title: Electronic band structure

text: The preferred value for the number of electrons is a consequence of electrostatics: even though the surface of a material can be charged, the internal bulk of a material prefers to be charge neutral.


title: Electronic band structure

text: The condition of charge neutrality means that "N"/"V" must match the density of protons in the material. For this to occur, the material electrostatically adjusts itself, shifting its band structure up or down in energy (thereby shifting "g"("E")), until it is at the correct equilibrium with respect to the Fermi level.


title: Electronic band structure

text: A solid has an infinite number of allowed bands, just as an atom has infinitely many energy levels. However, most of the bands simply have too high energy, and are usually disregarded under ordinary circumstances.


title: Electronic band structure

text: Conversely, there are very low energy bands associated with the core orbitals (such as 1s electrons). These low-energy "core band"s are also usually disregarded since they remain filled with electrons at all times, and are therefore inert.


title: Electronic band structure

text: The most important bands and band gaps—those relevant for electronics and optoelectronics—are those with energies near the Fermi level.


title: Electronic band structure

text: The ansatz is the special case of electron waves in a periodic crystal lattice using Bloch's theorem as treated generally in the dynamical theory of diffraction. Every crystal is a periodic structure which can be characterized by a Bravais lattice, and for each Bravais lattice we can determine the reciprocal lattice, which encapsulates the periodicity in a set of three reciprocal lattice vectors (b, b, b). Now, any periodic potential "V"(r) which shares the same periodicity as the direct lattice can be expanded out as a Fourier series whose only non-vanishing components are those associated with the reciprocal lattice vectors. So the expansion can be written as:


title: Electronic band structure

text: From this theory, an attempt can be made to predict the band structure of a particular material, however most ab initio methods for electronic structure calculations fail to predict the observed band gap.


title: Electronic band structure

text: In the nearly free electron approximation, interactions between electrons are completely ignored. This approximation allows use of Bloch's Theorem which states that electrons in a periodic potential have wavefunctions and energies which are periodic in wavevector up to a constant phase shift between neighboring reciprocal lattice vectors. The consequences of periodicity are described mathematically by the Bloch's theorem, which states that the eigenstate wavefunctions have the form


title: Electronic band structure

text: Here index "n" refers to the "n-th" energy band, wavevector k is related to the direction of motion of the electron, r is the position in the crystal, and R is the location of an atomic site.


title: Electronic band structure

text: The NFE model works particularly well in materials like metals where distances between neighbouring atoms are small. In such materials


title: Electronic band structure

text: the overlap of atomic orbitals and potentials on neighbouring atoms is relatively large. In that case the wave function of the electron can be approximated by a (modified) plane wave. The band structure of a metal like aluminium even gets close to the empty lattice approximation.


title: Electronic band structure

text: The opposite extreme to the nearly free electron approximation assumes the electrons in the crystal behave much like an assembly of constituent atoms. This tight binding model assumes the solution to the time-independent single electron Schrödinger equation formula_8 is well approximated by a linear combination of atomic orbitals formula_9.


title: Electronic band structure

text: where the coefficients formula_11 are selected to give the best approximate solution of this form. Index "n" refers to an atomic energy level and R refers to an atomic site. A more accurate approach using this idea employs Wannier functions, defined by:


title: Electronic band structure

text: in which formula_13 is the periodic part of the Bloch's theorem and the integral is over the Brillouin zone. Here index "n" refers to the "n"-th energy band in the crystal. The Wannier functions are localized near atomic sites, like atomic orbitals, but being defined in terms of Bloch functions they are accurately related to solutions based upon the crystal potential. Wannier functions on different atomic sites R are orthogonal. The Wannier functions can be used to form the Schrödinger solution for the "n"-th energy band as:


title: Electronic band structure

text: The TB model works well in materials with limited overlap between atomic orbitals and potentials on neighbouring atoms. Band structures of materials like Si, GaAs, SiO and diamond for instance are well described by TB-Hamiltonians on the basis of atomic sp orbitals. In transition metals a mixed TB-NFE model is used to describe the broad NFE conduction band and the narrow embedded TB d-bands. The radial functions of


title: Electronic band structure

text: of the Wannier functions are most easily calculated by the use of pseudopotential methods. NFE, TB or combined NFE-TB band structure


title: Electronic band structure

text: sometimes extended with wave function approximations based on pseudopotential methods, are often used as an economic starting point for further calculations.


title: Electronic band structure

text: The KKR method, also called "multiple scattering theory" or Green's function method, finds the stationary values of the inverse transition matrix T rather than the Hamiltonian. A variational implementation was suggested by Korringa, Kohn and Rostocker, and is often referred to as the "Korringa–Kohn–Rostoker method". The most important features of the KKR or Green's function formulation are (1) it separates the two aspects of the problem: structure (positions of the atoms) from the scattering (chemical identity of the atoms); and (2) Green's functions provide a natural approach to a localized description of electronic properties that can be adapted to alloys and other disordered system. The simplest form of this approximation centers non-overlapping spheres (referred to as "muffin tins") on the atomic positions. Within these regions, the potential experienced by an electron is approximated to be spherically symmetric about the given nucleus. In the remaining interstitial region, the screened potential is approximated as a constant. Continuity of the potential between the atom-centered spheres and interstitial region is enforced.


title: Electronic band structure

text: In recent physics literature, a large majority of the electronic structures and band plots are calculated using density-functional theory (DFT), which is not a model but rather a theory, i.e., a microscopic first-principles theory of condensed matter physics that tries to cope with the electron-electron many-body problem via the introduction of an exchange-correlation term in the functional of the electronic density. DFT-calculated bands are in many cases found to be in agreement with experimentally measured bands, for example by angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES). In particular, the band shape is typically well reproduced by DFT. But there are also systematic errors in DFT bands when compared to experiment results. In particular, DFT seems to systematically underestimate by about 30-40% the band gap in insulators and semiconductors.


title: Electronic band structure

text: It is commonly believed that DFT is a theory to predict ground state properties of a system only (e.g. the total energy, the atomic structure, etc.), and that excited state properties cannot be determined by DFT. This is a misconception. In principle, DFT can determine any property (ground state or excited state) of a system given a functional that maps the ground state density to that property. This is the essence of the Hohenberg–Kohn theorem. In practice, however, no known functional exists that maps the ground state density to excitation energies of electrons within a material. Thus, what in the literature is quoted as a DFT band plot is a representation of the DFT Kohn–Sham energies, i.e., the energies of a fictive non-interacting system, the Kohn–Sham system, which has no physical interpretation at all. The Kohn–Sham electronic structure must not be confused with the real, quasiparticle electronic structure of a system, and there is no Koopmans' theorem holding for Kohn–Sham energies, as there is for Hartree–Fock energies, which can be truly considered as an approximation for quasiparticle energies. Hence, in principle, Kohn–Sham based DFT is not a band theory, i.e., not a theory suitable for calculating bands and band-plots. In principle time-dependent DFT can be used to calculate the true band structure although in practice this is often difficult. A popular approach is the use of hybrid functionals, which incorporate a portion of Hartree–Fock exact exchange; this produces a substantial improvement in predicted bandgaps of semiconductors, but is less reliable for metals and wide-bandgap materials.


title: Electronic band structure

text: To calculate the bands including electron-electron interaction many-body effects, one can resort to so-called Green's function methods. Indeed, knowledge of the Green's function of a system provides both ground (the total energy) and also excited state observables of the system. The poles of the Green's function are the quasiparticle energies, the bands of a solid. The Green's function can be calculated by solving the Dyson equation once the self-energy of the system is known. For real systems like solids, the self-energy is a very complex quantity and usually approximations are needed to solve the problem. One such approximation is the GW approximation, so called from the mathematical form the self-energy takes as the product Σ = "GW" of the Green's function "G" and the dynamically screened interaction "W". This approach is more pertinent when addressing the calculation of band plots (and also quantities beyond, such as the spectral function) and can also be formulated in a completely "ab initio" way. The GW approximation seems to provide band gaps of insulators and semiconductors in agreement with experiment, and hence to correct the systematic DFT underestimation.


title: Electronic band structure

text: Although the nearly free electron approximation is able to describe many properties of electron band structures, one consequence of this theory is that it predicts the same number of electrons in each unit cell. If the number of electrons is odd, we would then expect that there is an unpaired electron in each unit cell, and thus that the valence band is not fully occupied, making the material a conductor. However, materials such as CoO that have an odd number of electrons per unit cell are insulators, in direct conflict with this result. This kind of material is known as a Mott insulator, and requires inclusion of detailed electron-electron interactions (treated only as an averaged effect on the crystal potential in band theory) to explain the discrepancy. The Hubbard model is an approximate theory that can include these interactions. It can be treated non-perturbatively within the so-called dynamical mean-field theory, which attempts to bridge the gap between the nearly free electron approximation and the atomic limit. Formally, however, the states are not non-interacting in this case and the concept of a band structure is not adequate to describe these cases.


title: Electronic band structure

text: Calculating band structures is an important topic in theoretical solid state physics. In addition to the models mentioned above, other models include the following:


title: Electronic band structure

text: The band structure has been generalised to wavevectors that are complex numbers, resulting in what is called a "complex band structure", which is of interest at surfaces and interfaces.


title: Electronic band structure

text: Each model describes some types of solids very well, and others poorly. The nearly free electron model works well for metals, but poorly for non-metals. The tight binding model is extremely accurate for ionic insulators, such as metal halide salts (e.g. NaCl).


