title: Build a Bitch

text: Prior to joining the online video platform TikTok, Poarch enrolled in the United States Navy when she was 17 and left it when she was 23. The celebrity joined the platform in January 2020 and in August, she published the most-liked TikTok video, which depicts her lip synching to Millie B's "M to the B (Soph Aspin Send)". In May 2021, Poarch signed a record deal with Warner Records, stating in an interview with "Billboard" that she "feel[s] like [she] found [her] family and part of that family is the label" and how Warner "has helped" several artists which "meant the most to [her]", including Prince, Dua Lipa, and Madonna. "Build a Bitch" was released on May 14, 2021 by Warner for digital download and streaming in various countries. The aforementioned label also sent it for radio airplay in Italy on May 24 and to contemporary hit radio stations in the US on June 1.


title: Build a Bitch

text: Musically, "Build a Bitch" has been described as a dark-pop and pop song. Poarch co-wrote it with Salem Ilese, Sub Urban, David Arkwright, Justin Gammella, and Elie Rizk, while the latter five produced it alongside Stefan Max. Jaycen Joshua mixed the track and Colin Leonard mastered it. Writing for "The New York Times", Jon Pareles noticed that the track contains "tinkly toy-piano sounds" and "perky la-las" that "accompany [Poarch] as she points out that women aren't consumer products". Zoe Haylock from "Vulture" observed that Poarch sings the chorus "to the lilting lullaby beat". A hoax later went viral on TikTok, accusing Poarch of stealing a composition by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart for the song.


title: Build a Bitch

text: Talking to "Billboard", she revealed that the song is mainly "about accepting yourself and embracing imperfections and your flaws", while also saying she wants "people to realize that [they] don’t have to be perfect". In the song, Poarch references fictional character Bob the Builder, and dolls Barbie and Ken. "I-D" George Griffiths declared that Poarch "coos over the unrealistic standards men hold women to", while Robin Murray of "Clash" opined that the song "focusses on female empowerment". During the nursery rhyme chorus, the singer affirms, "This ain't build a bitch / You don't get to pick and choose."


title: Build a Bitch

text: The song was met with positive reviews from music critics who complimented its sound. Griffiths deemed it "bratty" and "a candy-coated pop track". Pareles declared that "Poarch is making a move into her own music [and] 'Build a Bitch' comes across cute and furious". Haylock called the track "[a] cutesy pop song". "Billboard" Jason Lipshutz considered it "an audacious, darkly comic slice of new-school pop". Hattie Collins of "Vogue" said that the song "demonstrates both her innate musical talent and ambitions as an artist" and noted Poarch is "deftly dismantling the impossible standards of beauty that we are put under". Collins also noted that "Build a Bitch" is "incredibly catchy". The track was used in around a million videos on TikTok within a week following its release.


title: Build a Bitch

text: On the "Billboard" Hot 100, "Build a Bitch" debuted at number 58 on the week ending May 29, 2021. The song reached its peak position of 56 two weeks later, and attained a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in the US. "Build a Bitch" reached the top ten in India, Malaysia, and Singapore. It further peaked within the top 30 in Australia, Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway, Slovakia, and on the "Billboard" Global 200. The track also reached the top 30 in Canada and United Kingdom, where it received a platinum certification from Music Canada (MC) in the former and a silver one in the latter from the British Phonographic Industry. In Poland, the song reached number 60 and was certified gold by the Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry (ZPAV).


title: Build a Bitch

text: Directed by Andrew Donoho, the music video for "Build a Bitch" premiered alongside the single on May 14, 2021. The video depicts a factory where men can create their ideal woman, akin to a Build-A-Bear Workshop. Poarch subsequently begins a revolution and burns the factory down, escaping to freedom. The music video features cameos from several internet celebrities such as Valkyrae, Bretman Rock, Larray, and ZHC. Speaking to "Vogue", Poarch admitted that she "really believe[s] the people in the video embody the message of the song and being imperfect, being different, being themselves".


