title: Wuhan Institute of Virology

text: The WIV was founded in 1956 as the Wuhan Microbiology Laboratory under the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). It was established by scientists Gao Shangyin, a graduate of Soochow University (Suzhou), and Chen Huagui. In 1961, it became the South China Institute of Microbiology, and in 1962 was renamed Wuhan Microbiology Institute. In 1970, it became the Microbiology Institute of Hubei Province when the Hubei Commission of Science and Technology took over the administration. In June 1978, it was returned to the CAS and renamed Wuhan Institute of Virology.


title: Wuhan Institute of Virology

text: In 2003, the Chinese academy of Sciences approved the construction of mainland China's first biosafety level 4 (BSL-4) laboratory at the WIV. In 2014, the WIV's National Bio-safety Laboratory was built at a cost of 300 million yuan (US$44 million), in collaboration and with assistance from the French government's CIRI lab). The new laboratory building has 3000 m of BSL-4 space, and also 20 BSL-2 and two BSL-3 laboratories. The BSL-4 facilities were accredited by the China National Accreditation Service for Conformity Assessment (CNAS) in January 2017, with the BSL-4 level lab put into operation in January 2018. The highest level biosafety installation is necessary because the Institute investigated highly dangerous viruses, such as SARS, influenza H5N1, Japanese encephalitis, and dengue.


title: Wuhan Institute of Virology

text: The National Bio-safety Laboratory has strong ties to the Galveston National Laboratory in the University of Texas. It also had ties with Canada's National Microbiology Laboratory until WIV staff scientists Xiangguo Qiu and her husband Keding Cheng, who were also remunerated by the Canadian government, were escorted from the Canadian lab for undisclosed reasons in July 2019. Researchers from the WIV have, in the past, collaborated with international scientists in the creation of chimeric coronavirus. Some researchers (notably Richard Ebright) believe this work falls under the definition of gain of function research, but many other experts dispute this classification.


title: Wuhan Institute of Virology

text: A number of safety precautions were taken into consideration when building the Wuhan lab. The lab was built far away from any flood plain. It was also built to withstand a magnitude-7 earthquake, even though the region has no history of earthquakes. Many Wuhan lab staff were trained at a BSL-4 lab in Lyon, France. Researchers were also trained in Australia, Canada, the United States and then in-house before the lab was operational. Scientists such as U.S. molecular biologist Richard H. Ebright, who had expressed concern of previous escapes of the SARS virus at Chinese laboratories in Beijing and had been troubled by the pace and scale of China's plans for expansion into BSL-4 laboratories, called the institute a "world-class research institution that does world-class research in virology and immunology" while he noted that the WIV is a world leader in the study of bat coronaviruses.


title: Wuhan Institute of Virology

text: In 2005, a group including researchers from the Wuhan Institute of Virology published research into the origin of the SARS coronavirus, finding that China's horseshoe bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses. Continuing this work over a period of years, researchers from the institute sampled thousands of horseshoe bats in locations across China, isolating over 300 bat coronavirus sequences.


title: Wuhan Institute of Virology

text: In 2015, an international team including two scientists from the institute published successful research on whether a bat coronavirus could be made to infect a human cell line (HeLa). The team engineered a hybrid virus, combining a bat coronavirus with a SARS virus that had been adapted to grow in mice and mimic human disease. The hybrid virus was able to infect human cells.


title: Wuhan Institute of Virology

text: In 2017, a team from the institute announced that coronaviruses found in horseshoe bats at a cave in Yunnan contain all the genetic pieces of the SARS virus, and hypothesized that the direct progenitor of the human virus originated in this cave. The team, who spent five years sampling the bats in the cave, noted the presence of a village only a kilometer away, and warned of "the risk of spillover into people and emergence of a disease similar to SARS".


title: Wuhan Institute of Virology

text: In 2018, another paper by a team from the institute reported the results of a serological study of a sample of villagers residing near these bat caves (near Xiyang Township 夕阳乡 in Jinning District of Yunnan). According to this report, 6 out of the 218 local residents in the sample carried antibodies to the bat coronaviruses in their blood, indicating the possibility of transmission of the infections from bats to people.


title: Wuhan Institute of Virology

text: Prior to and throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, coronavirus research at the WIV has been conducted in BSL-2 and BSL-3 laboratories.


title: Wuhan Institute of Virology

text: In December 2019, cases of pneumonia associated with an unknown coronavirus were reported to health authorities in Wuhan. The institute checked its coronavirus collection and found the new virus had 96% genetic similarity to RaTG13, a virus its researchers had discovered in horseshoe bats in southwest China. This strain is linked to travels made regularly between 2012 and 2015 by a WIV team visiting Yunnan Province, about a thousand miles from Wuhan.


title: Wuhan Institute of Virology

text: As the virus spread worldwide, the institute continued its investigation. In February 2020, a team led by Shi Zhengli at the institute were the first to identify, analyze and name the genetic sequence of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV), upload it to public databases for scientists around the world to understand, and publish papers in "Nature". On 19 February 2020, the lab released a letter on its website describing how they successfully obtained the whole virus genome. In February 2020, in a move that raised concerns regarding intellectual property rights, the institute applied for a patent in China for the use of remdesivir, an experimental drug owned by Gilead Sciences, which the institute found inhibited the virus in vitro. The WIV said it would not exercise its new Chinese patent rights "if relevant foreign companies intend to contribute to the prevention and control of China's epidemic."


title: Wuhan Institute of Virology

text: In April 2020, the Trump administration terminated an NIH grant to research how coronaviruses spread from bats to humans. New York-based, NIH–funded EcoHealth Alliance has been the subject of controversy and increased scrutiny due to its ties to the Wuhan Institute of Virology. Under political pressure, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) withdrew funding to EcoHealth Alliance in July 2020.


title: Wuhan Institute of Virology

text: The laboratory has been the focus of conspiracy theories and unsubstantiated speculation about the origin of the virus. This has been a source of political tension between China and other countries, including Australia, and the United States. There have been allegations that the initial outbreak was provoked by either manipulation or accidental release of a virus held in the WIV facilities, and that the participants may have conspired to cover it up. Shi Zhengli denied that there was a connection between the WIV and the emergence of COVID-19. In February 2021, after investigations in Wuhan, the WHO team said a laboratory leak origin for COVID-19 was "extremely unlikely", confirming what experts expected about the likely origins and early transmission. However, WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus said that the report's conclusions were not definitive and data had been withheld from investigators. In response to the report, politicians, including Joe Biden and Boris Johnson, as well as Ghebreyesus, have called for further investigations into the origins of COVID-19. The scientific opinion that an accidental leak is possible, but unlikely, has remained steady.


title: W80 (nuclear warhead)

text: The W80 is a low to intermediate yield two-stage thermonuclear warhead deployed by the U.S. enduring stockpile with a variable yield ("dial-a-yield") of .


title: W80 (nuclear warhead)

text: It was designed for deployment on cruise missiles and is the warhead used in all nuclear-armed ALCM and ACM missiles deployed by the US Air Force, and in the US Navy's BGM-109 Tomahawk. It is essentially a modification of the widely deployed B61 weapon, which forms the basis of most of the current US stockpile of nuclear gravity bombs. The very similar W84 warhead was deployed on the retired BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missile.


title: W80 (nuclear warhead)

text: The W80 is physically quite small: the physics package itself is about the size of a conventional Mk.81 bomb, in diameter and long, and only slightly heavier at about .


title: W80 (nuclear warhead)

text: The Los Alamos National Laboratory began development on the W80 in June 1976, with the brief of producing a custom weapon for the cruise missiles then under construction. With "the basic design" being derived from the B61. The main design differences are presumably a smaller secondary producing only yield (the B61 producing a maximum of in the tactical variants and in the strategic variants) and simplification of the design giving the weapon only two yield settings; .


title: W80 (nuclear warhead)

text: Production of the W80 mod 1 (W80-1) to arm the ALCM started in January 1979, and a number of warheads had been completed by January 1981 when the first low-temperature test was carried out. To everyone's surprise the test delivered a much lower yield than was expected, apparently due to problems in the TATB based insensitive high explosives used to fire the primary. This problem turned out to affect several models of the B61-based line, and production of all weapons was suspended while a solution was worked on. Production restarted in February 1982.


title: W80 (nuclear warhead)

text: In March 1982, designers began working on a W80 variant intended for the Navy's Tomahawk program. The W80 mod 0 (W80-0) used "supergrade" fission fuel, which has less radioactivity, in the primary in place of the conventional plutonium used in the Air Force's version. "Supergrade" is industry parlance for plutonium alloy bearing an exceptionally high fraction of Pu-239 (>95%), leaving a very low amount of Pu-240 which is a gamma emitter in addition to being a high spontaneous fission isotope. Such plutonium is produced from fuel rods that have been irradiated a very short time as measured in MW-Day/Ton burnup. Such low irradiation times limit the amount of additional neutron capture and therefore buildup of alternate isotope products such as Pu-240 in the rod, and also by consequence is considerably more expensive to produce, needing far more rods irradiated and processed for a given amount of plutonium. Submarine crew members routinely operate in proximity to stored weapons in torpedo rooms, in contrast to the air force where exposure to warheads is relatively brief. The first models were delivered in December 1983 and the Mod 0 went into full production in March 1984.


title: W80 (nuclear warhead)

text: Production of the W80 was completed by September 1990, although the exact date at which the respective Mod 0 and Mod 1 runs ended is not clear. A total of 1750 Mod 1 and 367 Mod 0 devices were delivered; 1,000 Mod 1 devices were deployed on the original ALCM, another 400 on the later ACM, and 350 Mod 0s on the Tomahawk.


title: W80 (nuclear warhead)

text: Some of the original ALCMs would later have their mod 1 warheads removed and instead be fitted with conventional warheads producing the CALCM conversion. Under START II only 400 ACMs would have retained their nuclear warheads, and the rest would have been converted to CALCMs and their warheads removed to the inactive stockpile.


title: W80 (nuclear warhead)

text: On August 30, 2007, six cruise missiles armed with W80-1 warheads were mistakenly loaded onto a B-52 and flown from Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota, to Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, on a mission to transport cruise missiles for decommissioning. It was not discovered that the six missiles had nuclear warheads until the plane landed at Barksdale, leaving the warheads unaccounted for over 36 hours. 5th Bomb Wing subsequently failed its nuclear surety inspection in late-May 2008. 2nd Bomb Wing from Barksdale Air Force Base took over the role until the wing was recertified on the 15th August 2008.