title: Electronic band structure

text: To understand how band structure changes relative to the Fermi level in real space, a band structure plot is often first simplified in the form of a band diagram. In a band diagram the vertical axis is energy while the horizontal axis represents real space. Horizontal lines represent energy levels, while blocks represent energy bands. When the horizontal lines in these diagram are slanted then the energy of the level or band changes with distance. Diagrammatically, this depicts the presence of an electric field within the crystal system. Band diagrams are useful in relating the general band structure properties of different materials to one another when placed in contact with each other.


title: Rear naked choke

text: The rear naked choke (RNC) is a chokehold in martial arts applied from an opponent's back. The word "naked" in this context suggests that, unlike other strangulation techniques found in jujutsu/judo, this hold does not require the use of a keikogi ("gi") or training uniform.


title: Rear naked choke

text: The choke has two variations: in one version, the attacker's arm encircles the opponent's neck and then grabs their own biceps on the other arm (see below for details); in the second version, the attacker clasps their hands together instead after encircling the opponent's neck. Recent studies have shown that the rear-naked choke takes an average of 8.9 seconds to render an opponent unconscious regardless of the grip that is used.


title: Rear naked choke

text: This variant is considered to be a ""blood choke"" because it restricts blood flow to the brain via the carotid arteries. When applied correctly, it can cause temporary unconsciousness in a few seconds. The following is a description of this technique using the right arm:


title: Rear naked choke

text: When applied properly, unconsciousness occurs in less than 10 seconds and recovery from the choke is just as quick.


title: Rear naked choke

text: The placement of the legs usually falls into two categories. The first is a body lock. The attacker places one of their legs across the stomach or lower chest of the victim. They then place their other leg over their own shin, creating a figure-four with their legs. This allows them to limit movement and stay close to the back of their victim. This technique was used by Anderson Silva against Dan Henderson and by Jim Miller against Melvin Guillard. The other common technique is known as using "hooks". In this version the attacker places their legs inside of the victim's legs. They then move their legs out, placing their shin behind the victim's knees, essentially using their shins and feet as hooks to control the victim's legs. This variation leaves the attacker open to the possibility of leglocks from their opponent, as they are attacking the choke.


title: Rear naked choke

text: This variation (also known as Palm to Palm) has the supporting hand clasp the hand of the choking arm, allowing more pressure to be applied to the neck, but losing some of the control of the head. This alters the choke somewhat so that it is more likely to be applied as an airway-restricting choke or mixed blood and air choke, which results in more pain but a slower choke-out. As such, this technique is less frequently used at advanced levels in Judo. Nonetheless, it has seen some successful applications in mixed martial arts competition: for instance, it was used by Fedor Emelianenko, a heavyweight champion in PRIDE, to defeat Kazuyuki Fujita at the "PRIDE 26" event in 2003. Fujita tapped out about five seconds after the choke was applied. He used it again to defeat former UFC Heavyweight Champion Tim Sylvia in 36 seconds. Sylvia tapped out immediately once the choke was sunk in and after the fight described it as being very painful. It was also used by Ultimate Fighting Championship fighter Matt Hughes to defeat Frank Trigg in their second fight which was adapted from a hand-on-biceps version of the rear naked choke.


title: Rear naked choke

text: Anderson Silva also used the clasping hands variation when he defeated Dan Henderson in the UFC. Joe Lauzon used this choke in his fight against Melvin Guillard, initially using the standard version, then switching to a palm to palm.


title: Rear naked choke

text: In Judo, the rear naked choke is known as Hadaka-jime (): "naked choke", one of the 36 constriction techniques of Kodokan Judo in the Shime-waza list.


title: Rear naked choke

text: The main characteristic of Hadaka-Jime when compared with other Judo chokes is that it does not require the use of the opponent's clothing, namely their gi lapel, to create the choking tourniquet. It digs the blade of the wrist into the carotid sinus similar to the hand clasp method and uses a lever motion helped by the underhand. It is faster to apply requiring less strength than the figure four/mixed-martial arts version but is more difficult to learn. It is not an air choke but a carotid choke created entirely by the attacker's arms.


title: Rear naked choke

text: Hadaka Jime is also recognized as Hadaka-Jime-San in Danzan Ryu jujitsu's twenty-five techniques in the "Shimete" list. Danzan Ryu also recognizes the Guillotine choke as Hadaka-Jime-Ichi. But the principle is the same as Jiu-Jitsu's ground version.


title: Rear naked choke

text: Kyuzo Mifune demonstrates Hasami-Jime in The Essence of Judo and is described in "The Canon Of Judo".*


title: Rear naked choke

text: The Sleeper Hold was originated in professional wrestling by Evan Lewis in the 1880s when pro wrestling was still a legitimate contest. Lewis earned the nickname "Strangler" for his use of the hold and was an accomplished catch wrestler using the hold defeating Ernst Roeber for the world championship before eventually losing the title to Martin Burns. In the southeastern United States this move was also known as the Charleston Choke.


title: Rear naked choke

text: Modern pro wrestling's first "sleeper hold", technically different from a choke, which is a compression of the throat and/or adam's apple, is thought to have been performed by Jim Londos on 29 June 1931. Suspicion abounded as to the nature of Londos' move (which had looked suspiciously like a choke against the windpipe); however, Londos was quoted the next day in "The New York Sun" as simply having performed "a new hold I perfected which shuts off the jugular vein."


title: Rear naked choke

text: Though Londos' original move may or may not have been inspired by judo's "hadaka jime", pro-wrestling's sleeper and a rear naked choke both share a similar style of execution. However, in order for the sleeper to be used in the performance art-related world of pro-wrestling, the leverage arm is positioned in a relaxed state so the hold is not fully applied.


title: Rear naked choke

text: It is more realistically used by All Elite Wrestling wrestler Samoa Joe (whose wrestling move-set is closer to mixed martial arts). The move has become more of a staple among independent wrestlers, as well as the Japanese wrestlers with the "strong style" of the sport; the most notable being former MMA star Minoru Suzuki.


title: Rear naked choke

text: In modern catch wrestling circles, the term "sleeper hold" refers to a variation of the rear naked choke in which the individual performing the hold snakes the leverage arm across the opponent's throat (in the same manner as the traditional rear naked choke) and grasps their opposite shoulder, rather than the biceps. The opposite hand is also placed against the base of the opponent's skull in the form of a closed Hammer Fist, or on top of the head. The attacking wrestler then squeezes their elbows together, pushes forward with the hammer fist (if used), and crunches forward with the abdominal muscles, producing an extremely tight and fast-acting choke.


title: Rear naked choke

text: This choke, in either the figure-four or clasped-hand variation, is an extremely dangerous technique if used thoughtlessly or improperly. When applied as a blood choke in particular, it immediately reduces the supply of oxygen to the brain, leading (as mentioned above) to unconsciousness and ultimately (if not released) to brain damage or death. It is imperative, when using this technique, to be completely aware of your opponent's physical state, and to release the choke at any sign of your opponent losing consciousness. From the sport's inception, no fatalities have been reported as due to choking in judo.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Mutualism is an anarchist school of thought and economic theory that advocates a socialist society based on free markets and usufructs, i.e. occupation and use property norms. One implementation of this system involves the establishment of a mutual-credit bank that would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate, just high enough to cover administration. Mutualism is based on a version of the labor theory of value that it uses as its basis for determining economic value. According to mutualist theory, when a worker sells the product of their labor, they ought to receive money, goods, or services in exchange that are equal in economic value, embodying "the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility". The product of the worker's labour factors the amount of both mental and physical labour into the price of their product.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: While mutualism was popularized by the writings of anarchist philosopher Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and is mainly associated as an anarchist school of thought and with libertarian socialism, its origins as a type of socialism go back to the 18th-century labour movement in Britain first, then France and finally to the working-class Chartist movement. Mutualists oppose individuals receiving income through loans, investments and rent under capitalist social relations. Although opposed to this type of income, Proudhon expressed that he had never intended "to forbid or suppress, by sovereign decree, ground rent and interest on capital. I think that all these manifestations of human activity should remain free and voluntary for all: I ask for them no modifications, restrictions or suppressions, other than those which result naturally and of necessity from the universalization of the principle of reciprocity which I propose."


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: As long as they ensure the worker's right to the full product of their labour, mutualists support markets and property in the product of labour, differentiating between capitalist private property (productive property) and personal property (private property). Mutualists argue for conditional titles to land, whose ownership is legitimate only so long as it remains in use or occupation (which Proudhon called possession), a type of private property with strong abandonment criteria. This contrasts with the capitalist non-proviso labour theory of property, where an owner maintains a property title more or less until one decides to give or sell it.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: As libertarian socialists, mutualists distinguish their market socialism from state socialism and do not advocate state ownership over the means of production. Instead, each person possesses a means of production, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labour in the free market. Benjamin Tucker wrote of Proudhon that "though opposed to socializing the ownership of capital, he aimed nevertheless to socialize its effects by making its use beneficial to all instead of a means of impoverishing the many to enrich the few ... by subjecting capital to the natural law of competition, thus bringing the price of its own use down to cost".