title: Build a Bitch

text: Griffiths deemed the video to be "provocative", while Haylock found the song to "juxtapose" with the visual. Griffiths and Pareles compared the video to American dystopian science fiction, neo-Western television series "Westworld", with Haylock further comparing Poarch to the series' character, Dolores Abernathy. Within less than a week, it received 70 million views on YouTube. The music video received nominations for Best Visual Effects at the 2021 MTV Video Music Awards, for Best Pop VideoInternational at the 2021 UK Music Video Awards, and Best Music Video at the 2022 iHeartRadio Music Awards.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: Extremely high frequency (EHF) is the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) designation for the band of radio frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum from 30 to 300 gigahertz (GHz). It lies between the super high frequency band and the far infrared band, the lower part of which is the terahertz band. Radio waves in this band have wavelengths from ten to one millimetre, so it is also called the millimetre band and radiation in this band is called millimetre waves, sometimes abbreviated MMW or mmWave. Millimetre-length electromagnetic waves were first investigated by Indian physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose, who generated waves of frequency up to 60GHz during experiments in 18941896.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: Compared to lower bands, radio waves in this band have high atmospheric attenuation: they are absorbed by the gases in the atmosphere. Absorption increases with frequency until at the top end of the band the waves are attenuated to zero within a few meters. Absorption by humidity in the atmosphere is significant except in desert environments, and attenuation by rain (rain fade) is a serious problem even over short distances. However the short propagation range allows smaller frequency reuse distances than lower frequencies. The short wavelength allows modest size antennas to have a small beam width, further increasing frequency reuse potential. Millimeter waves are used for military fire-control radar, airport security scanners, short range wireless networks, and scientific research.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: In a major new application of millimeter waves, certain frequency ranges near the bottom of the band are being used in the newest generation of cell phone networks, 5G networks. The design of millimeter-wave circuit and subsystems (such as antennas, power amplifiers, mixers and oscillators) also presents severe challenges to engineers due to semiconductor and process limitations, model limitations and poor "Q" factors of passive devices.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: Millimeter waves propagate solely by line-of-sight paths. They are not reflected by the ionosphere nor do they travel along the Earth as ground waves as lower frequency radio waves do. At typical power densities they are blocked by building walls and suffer significant attenuation passing through foliage. Absorption by atmospheric gases is a significant factor throughout the band and increases with frequency. However, this absorption is maximum at a few specific absorption lines, mainly those of oxygen at 60 GHz and water vapor at 24 GHz and 184 GHz. At frequencies in the "windows" between these absorption peaks, millimeter waves have much less atmospheric attenuation and greater range, so many applications use these frequencies. Millimeter wavelengths are the same order of size as raindrops, so precipitation causes additional attenuation due to scattering (rain fade) as well as absorption. The high free space loss and atmospheric absorption limit useful propagation to a few kilometers. Thus, they are useful for densely packed communications networks such as personal area networks that improve spectrum utilization through frequency reuse.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: Millimeter waves show "optical" propagation characteristics and can be reflected and focused by small metal surfaces and dielectric lenses around 5 to 30 cm (2 inches to 1 foot) diameter. Because their wavelengths are often much smaller than the equipment that manipulates them, the techniques of geometric optics can be used. Diffraction is less than at lower frequencies, although millimeter waves can be diffracted by building edges. At millimeter wavelengths, surfaces appear rougher so diffuse reflection increases. Multipath propagation, particularly reflection from indoor walls and surfaces, causes serious fading. Doppler shift of frequency can be significant even at pedestrian speeds. In portable devices, shadowing due to the human body is a problem. Since the waves penetrate clothing and their small wavelength allows them to reflect from small metal objects they are used in millimeter wave scanners for airport security scanning.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: This band is commonly used in radio astronomy and remote sensing. Ground-based radio astronomy is limited to high altitude sites such as Kitt Peak and Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) due to atmospheric absorption issues.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: Satellite-based remote sensing near 60 GHz can determine temperature in the upper atmosphere by measuring radiation emitted from oxygen molecules that is a function of temperature and pressure. The ITU non-exclusive passive frequency allocation at 57–59.3 GHz is used for atmospheric monitoring in meteorological and climate sensing applications and is important for these purposes due to the properties of oxygen absorption and emission in Earth's atmosphere. Currently operational U.S. satellite sensors such as the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU) on one NASA satellite (Aqua) and four NOAA (15–18) satellites and the special sensor microwave/imager (SSMI/S) on Department of Defense satellite F-16 make use of this frequency range.<ref name="Comments of IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society, FCC RM-11104, 10/17/07">FCC.gov, Comments of IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society, FCC RM-11104, 10/17/07</ref>