title: W80 (nuclear warhead)

text: In 2014 a life extension program for the W80-1 was started and the LEP warhead was given the W80-4 designation. The warhead will be used on the new LRSO cruise missile. First production unit is estimated in 2025 and production should finish in 2031. According to public descriptions of the program, the warhead will offer no increased military capability, only refurbishing and updating components, and increasing weapon safety and reliability.


title: W80 (nuclear warhead)

text: In FY2022, the National Nuclear Security Administration requested funding for the W80-4 ALT-SLCM variant of the warhead, for use on a new navy sea-launched cruise missile to be deployed in the late 2020s.


title: Tuva Novotny

text: Tuva Moa Matilda Karolina Novotny Hedström (born 21 December 1979) is a Swedish actress, director, and singer.


title: Tuva Novotny

text: She was born in Stockholm, and was raised in Åmot, Brunskog, outside Arvika. She is the daughter of Czech film director David Jan Novotný and Swedish artist Barbro Hedström. At a young age, she participated in Vår teater, a children's theater in Stockholm.


title: A-segment

text: The A-segment is the 1st category in the passenger car classification system defined by the European Commission. It is used for city cars, the smallest category of passenger cars defined.


title: A-segment

text: As of 2021 A-segment category size span from approximately to (photo comparison of new city cars of all brands sorted by length):


title: A-segment

text: Body styles for A-segment cars in Europe are always hatchbacks. But as crossovers gain popularity, new models may shift to resemble crossovers. Such examples are the Suzuki Ignis and the Toyota Aygo X. Other body styles such as sedans are not present in this segment because these shapes largely prove impractical at typical A-segment dimensions.


title: A-segment

text: As of 2017, 2018, 2019 and 2020, A-segment sales account for 8.1%, 8%, 7.7% and 6.8% market share in Europe respectively.


title: A-segment

text: In 2020 the ten highest selling A-segment cars in Europe were Fiat Panda, Fiat 500, Toyota Aygo, Renault Twingo, Volkswagen Up!, Hyundai i10, Kia Picanto, Peugeot 108, Citroën C1 and Suzuki Ignis.


title: A-segment

text: 2019 - In 2019, sales of minicars were down 2% compared to a total market gain of 1% which means this segment now makes up 7.7% of the total European car market at 1.21 million sales, down from 8% in 2018. And with margins on minicars under pressure due to increased costs to comply with stricter safety and emissions standards, manufacturers are scaling back investments in to minicars or switching to an EV-only strategy.


title: A-segment

text: 2020 - European sales of minicars were down by a third in 2020, which translates to nearly 400,000 fewer sales and means the segment loses market share as the overall market is down 24%. As a result, this segment now makes up 6.8% of the total European car market, down from 7.7% last year. And their share is expected to shrink further in coming years, as manufacturers are pulling out of this segment or switching their models to EV-only. This is a result of increasing costs to comply with stricter safety and especially emissions standards, which makes minicars nearly unprofitable, especially considering that for most models from European brands this is the only market.


title: A-segment

text: In 2020 the highest selling minicar segment cars in the U.S. were the Chevrolet Spark, Mitsubishi Mirage and Mini Cooper.


title: A-segment

text: In India, historically the A-segment cars had the highest sales. Sales have been in decline in recent years, falling from 70,000 sales per month in 2014 to 47,000 sales per month in 2016.


title: A-segment

text: As of 2019, several A-segment cars had successes outside Europe, such as Hyundai Grand i10, Honda Brio, Kia Picanto, Toyota Wigo, Suzuki Celerio, Suzuki Wagon R, Suzuki/Maruti Alto, Ford Figo, Smart ForTwo, Citroën C1, Peugeot 108, and modern Fiat 500.


title: Cherkasy

text: Cherkasy (, ) is a city in central Ukraine. Cherkasy is the capital of Cherkasy Oblast (province), as well as the administrative center of Cherkasky Raion (district) within the oblast. The city has a population of


title: Cherkasy

text: Cherkasy is the cultural, educational and industrial center of Cherkasy Oblast and Central Economical Region of Ukraine. Cherkasy has been known since the 13th century and played a great role in the history of Ukraine. The city was the center of the land of the Cossacks; its citizens took part in Khmelnychchyna and Koliyivschyna (cossacks' and peasants' rebellions).


title: Cherkasy

text: The city is located on the right bank of Dnieper River (specifically at the Kremenchuk Reservoir), about south of the nation's capital, Kyiv. Cherkasy is divided into 2 boroughs ("raions"): Sosnivskiy (with Orshanets village) and Pridniprovskiy. It hosts the administration of Cherkasy urban hromada, one of the hromadas of Ukraine. In June 2011, the city celebrated its 725th anniversary.


title: Cherkasy

text: Cherkasy is situated on the high right bank of the Dnipro River, in the middle of the Kremenchuk Reservoir. Relief of the historical part of the city was influenced by Zamkova (Castle) mountain, where Cherkasy Castle was situated. The major part of Cherkasy occurs as lowlands.


title: Cherkasy

text: The city occupies an area of . The city's length is along the Kremenchuk Reservoir, while its widest point is only .


title: Cherkasy

text: From the north-west, Cherkasy is surrounded by forest. Known as Cherkaskiy Bir, it is the biggest () natural pine forest in Ukraine.


title: Cherkasy

text: The average temperature in the city is . Winters are usually cold and snowy (the average January temperature is ). Summers are dry and warm (the average temperature in July is ), with occasional highs reaching .


title: Cherkasy

text: The ecological situation in the city is quite stable. The cumulative pollution index is 7.56, average with other Ukrainian cities. The main pollutant in the city is "Azot" plant, so the nearby area (south-east part of the city) is the most polluted. The downtown area is heavily polluted as well, due to high traffic volume. The city itself is mostly clean of nuclear pollution from the Chernobyl disaster, although the northernmost part of Cherkasy may have been influenced a little.


title: Cherkasy

text: According to the newest data, the number of inhabitants of Cherkasy is 284,479 as of 1 October 2015. This number is decreasing because of rising mortality rate, socio-economic situation, and the suburbanisation process in the region.


title: Cherkasy

text: The majority of citizens are Ukrainians, with a large population of Russians and Jews. 46.4% are males, 53.6% are females. According to the data provided by the municipal health care department, teens under 14 encompass 15% of the population while pensioners are 19%, which indicates the prevalence of aging citizens as compared to younger citizens.


title: Cherkasy

text: The history of Cherkasy has not been thoroughly explored. The year of establishment is considered by historians to be 1286 on the Kyivan Rus territory. There are few facts about the beginning of the city, but it is documented that Cherkasy existed in the 14th century. The first record about Cherkasy dates from 1305 in the "Gustynskiy Chronicle", which is the Kyivan Rus chronicle. The city is mentioned as an existing city among other Kyivan Rus cities, including Kyiv, Kaniv, Zhytomyr and Ovruch.


title: Cherkasy

text: The city became one of the centers of the Cossack movement. Citizens took part in the Khmelnychchyna of 1648-1657 and in the Koliyivschyna of 1768–1769. The city was influenced by the cruel social and economical experiments of Soviet authorities and by World War II. In 1954 Cherkasy became the administrative center of Cherkasy Oblast (province), the youngest oblast of Ukraine.


title: Cherkasy

text: In the 1360s the city entered a new period in its development, becoming a part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Cherkasy became an important defender of the southern borders of the Grand Duchy. In 1384 the city was recognized as a fortified town on the southern edge (of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania), forming along with Vinnytsia, Bratslav and Kaniv part of a defensive line against Crimean Tatars. The city started to be ruled by a headman (starosta).


title: Cherkasy

text: From the end of the 15th until the beginning of the 16th centuries, the post of was held by the prominent persons of that time – (in office: 1488–1495), (in office: 1494–1500), Vasyl Dashkevych (, in office: 1504–1507), Andriy Nemyrovych (in office: 1511–1514), Ostafiy Dashkevych (in office: 1514–1535), Vasyl Tyshkevych, Dmytro Baida-Vyshnevetskiy (in office: 1550–1553) etc.


title: Cherkasy

text: During the 15th and 16th centuries Cherkasy was one of the main centers that helped the Cossacks in the peopling of the Ukrainian south. Citizens took part in military campaigns against Tatars and Turks, including operations led by Ivan Pidkova (died 1578). New Cherkasy Castle, built in 1549–52 on the place of the old one, was the center of city life.


title: Cherkasy

text: After the Union of Lublin in 1569 Cherkasy became a part of Poland. Cherkasy Regiment, which was created in 1625, played a big role in history of the city. During the Khmelnytsky Uprising the regiment became administrative-territorial subdivision (until 1686). During that time Cherkasy's Regiment was one of the most powerful military units and took part in all of the battles for Bohdan Khmelnytsky army. After a successful campaign, Khmelnytsky in 1654 signed an alliance with Muscovy at Pereyaslav. The war ended in 1667 with the Truce of Andrusovo. Cherkasy remained part of Poland, but territories east of the Dnieper River including left-bank Ukraine and Zaporizhia were secured for Muscovy.


title: Cherkasy

text: While in the Polish Kingdom the city was a seat of the county (powiat) which belonged to a greater unit – the Kyiv Voivodeship of the Lesser Poland Province until 1793. In 1768 during the Koliyivshchyna turmoils the city was severely damaged and pillaged. In 1791 the city gained Magdeburg rights. It was a royal city of Poland. After the Second Partition of Poland the city was incorporated into the Kyivan Guberniya of Imperial Russia.


title: Cherkasy

text: Since the beginning of the 19th century the city was planned by Russian architect, civil engineer and town planner of Scottish descent, William Heste. After the second division of Poland in 1793, Cherkasy became part of the Russian Empire. From 1797 it was a town of Kyiv Governorate. In the second half of the 19th century the city experienced a great economical growth. After the railroad appeared in the city, a lot of new industrial enterprises were built. Sugar, tobacco, metalwork, mechanical engineering and trade industries were at peak development at that time. Architect William Heste made a general development plan for the city, which involved building square blocks with straight streets.