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Although similar to the economic doctrines of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists, mutualism favours large industries. Mutualism has been retrospectively characterized sometimes as being a form of individualist anarchism and ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. Proudhon described the liberty he pursued as "the synthesis of communism and property". Some consider mutualism part of free-market anarchism, individualist anarchism and market-oriented left-libertarianism, while others regard it as part of social anarchism.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: As a term, "mutualism" has seen a variety of related uses. Charles Fourier first used the French term "mutualisme" in 1822, although the reference was not to an economic system. The first use of the noun "mutualist" was in the "New-Harmony Gazette" by an American Owenite in 1826. In the early 1830s, a French labour organization in Lyons called themselves the Mutuellists. In "What Is Mutualism?", the American mutualist Clarence Lee Swartz defined it this way:


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: A social system based on equal freedom, reciprocity, and the sovereignty of the individual over himself, his affairs and his products; realized through individual initiative, free contract, cooperation, competition and voluntary association for defense against the invasive and for the protection of life, liberty and property of the non-invasive.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: In general, mutualism can be considered the original anarchy since the mutualist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was the first person to identify himself as an anarchist. Although mutualism is generally associated with anarchism, it is not necessarily anarchist. According to William Batchelder Greene did not become a "full-fledged anarchist" until the last decade of his life, but his writings show that by 1850 he had articulated a Christian mutualism, drawing heavily on the writings of Proudhon's sometimes-antagonist Pierre Leroux. The Christian mutualist form or anarchist branch of distributism and the works of distributists such as Dorothy Day and the Catholic Worker Movement can be considered a form of mutualism, or free-market libertarian socialism, due to their opposition to both state capitalism and state socialism. According to "A Mutualist FAQ", mutualism was "the original form taken by the labor movement, first in Great Britain and shortly thereafter in France and the rest of Western Europe. Both mutualist practice and theory arose as part of the broad current of working class radicalism in England, from around the time of the publication of Paine's "Rights of Man" and the organization of the first Societies of Correspondence in the 1790s, to the Chartist movement. Mutualism existed for some time as a spontaneous working class practice before it was formalized in theory."


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Proudhon was involved with the Lyons mutualists and later adopted the name to describe his teachings. In "What Is Mutualism?", Swartz gives his account of the origin of the term, claiming that "[t]he word 'mutualism' seems to have been first used by John Gray, an English writer, in 1832". When Gray's 1825 "Lecture on Human Happiness" was first published in the United States in 1826, the publishers appended the "Preamble and Constitution of the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests, Located at Valley Forge". 1826 also saw the publication of the "Constitution of the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests at Kendal, Ohio". Of Proudhon's philosophy, Geoffrey Ostergaard summarized, "he argued that working men should emancipate themselves, not by political but by economic means, through the voluntary organization of their own labour—a concept to which he attached redemptive value. His proposed system of equitable exchange between self-governing producers, organized individually or in association and financed by free credit, was called 'mutualism'. The units of the radically decentralized and pluralistic social order that he envisaged were to be linked at all levels by applying 'the federal principle.'"


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: The authors of "A Mutualist FAQ" quote E. P. Thompson's description of the early working-class movement as mutualism. Thompson argued that it was "powerfully shaped by the sensibilities of urban artisans and weavers who combined a 'sense of lost independence' with 'memories of their golden age.' The weavers in particular carried a strong communitarian and egalitarian sensibility, basing their radicalism, 'whether voiced in Owenite or biblical language,' on 'essential rights and elementary notions of human fellowship and conduct.'" Thompson further wrote: "It was as a whole community that they demanded betterment, and utopian notions of redesigning society anew at a stroke—Owenite communities, the universal general strike, the Chartist Land Plan—swept through them like fire on the common. But essentially the dream which arose in many different forms was the same—a community of independent small producers, exchanging their products without the distortions of masters and middlemen."


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Mutualist anti-capitalism originates in the Jacobin-influenced radicalism of the 1790s, which saw exploitation mainly in taxation and feudal landlordism in that "government appears as court parasitism: taxes are a form of robbery, for pensioners and for wars of conquest." In Constantin François de Chassebœuf, comte de Volney's "Ruins of Empire", the nation was divided between those who "by useful laborus contribute to the support and maintenance of society" and "the parasites who lived off them", namely "none but priests, courtiers, public accountants, commanders of troops, in short, the civil, military, or religious agents of government." This was summarized by the following statement:


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text:
People... What labour do you perform in the society?
Privileged Class. None: we are not made to labour.
People. How then have you acquired your wealth?
Privileged Class. By taking the pains to govern you.
People. To govern us!... We toil, and you enjoy; we produce and you dissipate; wealth flows from us, and you absorb it. Privileged men, class distinct from the people, form a class apart and govern yourselves.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: According to the authors of "A Mutualist FAQ", "it would be a mistake to make a sharp distinction between this analysis and the later critique of capitalism. The heritage of the manorial economy and the feudal aristocracy blurred the distinction between the state and the economic ruling class. But such a distinction is largely imaginary in any social system. The main difference is that manorialism was openly founded on conquest, whereas capitalism hid its exploitative character behind a facade of 'neutral' laws." They further write that "[t]he critique of pre-capitalist authority structures had many features that could be expanded by analogy to the critique of capitalism. The mutualist analysis of capitalism as a system of state-enforced privilege is a direct extension of the Jacobin/radical critique of the landed aristocracy. The credit and patent monopolies were attacked on much the same principles as the radicals of the 1790s attacked seigneural rents. There was a great continuity of themes from the 1790s through Owenist and Chartist times. One such theme was the importance of widespread, egalitarian property ownership by the laboring classes, and the inequity of concentrating property ownership in the hands of a few non-producers." According to them, this prefigured distributism. Other notable people mentioned as influences on mutualism include John Ball and Wat Tyler as part of the Peasants' Revolt, William Cobbett, the English Dissenter and radical offshoots of Methodism such as the Primitive Methodists and the New Connexion, as well as the more secular versions of republicanism and economic populism going back to the Diggers and the Levellers, the Fifth Monarchists, William Godwin, Robert Owen, Thomas Paine, Thomas Spence and the Quakers.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: By 1846, Proudhon was speaking of "mutuality" ("mutualité") in his writings, and he used the term "mutualism" ("mutuellisme") at least as early as 1848 in his "Programme Révolutionnaire". In 1850, Greene used the term "mutualism" to describe a mutual credit system similar to that of Proudhon. In 1850, the American newspaper "The Spirit of the Age", edited by William Henry Channing, published proposals for a mutualist township by Joshua King Ingalls and Albert Brisbane, together with works by Proudhon, Greene, Leroux and others.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Proudhon ran for the French Constituent Assembly in April 1848 but was not elected, although his name appeared on the ballots in Paris, Lyon, Besançon and Lille. He was successful in the complementary elections of 4 June and served as a deputy during the debates over the National Workshops, created by the 25 February 1848 decree passed by Republican Louis Blanc. The workshops were to give work to the unemployed. Proudhon was never enthusiastic about such workshops, perceiving them as charitable institutions that did not resolve the problems of the economic system. He was against their elimination unless an alternative could be found for the workers who relied on the workshops for subsistence.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Proudhon was surprised by the French Revolution of 1848. He participated in the February uprising and the composition of what he termed "the first republican proclamation" of the new republic. However, he had misgivings about the new provisional government headed by Jacques-Charles Dupont de l'Eure (1767–1855), who since the French Revolution in 1789 had been a longstanding politician, although often in the opposition. Proudhon published his perspective for reform, completed in 1849, titled "Solution du problème social" ("Solution of the Social Problem"), in which he laid out a program of mutual financial cooperation among workers. He believed this would transfer control of economic relations from capitalists and financiers to workers. The central part of his plan was establishing a bank to provide credit at a very low interest rate and issuing exchange notes that would circulate instead of money based on gold.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Mutualism was especially prominent in the United States and advocated by American individualist anarchists. While individualist anarchists in Europe are pluralists who advocate anarchism without adjectives and synthesis anarchism, ranging from anarcho-communist to mutualist economic types, most individualist anarchists in the United States advocate mutualism as a libertarian socialist form of market socialism or a free-market socialist form of classical economics.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Mutualism has been associated with two types of currency reform. Labour notes were first discussed in Owenite circles and received their first practical test in 1827 in the Time Store of former New Harmony member and individualist anarchist Josiah Warren. Mutual banking aimed at the monetization of all forms of wealth and the extension of free credit. It is most closely associated with William Batchelder Greene, but Greene drew from the work of Proudhon, Edward Kellogg and William Beck and from the land bank tradition. Within individualist anarchist circles, mutualism meant non-communist anarchism or non-communist socialism.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Historian Wendy McElroy reports that American individualist anarchism received an important influence from three European thinkers. One of the most important influences was the French political philosopher Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, whose words "Liberty is not the Daughter But the Mother of Order" appeared as a motto on "Liberty"s masthead. "Liberty" was an influential American individualist anarchist publication by Benjamin Tucker. For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, "[i]t is apparent ... that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews. ... William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form".


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: After 1850, Greene became active in labour reform. He was elected vice-president of the New England Labor Reform League, the majority of the members holding to Proudhon's scheme of mutual banking, and in 1869, the Massachusetts Labor Union president. He then publishes "Socialistic, Communistic, Mutualistic, and Financial Fragments" (1875). He saw mutualism as the synthesis of "liberty and order". His "associationism ... is checked by individualism. ... 'Mind your own business,' 'Judge not that ye be not judged.' Over matters which are purely personal, as for example, moral conduct, the individual is sovereign as well as over that which he himself produces. For this reason, he demands 'mutuality' in marriage—the equal right of a woman to her own personal freedom and property".


