contest, with "Pensando a te" in 1968. He recorded some major hits such as "La siepe" and "Nel sole" at that time. "Nel sole" sold 600,000 copies in Italy within three months of release in 1967, and eventually over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc in July 1968.


title: Albano Carrisi

text: Soon afterwards, he started a musical collaboration with Romina Power (daughter of the American actor Tyrone Power), whom he married in 1970. After their marriage, they recorded "Storia di due innamorati". They sang as the duo Al Bano & Romina Power for almost thirty years; their work has been especially popular in Italy, Austria, France, Spain, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece and Germany. They released "Dialogo" in 1975 and took part in the Eurovision Song Contest 1976 with the song "We'll Live It All Again" ("Noi lo rivivremo di nuovo"). They sang "Sharazan" in 1981 and the following year they took part in the Sanremo Music Festival with the song "Felicità", which came second. They won first prize in 1984 singing "Ci sarà" and again took part in the Eurovision Song Contest 1985 with "Magic Oh Magic". Both their Eurovision entries placed 7th. Other hits of 1987 include: "Nostalgia canaglia" (awarded 3rd prize at Festival di Sanremo '87) and "Libertà". Those successful songs were followed by "Cara terra mia", which came in third once more at the 1989 Sanremo Music Festival, and "Oggi sposi" which placed 8th at the 1991 Sanremo Music Festival.


title: Albano Carrisi

text: Al Bano returned to his solo career in 1996 with "È la mia vita" which was followed by "Verso il sole" in 1997 and "Ancora in volo" in 1999 (that year, his duo – and his marriage – with Romina broke up). He also played in "Herşeye Rağmen" ("Nonetheless" in Turkish) music video of Sima (full name was Sima Sarıkaya), a Turkish singer in 1997. In 2000, Al Bano returned to the Eurovision stage, providing backing vocals for the Swiss entry (performed in Italian) "La vita cos'è?" performed by Jane Bogaert. This song placed 20th out of 24 in the contest. On 16 October 2001, Carrisi was nominated Goodwill Ambassador of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).


title: Albano Carrisi

text: In 2005, he starred in the Italian reality show "L'isola dei Famosi" (Italian version of "Celebrity Survivor") with his daughter, Romina Carrisi. Al Bano returned to Sanremo Music Festival in 2007, where he sang "Nel perdono" which came in second place.


title: Albano Carrisi

text: Al Bano still tours all over the world. He is a constant on Italian television and has a large number of fans who follow his career very closely. To date Al Bano has sold 165 million albums around the world. Al Bano has visited Albania a number of times. He was there for a concert in 1989 and has been enjoying great popularity there.


title: Albano Carrisi

text: In June 2016 Al Bano was granted the Albanian citizenship due to his close ties with the country and career successes in Albania.


title: Albano Carrisi

text: In March 2019 Al Bano was included in the blacklist of the Ukrainian website "Myrotvorets" and the Ukrainian government banned him from entering Ukraine because of his support of the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea.


title: Albano Carrisi

text: In April 2020 Al Bano released a dual-language song in Italian and English praising the natural beauty of Latvia. Terra d'Ambra e di Emozioni / Land of Amber was written and composed by Charles Goodger with Italian lyrics by Alberto Zeppieri. The Latvian Tourist Board used it in a promotional video.


title: Albano Carrisi

text: Al Bano grew up listening to opera for which he had a great passion. He has released several opera albums and is a tenor. In 1997, he released an opera solo album 1997 entitled "Concerto Classico", which went double platinum in a short time. Songs he sang on that album include "Una furtiva lagrima", "Va, pensiero", "La nostra serenata", "E lucevan le stelle", and "Ave Maria"


title: Albano Carrisi

text: On 26 July 1970, Al Bano married Romina Power (daughter of the American actor Tyrone Power), who had already started to share her musical career with him, and remained his stage partner for about 30 years.


title: Albano Carrisi

text: Carrisi and Power separated in 1999. Their divorce was finalized in 2012. They have a son, Yari (1973), and three daughters: Ylenia Maria (1970) (who went missing in New Orleans in 1994), Cristel Chiara (1985) (starred in the Reality TV show "La Fattoria", an Italian version of "The Farm") and Romina Iolanda (1987). He has one daughter and one son from girlfriend and showgirl Loredana Lecciso, Jasmine Caterina (2001) and Albano Giovanni (2002).


title: Albano Carrisi

text: In the summer of 2013, Al Bano and Romina Power reunited, reportedly only on a professional basis and for one final time, for a concert performance in Moscow. They later performed as guests at the Sanremo Festival 2015. They also performed together in Atlantic City, USA, in April 2015, and following that, in Los Angeles.