title: Cherkasy

text: After the October revolution in 1917 Cherkasy fell under Bolshevik control. After that, however, the city changed its ruler at least 18 times – during the civil war it was conquered by hetman Pavlo Skoropadskyi, then again by Bolsheviks, later by Nikifor Grigoriev. On 1 January 1920, the city finally and for a long period fell under Soviet rule. As with all villages and towns in the area, it was a victim of man-made famine in 1932–1933 (Holodomor) and a Great Purge (a series of campaigns of political repression and persecution in the Soviet Union organised by Joseph Stalin in 1936–1938).


title: Cherkasy

text: The Second World War damaged the city greatly. On 22 June 1941, German bombers attacked Cherkasy. For two months soldiers defended the city, but on 22 August, the invaders took the city. On 14 December 1943, Cherkasy was liberated from the German invaders. After the end of the war, the city began to recover after being almost obliterated. According to 5-year plans, the city began to re-develop its economy, infrastructure and socio-cultural sphere. In 1954 the city became the administrative center of Cherkasy Oblast (province), the youngest among other oblasts in Ukraine. In the 1960s Cherkasy became the chemical giant of the Ukrainian SSR, after "Azot" (the biggest nitrogen fertilizer producing plant), "Himvolokno" (artificial fiber manufacturing plant), "Himreaktyv" (chemical reagents for military purposes) and many others were built in the city. In 1961 a Kremenchuk hydro power plant was built, forming the Kremenchuk Water Reservoir, which Cherkasy is now standing on. This makes the city a big transport hub, serving the longest dyke in Ukraine (15 km) with rail and road on it.


title: Cherkasy

text: Since gaining independence, industry in the city has declined, along with the number of citizens and living standards. A lot of big and powerful factories and plants were privatized but couldn't survive in a competitive market. Some enterprises changed their profile – several (3) factories and plants around the city were united under the "Bogdan Corporation" and started production of buses and cars. Some of the companies remained working and became successful, like "Azot".


title: Cherkasy

text: On 28 November 2008, the monument of Lenin was removed from the central square. This caused different reactions in different people. Now the central square, formerly called "Lenin Square", is called "Soborna Square" (Cathedral Square). The square was recently renovated.


title: Cherkasy

text: Until 18 July 2020, Cherkasy was designated as a city of oblast significance and belonged to Cherkasy Municipality but not to Cherkasy Raion even though it was the center of the raion. As part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Cherkasy Oblast to four, the city was merged into Cherkasy Raion.


title: Cherkasy

text: Public transportation is represented by trolleybuses and buses. Trolleybuses started serving the city in 1965, and now are operating on 10 routes, from approximately 6 am till 11 pm. The fleet is old, and mostly consists of ZiU-9 and ZiU-10 vehicles. Recently, 3 new trolleybuses (manufactured by LAZ) appeared in the city. Buses are mostly represented with "Etalon", "Bohdan", and "PAZ" buses. Cherkasy City Bus is the authority that controls the buses in the city, it consists of several private contractors which actually operate the transport system.


title: Cherkasy

text: Two major automobile routes go through the city –  H16  (Uman-Zolotonosha, national route) and  P10  (Kaniv-Kremenchuk, regional route). There is a 4-lane highway between Cherkasy and Smila (which is a part of Cherkasy Urban Agglomeration). The roads are in poor technical condition and road maintenance is poor.


title: Cherkasy

text: The city has a railway station and one railway stop, both are operated by the state-owned Ukrzaliznytsia company. Cherkasy has regular connections to neighbouring cities with small diesel trains. Major route Odessa-Moscow passes through Cherkasy. One of the most important railway junctions in Ukraine, is located from Cherkasy, in the city of Smila, where the Kyiv–Dnipro and Odessa–Moscow rail routes cross.


title: Cherkasy

text: As Cherkasy is located on the bank of Kremenchuk reservoir, it has a small riverport. The previously extensive riverboat service along the Dnieper featuring the Raketa hydrofoil ships no longer exists, limiting river transport to cargo and tour boats and private pleasure craft. There is also a cargo port located in the city.


title: Cherkasy

text: Cherkasy International Airport is located on the western edge of the city. It handles chartered flights around Ukraine, because Boryspil airport in Kyiv handles most of Ukraine's International flights. In addition, Cherkasy airport is used as the alternative airport for Boryspil in case of unforeseen situations and adverse weather conditions.


title: Cherkasy

text: Cherkasy is an important economic center of Ukraine. The city is presented with different industries, but traditionally the greatest development was reached in chemical industry, automotive industry and food industry. Total yield, generated by Cherkasy industries was near UAH 7,894.3 billion that is 64% of total income of Cherkasy Region.


title: Cherkasy

text: Nowadays there are different types of educational institutions in Cherkasy – pre-school (kindergartens), schools, out-of-school and higher educational institutions. These institutions may be both state-owned and private property.


title: Cherkasy

text: City-owned schools are 21 general schools, 1 night school, and 14 new-type schools – 2 lyceums, 3 gymnasiums, collegiate, 8 specialized schools. This include First City Gymnasium, City Gymnasium No. 9 and No. 31, Cherkasy Physical and Mathematical Lyceum, Cherkasy Lyceum of Humanities and Law, Specialized School No. 17 (Associated UNESCO school), Cherkasy Collegiate "Beregynia", Specialized Schools No. 3, #13, No. 18, #20, No. 27, #28 and No. 33.


title: Cherkasy

text: Out-of-school institutions are Center of Youth Art, Young Sailors Club, Center of Tourism and Sports.


title: Cherkasy

text: Several public libraries are serving the city – Central Library of Lesia Ukrainka, City Library for Youth and Children, Central Oblast Library of Taras Shevchenko.


title: Cherkasy

text: Cherkasy is a big cultural center. Several theaters, philharmonic, 3 movie theaters, numerous museums and clubs are serving the city. The city has 3 indoor skating rinks. People can relax in big parks and gardens around the city, they can also visit city's zoo. Cherkasy is among the cities in Ukraine that have their own planetarium.


title: Cherkasy

text: The city has its own philharmonic, which was created in 1955. The big cultural center is concert hall "Druzhba Narodiv" (Friendship of Nations), where all major concerts are held. Besides, there are numerous local cultural clubs.


title: Cherkasy

text: The city has 4 modern movie theaters – "Salut" (a very old building, was the first cinema in Cherkasy), "Ukraine", "Dnipro Plaza" and "Lubava".


title: Cherkasy

text: Cherkasy is famous as a "green city". The main parks are Park Peremohy (Victory Park) with a zoo, Sobornyi Park (Cathedral Park), Juvileyniy Park (Jubilee Park), Park Himikiv (Park of Chemists), Dolyna Troiand (Rose Valley), and two children's parks.


title: Cherkasy

text: Traditional places of summer recreation are beaches of Dnipro River. The coastline of the city is as long as , and is usually represented with sand beaches. Infrastructure of the beaches is under development right now, although several recreational complexes are already built.


title: Cherkasy

text: On the northern end of the city, in Cherkasy Forest, sanatorium "Ukraine" is situated, along with three-star hotel "Ukraine", and "Kosmos-Bowling" club. There are also several hotels in the city which can accommodate people with different tastes.


title: Cherkasy

text: The city is famous for its sculpture festivals – "Kryzhtal" (held in winter, sculptures are made of ice), "Drevlyandia" (held in summer, sculptures are made of wood, then placed in parks around the city), and "Zhyvyi Kamin" (held in autumn, sculptures are made of stone). Along with the last, "Cherkasy's Singing Nights" are held in the open-air theater in park. Since 2003, Cherkasy hosts international bike festival "Tarasova Gora", which gathers bikers from Ukraine, Russia, and other European countries. This is the biggest festival of this kind held in Ukraine.


title: Cherkasy

text: The city also hosts a music festival (sponsored by Pentax-Richo), that takes the name "Takumar5555", that is the old Pentax brand name, and a play on the city's 55th year of independence.


title: Cherkasy

text: Cherkasy is a big media market, which is served by several local TV stations, newspapers, and numerous radio stations.


title: Cherkasy

text: The city is a home to numerous newspapers, among which are "Antenna", "Molod' Cherkashchyny", "Vechirni Cherkasy", "Akcent", "Nova Doba", "Misto", "Cherkasky Kray" etc.


title: Cherkasy

text: Cherkasy has 5 TV stations – Vikka, Antenna-Plus, Media-Center, Expo-TV, and state-owned Ros'. The city is also covered with nationwide channel broadcasting, like 1+1, Inter, ICTV, STB, TET etc. .


title: Cherkasy

text: City's radio stations are mostly nationwide networks broadcast on local frequencies, although some local stations exist. FM radio stations include KISS FM, Hit FM, Radio Luks, Radio Rocks, Shanson, Ros', Era FM, Love Radio, 101Dalmatin, Dobre Radio.


title: Cherkasy

text: Sport life of the city is concentrated in several places, among which are the Central Stadium, Water Sport station, Sport Center "Spartak", "Ukraine"; Sport arena "Budivel'nyk"; "Astra", "Central", "Sokil" swimming pools; 2 ice rinks. Also, there are sport-entertainment centers, such as "Selena", "Bochka", and "Sportohota" which can usually be found on the bank of the Dnipro River.