title: Extremely high frequency

text: In the United States, the band 36.0–40.0 GHz is used for licensed high-speed microwave data links, and the 60 GHz band can be used for unlicensed short range (1.7 km) data links with data throughputs up to 2.5 Gbit/s. It is used commonly in flat terrain.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: The 71–76, 81–86 and 92–95 GHz bands are also used for point-to-point high-bandwidth communication links. These higher frequencies do not suffer from oxygen absorption, but require a transmitting license in the US from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). There are plans for 10 Gbit/s links using these frequencies as well. In the case of the 92–95 GHz band, a small 100 MHz range has been reserved for space-borne radios, limiting this reserved range to a transmission rate of under a few gigabits per second.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: The band is essentially undeveloped and available for use in a broad range of new products and services, including high-speed, point-to-point wireless local area networks and broadband Internet access. WirelessHD is another recent technology that operates near the 60 GHz range. Highly directional, "pencil-beam" signal characteristics permit different systems to operate close to one another without causing interference. Potential applications include radar systems with very high resolution.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: The Wi-Fi standards IEEE 802.11ad and IEEE 802.11ay operate in the 60 GHz (V band) spectrum to achieve data transfer rates as high as 7 Gbit/s and at least 20 Gbit/s, respectively.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: Uses of the millimeter wave bands include point-to-point communications, intersatellite links, and point-to-multipoint communications. In 2013 it was speculated that there were plans to use millimeter waves in future 5G mobile phones. In addition, use of millimeter wave bands for vehicular communication is also emerging as an attractive solution to support (semi-)autonomous vehicular communications.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: Shorter wavelengths in this band permit the use of smaller antennas to achieve the same high directivity and high gain as larger ones in lower bands. The immediate consequence of this high directivity, coupled with the high free space loss at these frequencies, is the possibility of a more efficient use of frequencies for point-to-multipoint applications. Since a greater number of highly directive antennas can be placed in a given area, the net result is greater frequency reuse, and higher density of users. The high usable channel capacity in this band might allow it to serve some applications that would otherwise use fiber-optic communication or very short links such as for the interconnect of circuit boards.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: Millimeter wave radar is used in short-range fire-control radar in tanks and aircraft, and automated guns (CIWS) on naval ships to shoot down incoming missiles. The small wavelength of millimeter waves allows them to track the stream of outgoing bullets as well as the target, allowing the computer fire control system to change the aim to bring them together.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: With Raytheon the U.S. Air Force has developed a nonlethal antipersonnel weapon system called Active Denial System (ADS) which emits a beam of millimeter radio waves with a wavelength of 3 mm (frequency of 95 GHz). The weapon causes a person in the beam to feel an intense burning pain, as if their skin is going to catch fire. The military version had an output power of 100 kilowatts (kW), and a smaller law enforcement version, called Silent Guardian that was developed by Raytheon later, had an output power of 30 kW.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: Clothing and other organic materials are transparent to millimeter waves of certain frequencies, so a recent application has been scanners to detect weapons and other dangerous objects carried under clothing, for applications such as airport security. Privacy advocates are concerned about the use of this technology because, in some cases, it allows screeners to see airport passengers as if without clothing.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: Prior to a software upgrade the technology did not mask any part of the bodies of the people who were being scanned. However, passengers' faces were deliberately masked by the system. The photos were screened by technicians in a closed room, then deleted immediately upon search completion. Privacy advocates are concerned. "We're getting closer and closer to a required strip-search to board an airplane," said Barry Steinhardt of the American Civil Liberties Union. To address this issue, upgrades have eliminated the need for an officer in a separate viewing area. The new software generates a generic image of a human. There is no anatomical differentiation between male and female on the image, and if an object is detected, the software only presents a yellow box in the area. If the device does not detect anything of interest, no image is presented. Passengers can decline scanning and be screened via a metal detector and patted down.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: Three security scanners using millimeter waves were put into use at Schiphol Airport in Amsterdam on 15 May 2007, with more expected to be installed later. The passenger's head is masked from the view of the security personnel.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: According to Farran Technologies, a manufacturer of one model of the millimeter wave scanner, the technology exists to extend the search area to as far as 50 meters beyond the scanning area which would allow security workers to scan a large number of people without their awareness that they are being scanned.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: Recent studies at the University of Leuven have proven that millimeter waves can also be used as a non-nuclear thickness gauge in various industries. Millimeter waves provide a clean and contact-free way of detecting variations in thickness. Practical applications for the technology focus on plastics extrusion, paper manufacturing, glass production and mineral wool production.