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: In "Individual Liberty", Tucker later connected his economic views with those of Proudhon, Warren and Karl Marx, taking sides with the first two while also arguing against American anti-socialists who declared socialism as imported, writing:


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: The economic principles of Modern Socialism are a logical deduction from the principle laid down by Adam Smith in the early chapters of his "Wealth of Nations", – namely, that labor is the true measure of price. ... Half a century or more after Smith enunciated the principle above stated, Socialism picked it up where he had dropped it, and in following it to its logical conclusions, made it the basis of a new economic philosophy. ... This seems to have been done independently by three different men, of three different nationalities, in three different languages: Josiah Warren, an American; Pierre J. Proudhon, a Frenchman; Karl Marx, a German Jew. ... That the work of this interesting trio should have been done so nearly simultaneously would seem to indicate that Socialism was in the air, and that the time was ripe and the conditions favorable for the appearance of this new school of thought. So far as priority of time is concerned, the credit seems to belong to Warren, the American, – a fact which should be noted by the stump orators who are so fond of declaiming against Socialism as an imported article.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Mutualist ideas found fertile ground in the 19th century in Spain. In Spain, Ramón de la Sagra established the anarchist journal "El Porvenir" in A Coruña in 1845, inspired by Proudhon's ideas. The Catalan politician Francesc Pi i Margall became the principal translator of Proudhon's works into Spanish and later briefly became president of Spain in 1873 while being the leader of the Democratic Republican Federal Party. According to George Woodcock, "[t]hese translations were to have a profound and lasting effect on the development of Spanish anarchism after 1870, but before that time Proudhonian ideas, as interpreted by Pi, already provided much of the inspiration for the federalist movement which sprang up in the early 1860's ["sic"]".


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: According to the "Encyclopædia Britannica", "[d]uring the Spanish revolution of 1873, Pi y Margall attempted to establish a decentralized, or cantonalist, political system on Proudhonian lines". Pi i Margall was a dedicated theorist in his own right, especially through book-length works such as "La reacción y la revolución" ("Reaction and Revolution" from 1855), "Las nacionalidades" ("Nationalities" from 1877) and "La Federación" ("The Federation" from 1880). For prominent anarcho-syndicalist Rudolf Rocker, "[t]he first movement of the Spanish workers was strongly influenced by the ideas of Pi y Margall, leader of the Spanish Federalists and disciple of Proudhon. Pi y Margall was one of the outstanding theorists of his time and had a powerful influence on the development of libertarian ideas in Spain. His political ideas had much in common with those of Richard Price, Joseph Priestly ["sic"], Thomas Paine, Jefferson, and other representatives of the Anglo-American liberalism of the first period. He wanted to limit the power of the state to a minimum and gradually replace it by a Socialist economic order".


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: According to a historian of the First International, G. M. Stekloff, in April 1856, "arrived from Paris a deputation of Proudhonist workers whose aim it was to bring about the foundation of a Universal League of Workers. The object of the League was the social emancipation of the working class, which, it was held, could only be achieved by a union of the workers of all lands against international capital. Since the deputation was one of Proudhonists, of course this emancipation was to be secured, not by political methods, but purely by economic means, through the foundation of productive and distributive co-operatives". Stekloff continues by saying that "[i]t was in the 1863 elections that for the first time workers' candidates were run in opposition to bourgeois republicans, but they secured very few votes. ... [A] group of working-class Proudhonists (among whom were Murat and Tolain, who were subsequently to participate in the founding of the (First) International issued the famous Manifesto of the Sixty, which, though extremely moderate in tone, marked a turning point in the history of the French movement. For years and years the bourgeois liberals had been insisting that the revolution of 1789 had abolished class distinctions. The Manifesto of the Sixty loudly proclaimed that classes still existed. These classes were the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The latter had its specific class interests, which none but workers could be trusted to defend. The inference drawn by the Manifesto was that there must be independent working-class candidates".


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: For Stekloff, "the Proudhonists, who were at that date the leaders of the French section of the International. They looked upon the International Workingmen's Association as a sort of academy or synagogue, where Talmudists or similar experts could "investigate" the workers' problem; wherein the spirit of Proudhon they could excogitate means for an accurate solution of the problem without being disturbed by the stresses of a political campaign. Thus Fribourg, voicing the opinions of the Parisian group of the Proudhonists (Tolain and Co.), assured his readers that "the International was the greatest attempt ever made in modern times to aid the proletariat towards the conquest, by peaceful, constitutional, and moral methods, of the place which rightly belongs to the workers in the sunshine of civilisation". According to Stekoff, the Belgian Federation "threw in its lot with the anarchist International at its Brussels Congress, held in December, 1872. ... [T]hose taking part in the socialist movement of the Belgian intelligentsia were inspired by Proudhonist ideas which naturally led them to oppose the Marxist outlook".


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Mutualism also had a considerable influence on the Paris Commune. George Woodcock manifests that "a notable contribution to the activities of the Commune and particularly to the organization of public services was made by members of various anarchist factions, including the mutualists Courbet, Longuet, and Vermorel, the libertarian collectivists Varlin, Malon, and Lefrangais, and the bakuninists Elie and Elisée Reclus and Louise Michel".


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: 19th-century mutualists considered themselves libertarian socialists and are still considered libertarian socialists today. While oriented towards cooperation, mutualists favour free-market solutions, believing that most inequalities result from preferential conditions created by government intervention. Mutualism is a middle way between classical economics and socialism of the collectivist variety, with some characteristics of both. As for capital goods (manufactured and non-land means of production), mutualist opinion differs on whether these should be common property and commonly managed public assets or private property in the form of worker cooperatives, for as long as they ensure the worker's right to the full product of their labour, mutualists support markets and property in the product of labour, differentiating between capitalist private property (productive property) and personal property (private property).


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Contemporary mutualist Kevin Carson considers mutualism to be free-market socialism. Proudhon supported labor-owned cooperative firms and associations, for "we need not hesitate, for we have no choice. ... [I]t is necessary to form an association among workers ... because without that, they would remain related as subordinates and superiors, and there would ensue two ... castes of masters and wage-workers, which is repugnant to a free and democratic society" and so "it becomes necessary for the workers to form themselves into democratic societies, with equal conditions for all members, on pain of a relapse into feudalism". In the preface to his "Studies in Mutualist Political Economy", Carson describes this work as "an attempt to revive individualist anarchist political economy, to incorporate the useful developments of the last hundred years, and to make it relevant to the problems of the twenty-first century". Carson holds that capitalism has been founded on "an act of robbery as massive as feudalism" and argues that capitalism could not exist in the absence of a state. He says that "[i]t is state intervention that distinguishes capitalism from the free market". Carson does not define capitalism in the idealized sense, but he says that when he talks about capitalism, he is referring to what he calls actually existing capitalism. Carson believes the term "laissez-faire" capitalism is an oxymoron because capitalism, he argues, is an "organization of society, incorporating elements of tax, usury, landlordism, and tariff, which thus denies the Free Market while pretending to exemplify it". Carsons says he has no quarrel with anarcho-capitalists who use the term "laissez-faire" capitalism and distinguish it from actually existing capitalism. Although Carson says he has deliberately chosen to resurrect an old definition of the term. Many anarchists, including mutualists, continue to use the term and do not consider it an old definition. Carson argues that the centralization of wealth into a class hierarchy is due to state intervention to protect the ruling class by using a money monopoly, granting patents and subsidies to corporations, imposing discriminatory taxation and intervening militarily to gain access to international markets. Carson's thesis is that an authentic and free market economy would not be capitalism as the separation of labour from ownership and the subordination of labour to capital would be impossible, bringing a classless society where people could easily choose between working as a freelancer, working for a living wage, taking part of a cooperative, or being an entrepreneur. As Benjamin Tucker before, Carson notes that a mutualist free-market system would involve significantly different property rights than capitalism, particularly regarding land and intellectual property.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Following Proudhon, mutualists are libertarian socialists who consider themselves part of the market socialist tradition and the socialist movement. However, some contemporary mutualists outside the classical anarchist tradition, such as those involved in the market-oriented left-libertarianism within the Alliance of the Libertarian Left and the Voluntary Cooperation Movement, abandoned the labour theory of value and prefer to avoid the term "socialist" due to its association with state socialism throughout the 20th century. Nonetheless, those contemporary mutualists are part of the libertarian left and "still retain some cultural attitudes, for the most part, that set them off from the libertarian right. Most of them view mutualism as an alternative to capitalism, and believe that capitalism as it exists is a statist system with exploitative features".


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: According to historian James J. Martin, the individualist anarchists in the United States were socialists whose support for the labour theory of value made their libertarian socialist form of mutualism a free-market socialist alternative to capitalism and Marxism.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: The primary aspects of mutualism are free association, free banking, reciprocity in the form of mutual aid, workplace democracy, workers' self-management, gradualism and dual power. Mutualism is often described by its proponents as advocating an anti-capitalist free market. Mutualists argue that most of the economic problems associated with capitalism each amount to a violation of the cost principle, or as Josiah Warren interchangeably said, the cost the limit of price. It was inspired by the labour theory of value, which was popularized—although not invented—by Adam Smith in 1776 (Proudhon mentioned Smith as an inspiration). The labor theory of value holds that the actual price of a thing (or the true cost) is the amount of labor undertaken to produce it. In Warren's terms of his cost the limit of price theory, cost should be the limit of price, with cost referring to the amount of labour required to produce a good or service. Anyone who sells goods should charge no more than the cost to himself of acquiring these goods.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Mutualism holds that producers should exchange their goods at cost-value using contract systems. While Proudhon's early definitions of cost-value were based on fixed assumptions about the value of labour hours, he later redefined cost-value to include other factors such as the labour intensity, the nature of the work involved, etc. He also expanded his notions of contract into expanded notions of federation. Proudhon argued:


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: I have shown the contractor, at the birth of industry, negotiating on equal terms with his comrades, who have since become his workmen. It is plain, in fact, that this original equality was bound to disappear through the advantageous position of the master and the dependent position of the wage-workers. In vain does the law assure the right of each to enterprise. ... When an establishment has had leisure to develop itself, enlarge its foundations, ballast itself with capital, and assure itself a body of patrons, what can a workman do against a power so superior?