title: Cherkasy

text: Every year more than 200 sport events, contests, competitions, tournaments are held in the city, with total of 10,000 participants. Some contests that were held recently include:


title: Cherkasy

text: During its whole history Cherkasy was destroyed and rebuilt numerous times. Only few buildings from the 19th century survived. The system of streets and squares in the old part of the city is one of the few monuments to the city-building art of 19th century Ukraine.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: A semi-automatic transmission is a "theoretical" multiple-speed transmission where part of its operation is automated (typically the actuation of the clutch), but the driver's input would be required to launch the vehicle from a standstill and to manually change gears. Semi-automatic transmissions were exclusively used in motorcycles and are based on conventional manual transmissions or sequential manual transmissions, but use an automatic clutch system. But some semi-automatic transmissions have also been based on standard hydraulic automatic transmissions with torque converters and planetary gearsets.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: Names for specific types of semi-automatic transmissions include "clutchless manual", "auto-manual", "auto-clutch manual", and "paddle-shift" transmissions. These systems facilitate gear shifts for the driver by operating the clutch system automatically, usually via switches that trigger an actuator or servo, while still requiring the driver to manually shift gears. This contrasts with a preselector gearbox, in which the driver operates the clutch and selects the next gear ratio, but the gear change within the transmission is performed automatically.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: The first usage of semi-automatic transmissions was in automobiles, increasing in popularity in the mid-1930s when they were offered by several American car manufacturers. Less common than traditional hydraulic automatic transmissions, semi-automatic transmissions have nonetheless been made available on various car and motorcycle models and have remained in production throughout the 21st century. Semi-automatic transmissions with paddle shift operation have been used in various racing cars, and were first introduced to control the electro-hydraulic gear shift mechanism of the Ferrari 640 Formula One car in 1989. These systems are currently used on a variety of top-tier racing car classes; including Formula One, IndyCar, and touring car racing. Other applications include motorcycles, trucks, buses, and railway vehicles.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: Semi-automatics facilitate easier gear shifts by removing the need to depress a clutch pedal or lever at the same time as changing gears. Depending on the mechanical build, design, and age of the vehicle, they can use anything from hydraulic, pneumatic or electric actuators, electrical switches, motors, and processors, or a combination of any such systems, to execute gear shifts on demand when requested by the driver, which is typically initiated when the driver moves the gear stick. Most cars that have a semi-automatic transmission are not fitted with a standard clutch pedal since the clutch is remotely controlled. Similarly, most motorcycles with a semi-automatic transmission are not fitted with a conventional clutch lever on the handlebar.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: Most semi-automatic transmissions are based on conventional manual transmissions, but are usually operated with an automatic clutch or another kind of partially automated transmission mechanism. Once the clutch becomes automated, the transmission becomes semi-automatic. However, these systems still require manual gear selection by the driver. This type of transmission is called a "clutchless manual" or an "automated manual".


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: Most semi-automatic transmissions in older passenger cars retain the normal H-pattern shifter of a manual transmission; similarly, semi-automatic transmissions on older motorcycles retain the conventional foot-shift lever, as on a motorcycle with a fully manual transmission. However, semi-automatics systems in newer motorcycles, racing cars, and other types of vehicles often use gear selection methods such as shift paddles near the steering wheel or triggers near the handlebars.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: Several different forms of automation for clutch actuation have been used over the years, from hydraulic, pneumatic, and electromechanical clutches to vacuum-operated, electromagnetic, and even centrifugal clutches. Fluid couplings (most commonly and formerly used in early automatic transmissions) have also been used by various manufacturers, usually alongside some form of mechanical friction clutch, to prevent the vehicle from stalling when coming to a standstill or at idle.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: A typical semi-automatic transmission design may work by using Hall effect sensors or micro switches to detect the direction of the requested shift when the gear stick is used. These sensors' output, combined with the output from a sensor connected to the gearbox which measures its current speed and gear, is fed into a transmission control unit, electronic control unit, engine control unit, or microprocessor, or another type of electronic control system. This control system then determines the optimal timing and torque required for smooth clutch engagement.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: The electronic control unit powers an actuator, which engages and disengages the clutch in a smooth manner. In some cases, the clutch is actuated by a servomotor coupled to a gear arrangement for a linear actuator, which, via a hydraulic cylinder filled with hydraulic fluid from the braking system, disengages the clutch. In other cases, the internal clutch actuator may be completely electric, where the main clutch actuator is powered by an electric motor or solenoid, or even pneumatic, where the main clutch actuator is a pneumatic actuator that disengages the clutch.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: A clutchless manual system, named the "Autostick", was a semi-automatic transmission introduced by Volkswagen for the 1968 model year. Marketed as the "Volkswagen Automatic Stickshift", a conventional three-speed manual transmission was connected to a vacuum-operated automatic clutch system. The top of the gear stick was designed to easily depress and activate an electric switch, i.e. when touched by the driver's hand. When pressed, the switch operated a 12-volt solenoid, which in turn operated the vacuum clutch actuator, thus disengaging the clutch and allowing shifting between gears. With the driver's hand removed from the gearshift, the clutch would re-engage automatically. The transmission was also equipped with a torque converter, allowing the car to idle in gear like with an automatic, as well as stop and start from a standstill in any gear.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: Starting in the late 1990s, automotive manufacturers introduced what is now called an automated manual transmission (AMT), which is mechanically similar to, and has its roots in, earlier clutchless manual transmission systems. An AMT functions in the same way as older semi-automatic and clutchless manual transmissions, but with two exceptions; it is able to both operate the clutch and shift automatically, and does not use a torque converter. Shifting is done either automatically from a transmission control unit (TCU), or manually from either the shift knob or shift paddles mounted behind the steering wheel. AMTs combine the fuel efficiency of manual transmissions with the shifting ease of automatic transmissions. Their biggest disadvantage is poor shifting comfort due to the mechanical clutch being disengaged by the TCU, which is easily noticeable as "jolting". Some transmission makers have tried solving this issue by using oversized synchronizer rings and not fully opening the clutch during shifting—which works in theory, but as of 2007, there have not been any series production cars with such functions. In passenger cars, modern AMTs generally have six speeds (though some have seven) and a rather long gearing. In combination with a smart-shifting program, this can significantly reduce fuel consumption. In general, there are two types of AMTs: integrated AMTs and add-on AMTs. Integrated AMTs were designed to be dedicated AMTs, whereas add-on AMTs are conversions of standard manual transmissions into AMTs.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: An automated manual transmission may include a fully automatic mode where the driver does not need to change gears at all. These transmissions can be described as a standard manual transmission with an automated clutch and automated gear shift control, allowing them to operate in the same manner as traditional automatic transmissions. The TCU automatically shifts gears if, for example, the engine is redlined. The AMT can be switched to a clutchless manual mode wherein one can upshift or downshift using a console-mounted shift selector or paddle shifters. It has a lower cost than conventional automatic transmissions.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: These transmissions are not to be confused with "manumatic" automatic transmissions, which are marketed under trade names such as "Tiptronic", "Steptronic", "Sportmatic", and "Geartronic". While these systems seem superficially similar, they are closer in design to automatic transmissions than manual transmissions.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: Several semi-automatic transmissions used by motorcycles and racing cars are actually mechanically based on sequential manual transmissions. Semi-automatic motorcycle transmissions generally omit the clutch lever, but retain the conventional heel-and-toe foot shift lever.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: Semi-automatic motorcycle transmissions are based on conventional sequential manual transmissions and typically use a centrifugal clutch. At idle speed, the engine is disconnected from the gearbox input shaft, allowing both it and the bike to freewheel—unlike with torque converter automatics, there is no idle creep with a properly adjusted centrifugal clutch. As the engine speed rises, counterweights within the clutch assembly gradually pivot further outwards until they start to make contact with the inside of the outer housing and transmit an increasing amount of engine power and torque. The effective "bite point" or "biting point" is found automatically by equilibrium, where the power is transmitted through the (still-slipping) clutch is equal to what the engine can provide. This allows relatively fast full-throttle takeoffs (with the clutch adjusted so the engine is at peak torque) without the engine slowing or being bogged down, as well as more relaxed starts and low-speed maneuvers at lower throttle and RPMs.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: In 1901, Amédée Bollée developed a method of shifting gears that did not require the use of a clutch and was activated by a ring mounted within the steering wheel. One car using this system was the 1912 Bollée Type F Torpedo.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: Prior to the arrival of the first mass-produced hydraulic automatic transmission (the General Motors Hydra-Matic) in 1940, several American manufacturers offered various devices to reduce the amount of clutch or shifting input required. These devices were intended to reduce the difficulty of operating the unsynchronised manual transmissions, or "crash gearboxes", that were commonly used, especially in stop-start driving.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: An early step towards automated transmissions was the 1933–1935 REO Self-Shifter, which automatically shifted between two forward gears in the "forward" mode (or between two shorter gear ratios in the "emergency low" mode). Standing starts required the driver to use the clutch pedal. The Self-Shifter first appeared in May 1933 and was offered as standard on the Royale and as an option on the Flying Cloud S-4.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: In 1937, the four-speed Oldsmobile Automatic Safety Transmission was introduced on the Oldsmobile Six and Oldsmobile Eight models. It used a planetary gearset with a clutch pedal for starting from a standstill and switching between the "low" and "high" ranges. The Automatic Safety Transmission was replaced by the fully-automatic Hydra-Matic for the 1940 model year.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: The 1938–1939 Buick Special was available with another Self-Shifter 4-speed semi-automatic transmission, which used a manual clutch for starting from standstill and an automated clutch for gear changes.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: The 1941 Chrysler M4 Vacamatic transmission was a two-speed manual transmission with an integral underdrive unit, a traditional manual clutch, and a fluid coupling between the engine and the clutch. The two-speed transmission had "high" and "low" ranges, and the clutch was used when the driver wanted to switch between ranges. For normal driving, the driver would press the clutch, select the High range, and then release the clutch. Once the accelerator was pressed, the fluid coupling would engage and the car would begin moving forward, with the underdrive unit engaged to provide a lower gear ratio. At between , the driver would lift off the accelerator and the underdrive unit would disengage. The Vacamatic was replaced by a similar M6 Presto-Matic transmission for the 1946 model year.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: Similar designs were used for the 1941–1950 Hudson Drive-Master and the ill-fated 1942 Lincoln Liquimatic. Both of these combined a 3-speed manual transmission with automated shifting between the 2nd and 3rd gears, instead of the Vacamatic's "underdrive" unit.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: The Packard Electro-Matic, introduced in the 1941 Packard Clipper and Packard 180, was an early clutchless manual transmission that used a traditional friction clutch with automatic vacuum operation, which was controlled by the position of the accelerator.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: The automotive products manumatic system, available on the 1953 Ford Anglia 100E, was a vacuum-powered automatic clutch system that was actuated by a switch that was triggered whenever the gear stick was moved. The system could control the throttle cable (to keep the engine at the required RPM for the gear change) and vary the rate of clutch engagement. The successive Newtondrive system, available on the 1957–1958 Ford Anglia, also had a provision for choke control. A similar product was the German Saxomat automatic clutch system, which was introduced in the mid-1950s and available on various European cars.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: The Citroën DS, introduced in 1955, used a hydraulic system with a hydraulically-operated speed controller and idle speed step-up device to select gears and operate the otherwise conventional clutch. This allowed clutchless shifting with a single column-mounted selector, while the driver simultaneously lifted off the accelerator to change gear. This system was nicknamed "Citro-Matic" in the U.S.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: For the 1962 model year, American Motors introduced the E-Stick, which eliminated the clutch pedal in the Rambler American with standard three-speed manual transmissions. This automatic clutch used engine oil pressure as a hydraulic source and was available for less than $60. Compared to fully automatic transmissions of the time, the E-Stick offered the fuel economy of a stick-shift, with vacuum and electric switches controlling the clutch. The E-Stick three-speed transmission was offered on the larger Rambler Classic models, along with an overdrive unit. The system was only available with 6-cylinder engines, and the lack of a clutch proved unpopular, so it was discontinued after 1964.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: The 1967 Volkswagen WSK ("Wandlerschaltkupplungsgetriebe"; English: "Torque converter shift/clutch gearbox"), used in the Beetle and Karmann Ghia, was one of the first gearboxes of its kind, with an automatic mechanical clutch and a torque converter. Shifting was done manually by the driver. The automatic mechanical clutch allowed the car to accelerate from a stop, whereas the torque converter enabled it to do so in any gear. Dampening engine vibrations and providing torque multiplication, it functioned as a sort of "reduction gearbox", so the actual mechanical gearbox only needed three forward gears (this is why conventional automatic transmissions with torque converters normally have fewer gears than manual transmissions). The WSK had no "first" gear; instead, the first gear was converted into reverse gear, and the second gear was labeled first (with the third and fourth gears respectively being labeled second and third).