title: Extremely high frequency

text: Low intensity (usually 10 mW/cm or less) electromagnetic radiation of extremely high frequency may be used in human medicine for the treatment of diseases. For example, "A brief, low-intensity MMW exposure can change cell growth and proliferation rates, activity of enzymes, state of cell genetic apparatus, function of excitable membranes and peripheral receptors." This treatment is particularly associated with the range of 40–70 GHz. This type of treatment may be called "millimeter wave (MMW) therapy" or "extremely high frequency (EHF) therapy". This treatment is associated with eastern European nations (e.g., former USSR nations). The Russian Journal "Millimeter waves in biology and medicine" studies the scientific basis and clinical applications of millimeter wave therapy.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: Yannick Nicolas Ngakoue ( ; born March 31, 1995) is an American football defensive end for the Indianapolis Colts of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Maryland and was drafted by the Jacksonville Jaguars in the third round of the 2016 NFL Draft. He has also played one season each for the Minnesota Vikings, Baltimore Ravens, and Las Vegas Raiders.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: Ngakoue attended Friendship Collegiate Academy Public Charter School in Washington, D.C., where he was teammates with Eddie Goldman. As a senior, he was the Gatorade Football Player of the Year for Washington D.C. after recording 17 sacks. Ngakoue was rated by Rivals.com as a four-star recruit and was ranked as the fourth best outside linebacker in his class. He committed to the University of Maryland, College Park to play college football.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: As a true freshman at Maryland in 2013, Ngakoue played in all 13 games and had nine tackles, two sacks and an interception. As a sophomore in 2014, he started all 12 games and recorded 37 tackles and six sacks. As a junior in 2015, Ngakoue set a school record with 13.5 sacks. After the season, he announced that he would forgo his senior season and enter the 2016 NFL Draft.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: The Jacksonville Jaguars selected Ngakoue in the third round (69th overall) in the 2016 NFL Draft. He was the seventh defensive end selected. On June 22, 2016, the Jaguars signed Ngakoue to a four-year, $3.48 million contract that includes a signing bonus of $856,176. Throughout training camp, he competed for the starting defensive end position against Dante Fowler, Chris Smith, and Jared Odrick. Head coach Gus Bradley named him the backup defensive end behind starters Fowler and Odrick to begin his rookie season.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: Ngakoue made his NFL debut in the Jaguars' season-opener against the Green Bay Packers and made two combined tackles during their 27–23 loss. The following week, he earned his first NFL start, as the Jaguars opted to start him at right defensive end over Dante Fowler, and recorded three combined tackles, forced the first fumble of his career, and made his first NFL sack on Philip Rivers in the Jaguars' 38–14 loss at the San Diego Chargers. His first NFL forced fumble came in the second quarter, as he had a strip sack on Rivers. The ball was recovered by Jaguars' safety Johnathan Cyprien. On October 2, Ngakoue made a season-high four solo tackles and recorded his first NFL interception on quarterback Andrew Luck after the pass was deflected by defensive end Dante Fowler during a 30–27 victory over the Indianapolis Colts. In the season finale on January 1, 2017, he collected two solo tackles and made his eighth career sack on Luck in a 24–20 loss to the Colts.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: Ngakoue finished his rookie year with 22 combined tackles (19 solo), eight sacks, two pass deflections, an interception, and a forced fumble in 16 games and 15 starts. His eight sacks broke a Jaguars rookie record, previously held by Tony Brackens, but Ngakoue's record was broken by Josh Allen three years later in 2019. Following his rookie season, Ngakoue was named to the PFWA All-Rookie Team. The Jaguars finished the season 3-13 and head coach Gus Bradley was fired after Week 15 and offensive line coach Doug Marrone served as the interim head coach for Weeks 16–17.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: Ngakoue entered training camp competing to maintain his starting defensive end role against newly acquired free agent Calais Campbell and Dante Fowler. Marrone opted to maintain the Gus Bradley's staff and keep defensive coordinator Todd Wash and his base 4–3 defense. Ngakoue was named the starting left defensive end, opposite Calais Campbell, to start the season.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: Ngakoue started in the season-opener against the Houston Texans and recorded four combined tackles, two sacks, two forced fumbles, and a fumble recovery during a 29–7 road victory. His first forced fumble came in the second quarter and was on quarterback Tom Savage and was recovered by teammate Abry Jones, which set the Jaguars up for a touchdown scoring drive. Toward the end of the second quarter, he had another strip-sack on Savage that was recovered and returned by Dante Fowler Jr. for a 53-yard touchdown. Toward the end of the third quarter, he recovered a fumble by quarterback Deshaun Watson that was caused by Fowler. During Week 7, Ngakoue made four combined tackles and a season-high 2.5 sacks during the Jaguars' 27–0 road routing of the Indianapolis Colts. During a Week 11 matchup at the Cleveland Browns, he made three combined tackles and 2.5 sacks in a 23–7 victory. During Week 16 against San Francisco 49ers, Ngakoue collected two solo tackles and made his 12th sack of the season on quarterback Jimmy Garoppolo in the 44–33 road loss. In the next game against the Tennessee Titans, he scored his first NFL touchdown on a 67-yard fumble recovery as the Jaguars lost on the road by a score of 15–10.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: Ngakoue finished the season with 30 combined tackles (24 solo) and 12 sacks in 16 games and starts as the Jaguars finished atop the AFC South with a 10–6 record. The Jaguars' defensive line became dominant throughout the season with the key additions of Calais Campbell (during free agency) and Marcell Dareus (a midseason trade acquisition). They adopted the nickname "Sacksonville" throughout the season. His 12 sacks tied for eighth in the league and was second on the team behind Campbell's 14.5 sacks. He also had a league-leading six forced fumbles.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: In the playoffs, Ngakoue recorded four tackles, a pass deflection, and a sack before the Jaguars lost to the New England Patriots in the AFC Championship Game by a score of 24–20. On January 22, 2018, he was named to his first Pro Bowl as an injury replacement for teammate Campbell. Ngakoue was ranked 88th by his peers on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2018.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: In week 4 against the New York Jets, Ngakoue recorded his first sack of the season on rookie quarterback Sam Darnold during the 31–12 win.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: In week 8 against the Philadelphia Eagles in London, Ngakoue sacked Carson Wentz once during the 24–18 loss.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: In week 17 against the Houston Texans, Ngakoue recorded a season high 5 tackles and sacked Deshaun Watson 1.5 times during the 20–3 loss.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: Ngakoue finished the season with 9.5 sacks, 28 total tackles, 33 quarterback hits, and a pass defended. The Jaguars did not retain their overall success from the previous season, this time finishing with a 5–11 record.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: In week 5 against the Carolina Panthers, Ngakoue recorded his first two sacks of the season on Kyle Allen during the 34–27 loss.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: In week 7 against the Cincinnati Bengals, Ngakoue intercepted a pass thrown by Andy Dalton and returned it 23 yards for a touchdown during the 27–17 win. This was Ngakoue's first career interception and touchdown in the NFL.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: In the following week's game against the New York Jets, Ngakoue sacked Sam Darnold twice during the 29–15 win.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: In week 11 against the Tennessee Titans, Ngakoue recorded a strip sack on Ryan Tannehill and recovered the football during the 42–20 loss.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: Ngakoue finished the season with 8 sacks, 41 total tackles, 15 quarterback hits, four forced fumbles, a fumble recovery, six passes defensed, and an interception returned for a touchdown. The Jaguars slightly improved from the previous season, this time finishing with a 6–10 record.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: On March 2, 2020, Ngakoue went on Twitter to state that he wished to be traded and would not play for the Jaguars in the future.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: On April 20, 2020, Ngakoue got in a lengthy Twitter argument with Tony Khan, the team owner's son, because the Jaguars wouldn't trade him. During their argument, Ngakoue most notably told Khan “Just trade me.”