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Dual power is the process of building alternative institutions to the ones that already exist in modern society. Initially theorized by Proudhon, it has become adopted by many anti-state movements such as agorism and autonomism. Proudhon described it as follows:


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Beneath the governmental machinery, in the shadow of political institutions, out of the sight of statemen and priests, society is producing its own organism, slowly and silently; and constructing a new order, the expression of its vitality and autonomy.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: As Proudhon also theorized it, dual power should not be confused with the dual power popularized by Vladimir Lenin. Proudhon's meaning refers to a more specific scenario where a revolutionary entity intentionally maintains the structure of the previous political institutions until the power of the previous institution is weakened enough such that the revolutionary entity can overtake it entirely. Dual power, as implemented by mutualists, is the development of the alternative institution itself.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Mutualists argue that association is only necessary where there is an organic combination of forces. An operation requires specialization and many different workers performing tasks to complete a unified product, i.e. a factory. In this situation, workers are inherently dependent on each other; without association, they are related as subordinate and superior, master and wage-slave. An operation that an individual can perform without the help of specialized workers does not require association. Proudhon argued that peasants do not require societal form and only feigned association for solidarity in abolishing rents, buying clubs, etc. He recognized that their work is inherently sovereign and free. In commenting on the degree of association that is preferable, Proudhon wrote:


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: In cases in which production requires great division of labour, it is necessary to form an association among the workers ... because without that they would remain isolated as subordinates and superiors, and there would ensue two industrial castes of masters and wage workers, which is repugnant in a free and democratic society. But where the product can be obtained by the action of an individual or a family, ... there is no opportunity for association.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: For Proudhon, mutualism involved creating industrial democracy. In this system, workplaces would be "handed over to democratically organised workers' associations. ... We want these associations to be models for agriculture, industry and trade, the pioneering core of that vast federation of companies and societies woven into the common cloth of the democratic social Republic". Under mutualism, workers would no longer sell their labour to a capitalist but rather work for themselves in co-operatives. Proudhon urged "workers to form themselves into democratic societies, with equal conditions for all members, on pain of a relapse into feudalism". This would result in "[c]apitalistic and proprietary exploitation, stopped everywhere, the wage system abolished, equal and just exchange guaranteed".


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: As Robert Graham notes, "Proudhon's market socialism is indissolubly linked to his notions of industrial democracy and workers' self-management". K. Steven Vincent notes in his in-depth analysis of this aspect of Proudhon's ideas that "Proudhon consistently advanced a program of industrial democracy which would return control and direction of the economy to the workers". For Proudhon, "strong workers' associations ... would enable the workers to determine jointly by election how the enterprise was to be directed and operated on a day-to-day basis".


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Mutualists support mutual credit and argue that free banking should be taken back by the people to establish systems of free credit. They contend that banks have a monopoly on credit, just as capitalists have a monopoly on the means of production and landlords have a land monopoly. Banks create money by lending out deposits that do not belong to them and then charging interest on the difference. Mutualists argue that by establishing a democratically run mutual savings bank or credit union, it would be possible to issue free credit so that money could be created for the participants' benefit rather than the bankers' benefit. Individualist anarchists noted for their detailed views on mutualist banking include Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, William Batchelder Greene and Lysander Spooner.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: In a session of the French legislature, Proudhon proposed a government-imposed income tax to fund his mutual banking scheme, with some tax brackets reaching as high as 33 percent and 50 percent, but the legislature turned it down. This income tax Proudhon proposed to fund his bank was to be levied on rents, interest, debts and salaries. Specifically, Proudhon's proposed law required all capitalists and stockholders to disburse one-sixth of their income to their tenants and debtors and another sixth to the national treasury to fund the bank.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: This scheme was vehemently objected to by others in the legislature, including Frédéric Bastiat. The reason for rejecting the income tax was that it would result in economic ruin and violate "the right of property". Proudhon once proposed funding a national bank with a voluntary tax of 1% in his debates with Bastiat. Proudhon also argued for the abolition of all taxes.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was an anarchist and socialist philosopher who articulated thoughts on the nature of property. He claimed that "property is theft", "property is liberty", and "property is impossible". According to Colin Ward, Proudhon did not see a contradiction between these slogans. This was because Proudhon distinguished between what he considered to be two distinct forms of property often bound up in a single label. To the mutualist, this is the distinction between property created by coercion and property created by labour. Property is theft "when it is related to a landowner or capitalist whose ownership is derived from conquest or exploitation and [is] only maintained through the state, property laws, police, and an army". Property is freedom for "the peasant or artisan family [who have] a natural right to a home, land [they may] cultivate, ... to tools of a trade" and the fruits of that cultivation—but not to ownership or control of the lands and lives of others. The former is considered illegitimate property, while the latter is legitimate property. Some individualist anarchists and followers of Proudhon's mutualism, such as Benjamin Tucker, started calling possession "property" or "private property", causing confusion within the anarchist movement and among other socialists.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Proudhon argued that property in the product of labour is essential to liberty, while property that strayed from possession ("occupancy and use") was the basis for tyranny and would lead society to destroy itself. The conception of entitlement property as a destructive force and illegitimate institution can be seen in this quote by Proudhon, who argued:


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Then if we are associated for the sake of liberty, equality, and security, we are not associated for the sake of property; then if property is a natural right, this natural right is not social, but anti-social. Property and society are utterly irreconcilable institutions. It is as impossible to associate two proprietors as to join two magnets by their opposite poles. Either society must perish, or it must destroy property. If property is a natural, absolute, imprescriptible, and inalienable right, why, in all ages, has there been so much speculation as to its origin? – for this is one of its distinguishing characteristics. The origin of a natural right! Good God! who ever inquired into the origin of the rights of liberty, security, or equality?


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: It is, therefore, one of the purposes of Mutualists, not only to awaken in the people the appreciation of and desire for freedom, but also to arouse in them a determination to abolish the legal restrictions now placed upon non-invasive human activities and to institute, through purely voluntary associations, such measures as will liberate all of us from the exactions of privilege and the power of concentrated capital.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Swartz also argued that mutualism differs from anarcho-communism and other collectivist philosophies by its support of private property, writing: "One of the tests of any reform movement with regard to personal liberty is this: Will the movement prohibit or abolish private property? If it does, it is an enemy of liberty. For one of the most important criteria of freedom is the right to private property in the products of ones labor. State Socialists, Communists, Syndicalists and Communist-Anarchists deny private property." However, Proudhon warned that a society with private property would lead to statist relations between people, arguing:


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: The purchaser draws boundaries, fences himself in, and says, 'This is mine; each one by himself, each one for himself.' Here, then, is a piece of land upon which, henceforth, no one has right to step, save the proprietor and his friends; which can benefit nobody, save the proprietor and his servants. Let these multiply, and soon the people ... will have nowhere to rest, no place of shelter, no ground to till. They will die of hunger at the proprietor's door, on the edge of that property which was their birth-right; and the proprietor, watching them die, will exclaim, 'So perish idlers and vagrants.'


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Unlike capitalist private-property supporters, Proudhon stressed equality. He thought that all workers should own property and have access to capital, stressing that in every cooperative, "every worker employed in the association [must have] an undivided share in the property of the company". This distinction Proudhon made between different kinds of property has been articulated by some later anarchist and socialist theorists as one of the first distinctions between private property and personal property, with the latter having direct use-value to the individual possessing it. For Proudhon, as he wrote in the sixth study of his "General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century", the capitalist's employee was "subordinated, exploited: his permanent condition is one of obedience".


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Mutualists believe that land should not be a commodity to be bought and sold, advocating for conditional titles to land based on occupancy and use norms. Mutualists argue whether an individual has a legitimate claim to land ownership if he is not currently using it but has already incorporated his labour into it. All mutualists agree that everything produced by human labour and machines can be owned as personal property. Mutualists reject the idea of non-personal property and non-proviso Lockean sticky property. Any property obtained through violence, bought with money gained through exploitation, or bought with money that was gained violating usufruct property norms is considered illegitimate.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: According to mutualist theory, the main problem with capitalism is that it allows for non-personal property ownership. Under these conditions, a person can buy property they do not physically use with the only goal of owning said property to prevent others from using it, putting them in an economically weak position, vulnerable enough to be controlled and exploited. Mutualists argue that this is historically how certain people were able to become capitalists. According to mutualism, capitalists make money by exercising power rather than labouring. Over time, under these conditions, there emerged a minority class of individuals who owned all the means of production as non-personal property (the capitalist class) and a large class of individuals with no access to the means of production (the labouring class). The labouring class does not have direct access to the means of production and therefore is forced to sell the only thing they can to survive, i.e. their labour power, giving up their freedom to someone who owns the means of production in exchange for a wage. A worker's wage is always less than the value of the goods and services he produces. If an employer pays a labourer equal to the value of the goods and services he produces, then the capitalist would break even at most. In reality, the capitalist pays his worker less, and after subtracting overhead, the remaining difference is exploited profit which the capitalist has gained without working. Mutualists point out that the money capitalists use to buy new means of production is the surplus value they exploit from labourers.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Mutualists also argue that capitalists maintain ownership of their non-personal properties because they support state violence by funding election campaigns. The state protects capitalist non-personal property ownership against direct occupation and use by the public in exchange for money and election support. Capitalists can then continue buying labour power and the means of production as non-personal property and extracting surplus value from more labourers, continuing the cycle. Mutualist theory states that by establishing usufruct property norms, exclusive non-personal ownership of the means of production by the capitalist class would be eliminated. The labouring classes would then have direct access to means of production, enabling them to work and produce freely in worker-owned enterprises while retaining the full value of whatever they sell. Wage labour in the form of wage slavery would be eliminated, and it would be impossible to become a capitalist because the widespread labour market would no longer exist. No one would be able to own the means of production in the form of non-personal property, two ingredients necessary for labour exploitation. This would result in the capitalist class labouring with the rest of society.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: In Europe, a contemporary critic of Proudhon was the early libertarian communist Joseph Déjacque, who was able to serialise his book "L'Humanisphère, Utopie anarchique" ("The Humanisphere: Anarchic Utopia") in his periodical "Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social" ("Libertarian: Journal of Social Movement"), published in 27 issues from 9 June 1858 to 4 February 1861 while living in New York. Unlike and against Proudhon, he argued that "it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature". In his critique of Proudhon, Déjacque also coined the word "libertarian" and argued that Proudhon was merely a liberal, a moderate, suggesting he become "frankly and completely an anarchist" instead by giving up all forms of authority and property. Since then, the word "libertarian" has been used to describe this consistent anarchism which rejected private and public hierarchies along with property in the products of labour and the means of production. Libertarianism is frequently used as a synonym for anarchism and libertarian socialism.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: One area of disagreement between anarcho-communists and mutualists stems from Proudhon's alleged advocacy of labour vouchers to compensate individuals for their labour and markets or artificial markets for goods and services. However, the persistent claim that Proudhon proposed a labour currency has been challenged as a misunderstanding or misrepresentation. Like other anarcho-communists, Peter Kropotkin advocated the abolition of labour remuneration and questioned, "how can this new form of wages, the labor note, be sanctioned by those who admit that houses, fields, mills are no longer private property, that they belong to the commune or the nation?" According to George Woodcock, Kropotkin believed that a wage system, whether "administered by Banks of the People or by workers' associations through labor cheques", is a form of compulsion.