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: The Chevrolet Torque-Drive transmission, introduced on the 1968 Chevrolet Nova and Camaro, is one of a few examples where a semi-automatic transmission was based on a conventional hydraulic automatic transmission (rather than a standard manual transmission). The Torque-Drive was essentially a 2-speed Powerglide automatic transmission without the vacuum modulator, requiring the driver to manually shift gears between "Low" and "High". The quadrant indicator on Torque-Drive cars was "Park-R-N-Hi-1st". The driver would start the car in "1st," then move the lever to "Hi" when desired. The Torque-Drive was discontinued at the end of 1971 and replaced by a traditional hydraulic automatic transmission. Other examples of semi-automatic transmissions based on hydraulic automatics were the Ford 3-speed Semi-Automatic Transmission used in the 1970–1971 Ford Maverick, early versions of Honda's 1976–1988 Hondamatic 2-speed and 3-speed transmissions, and the Daihatsu Diamatic 2-speed transmission used in the 1985–1991 Daihatsu Charade.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: An early example of a semi-automatic motorcycle transmission was the use of an automatic centrifugal clutch in the early 1960s by the Czechoslovakian manufacturer Jawa Moto. Their design was used without permission in the 1965 Honda Cub 50, which resulted in Jawa suing Honda for patent infringement and Honda agreeing to pay royalties for each motorcycle using the design.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: Semi-automatic transmissions in racing cars are typically operated by shift paddles connected to a designated transmission control unit.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: The first Formula One car to use a semi-automatic transmission was the 1989 Ferrari 640. It used hydraulic actuators and electrical solenoids for clutch control and shifting, and was shifted via two paddles mounted behind the steering wheel. Another paddle on the steering wheel controlled the clutch, which was only needed when starting from a standstill. The car won its debut race at the Brazilian Grand Prix, but for much of the season suffered from reliability problems. Other teams began switching to similar semi-automatic transmissions; the 1991 Williams FW14 was the first to use a sequential drum-rotation mechanism (similar to those used in motorcycle transmissions), which allowed for a more compact design that required only one actuator to rotate the drum and change gears. A further development was made possible by the introduction of electronic throttle control soon after, which made it possible for the car to automatically rev-match during downshifts. By 1993, most teams were using semi-automatic transmissions. The last F1 car fitted with a conventional manual gearbox, the Forti FG01, raced in 1995.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: Following concerns about the potential for Formula One cars to shift gears automatically without any driver input, mandatory software was introduced in 1994 that ensured that gear changes only occurred when instructed by the driver. Pre-programmed, computer-controlled, fully-automatic upshifts and downshifts were re-introduced and allowed from 2001, and were permitted from that year's Spanish Grand Prix, but were banned again in 2004. Buttons on the steering wheel to shift directly to a particular gear (instead of having to shift sequentially using the paddles) are permitted. The 2005 Minardi PS05, Renault R25, and Williams FW27 were the last Formula 1 cars to use a 6-speed gearbox before the switch to a mandatory 7-speed gearbox for the 2006 season. Since 2014 season, Formula 1 cars currently use mandatory 8-speed paddle-shift gearboxes.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: The now-defunct CART Champ Car Series switched from a lever-shift sequential system to a 7-speed paddle-shift system for the 2007 season. This transmission was introduced with the new-for-2007 Panoz DP01 chassis.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: The rival IndyCar Series introduced their 6-speed semi-automatic paddle-shift system for the 2008 season, also replacing the previous lever-shifted sequential transmission, introduced with the Dallara IR-05 chassis for 2008. IndyCars currently use the Xtrac P1011 sequential transmission, which uses a semi-automatic paddle shift system supplied by Mega-Line called AGS (Assisted Gearshift System). AGS uses a pneumatic gearshift and clutch actuator controlled by an internal transmission control unit.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: Both the FIA Formula 2 and Formula 3 Championships currently use 6-speed sequential gearboxes with electro-hydraulic operation via shift paddles. Manual control of the multi-plate clutch systems via a lever behind the steering wheel is used to launch the cars.


title: Semi-automatic transmission

text: DTM currently uses a Hewland DTT-200 6-speed sequential transmission with steering-wheel-mounted shift paddles, which was introduced for the 2012 season with the new rule change. This new system replaced the older lever-shifted sequential transmission, which had been used for the previous 12 seasons (since 2000).


title: Tlāloc

text: Tlaloc () is a deity in Aztec religion. The supreme god of the rain, Tlaloc is also a god of earthly fertility and of water. He was widely worshipped as a beneficent giver of life and sustenance, as well as feared for his ability to send hail, thunder, and lightning, and for being the lord of the powerful element of water. Tlaloc is also associated with caves, springs, and mountains, most specifically the sacred mountain where he was believed to reside. His animal forms include herons and water-dwelling creatures such as amphibians, snails, and some sea creatures, particularly shellfish. The Mexican marigold, "Tagetes lucida", known to the Aztecs as , was another important symbol of the god, and was burned as a ritual incense in native religious ceremonies.


title: Tlāloc

text: The cult of Tlaloc is one of the oldest and most universal in ancient Mexico. Although the name Tlaloc is specifically Aztec, worship of a storm god, associated with mountaintop shrines and with life-giving rain, is as at least as old as Teotihuacan, and was likely adopted from the Maya god Chaac, perhaps ultimately derived from an earlier Olmec precursor. An underground Tlaloc shrine has been found at Teotihuacan.


title: Tlāloc

text: In Aztec iconography, Tlaloc is usually depicted with goggle eyes and fangs. He is most often coupled with lightning, maize, and water in visual representations and artwork. Offerings dedicated to Tlaloc in Tenochtitlan were known to include several jaguar skulls and even a complete jaguar skeleton. Jaguars were considered the ultimate sacrificial animal due to their value.


title: Tlāloc

text: Tlaloc's impersonators often wore the distinctive mask and heron-feather headdress, usually carrying a cornstalk or a symbolic lightning bolt wand; another symbol was a ritual water jar. Along with this, Tlaloc is manifested in the form of boulders at shrine-sites, and in the Valley of Mexico the primary shrine of this deity was located atop Mount Tlaloc.


title: Tlāloc

text: In Coatlinchan, a colossal statue weighing 168 tons was found that was thought to represent Tlaloc. However, one scholar believes that the statue may not have been Tlaloc at all but his sister or some other female deity. This statue was relocated to the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City in 1964.


title: Tlāloc

text: While pre-Hispanic cultures are thought to have become extinct once the Spanish had completed the colonization of Mexico, aspects of pre-Hispanic cultures continue to influence Mexican culture. Accordingly, Tlaloc has continued to be represented in Mexican culture even after the Spanish were thought to have completed evangelizing in Mexico. In fact, even as the Spanish were beginning to proselytize in Mexico, religious syncretism was occurring. Analyses of evangelization plays put on by the Spanish, in order to convert the indigenous peoples to Christianity, suggests that the Spanish might have unknowingly created connections between Christianity and indigenous religious figures, such as Tlaloc. Indigenous Mexicans viewing these plays might have made connections between the sacrifice Abraham was willing to make of Isaac, to the sacrifices that were made to Tlaloc and other deities. These connections may have allowed indigenous peoples to retain ideas about sacrifice even as they were being forcibly converted to Christianity. Early syncretism between indigenous religions and Christianity, also included more direct connections to Tlaloc. Some churches built during the sixteenth century, such as the Santiago Tlatelolco church had stones depicting Tlaloc within the interior of the church. Even as the Roman Catholic Church sought to eradicate indigenous religious traditions, depiction of Tlaloc still remained within worship spaces, suggesting that Tlaloc would still have been worshipped after Spanish colonization. It is clear that Tlaloc would have continued to have played a role in Mexican cultures immediately after colonization.


title: Tlāloc

text: Despite the fact that it has been half a millennium since the conquest of Mexico, Tlaloc still plays a role in shaping Mexican culture. At Coatlinchan, a giant statue of Tlaloc continues to play a key role in shaping local culture, even after the statue was relocated to Mexico City. In Coatlinchan, people still celebrate the statue of Tlaloc, so much so that some local residents still seek to worship him, while the local municipality has also erected a reproduction of the original statue. Many residents of Coatlinchan, relate to the statue of Tlaloc in the way that they might associate themselves with a patron saint, linking their identity as a resident of the town with the image of Tlaloc. While Tlaloc plays an especially important role in the lives of the people of Coatlinchan, the god also plays an important role in shaping the Mexican identity. Images of Tlaloc are found throughout Mexico from Tijuana to the Yucatán, and images of the statue of Tlaloc found at Coatlinchan are deployed as a symbol of the Mexican nation. Tlaloc and other pre-Hispanic features are critical to creating a common Mexican identity that unites people throughout Mexico. Accordingly, people throughout Mexico, and especially in Coatlinchan, refer to Tlaloc in very anthropomorphized ways, referring to Tlaloc as a person. Furthermore, people continue to observe superstitions about Tlaloc. Despite centuries of colonial erasure, Tlaloc continues to be represented in American culture.