title: Albano Carrisi

text: On 30 May 2015, Al Bano produced a show at the Arena di Verona, before a sold-out audience of 11,000, in which he starred with Romina Power. The show, featuring Tyrone Power Jr. and other special guests was transmitted by the Italian national TV network RAI, and was watched in over eight countries by 51,000,000 viewers around the globe, a 37 ratings share.


title: Hanna R. Hall

text: Hanna Rose Hall (born July 9, 1984) is an American actress. She made her film debut in "Forrest Gump" (1994), and later appeared in Sofia Coppola's "The Virgin Suicides" (1999) and Rob Zombie's "Halloween" (2007).


title: Hanna R. Hall

text: Hall was born in Denver, Colorado. Her family moved into the mountains when she was two years old, but she remained in Colorado until age eighteen. After high school, she lived in Hawaii and Los Angeles before moving to Vancouver, British Columbia, where she attended the Vancouver Film School.


title: Hanna R. Hall

text: When she was seven years old, Hall attended Nina Axelrod's open casting call for Robert Zemeckis's "Forrest Gump". A few callbacks later, Hall was eventually cast as young Jenny Curran. This was followed by a role as an orphaned child in the 1996 television film "Homecoming", co-starring Anne Bancroft.


title: Hanna R. Hall

text: Hall screen tested for the role of Lux Lisbon in Sofia Coppola's film adaptation of "The Virgin Suicides", but was considered too young for the part so she was cast as Cecilia Lisbon instead. She appeared in several independent films following this, before being cast in Rob Zombie's remake of "Halloween" (2007) as Judith Myers. In 2009, she appeared in the independent comedy "American Cowslip" (2009), opposite Val Kilmer, Diane Ladd, and Cloris Leachman.


title: Hanna R. Hall

text: In 2012, Hall began working as a theater director in Venice, California, directing underground plays. She has also appeared on television series, including guest roles on "Criminal Minds" and "Masters of Sex".


title: Classroom of the Elite (season 2)

text: "Classroom of the Elite" is an anime series adapted from the light novels of the same title written by Shōgo Kinugasa and illustrated by Shunsaku Tomose. The second season was announced on February 21, 2022, with Lerche returning to animate the series. The season is directed by Yoshihito Nishōji, with Kishi and Hashimoto returning as chief directors, Hayato Kazano replacing Akashiro as the scriptwriter, and Morita as the character designer. Masaru Yokoyama and Kana Hashiguchi are composing the music, replacing Takahashi. The opening theme, "Dance in the Game," is performed by ZAQ, and the ending theme, "Hito Jibai," is performed by Mai Fuchigami. The season aired from July 4 to September 26, 2022.


title: Type VII submarine

text: Type VII U-boats were the most common type of German World War II U-boat. 703 boats were built by the end of the war. The lone surviving example, , is on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial located in Laboe, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.


title: Type VII submarine

text: The Type VII was based on earlier German submarine designs going back to the World War I Type UB III and especially the cancelled Type UG. The type UG was designed through the Dutch dummy company "NV Ingenieurskantoor voor Scheepsbouw Den Haag" (I.v.S) to circumvent the limitations of the Treaty of Versailles, and was built by foreign shipyards. The Finnish "Vetehinen" class and Spanish Type E-1 also provided some of the basis for the Type VII design. These designs led to the Type VII along with Type I, the latter being built in AG Weser shipyard in Bremen, Germany. The production of Type I was stopped after only two boats; the reasons for this are not certain. The design of the Type I was further used in the development of the Type VII and Type IX.


title: Type VII submarine

text: Type VII submarines were the most widely used U-boats of the war and were the most produced submarine class in history, with 703 built. The type had several modifications. The Type VII was the most numerous U-boat type to be involved in the Battle of the Atlantic.


title: Type VII submarine

text: Type VIIA U-boats were designed in 1933–34 as the first series of a new generation of attack U-boats. Most Type VIIA U-boats were constructed at Deschimag AG Weser in Bremen with the exception of "U-33" through "U-36", which were built at Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft, Kiel. Despite the highly cramped living quarters, type VIIA U-boats were generally popular with their crews because of their fast crash dive speed, which was thought to give them more protection from enemy attacks than bigger, more sluggish types. Also, the smaller boat's lower endurance meant patrols were shorter. They were much more powerful than the smaller Type II U-boats they replaced, with four bow and one external stern torpedo tubes. Usually carrying 11 torpedoes on board, they were very agile on the surface and mounted the quick-firing deck gun with about 220 rounds.