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Collectivist anarchist Mikhail Bakunin was an adamant critic of Proudhonian mutualism as well, stating: "How ridiculous are the ideas of the individualists of the Jean Jacques Rousseau school and of the Proudhonian mutualists who conceive society as the result of the free contract of individuals absolutely independent of one another and entering into mutual relations only because of the convention drawn up among men. As if these men had dropped from the skies, bringing with them speech, will, original thought, and as if they were alien to anything of the earth, that is, anything having social origin". Bakunin also specifically criticized Proudhon, stating that "[d]espite all his efforts to free himself from the traditions of classical idealism, Proudhon remained an incorrigible idealist all his life, swayed at one moment by the Bible and the next by Roman Law (as I told him two months before he died)." According to Paul McLaughlin, Bakunin held that "'Proudhon, in spite of all his efforts to shake off the tradition of classical idealism, remained all his life an incorrigible idealist', 'unable to surmount idealistic phantoms' in spite of himself. It is Bakunin's purpose to rid Proudhon's libertarian thought of its metaphysicality, that is, to naturalize his anarchism — thereby overcoming its abstract, indeed reactionary, individualism and transforming it into a social anarchism."


title: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: The pro-capitalism criticism is due to the different conceptions of property rights between capitalism and mutualism. The latter supports free access to capital, the means of production and natural resources, arguing that permanent private ownership of land and capital results in monopolization without equal liberty of access. Mutualism also argues that a society with capitalist private property inevitably leads to statist relations between people.


title: Richard and Elizabeth Uihlein

text: Richard Ellis Uihlein ( ; born 1945) and Elizabeth Uihlein are American billionaire businesspeople, founders of Uline and conservative donors. Richard is also an heir to the Schlitz brewing fortune.


title: Richard and Elizabeth Uihlein

text: Richard graduated from Stanford University with a BA in history in 1967. A member of the Uihlein family, he is a descendant of the brewers of Schlitz beer. His great-grandfather was August Uihlein.


title: Richard and Elizabeth Uihlein

text: Until 1980, Richard Uihlein worked in international sales for General Binding Corporation, a company co-founded by his father, Edgar Uihlein. That year, with start-up funds from his father, Uihlein and his wife Elizabeth (Liz) Uihlein founded Uline, a shipping supplies company; the couple continue to own the company. The company expanded rapidly and is now one of the largest U.S. privately held companies; in 2014, "Forbes" estimated a company value of between $700 million and $2 billion. In 2020 Bloomberg estimated their net worth to be around $4 billion.


title: Richard and Elizabeth Uihlein

text: As of 2020, the company had around 7,000 employees. Liz Uihlein is the company's president; the couple's four children are all executives at the company. Previously headquartered in Waukegan, Illinois, the company moved to Pleasant Prairie, Wisconsin, in 2010, in return for up to $18.6 million in state incentives. The couple lives in Lake Forest, Illinois; they also have a summer home in Manitowish Waters, Wisconsin.


title: Richard and Elizabeth Uihlein

text: The Uihlein family also owns EAU Holdings, a resort in northern Wisconsin. Richard Uihlein's cousin is Lynde Bradley Uihlein.


title: Richard and Elizabeth Uihlein

text: Although an influential donor, Richard Uihlein has been described as a person who "shuns the spotlight" and the couple rarely give interviews. Uihlein has been a Republican donor for decades, and increased his political giving after "Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission". He has been a longtime donor to Republicans who share his ultra-conservative views. Uihlein is a staunch social and economic conservative, with views that are anti-union, anti-tax, and pro-deregulation. He has a history of supporting far-right candidates, and has often supported efforts in opposition to gay and transgender rights.


title: Richard and Elizabeth Uihlein

text: Uihlein spent hundreds of thousands of dollars in the 2011 Wisconsin Senate recall elections, in support of state senators facing recall over their support for legislation to end collective bargaining for public employees, and also backed litigation against public-employee unions, including "Janus v. AFSCME". He has supported conservative groups and candidates including Ted Cruz, Roy Moore, The Club for Growth, and the Illinois Policy Institute. Uihlein is also a major donor to Liberty Principles PAC, Americas PAC, and Scott Walker. While Uihlein spent $2.6 million in support of Illinois Governor Bruce Rauner in his successful 2014 Illinois gubernatorial election campaign, Uihlein broke with Rauner after he signed legislation in 2017 that expanded abortion coverage for women on Medicaid, giving millions to Jeanne Ives, who challenged Rauner in the 2018 Republican primary.


title: Richard and Elizabeth Uihlein

text: In the 2014 election cycle, the Uihleins made at least $5 million in political contributions, mostly to right-wing PACs ($1.8 million to Liberty Principles PAC; $670,000 to Americas PAC, and slightly under $500,000 to Jim DeMint's Senate Conservatives Fund and affiliated super PAC).


title: Richard and Elizabeth Uihlein

text: The Uihleins gave $22 million in the 2016 election cycle. The 2016 Republican primaries, Uihlein initially supported Walker and Ted Cruz; after they both dropped out of the race, Uihlein backed Donald Trump, contributing money to the pro-Trump "Great America PAC" and contributing $500,000 to Trump's inauguration, which he attended. He also donated hundreds of thousands of dollars to the Republican National Committee. Liz Uihlein also subsequently became a "mega-donor" to Trump.


title: Richard and Elizabeth Uihlein

text: From 2016 to 2018, a political action committee funded by the Uihleins gave at least $646,000 to a new network of free newspapers and websites, created by Brian Timpone, that mimic local newspapers but offer pay-for-play articles to conservative clients. ProPublica reported that the Uihleins were 1 of 82 households that benefitted from a concession won by Wisconsin senator Ron Johnson, to whom they had been large donors.


title: Richard and Elizabeth Uihlein

text: In the 2018 election cycle, Uihlein dramatically increased his political contributions, making $37.7 million in contributions to outside spending groups (the fourth largest donor to such groups). The couple's contributions placed them on the tier of other Republican mega-donors, such as the Koch family, Adelson, and Mercer. His contributions include support for many Republican candidates in competitive primary races, such as Ives and Chris McDaniel. Also in 2018, Uihlein gave financial support to Kevin Nicholson, a one time long-shot Republican candidate for U.S. Senate in Wisconsin; eight super PACs funded by Uihlein also expressed support for Nicholson. In 2019–2020, Uihlein gave $250,000 to Allen West in his campaign for the chairmanship of the Texas Republican Party against incumbent James Dickey.


title: Richard and Elizabeth Uihlein

text: In the 2020 election cycle, the Uihleins and their company had, by April 2020, contributed $1.5 million to Trump's "America First Action" super PAC, and $20 million to other Republican groups. From 2015 to 2020, they donated $4.3 million (including $800,000 in October 2020) to Tea Party Patriots, a group that may have co-sponsored the March to Save America rally that preceded the 2021 United States Capitol attack.


title: Richard and Elizabeth Uihlein

text: Uihlein was a major financial backer for the rally that preceded the January 6 attack on the Capitol. Uihlein is also the "largest donor behind Women Speak Out a [PAC] seeking to federally outlaw abortion." Uihlein has also donated millions to Restoration PAC, which promotes "all marriage is for one man and one woman for life."


title: Richard and Elizabeth Uihlein

text: In columns in the company catalog, Liz Uihlein frequently writes on the couple's political views, ranging from "the danger of Chinese competition, the negative health effects of marijuana use and the detriments of the Federal Reserve's low interest rate policy." As of June 10, 2022, Richard Uihlein has contributed $28,095,000 to People Who Play By The Rules PAC.