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: On August 31, 2020, Ngakoue was traded to the Minnesota Vikings for a 2021 second-round pick and a conditional fifth-round pick.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: In Week 2 against the Indianapolis Colts, Ngakoue recorded his first sack as a Viking on Philip Rivers during the 28–11 loss.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: On October 22, 2020, Ngakoue was traded to the Baltimore Ravens for a 2021 third-round pick and a 2022 conditional fifth-round pick. The move reunited Ngakoue with former Jaguars teammate Calais Campbell. In Week 11 against the Tennessee Titans, Ngakoue recorded his first sack as a Raven on Ryan Tannehill during the 30–24 overtime loss.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: In Week 15 against his former team, the Jacksonville Jaguars, Ngakoue recorded two sacks on former teammate Gardner Minshew, including a strip sack that was recovered by the Ravens, during the 40–14 win.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: In Week 7, Ngakoue had four tackles, two sacks, and two passes defensed in a 33–22 win over the Philadelphia Eagles, earning AFC Defensive Player of the Week.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: Ngakoue would lead the Raiders in sacks in 2021, and would have his first double-digit sack season since 2017.


title: Yannick Ngakoue

text: On March 16, 2022, Ngakoue was traded to the Indianapolis Colts in exchange for cornerback Rock Ya-Sin after the Raiders signed Chandler Jones.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: The 2nd Battalion of Special Assignment "Donbas" () is a unit of the National Guard of Ukraine subordinated to the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine and based in Severodonetsk. Originally created in 2014 as a volunteer unit called the Donbas Battalion () by Semen Semenchenko following the Russian occupation of Crimea and possible invasion of continental Ukraine. The formation of the unit started in the spring of 2014 during the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine. The unit was initially formed as an independent force, but has been since fully integrated into the National Guard as the 2nd Special Purpose Battalion "Donbas" within the 15th Regiment of the National Guard.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: The Donbas Battalion was initially formed by Russian-speaking Ukrainians from the Donbas who opposed the separatist movement. They are one of the most notable volunteer battalions, recognized as a highly effective combat unit during the War in Donbas, and also by the constant use of balaclavas, not only to hide their identities from pro-Russian sympathizers, but also to create a sense of mystery and fear around them. Their use of balaclavas and occasionally of black fatigues led to them begin nicknamed as the "Men in Black" or "Little Black Men", as a Ukrainian analogue of the Russian "Little Green Men".