title: Type VII submarine

text: Ten Type VIIA boats were built between 1935 and 1937. All but two Type VIIA U-boats were sunk during World War II (famous Otto Schuhart and , which was the first submarine to sink a ship in World War II, both scuttled in Kupfermühlen Bay on 4 May 1945).


title: Type VII submarine

text: The boat was powered on the surface by two MAN AG, 6-cylinder, 4-stroke M6V 40/46 diesel engines, giving a total of at 470 to 485 rpm. When submerged it was propelled by two Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC) GG UB 720/8 double-acting electric motors, giving a total of at 322 rpm.


title: Type VII submarine

text: The VIIA had limited fuel capacity, so 24 Type VIIB boats were built between 1936 and 1940 with an additional 33 tonnes of fuel in external saddle tanks, which added another of range at surfaced. More powerful engines made them slightly faster than the VIIA. They had two rudders for greater agility. The torpedo armament was improved by moving the aft tube to the inside of the boat. Now an additional aft torpedo could be carried below the deck plating of the aft torpedo room (which also served as the electric motor room) and two watertight compartments under the upper deck could hold two additional torpedoes, giving it a total of 14 torpedoes. The only exception was , which lacked a stern tube and carried only 12 torpedoes.


title: Type VII submarine

text: Type VIIBs included many of the most famous U-boats of World War II, including (the most successful), Günther Prien's , Otto Kretschmer's , and Joachim Schepke's .


title: Type VII submarine

text: On the surface the boat was powered by two supercharged MAN, 6 cylinder 4-stroke M6V 40/46 diesels (except for "U-45" to "U-50", "U-83", "U-85", "U-87", "U-99", "U-100", and "U-102", which were powered by two supercharged Germaniawerft 6-cylinder 4-stroke F46 diesels) giving a total of at 470 to 490 rpm. When submerged, the boat was powered by two AEG GU 460/8-276 (except in "U-45", "U-46", "U-49", "U-51", "U-52", "U-54", "U-73" to "U-76", "U-99" and "U-100", which retained the BBC motor of the VIIA) electric motors, giving a total of at 295 rpm.


title: Type VII submarine

text: The Type VIIC was the workhorse of the German U-boat force, with 568 commissioned from 1940 to 1945. The first VIIC boat commissioned was the in 1940. The Type VIIC was an effective fighting machine and was seen almost everywhere U-boats operated, although its range of only 8,500 nautical miles was not as great as that of the larger Type IX (11,000 nautical miles), severely limiting the time it could spend in the far reaches of the western and southern Atlantic without refueling from a tender or U-boat tanker. The VIIC came into service toward the end of the "First Happy Time" near the beginning of the war and was still the most numerous type in service when Allied anti-submarine efforts finally defeated the U-boat campaign in late 1943 and 1944.


title: Type VII submarine

text: Type VIIC differed from the VIIB only in the addition of an active sonar and a few minor mechanical improvements, making it 2 feet longer and 8 tons heavier. Speed and range were essentially the same. Many of these boats were fitted with snorkels in 1944 and 1945.


title: Type VII submarine

text: They had the same torpedo tube arrangement as their predecessors, except for , , , , and , which had only two bow tubes, and for , , , , , and , which had no stern tube.


title: Type VII submarine

text: On the surface the boats (except for , and to which used MAN M6V40/46s) were propelled by two supercharged Germaniawerft, 6 cylinder, 4-stroke M6V 40/46 diesels totaling at 470 to 490 rpm.


title: Type VII submarine

text: For submerged propulsion, several different electric motors were used. Early models used the VIIB configuration of two AEG GU 460/8-276 electric motors, totaling with a max rpm of 296, while newer boats used two BBC GG UB 720/8, Garbe, Lahmeyer & Co. RP 137/c or Siemens-Schuckert-Werke (SSW) GU 343/38-8 electric motors with the same power output as the AEG motors.


title: Type VII submarine

text: The concept of the "U-flak" or "Flak Trap" originated on 31 August 1942, when was seriously damaged by aircraft. Rather than scrap the boat, it was decided to refit her as a heavily armed anti-aircraft boat intended to combat the losses being inflicted by Allied aircraft in the Bay of Biscay. Two 20 mm quadruple "Flakvierling" mounts and an experimental 37 mm automatic gun were installed on the U-flaks' decks. A battery of 86 mm line-carrying anti-aircraft rockets was tested (similar to a device used by the British in the defense of airfields), but this idea proved unworkable. At times, two additional single 20 mm guns were also mounted. The submarines' limited fuel capacities restricted them to operations only within the Bay of Biscay. Only five torpedoes were carried, preloaded in the tubes, to free up space needed for additional gun crew.