title: Richard and Elizabeth Uihlein

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, Liz Uihlein declared the pandemic "overhyped" and was an outspoken critic of stay-at-home directives issued to combat the spread of the virus, calling upon Republican members of the Wisconsin Legislature to push to remove Governor Tony Evers from office over the directive he issued.


title: Stella Gonet

text: Stella Gonet (born 8 May 1960) is a Scottish theatre, film and television actress. She is known for her roles in the BBC dramas "The House of Eliott" (1991–94) and "Holby City" (2007–09). Her stage credits include playing Ophelia in the 1989 National Theatre revival of "Hamlet", opposite both Daniel Day-Lewis and Ian Charleson as Hamlet, and playing Margaret Thatcher in the original West End production of "Handbagged" (2014). She played Queen Elizabeth II in the 2021 movie "Spencer".


title: Stella Gonet

text: Gonet was born in Greenock, Scotland. Her Polish father met her Scottish mother, a teacher of English, when he was stationed in Greenock during the Second World War. She is the seventh of twelve children and four of her sisters are nurses.


title: Stella Gonet

text: Gonet starred as Beatrice Eliott, one of the two lead roles, in three series of the television drama "The House of Eliott", and played Chief Executive Officer Jayne Grayson in the medical drama "Holby City". She also has appeared in "Casualty", "The Crow Road", "Dalziel and Pascoe", "The Inspector Lynley Mysteries", "Foyle's War", "Outnumbered" and "Lewis". She played a villain in the mini-series "The Secret" and played Grace Maplin in the "Sins of Commission" episode of "Midsomer Murders".


title: Stella Gonet

text: Gonet also has acted extensively in the theatre. In 1989, she appeared as Ophelia in the National Theatre production of "Hamlet", with the title role being played by Daniel Day-Lewis, Ian Charleson and finally Jeremy Northam.


title: Stella Gonet

text: She played Margaret Thatcher in the Moira Buffini play "Handbagged" in 2013 at the Tricycle Theatre, and in 2014 at the Vaudeville Theatre when the play transferred to the West End.


title: Stella Gonet

text: Gonet married English actor Nicholas Farrell in 2005. The couple co-starred in an episode of "Roman Mysteries" as Queen Berenice of Judea and Emperor Titus, and as Mr. and Mrs. Musgrove in ITV's 2007 production of Jane Austen's "Persuasion", and they both participated in a 2001 Shakespeare's Richard III audiobook. The couple have a daughter, Natasha, born in 2000.


title: Agnus Dei

text: The use of the title "Lamb of God" in liturgy is based on , in which St. John the Baptist, upon seeing Jesus, proclaims "Behold, the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world!"


title: Agnus Dei

text: The Syrian custom of a chant addressed to the Lamb of God was introduced into the Roman Rite Mass by Pope Sergius I (687–701) in the context of his rejection of the Council of Trullo of 692 (which was well received in the Byzantine East), whose canons had forbidden the iconographic depiction of Christ as a lamb instead of a man.


title: Agnus Dei

text: The verse used in the first and second invocations may be repeated as many times as necessary whilst the celebrant prepares the host and wine for communion.


title: Agnus Dei

text: In a Tridentine Requiem Mass, the words "" are replaced by "" (grant them rest), while "" is replaced by "" (grant them eternal rest).


title: Agnus Dei

text: The priest uses the phrase "Lamb of God" again, later in the Mass. While displaying the Eucharistic species to the people before giving them Holy Communion, he says: "" ("Behold the Lamb of God, behold Him who takes away the sins of the world. Blessed are those called to the supper of the Lamb.")


title: Agnus Dei

text: The following versions are found in "Common Worship," the alternative Anglican liturgical resources, and also in the Episcopal Church's liturgical resources:


title: Agnus Dei

text: With a slightly changed text, the is also part of musical settings composed for the Requiem Mass for the Dead. Such settings include:


title: Agnus Dei

text: Some composers set the text as an independent movement, such as Samuel Barber, who wrote a version combining the text with the music of his "Adagio for Strings", sung a cappella.


title: Susan Lewis

text: Fictional character Susan Lewis, M.D. is a character from the medical drama series "ER", portrayed by American actress Sherry Stringfield.


title: Susan Lewis

text: Having appeared as a primary character since the pilot episode, Stringfield left the show part way through in the third season. However, she returned to the series in the beginning of the eighth season, and remained as a member of the main cast until the start of the twelfth season. Stringfield returned to make a guest appearance in the series finale.


title: Susan Lewis

text: During the third season of the series, actress Sherry Stringfield left "ER" for the first time. In an interview with the "Chicago Tribune", Stringfield explained that having a family was one of the primary reasons for her to leave the show. According to "Entertainment Weekly", Stringfield's decision to quit angered the show's executive producer John Wells, because she left just as Dr. Lewis got embroiled in a budding romance with Anthony Edwards' Dr. Mark Greene. Stringfield revealed it was not a pleasant situation and said: "The producers were in shock. They tried to talk me out of it. It took a long time to get out of my contract."


title: Susan Lewis

text: However, by the time of the eighth season, her schedule allowed her to return to the series. Wells said they were "delighted to welcome her back as a series regular and [couldn't] wait to work with her again." Stringfield remained in the main cast for four more seasons, until August 2005, when she announced that she would be leaving "ER" again and stated: "I am extremely grateful for the time I spent on "ER"," Stringfield explained. "It is a wonderful show, and there are so many people I will miss. But I'm ready for new roles and new challenges."


title: Susan Lewis

text: In Season 1, Susan is a second-year resident. She is shown to be an eager and competent young doctor working in the emergency department of County General Hospital. She is good friends with Nurse Carol Hathaway, Dr. Doug Ross and especially Dr. Mark Greene, who is her best friend.


title: Susan Lewis

text: Though an extremely capable doctor, Susan is initially seen to have problems asserting herself. This is frequently taken advantage of by the senior and more forthright doctors in the hospital, such as Dr. Peter Benton and particularly Dr. Jack Kayson. This leads to several confrontations, and animosity worsens when Kayson discharges one of Susan's patients, failing to notice the severity of his symptoms, which ultimately leads to the patient's death.


title: Susan Lewis

text: Kayson tries to deflect the blame onto Susan and her competence is questioned. Her superior, Mark, is forced to monitor her every move and their friendship is put under strain as a result. During the case review, however, the board rules in Susan's favor and reprimands Kayson—much to his chagrin.


title: Susan Lewis

text: Shortly after, Kayson is rushed into hospital suffering from a heart attack. Despite their past disagreement on the issue, Kayson opts for Susan's non-invasive form of treatment against the advice of a senior doctor, who (like Kayson) is an advocate of surgical angioplasty. Finally asserting herself, Susan stands her ground and refuses to allow Kayson to be treated surgically. Following his recovery, Kayson shows his gratitude by asking Susan to be his valentine date, which she awkwardly declines.


title: Susan Lewis

text: Susan's personal life is far less settled than her professional one. In Season 1, she is seen to have a brief relationship with psychiatrist Div Cvetic, who ultimately has a nervous breakdown and disappears. Susan later learns that he married someone he met through a dating service, run by a taxi driver from his cab.


title: Susan Lewis

text: Most of her problems, however, are family-related. Susan's parents, Cookie and Henry, are shown to be flighty (her father is jokingly referred to as a test pilot for Barcalounger) and difficult to talk to. Her older sister, Chloe, is the source of most of her distress, with a seemingly never-ending series of problems with alcohol, drugs, men, and money. Chloe eventually has a baby girl, who she names Susan ("Little Susie") after her sister. During Season 2 however, Chloe begins to use alcohol and drugs once again. After deciding that she cannot look after her baby, she leaves Chicago, abandoning Susie on a flustered and overworked Susan.


title: Susan Lewis

text: She struggles to be a good mother to the child while completing her demanding residency. Already overstressed, Susan clashes with the new Chief Resident, Kerry Weaver, numerous times, forcing Mark Greene to step in between them. Animosity between Kerry and Susan lessens over time, but never goes away completely. Realizing that Chloe may never return, Susan considers giving Susie up for adoption. She gets as far as introducing the baby to potential adoptive parents, but cannot bring herself to part with her niece, so she decides to keep her and adopt the child as her own.


title: Susan Lewis

text: Susan grows extremely attached to the baby, but she gets a surprise when a reformed Chloe reappears later in the season and tries to reclaim "little Susie". Susan can't see past Chloe's mistakes, regardless of her recent turnaround and new responsible boyfriend. Desperate to keep the baby, Susan attempts to fight Chloe for custody, but she was forced to reconsider when the judge warns her that she would lose. Susan begrudgingly reaches an agreement with her sister, and after regaining custody of "little Susie", Chloe moves her family to Phoenix, Arizona to start a new life.


title: Susan Lewis

text: Susan struggles to cope with the loss of her niece and goes through a period of grief and counseling. She throws herself into her work to escape her feelings of loneliness, which manages to impress Weaver, and, with Mark's encouragement, Kerry agrees to offer Susan the position of chief resident (she promises to support Susan's promotion if Mark recommends her as County's new attending physician). Much of the ER staff hoped Susan could achieve that title, but Susan turns the position down, later telling Mark that there is more to life than work.


title: Susan Lewis

text: Setting up Sherry Stringfield's departure from the series in Season 3, the beginnings of a romance appears to develop between Susan and Mark, or more to the point, they are shown to have problems identifying their current relationship as friendship. Both seem timid and cautious around each other. Initially more upfront about the situation, Susan invites Mark to join her on holiday in Maui, Hawaii, but is embarrassed when he appears hesitant, and later retracts the offer, feeling she overstepped a boundary.