title: Tlāloc

text: Evidence suggests that Tlaloc was represented in many other Mesoamerican cultures and religions. Tlaloc is thought to be one of the most commonly worshipped deities at Teotihuacan and it is specifically here, in Teotihuacan, that representations of Tlaloc often show him having jaguar teeth and features. This differs from the Maya version of Tlaloc, as the Maya representation depicts no specific relation to jaguars. The inhabitants of Teotihuacan thought of thunder as the rumblings of the jaguar and associated thunder with Tlaloc as well. It is likely that this god was given these associations because he is also known as "the provider" among the Aztecs.


title: Tlāloc

text: A chacmool excavated from the Maya site of Chichén Itzá in the Yucatán by Augustus Le Plongeon possesses imagery associated with Tlaloc. This chacmool is similar to others found at the Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlán. The chacmool found at Chichén Itzá appears to have been used for sacrificial purposes, as the chacmool is shaped like a captive who has been bound. Likewise, two of the chacmools that have been found at Templo Mayor make clear reference to Tlaloc. The first chacmool portrays Tlaloc three times. Once on the vessel for collecting the blood and heart of sacrificed victims, once on the underpart of the chacmool with aquatic motifs related to Tlaloc, and the actual figure of the chacmool itself is of Tlaloc as the figure portrays the iconic goggle eyes and large fangs. The other chacmool was found at the Tlaloc half of the double pyramid-temple complex and clearly represents Tlaloc for the same reasons. In addition to the chacmools, human corpses were found in close proximity to the Tlalocan half of Templo Mayor, which were likely war captives.


title: Tlāloc

text: These archaeological findings could explain why the Maya tended to associate their version of Tlaloc, Chaac, with the bloodiness of war and sacrifice, because they adopted it from the Aztecs, who used Maya captives for sacrifice to Tlaloc. Furthermore, Tlaloc can be seen in many examples of Maya war imagery and war-time decoration, such as appearing on “shields, masks, and headdresses of warriors” THE ICONOGRAPHY OF THE TEOTIHUACAN TLALOC on JSTOR This evidence affirms the Maya triple connection between war-time, sacrifice, and the rain deity as they likely adopted the rain deity from the Aztecs, but blurred the line between sacrifice and captive capture, and religion.


title: Tlāloc

text: Tlaloc was also associated with the earth, and it is believed this is also a reason why sacrifices may have been made to him. Sacrifices to Tlaloc were not solely a Maya phenomenon, and it is known that the Aztecs also made sacrifices to Tlaloc. Just as the Maya had also worshipped their own version of Tlaloc, so did the Mixtec people of Oaxaca, who were known to worship a rain god that is extremely similar to other manifestations of Tlaloc. The commonalities between the different Mesoamerican cultures; interpretations of Tlaloc belies the common origin of Tlaloc as a rain god from Teotihuacán.


title: Tlāloc

text: In Aztec cosmology, the four corners of the universe are marked by "the four Tlalocs" () which both hold up the sky and function as the frame for the passing of time. Tlaloc was the patron of the Calendar day "Mazātl." In Aztec mythology, Tlaloc was the lord of the third sun which was destroyed by fire.


title: Tlāloc

text: On page 28 of the Codex Borgia, the Five Tlaloque are pictured watering maize fields. Each Tlaloc is pictured watering the maize with differing types of rains, of which only one was beneficial. The rain that was beneficial to the land was burnished with jade crystals and likely represented the type of rain that would make a bountiful harvest. The other forms of rain were depicted as destroyers of crops, “fiery rain, fungus rain, wind rain, and flint blade rain”. This depiction shows the power that Tlaloc had over the Central American crop supply. Also, the high ratio of damaging rains to beneficial rains likely symbolizes the ratio of the likelihood that crops are destroyed to them being nourished. This would explain why so much effort and resources were put forth by the Central Americans in order to appease the Gods.


title: Tlāloc

text: Additionally, Tlaloc is thought to be one of the patron deities of the trecena of 1 Quiahuitl (along with Chicomecoatl). Trecenas are the thirteen-day periods into which the 260-day calendar is divided. The first day of each trecena dictates the augury, or omen, and the patron deity or deities associated with the trecena.


title: Tlāloc

text: In Aztec mythic cosmography, Tlaloc ruled the fourth layer of the upper world, or heavens, which is called Tlalocan ("place of Tlaloc") in several Aztec codices, such as the Vaticanus A and Florentine codices. Described as a place of unending springtime and a paradise of green plants, Tlalocan was the destination in the afterlife for those who died violently from phenomena associated with water, such as by lightning, drowning, and water-borne diseases. These violent deaths also included leprosy, venereal disease, sores, dropsy, scabies, gout, and child sacrifices.


title: Tlāloc

text: The Nahua believed that Huitzilopochtli could provide them with fair weather for their crops and they placed an image of Tlaloc, who was the rain-god, near him so that if necessary, the war god could compel the rain maker to exert his powers.


title: Tlāloc

text: Tlaloc was also associated with the world of the dead and with the earth. His name is thought to be derived from the Nahuatl word "tlālli" "earth", and its meaning has been interpreted as "path beneath the earth," "long cave," "he who is made of earth", as well as "he who is the embodiment of the earth". J. Richard Andrews interprets it as "one that lies on the land," identifying Tlaloc as a cloud resting on the mountaintops. Other names of Tlaloc were Tlamacazqui ("Giver") and Xoxouhqui ("Green One"); and (among the contemporary Nahua of Veracruz), Chaneco.


title: Tlāloc

text: In the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan, one of the two shrines on top of the Great Temple was dedicated to Tlaloc. The high priest who was in charge of the Tlaloc shrine was called ""Quetzalcoatl Tlaloc Tlamacazqui."" It was the northernmost side of this temple that was dedicated to Tlaloc, the god of rain and agricultural fertility. In this area, a bowl was kept in which sacrificial hearts were placed on certain occasions, as offerings to the rain gods. Although the Great Temple had its northern section dedicated to Tlaloc, the most important site of worship of the rain god was on the peak of Mount Tlaloc, a mountain on the eastern rim of the Valley of Mexico. Here the Aztec ruler would come and conduct important ceremonies annually. Additionally, throughout the year, pilgrims came to the mountain and offered precious stones and figures at the shrine. Many of the offerings found here also related to water and the sea.


title: Tlāloc

text: The Tlalocan-bound dead were not cremated as was customary, but instead they were buried in the earth with seeds planted in their faces and blue paint covering their foreheads. Their bodies were dressed in paper and accompanied by a digging stick for planting put in their hands.


title: Tlāloc

text: The second shrine on top of the main pyramid at Tenochtitlan was dedicated to Tlaloc. Both his shrine, and Huitzilopochtli's next to it, faced west. Sacrifices and rites took place in these temples. The Aztecs believed Tlaloc resided in mountain caves, thus his shrine in Tenochtitlan's pyramid was called "mountain abode." Many rich offerings were regularly placed before it, especially those linked to water, such as jade, shells, and sand. Mount Tlaloc was situated directly east of the pyramid. It was forty-four miles away, with a long road connecting the two places of worship. On Mount Tlaloc, there was a shrine containing stone images of the mountain itself and other neighboring peaks. The shrine was called Tlalocan, in reference to the paradise. Also, the shrine contained four pitchers containing water. Each pitcher would produce a different fate if used on crops: the first would bring forth a good harvest, the second would cause the harvest to fail and rot, the third would dry the harvest out, and the final one would freeze it. Sacrifices that took place on Mount Tlaloc were thought to favor early rains.


title: Tlāloc

text: The Atlcahualo festivals was celebrated from 12 February until 3 March. Dedicated to the Tlaloque, this veintena involved the sacrifice of children on sacred mountaintops, like Mount Tlaloc. The children were beautifully adorned, dressed in the style of Tlaloc and the Tlaloque. The children to be sacrificed were carried to Mount Tlaloc on litters strewn with flowers and feathers, while also being surrounded by dancers. Once at the shrine, the children's hearts would be pulled out by priests. If, on the way to the shrine, these children cried, their tears were viewed as positive signs of imminent and abundant rains. Every Atlcahualo festival, seven children were sacrificed in and around Lake Texcoco in the Aztec capital. The children were either slaves or the second-born children of noblepeople, or pīpiltin.


title: Tlāloc

text: The festival of Tozoztontli (24 March – 12 April) similarly involved child sacrifice. During this festival, the children were sacrificed in caves. The flayed skins of sacrificial victims that had been worn by priests for the last twenty days were taken off and placed in these dark, magical caverns.


title: Tlāloc

text: The winter veintena of Atemoztli (9 December – 28 December) was also dedicated to the Tlaloque. This period preceded an important rainy season, so statues were made out of amaranth dough. Their teeth were pumpkin seeds and their eyes, beans. Once these statues were offered copal, fine scents, and other food items, while they were also prayed to and adorned with finery. Afterwards, their doughy chests were opened, their "hearts" taken out, before their bodies were cut up and eaten. The ornaments with which they had been adorned were taken and burned in peoples’ patios. On the final day of the "veintena," people celebrated and held banquets.


title: Tlāloc

text: Tlaloc was also worshipped during the Huey Tozotli festival, which was celebrated annually. Evidence from the Codex Borbonicus suggests that Huey Tozotli was a commemoration of Centeotl, the god of maize. While Tlaloc is not normally associated with Huey Tozotli, evidence from the Codex Borbonicus indicates that Tlaloc was worshipped during this festival. Additional evidence from the Book of Gods and Rites suggest rulers from the Aztec Empire and other states would make a pilgrimage to Mount Tlaloc during the Huey Tozotli festival in order to present offerings to Tlaloc. The Book of Gods and Rites also suggests that a child was sacrificed as a part of this pilgrimage as well, although this could simply be the result of colonial sensationalism on the part of the Spanish authors. It is argued that Tlaloc was incorporated into celebrations of Huey Tozotli because of his role as the god of rain. Huey Tozotli was a celebration of the maize harvest, and it would make sense that worshippers might want to celebrate Tlaloc during this festival as his powers of the rain would be critical to having a successful harvest of maize.