title: Type VII submarine

text: Four VIIC boats were modified for use as surface escorts for U-boats departing and returning to French Atlantic bases. These "U-flak" boats were , , , and . Conversion began on three others (, , and ) but none was completed and they were eventually returned to duty as standard VIIC attack boats.


title: Type VII submarine

text: The modified boats became operational in June 1943 and at first appeared to be successful against a surprised Royal Air Force. Hoping that the extra firepower might allow the boats to survive relentless British air attacks in the Bay of Biscay and reach their operational areas, Donitz ordered the boats to cross the bay in groups at maximum speed. The effort earned the Germans about two more months of relative freedom, until the RAF modified their tactics. When a pilot saw that a U-boat was going to fight on the surface, he held off attacking and called in reinforcements. When several aircraft had arrived, they all attacked at once. If the U-boat dived, surface vessels were called to the scene to scour the area with sonar and drop depth charges. The British also began equipping some aircraft with RP-3 rockets that could sink a U-boat with a single hit, finally making it too dangerous for a U-boat to attempt to fight it out on the surface regardless of its armament. In November 1943, less than six months after the experiment began, it was discontinued. All U-flaks were converted back to standard attack boats and fitted with "Turm 4", the standard anti-aircraft armament for U-boats at the time. (According to German sources, only six aircraft had been shot down by the U-flaks in six missions, three by "U-441", and one each by "U-256", "U-621", and .)


title: Type VII submarine

text: Type VIIC/41 was a slightly modified version of the VIIC and had the same armament and engines. The difference was a stronger pressure hull giving them a deeper crush depth and lighter machinery to compensate for the added steel in the hull, making them slightly lighter than the VIIC. A total of 91 were built. All of them from onwards lacked the fittings to handle mines.


title: Type VII submarine

text: Today one Type VIIC/41 still exists: is on display at Laboe (north of Kiel), the only surviving Type VII in the world.


title: Type VII submarine

text: The Type VIIC/42 was designed in 1942 and 1943 to replace the aging Type VIIC. It would have had a much stronger pressure hull, with skin thickness up to 28 mm, and would have dived twice as deep as the previous VIICs. These boats would have been very similar in external appearance to the VIIC/41 but with two periscopes in the tower and would have carried two more torpedoes.


title: Type VII submarine

text: Contracts were signed for 164 boats and a few boats were laid down, but all were cancelled on 30 September 1943 in favor of the new Type XXI, and none was advanced enough in construction to be launched.


title: Type VII submarine

text: The type VIID boats, designed in 1939 and 1940, were a lengthened – by – version of the VIIC for use as a minelayer. The mines were carried in, and released from, three banks of five vertical tubes just aft of the conning tower. The extended hull also improved fuel and food storage.


title: Type VII submarine

text: On the surface the boat used two supercharged Germaniawerft, 6 cylinder, 4-stroke F46 diesels delivering 3,200 bhp (2,400 kW) at between 470 and 490 rpm. When submerged the boat used two AEG GU 460/8-276 electric motors giving a total of 750 shp (560 kW) at 285 rpm.


title: Type VII submarine

text: The Type VIIF boats were designed in 1941 as supply boats to rearm U-boats at sea once they had used up their torpedoes. This required a lengthened hull and they were the largest and heaviest type VII boats built. They were armed identically with the other Type VIIs except that they could have up to 39 torpedoes onboard and had no deck guns.


title: Type VII submarine

text: Only four Type VIIFs were built. Two of them, and , were sent to support the Monsun Gruppe in the Far East; and remained in the Atlantic. Type VIIF U-boats used the same engines as the Type VIID class.


title: Type VII submarine

text: Three were sunk during the war; the surviving boat was surrendered to the Allies following Germany's capitulation. Like most surrendered U-boats, it was subsequently scuttled by the Royal Navy.


title: Personal property

text: Personal property is property that is movable. In common law systems, personal property may also be called chattels or personalty. In civil law systems, personal property is often called movable property or movables—any property that can be moved from one location to another.


title: Personal property

text: Personal property can be understood in comparison to real estate, immovable property or real property (such as land and buildings).


title: Personal property

text: Movable property on land (larger livestock, for example) was not automatically sold with the land, it was "personal" to the owner and moved with the owner.


title: Personal property

text: The word "cattle" is the Old Norman variant of Old French "chatel", chattel (derived from Latin "capitalis", “of the head”), which was once synonymous with general movable personal property.


title: Personal property

text: Intangible personal property or "intangibles" refers to personal property that cannot actually be moved, touched or felt, but instead represents something of value such as negotiable instruments, securities, service (economics), and intangible assets including chose in action.