title: Susan Lewis

text: Fearful that he may have missed his chance with Susan, Mark attempts to convey his attraction towards her upon her return, though he cannot find the courage to follow through and is left perplexed by Susan's reticence. It transpires that Susan never actually made it to Maui, she instead visited her sister and "little Susie" in Phoenix as she could not overcome her fear of flying. Mark helps her overcome this fear in the following episode ("Fear of Flying"), supporting her during a helicopter flight rotation where they are called upon to treat victims of a serious motor accident.


title: Susan Lewis

text: As they grow closer, Mark finally plucks up the courage to casually ask Susan out. However, she declines, telling him that they "need to talk". Shortly after, Mark witnesses Susan in numerous secret talks with the ER's chief of emergency medicine, David Morgenstern, and concludes that they are seeing each other. He confronts Susan, but she reveals that Morgenstern was merely helping her to transfer her residency. Desperately missing her niece, Susan had made the decision to move to Phoenix to be near her sister's family.


title: Susan Lewis

text: During a hectic last day for Susan at County's ER, Mark struggles with her imminent departure, but still finds himself afraid to admit his true feelings for her. The hospital staff arrange a leaving party for Susan, but it is canceled due to an influx of critical patients from a motoring accident. Susan leaves the hospital unable to say goodbye to Mark, who was busy working on a trauma patient. He manages to arrive just as her train is about to depart (episode 'Union Station). Mark pleads with her to stay because he loves her. But Susan doesn't see a future in Chicago or with him. She kisses him and says "I love you, too" as the train departs.


title: Susan Lewis

text: Susan returns during Season 8 as she left, shown to arrive on a train into Chicago to interview for a job. Susan visits County General for the first time in 5 years and sees the hospital has changed as well as the faces. She meets Mark for coffee and reveals that Chloe has moved on to another city, and she has decided that she can't follow her sister's family around forever. Mark offers her a job as an attending physician at County General, despite Kerry Weaver's reservations – the two never got along when they worked together before.


title: Susan Lewis

text: During Season 8 Susan has a brief relationship with Dr. John Carter after they both admit that they had a crush on each other when he was a medical student and she was a resident – it doesn't last, as Susan realizes in the episode "Secrets and Lies", that Carter is really in love with Abby Lockhart. She then tells Carter to "tell her" about his feelings. The two both break up on good terms and remain good friends throughout the rest of her career at County. Her problems with Chloe resurface when her niece Susie goes missing in New York after leaving a distressing voicemail message on her aunt's phone. Susan flies to New York (in a crossover with "Third Watch") and discovers Chloe doped up, sleeping rough. Towards the end of the season, Susan faces one of her most difficult story lines, as her best friend Mark Greene reveals to her that his brain tumor has returned. The two rekindled their close friendship as she helps him come to terms with his diagnosis. Susan is alluded to in Mark's goodbye letter in "The Letter" when Mark comments that he had to leave the way he did, even though there were things of a more personal nature to say. After her best friend's death, Susan warmed up to other friendships in the ER with Abby Lockhart and Elizabeth Corday, and was able to work better with her old colleague Kerry Weaver. Dr. Romano, who actually respected her (he once told another doctor to get Dr. Lewis when he had a medical emergency, calling her "the least annoying person down there"), also promoted her to Deputy Chief of Emergency Medicine much to Kerry Weaver's dismay.


title: Susan Lewis

text: Into Season 9, Susan meets a flight nurse named Chuck Martin (played by Donal Logue) on a plane to Las Vegas. They both get drunk upon arrival and end up getting married in Vegas. They quickly have the marriage annulled once they return to Chicago, but eventually start dating again, and Susan becomes pregnant. She is finally promoted to the position of Chief of Emergency Medicine after Robert Romano dies in Season 10. While other pregnant characters had given birth on the show, at the time, Susan's was the first major birth offscreen, with her giving birth sometime between Seasons 10 and 11 (and being placed on bedrest amid concerns of preterm labor). Chuck ends up caring for their baby boy Cosmo as a stay-at-home parent while Susan works.


title: Susan Lewis

text: Into Season 11, Susan begins to build some anxiety about the upcoming tenure offer. It ultimately goes to her friend John Carter, due to her lack of grant funding, finally leading to her final exit from the series at the beginning of Season 12 in the episode "Canon City". Susan is offered a tenure track position at a hospital in Iowa City, Iowa (presumably University of Iowa). Technically, Stringfield was the first and last original cast member to leave the show. (Being the first to leave in 1996, then in 2005 after the rest of the original cast left.)


title: Susan Lewis

text: In the season 15 episode "The Book of Abby" long-serving nurse Haleh Adams shows the departing Abby Lockhart a closet wall where all the past doctors and employees have put their locker name tags. Amongst them, the tag "Lewis" can be seen.


title: Susan Lewis

text: Dr. Susan Lewis returned for the series finale titled "And in the End..." returning to Chicago for the opening of The Carter Center. During evening drinks with Peter Benton, John Carter, Kerry Weaver, Elizabeth Corday, and Rachel Greene, Susan is heard confirming to Dr. Corday that she still lives in Iowa. Additionally, she states that she and Chuck have split, and she is now dating again. She eventually returns to the ER for the last time in the series with Rachel Greene and Carter, where she visits and jokes with the staff, much to the annoyance of Dr. Banfield who interrupts the talk by asking Susan who she is.


title: Susan Lewis

text: Sherry Stringfield's decision to leave "ER" was a "shock wave through Hollywood." According to "Entertainment Weekly", people called Stringfield "nuts" for leaving "the hottest show on TV for some investment banker in New York."


title: Psycho (franchise)

text: Psycho is an American horror franchise consisting of six films loosely based on the "Psycho" novels by Robert Bloch: "Psycho", "Psycho II", "Psycho III", "Bates Motel", "", the 1998 remake of the original film, and additional merchandise spanning various media. The first film, "Psycho", was directed by filmmaker Alfred Hitchcock. Subsequently, another film related to the series was made: an Alfred Hitchcock biopic, and two new novels, by Takekuni Kitayama and Chet Williamson, were released. Also, an independent documentary called "The Psycho Legacy" was released on October 19, 2010. It mostly focused on "Psycho II", "Psycho III" and "Psycho IV: The Beginning", but did cover the impact and legacy of the original film.


title: Psycho (franchise)

text: The films focus on the life of Norman Bates, a deeply disturbed man who operates the Bates Motel. He is mentally unstable due to his domineering relationship with his mother, which results in him having a psychotic twisted personality and, as a result, he occasionally kills people.


title: Psycho (franchise)

text: A five-season TV series, "Bates Motel", aired on A&E between 2013 and 2017. In a modern-day setting, it is a re-imagining of the Norman and Norma Bates characters, and their unusual relationship. It stars Freddie Highmore as teenaged Norman and Vera Farmiga as mother Norma.


title: Psycho (franchise)

text: In 1959, the novel "Psycho" was published. It was loosely based on the Wisconsin serial killer and cannibal Ed Gein. Author Robert Bloch lived 40 miles away from Gein's farmhouse and liked the idea of somebody being able to kill people in a small community and get away with it for years without being caught. The character of Norman Bates was very different in the novel from in the film version. In the novel, Bates is overweight, in his early 40s and drinks heavily. When Joseph Stefano adapted the novel into the screenplay, he made the character of Norman young, attractive and vulnerable.


title: Psycho (franchise)

text: In 1982, Bloch wrote a sequel novel called "Psycho II" which satirized the slasher genre and mocked the production of the 1983 film version, which was created independently and without Bloch's input. In the novel, Norman Bates escapes the mental institution and goes to Hollywood to stop the production of a film based on his life. Criticisms of the novel stated Bloch's writing was immature, incoherent and unsuitable for adaptation into a motion picture.


title: Psycho (franchise)

text: In 1990, due to the pressure from his publishing company, Bloch wrote a third novel called "Psycho House". However, according to horror writer David J. Schow, when writing it Bloch originally called it "Psycho 13". In the novel, set ten years after Norman Bates' death, the Bates mansion and motel are both bought as tourist attractions, before a series of mysterious murders begin to take place.


title: Psycho (franchise)

text: A fourth installment, titled "Robert Bloch's Psycho: Sanitarium" and written by Chet Williamson, was released in 2016. The book is set between the events of the original novel and "Psycho II", recounting the events which took place in a state hospital for the criminally insane where Bates is a patient.


title: Psycho (franchise)

text: In need of money to get her boyfriend, Sam Loomis, out of debt (John Gavin), Marion Crane (Janet Leigh) steals $40,000 from her employer and flees Phoenix, Arizona by car. While en route to Sam's California home, she parks along the road to sleep. A highway patrol officer awakens her and, suspicious of her agitation, follows her. When she trades her car for another at a dealership, he notes the new vehicle's details. Marion returns to the road but, rather than drive in a heavy storm, decides to spend the night at the Bates Motel. The proprietor, Norman Bates (Anthony Perkins), tells Marion he rarely has customers because of the motel's disconnection from a new Interstate and mentions he lives with his mother in the house overlooking the motel. He invites Marion to supper. She overhears Norman arguing with his mother about letting Marion in the house, and during the meal, she angers him by suggesting he institutionalize his mother. He admits he would like this, but does not want to abandon her.


title: Psycho (franchise)

text: Marion resolves to return to Phoenix to return the money. After calculating how she can repay the money she has spent, Marion dumps her notes down the toilet and begins to shower. An anonymous female figure enters the bathroom and stabs her to death. Finding the corpse, Norman is horrified. He places Marion's body, wrapped in the shower curtain, and all her possessions - including the money - in the trunk of her car and sinks it in a nearby swamp.