title: Tlāloc

text: Tlaloc was linked to the regenerative capacity of weather, and, as such, he was worshipped at Mount Tlaloc because much of the rain in Central Mexico is formed over range of which Mount Tlaloc is a part. Tlaloc was worshipped on Mount Tlaloc during the Etzalcualiztli festival, in which rulers from across Central Mexico performed rituals to Tlaloc in order to ask for rain, and to celebrate fertility and the change of the seasons. An important part of these pilgrimages to Mount Tlaloc during Etzalcualitztli was the sacrifice of both adults and children to Tlaloc.


title: Tlāloc

text: Archaeological evidence indicates Tlaloc was worshipped in Mesoamerica before the Aztecs even settled there in the 13th century AD. He was a prominent god in Teotihuacan at least 800 years before the Aztecs. This has led to Meso-American goggle-eyed rain gods being referred to generically as "Tlaloc," although in some cases it is unknown what they were called in these cultures, and in other cases we know that he was called by a different name, e.g., the Maya version was known as Chaac and the Zapotec deity as Cocijo.


title: Tlāloc

text: Chalchiuhtlicue, or "she of the jade skirt" in Nahutatl, was the deity connected with the worship of ground water. Therefore, her shrines were by springs, streams, irrigation ditches, or aqueducts, the most important of these shrines being at Pantitlan, in the center of Lake Texcoco. Sometimes described as Tlaloc's sister, Chalchiuhtlicue was impersonated by ritual performers wearing the green skirt that was associated with Chalchiuhtlicue. Like that of Tlaloc, her cult was linked to the earth, fertility and nature's regeneration.


title: Tlāloc

text: Tlaloc was first married to the goddess of flowers, Xochiquetzal, which literally translates to "Flower Quetzal." Xochiquetzal personifies pleasure, flowers, and young female sexuality. In doing so, she is associated with pregnancies and childbirths and was believed to act as a guardian figure for new mothers. Unlike many other female deities, Xochiquetzal maintains her youthful appearance and is often depicted in opulent attire and gold adornments.


title: Tlāloc

text: Tlaloc was the father of Tecciztecatl, possibly with Chalchiuhtlicue. Tlaloc had an older sister named Huixtocihuatl.


title: Tlāloc

text: There is a sanctuary found atop Mount Tlaloc, dedicated to the god, Tlaloc; it is thought that the location of this sanctuary in relation to other temples surrounding it may have been a way for the Aztecs to mark the time of year and keep track of important ceremonial dates. Research has shown that different orientations linked to Mount Tlaloc revealed a grouping of dates at the end of April and beginning of May associated with certain astronomical and meteorological events. Archaeological, ethnohistoric, and ethnographic data indicate that these phenomena coincide with the sowing of maize in dry lands associated with agricultural sites. The precinct on the summit of the mountain contains 5 stones which are thought to represent Tlaloc and his four Tlaloque, who are responsible for providing rain for the land. It also features a structure that housed a statue of Tlaloc in addition to idols of many different religious regions, such as the other sacred mountains. Archaeology and Archaeoastronomy of Mount Tlaloc, Mexico: A Reconsideration on JSTOR


title: Tlāloc

text: Mount Tlaloc is the highest peak of the part of the Sierra Nevada called Sierra del Rio Frio that separates the valleys of Mexico and Puebla. It rises over two different ecological zones: alpine meadows and subalpine forests. The rainy season starts in May and lasts until October. The highest annual temperature occurs in April, the onset of the rainy season, and the lowest in December–January. Some 500 years ago weather conditions were slightly more severe, but the best time to climb the mountain was practically the same as today: October through December, and February until the beginning of May. The date of the feast of Huey Tozotli celebrated atop Mount Tlaloc coincided with a period of the highest annual temperature, shortly before dangerous thunderstorms might block access to the summit.


title: Tlāloc

text: The first detailed account of Mount Tlaloc by Jim Rickards in 1929 was followed by visits or descriptions by other scholars. In 1953 Wicke and Horcasitas carried out preliminary archaeological investigations at the site; their conclusions were repeated by Parsons in 1971. Archaeo-astronomical research began in 1984, some of which remains unpublished. In 1989 excavation was undertaken at the site by Solis and Townsend. The current damage that is present at the top of Mount Tlaloc is thought to be likely of human destruction, rather than natural forces. There also appears to have been a construction of a modern shrine that was built in the 1970s, which suggests that there was a recent/present attempt to conduct rituals on the mountain top Archaeology and Archaeoastronomy of Mount Tlaloc, Mexico: A Reconsideration on JSTOR.


title: High-explosive squash head

text: High explosive squash head (HESH) in British terminology, or high explosive plastic/plasticized (HEP) in American terminology, is a type of explosive projectile which uses a plastic explosive that conforms to the surface of a target before detonating, to improve the transfer of explosive energy to the target. Squash head projectiles are similar to high explosive projectiles and are well suited to many of the same targets. However, while HESH projectiles are not armour-piercing, they can defeat armored targets by causing spall which can injure or kill a vehicle's occupants, and detonate some types of ammunition.


title: High-explosive squash head

text: HESH rounds are thin metal shells filled with inert material (like coal-tar pitch), plastic explosive and a delayed-action base fuze. On impact, the inert material, followed by plastic explosive, is "squashed" against the surface of the target and spreads out to form a disc or "pat" of explosive. The inert material helps prevent premature detonation of the plastic explosive and sustains the impact pressure and temperature.


title: High-explosive squash head

text: Milliseconds later, the base fuze detonates the explosive, creating a shock wave that, owing to its large surface area and direct contact with the target, is transmitted through the material. In the metal armour of a tank, the compression shock wave is conducted through the armour to the point where it reaches the metal-air interface (the hollow crew compartment), where some of the energy is reflected as a tension wave, a phenomenon called "impulsive loading". At the point where the compression and tension waves intersect, a high-stress zone is created in the metal, causing pieces of steel to be projected off the interior wall at high velocity.


title: High-explosive squash head

text: This fragmentation by blast wave is known as "scabbing" or "spalling", with the fragments termed "scabs" or "spall".


title: High-explosive squash head

text: Depending upon the armour thickness, a heavy piece of target material (4 to 10 kg for a 120 mm round used in Arjun MBT) can separate out from the other end of the target with supersonic velocities. This spall is sufficient to permanently damage the essentials of a tank, igniting the ammunition or fuel storage and severely damaging the crew to achieve a "total kill" of the target. In general, the higher the armour thickness, the higher the scab weight will be.


title: High-explosive squash head

text: The fragmentation achieved by impulsive loading of armour block by an HESH round is more lethal compared to similar high explosive rounds.


title: High-explosive squash head

text: HESH rounds are mostly fired from guns with barrels with rifling rather than smoothbore. Rifling causes a projectile to spin, creating centrifugal force. This makes a HESH shell more effective on impact by increasing the surface area of contact for the explosive: the faster the spin, the larger the contact patch will be. In contrast, the centrifugal effect of rifling decreases the penetrating power of a high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) shaped charge warhead because the centrifugal force of the spinning tends to disperse the shaped charge jet. HESH shells are not specifically designed to perforate the armour of vehicles, unlike HEAT rounds, with their shaped charge jets. HESH shells rely instead on transmitting a shock wave through solid steel armour.


title: High-explosive squash head

text: HESH ammunition has good general purpose use, being effective against most targets, though the round is generally used at relatively low velocities because high velocity excessively disperses the pat of explosive. While only effective against tanks without spaced armour or spall liners, the round is still favoured for combat demolition purposes. The flattened high-velocity explosive pat can destroy concrete constructions much faster than a HEAT round (which is designed to penetrate armour), and without the dangerous fragmentation of a traditional high explosive (HE) fragmentation round.


title: High-explosive squash head

text: HESH was developed by Dennistoun Burney in the 1940s for the UK's war effort, originally as an anti-fortification "wallbuster" munition for use against concrete. He also led British developments in recoilless rifles as a means to deliver the shell. An early application of the HESH principle was the AVRE's 165 mm demolition gun.


title: High-explosive squash head

text: HESH was found to be surprisingly effective against metallic armour and concrete structures as well. It was widely used as a primary round in most of the large calibre rifled guns.


title: High-explosive squash head

text: HESH rounds were fielded mainly by the British Army as the main explosive round of its main battle tanks during the Cold War. It was also used by other military forces, especially those that acquired the early post-World War II British 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7A1 tank gun, including Germany, India, Israel, and Sweden.


title: High-explosive squash head

text: Since the 1970s, HESH ammunition has increasingly lost favour as armour designs have trended towards layered composites of hard metal and heat-resistant materials. This type of armour conducts shock waves poorly. Anti-spalling devices ("spall liners"), made of materials such as Kevlar, are commonly fitted to the interior surface of modern armoured vehicles to minimise spalling effects. Another reason for the declining use of HESH rounds is the preference of most armies for smoothbore guns due to the use of high power armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot which significantly decrease the rifled barrel life.


title: High-explosive squash head

text: British Challenger 1 and Challenger 2 tanks, India's Arjun tank (which has the same rifled 120 mm gun as the UK's MBTs) use HESH rounds as their primary ammunition. Amongst other ammunition types, the Stryker Mobile Gun System variant is to be equipped with a 105 mm HESH round for demolition and bunker-busting purposes. Argentina's TAM medium tanks, Canada's Leopard C1 and Leopard C2 main battle tanks (all of which mount the same 105 mm gun as the Centurion), the Australian Leopard AS1 main battle tank, and the Chinese VT-4 main battle tank (which mounts a 125 mm smoothbore gun) all use HESH rounds.


title: High-explosive squash head

text: HESH rounds are also carried by armoured engineer vehicles; they are typically intended for use against fortifications rather than armoured fighting vehicles. A 165 mm HESH round is used by the United States Army for the main gun of the M728 combat engineer vehicle, an M60 tank equipped with a bulldozer blade. Similarly, the UK's Centurion AVRE was equipped with a short 165 mm gun solely for a 29 kg HESH shell.


title: High-explosive squash head

text: Based on the high-explosive squash head (HESH) round, a 120 mm thermobaric round was developed, which packed thermobaric explosives into the tank shells to increase the effectiveness against enemy bunkers and light armoured vehicles.