title: Donbas Battalion

text: In October 2016 a veteran of the former volunteer battalion Anatoliy Vynohrodskyi announced their intent to revive a volunteer battalion outside of the National Guard. The creation of the new volunteer battalion was never realized. Instead, in January 2017, Vynohradskyi became one of the leaders of the trade blockade with the Russian occupied territories in the Ukrainian East.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: At the beginning of March 2014, when separatist sentiments started to boil over in Donetsk, the pro-Maidan self-defense forces of the Donetsk Oblast was created by pro-Ukrainian citizens from Donetsk Oblast in order to protect pro-Maidan protests in response to the calls to create a separatist Donetsk People's Republic (DPR) and to prevent violence by the Russian special services and separatists against Ukrainian citizens. Semen Semenchenko was motivated by the weak state of the Ukrainian Armed Forces, as well as the capitulation of many local officials to the separatists, to found a group of local volunteers to defend the territorial integrity of Ukraine. For example, in February 2014, the Head of the Militsiya (national police) for Donetsk Oblast, Roman Romanov, handed over his powers to pro-Russian separatists, while Pavel Gubarev, the leader of the pro-Russian separatists in the Donbass seized the building of the Donetsk Oblast Administration.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: The Donbas self-defense forces asked the leadership of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast and the military commissariat to create a territorial defense battalion and succeeded in this, but only after a similar proposal to the administration of Donetsk Oblast was rejected. On 15 April, a recruitment of volunteers and officers began into a new unit, which was named the Donbas Battalion. Volunteer groups, a charitable foundation of the battalion were created, and Ukrainians from all over the country sent aid and money for the unit's logistical needs. The battalion is based in Dnipropetrovsk Oblast. Citizens with licensed weapons are invited to join.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: In March 2014, a self-defense unit of the Donetsk Oblast was created. After the first battles with DPR forces, the creation of the Donbas Volunteer Battalion was announced. The commander of the squad was Semen Semenchenko, who announced a recruitment of volunteers to the unit on his Facebook page.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: In a few days, about 600 volunteers signed up to the Donbas battalion, and since the end of April the unit began its activities in the Donetsk Oblast. They provided assistance in moving activists who are in danger and collected information about the coordinators of pro-Russian rallies and checkpoints. The battalion leadership created groups for counteraction, intelligence, warning and escort.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On May 1, the unit participated in its first operation to capture and destroy the civil checkpoints. The Donbas Battalion successfully destroyed a separatist checkpoint in Krasnoarmiysk. Three Kalashnikovs were seized and 15 civilians captured.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: The battalion commander was offered to locate a base in Novopidgorodnye at the boundary of the Dnipropetrovsk and Donetsk Oblasts. After the checkpoint in Krasnoarmiysk had been destroyed, the personnel returned to the location. A few hours later, reported Russian mercenaries arrived in three buses to assault the Donbas base. The Donbas fighters were armed with several small-caliber rifles, an old rifle and several grenades. The attempt to assault the checkpoint did not succeed, as a Ukrainian military helicopter flew to help the surrounded volunteer battalion, prompting the attackers to retreat.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 15 May 2014, the formed unit carried out an operation to clear the Donbass territories from enemy sabotage groups. The operation was held in Velyka Novosilka, during which the DPR flag was torn down from the building of the district administration and the flag of Ukraine was put on and the control over the district was returned to Ukrainian administration. Educational work was carried out with militiamen, who had previously handed over control of the region to DPR forces. The Donbas battalion took the district under military occupation, supervising elections in Velikonovosilkivsky district. With the region under government control, the branches of the largely defunct Party of Regions and the banned Communist Party were forced to dissolve.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 21 May 2014, Semen Semenchenko, the battalion commander, called the part of the employees of the State Automobile Inspection of Ukraine in the Donetsk region who defected to the DPR side as "traitors" as well as those who were carrying joint service with DPR soldiers at the checkpoints, accompanying vehicle columns and guarding the administrative buildings. He demanded that they hand over their arms and leave the Donetsk Oblast territory within 24 hours, until noon on May 22, threatening to eliminate them if they continued cooperate with the DPR.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: As of May 21, the battalion took control over the administration buildings of four districts: Velikonovosilkivsky, Volodarsky, Dobropolsky and Aleksandrivsky. This was a part of the operation to ensure the security of polling stations, which allowed the presidential elections in Ukraine to be held smoothly in 2014.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 22 May 2014, Semenchenko announced Ukrainian control over the Volodarske district was re-established.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 23 May, the unit performed an operation to attack fortified areas, but fell into an ambush in Karlivka. Twenty five fighters fought with the enemy, a company of the Vostok battalion. Five Donbas fighters were killed and the Vostok battalion lost 11. According to Semenchenko, the losses of the Donbas battalion were 4 people killed, 1 died from wounds, about 20 wounded, and some number were captured.