title: High-explosive squash head

text: The design and the development of the round was taken up by Armament Research and Development Establishment (ARDE). The rounds were designed for the Arjun MBT. The TB rounds contain a fuel-rich explosive composition called thermobaric explosive. As the name implies, the shells, when they hit a target, produce blast overpressure and heat energy for hundreds of milliseconds. The blast overpressure and heat energy damages enemy fortified structures like bunkers and buildings and soft targets like enemy personnel and light armoured vehicles.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: The 2013 NBA playoffs was the postseason tournament of the National Basketball Association's 2012–13 season. The tournament concluded with the Eastern Conference champion Miami Heat defeating the Western Conference champion San Antonio Spurs 4 games to 3 in the NBA Finals. LeBron James was named NBA Finals MVP.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: The Miami Heat headed into the playoffs with a franchise-best 66 wins, topping the league in the regular season. Their 2012 Finals opponents, the Oklahoma City Thunder, topped the Western Conference with 60 wins, making it the first time since 2006 that the two teams who faced off in the previous year's finals topped their respective conferences in the next regular season. However, when the Thunder lost to the Memphis Grizzlies in the Conference Semifinals, home court advantage in the Western Conference Finals went to the San Antonio Spurs, who were two games ahead of the Grizzlies.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: The New York Knicks entered the playoffs with their best regular-season performance since , finishing atop the Atlantic Division for the first time since . The Indiana Pacers won the Central Division for the first time since , while the Los Angeles Clippers made franchise history by winning their first Pacific Division title and having a 56-win season, tied with the Memphis Grizzlies, whose 56 wins were also a franchise record. The Denver Nuggets earned the West's third seed and headed into the playoffs with a franchise-record 57 wins.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: The Brooklyn Nets and Golden State Warriors made their first playoff appearances since 2007. This also marked the first time that Barclays Center hosted a playoff game. The Houston Rockets made their first playoff appearance since 2009, while the Milwaukee Bucks appeared for the first time since 2010. The Bucks were the first team since 2011 to make the playoffs despite finishing below .500 in the regular season.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: The San Antonio Spurs continued the longest active playoff streak at 16 straight appearances. The Dallas Mavericks missed the playoffs for the first time since 2000, ending the second-longest active streak of playoff appearances, which stretched 12 years. The Orlando Magic also missed the playoffs for the first time since 2006, ending the longest active streak in the Eastern Conference.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: Game 7 between Chicago and Brooklyn marked the 14th straight postseason with at least one Game 7. The 1999 NBA playoffs was the last time that a Game 7 was not played.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: This was the last time the NBA Finals were played in the 2–3–2 format. The format was reverted to the 2–2–1–1–1 format beginning in 2014.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: The six division winners and 10 other teams with the most wins from each conference qualified for the playoffs. The seedings are based on each team's record; however, a division winner is guaranteed to be ranked at least fourth, regardless of record.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: If there were more than two teams tied, the team that wins the tiebreaker gets the highest seed, while the other teams were "re-broken" from the first step until all ties were resolved. Since the three division winners were guaranteed a spot in the top four, ties to determine the division winners had to be broken before any other ties.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: Teams in bold advanced to the next round. The numbers to the left of each team indicate the team's seeding in its conference, and the numbers to the right indicate the number of games the team won in that round. The division champions are marked by an asterisk. Home court advantage for the playoffs does not necessarily belong to the higher-seeded team, but instead the team with the better regular season record. Teams with home court advantage are shown in italics. If two teams with the same record meet in a round, standard tiebreaker rules are used. The doodle rule for determining home court advantage in the NBA Finals is head-to-head record followed by record vs. opposite conference.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: This was the 15th playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Celtics winning eight of the first 14 meetings.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: This was the fifth playoff meeting between these two teams, with the each team winning two series apiece.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: The Nets led wire-to-wire as they routed the Bulls 106–89 to take a 1–0 series lead. A dominant first half allowed the Nets to put the game away early as they outscored the Bulls 25–14 in the first quarter and 35–21 in the second quarter, building a 60–35 halftime lead.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: Following their embarrassing Game 1 loss, the Bulls bounced back with a 90–82 win, evening the series at 1–1 and stealing homecourt advantage. The Bulls took control of the game in the third quarter, outscoring the Nets 22–11 in the period and building a 12-point 4th quarter lead. The Nets attempted to rally, but the Bulls made enough clutch shots to hold them off. After scoring 89 points through 3 quarters in Game 1 (and 106 for the game), the Nets were held to 82 points for all of Game 2.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: The Bulls took a 2–1 series lead with a 79–76 victory. Despite squandering most of a huge fourth quarter lead, the Bulls hung on to win when Cj Watson airballed a game-tying three-pointer at the buzzer.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: The Bulls stunned the Nets and took a commanding 3–1 series lead with a 142–134 victory in triple overtime. The Nets trailed 58–55 at halftime. However, they outscored the Bulls 29–18 in the third quarter and led by 8 points heading into the fourth quarter. With less than 3 minutes to go, the Nets extended their lead to 14, and the Bulls trailed 109–95. However, the Bulls would go on a 16–2 run to force the first of three overtimes. Nate Robinson caught fire, scoring 23 points in the 4th quarter, including 12 unanswered points as the Bulls cut the deficit to 109–107 with just over one minute remaining. Carlos Boozer then scored the game-tying bucket to even the game at 109. On the Nets' next possession, Brook Lopez was fouled. He made both free throws to put the Nets up 111–109. The Bulls drew up a play to give Luol Deng a go-ahead corner three. Deng missed the three, but Joakim Noah grabbed two offensive rebounds and tied the game at 111–111. Deron Williams attempted to win the game at the end of regulation, but his shot rimmed out, and the Bulls forced overtime. During the overtimes, several players fouled out. For the Nets, Gerald Wallace and Reggie Evans would foul out while Robinson, Noah, and Gibson would foul out for the Bulls. The Bulls would go on to win the game in triple overtime as they pushed the Nets to the brink of elimination.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: The Bulls entered this game without the services of Derrick Rose, Luol Deng, and Kirk Hinrich, but almost blew a 3–1 series lead to the Nets. However, the Bulls dominated the first half, building a 61–44 halftime lead. In the second half, the Nets fought back as they cut the deficit to 4, but they got no closer as the Bulls prevailed with a 99–93 victory. It was the first time that the Bulls had won a Game 7 on the road in franchise history, becoming the 7th NBA road team to do so after leading series 3–1. They were 0–6 in their last 6 road Game 7's. This was also Gerald Wallace's last game as a Net.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Bulls winning the first meeting. All previous meetings took place while the Nets were in New Jersey.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: This was the seventh playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Thunder/SuperSonics franchise winning five of the first six meetings. All previous meetings took place while the Thunder franchise were still known as the Seattle SuperSonics. In game 2, Russell Westbrook was injured.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: The Spurs throttled the Lakers 120–89 and took a commanding 3–0 series lead. For the Lakers, the 31-point loss represented the largest home playoff loss in franchise history.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: The Spurs completed their sweep of the injury-depleted Lakers, routing them 103–82. Dwight Howard picked up two technical fouls and was ejected in the third quarter. It would end up being his final game in a Lakers jersey until his return to the team in 2019.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: This was the 12th playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Lakers winning eight of the first 11 meetings.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Clippers winning the first meeting.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: The Bulls stunned the Heat in Game 1 with a 93–86 victory. The game was close throughout, with neither team leading by more than 8 points.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: The Heat entered the fourth quarter with a 62–58 lead and led 86–83 with just over two minutes to play when the Bulls scored the game's final 10 points.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: After giving up only 37 points in the first half, the Heat's defense allowed the Bulls to score 35 points in the 4th quarter alone.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: After Marco Bellinelli's game-tying three-pointer knotted the game at 86, Nate Robinson took over, scoring two consecutive shots to put the Bulls up 90–86 with just over 40 seconds left. On the Heat's next two possessions, LeBron James would shoot an airball and miss a long three-pointer, and Nate Robinson made enough free throws to seal the win and help the Bulls steal homecourt advantage.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: This was the seventh playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Bulls winning four of the first six meetings.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: This was the seventh playoff meeting between these two teams, with each team winning three series apiece.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Thunder winning the first meeting.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: Golden State led by 16 points with four minutes to go, but they would be hindered by missing eight of their last nine shots while the Spurs roared back to force overtime. The Spurs would come back without Tim Duncan, who had been bothered by a stomach virus and had to be in the locker room for the final 4:31 of regulation. San Antonio finally tied the game on a Danny Green 3-pointer with 20 seconds left. Stephen Curry (who scored 22 points in the 3rd quarter) would have a shot to win the game at the buzzer, but he missed a tightly contested 15-footer. Manu Ginobili had a shot to potentially win the game at the end of the 1st overtime, but it was off the mark. With 44 seconds on the game clock in double overtime, Ginobili missed a three-pointer that would have given the Spurs a six-point lead. Curry then made a two-point shot twelve seconds later to narrow the score to one. A missed layup by Tony Parker gave the Warriors the ball back; with three seconds to go, Kent Bazemore gave the Warriors the lead on a layup. However, Ginobili would shoot a three-pointer to give the Spurs the lead with one second remaining on the clock, and Jarrett Jack's running jumper shot missed at the buzzer to deliver a Spurs victory.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Warriors winning the first meeting.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: This was the third playoff meeting between these two teams, with each team winning one series apiece.


title: 2013 NBA playoffs

text: This was the first sweep of any NBA conference finals series since 2003, when the New Jersey Nets swept the Detroit Pistons.


title: Amar Singh I

text: Maharana Amar Singh I, the Maharana of Mewar (March 16, 1559 – January 26, 1620), was the eldest son and successor of Maharana Pratap of Mewar. He was the 16th Rana of Mewar dynasty of Sisodia Rajputs and ruler of Mewar from January 19, 1597 till his death on January 26, 1620. His capital was Udaipur.


title: Amar Singh I

text: Amar Singh was the eldest son of Maharana Pratap. He was born in Chittor on 16 March 1559 to Maharana Pratap and Maharani Ajabde Punwar, the same year, when foundation of Udaipur was laid by his grandfather, Udai Singh II. Amar Singh succeeded Maharana Pratap upon his death on 19 January 1597.


title: Amar Singh I

text: In start of his reign, Amar Singh implemented internal reforms. He defined the order of precedence for his chiefs, and their privileges. He also rehabilitated people, who were displaced due to Mughal invasions, settled them in many villages, including Kelwa, Muroli and Rampura.


title: Amar Singh I

text: He appointed Hari Das Jhala as the commander of his standing army and made large collection of armour for his offensives against Mughals.