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: After the battle near Karlivka, for the leadership of the Donbas battalion it became clear that Russian mercenaries in the Donbass had already got not only small arms but heavy weapons as well. Moreover, it became obvious that the Armed Forces leadership did not provide sufficient assistance to Ukrainian volunteer detachments. The Armed Forces units, located 5 km from Karlivka, did not come to help Ukrainian volunteers. In this regard, Semen Semenchenko accepted the proposal of the Minister of Internal Affairs, Arsen Avakov to merge the battalion into the National Guard of Ukraine. This would have offered an opportunity to arm the battalion, should have given it a legal status and provided an opportunity to coordinate its actions with the units of the Armed Forces, the NGU and the Ministry of Internal Affairs.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 1 June, Semen Semenchenko spoke at the People's Veche (assembly) on Maidan Nezalezhnosti (Independence Square), where he first called on participants to join the unit to protect the territorial integrity of Ukraine. On the first day of the volunteers' recording, about 600 people arrived at Novy Petrovtsy training range, a base of Ukrainian Army Unit 3027. After this, several more volunteer enrollments were held on the Maidan. During one of these enrollments on June 8, 2014, 10 soldiers of the Presidential Regiment appeared to have entered the battalion ranks.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 3 June, while a decision was being made to send volunteer battalions to the ATO, the Donbas battalion was asked to keep guard near the Verkhovna Rada as the Internal Troops were not able to offer adequate protection. The Donbas fighters faced the building of the Verkhovna Rada turning their backs to the people, demonstrating on which side they were – on the side of people.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 29 June, Semenchenko, the battalion commander spoke at the People's Veche (assembly) on Maidan Nezalezhnosti (Independence Square), calling for a complete change and reform of all public authorities and state institutions. A mobilization station was announced to be created on Maidan Nezalezhnosti and many volunteers were recorded to have joined. After the Veche (assembly) the Donbas battalion volunteers went to the Presidential Administration. The battalion volunteers headed by Semen Semenchenko demanded to stop a cease-fire order with Russian mercenaries. President Poroshenko assured the future military unit that they would soon have an opportunity to go to the ATO area and fight.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 19 July, a decision was made to form a special purpose volunteer battalion Crimea, and on 21 July, the commander of the Donbas battalion announced the recruitment of volunteers to a new unit. It was planned to liberate Donbas from Russian mercenaries first, then involve the Crimea battalion in the liberation of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea from the Russian occupation.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 4 June 2014, in the city of Izium, a meeting of the political, military and police leadership of Ukraine was held to coordinate the actions of the Donbas and Azov volunteer battalions with other military units, attended by Oleksandr Turchynov, Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, Arseniy Avakov, Minister of Internal Affairs of Ukraine, representatives of law enforcement agencies, as well as commanders of both battalions. At the meeting, samples of modern armored vehicles manufactured by the Malyshev plant were shown, particularly armored combat vehicles Dozor which the Donbas were planned to be supplied to the Battalion. Semenchenko stated that having such armored vehicles he was ready to liberate Donetsk. However, for all subsequent years of the war, the Donbas battalion did not receive any such vehicle.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: After the military meeting in Slavyansk it was decided to send a company of the Donbas battalion to the ATO area. However, the unit was provided neither with vehicles, nor with fuel for transportation, nor with adequate equipment. At request of Semen Semenchenko, the unit commander, volunteers, entrepreneurs and ordinary Ukrainians gathered everything necessary and a company of the Donbas battalion managed to go to the frontline.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: 4 July 2014, an assault company of the Donbas battalion took part in a liberation operation of Mykolayivka, the Donetsk Oblast. Immediately after this operation a retreat of Russian mercenaries from Slavyansk started. The first person who provided intelligence data that the city could be entered in was Yaroslav Markevych, a volunteer of the Donbas battalion who led a group of unmanned aerial vehicles.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: The battalion fighters located in Artemivsk took active effort in liberating the city from DPR forces – night-time attacks of militants were being met, checkpoints were being built in and outside the city, and operations were conducted to clear the territory. The battalion units provided patrols of the surrounding areas of Artemivsk and Horlivka.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: Only one IFV out of the promised armored vehicles was allocated for the Donbas battalion and the battalion had a KRAZ on the volunteers' balance sheet. Among the other "special equipment" they had two CIT vehicles, which Donbas fighters retook from Russian mercenaries in the first minutes of the battle.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: As a result of the operation, the volunteer battalions accused the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine of failing to provide the necessary support in heavy weapons.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 17 August 2014, together with other units, the Donbas Battalion again participated in the assault of Ilovaysk. The unit entered the city and took positions at the city school number 14 near the railway, fulfilling the task set. However, the adjacent units did not fully fulfill their obligations again.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: In the interim report of the Temporary Investigative Commission of the Verkhovna Rada investigating the tragic events under Ilovaysk, it says:


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 19 August 2014, Semen Semenchenko, the commander of the Donbas battalion, was injured during the assault of Ilovaysk, having suffered shrapnel wounds. Within 10 days, fierce battles had not stopped.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 29 August 2014, leaving Ilovaysk via the Green Corridor, a Ukrainian military group fell into ambush and happened to be under the shell fire of the Russian regular army. During their retreat from the Ilovaysk salient, 98 soldiers of the unit were captured. More than 100 unit fighters were injured. The official estimates were 366 dead, 249 wounded, and 158 missing during fighting for Ilovaysk and leaving the Green Corridor.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: During September, October and November, the battalion personnel were withdrawn from the ATO area and engaged in a combat coordination exercise. A part of the fighters were sent to Zolochiv city to undergo NCO training. In September, a large number of volunteers came to the battalion and it deployed to training camp of the 93rd Separate Mechanized brigade in Cherkaske village, Dnipropetrovsk oblast, which had about 300 recruits. At the end of October, the battalion personnel, together with the recruits were relocated to Kyiv oblast for training with instructors and a combat coordination exercise.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: During that period, the battalion could not move to the combat area due to the fact that about 100 soldiers of the unit were captured by Russian mercenaries during the withdrawal from the Ilovaisk salient. In case the battalion moved to the front line, the prisoners could have been executed.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 18 November, the first rotation of the Donbas battalion to the Peace Valley of Luhansk oblast took place. They had to watch at the local support point to assist the Armed Forces of Ukraine. The battalion was engaged in a clearing operation of sabotage reconnaissance groups of Russian army mercenaries and support of 24th separate mechanized brigade on the Bakhmut route..On 15 December the second rotation took place.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: From 15 to 25 December 2015, the Donbas Battalion organized a blockade of Akhmetov humanitarian convoys to the Lugansk People's Republic-occupied territories in order to accelerate a captive exchange process, blocking motorways in Luhansk oblast by mobile groups in a tank-dangerous direction. Volunteer divisions, including Dnipro-1, Right Sector and Aidar were involved in fulfilling separate tasks. Supplies of tobacco and vodka by Russian mercenaries were also blocked. The operation was successful – as a result of the blockade after the negotiations on 26 December, 97 soldiers from the Donbas Battalion were released from captivity of pro-Russian mercenaries who had been captured during the operation in Ilovaysk.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 11 January 2015, the Donbas Battalion marched to Kyiv demanding an immediate sending of the unit into a combat area to carry out missions there. A volunteer column came to the Ministry of Internal Affairs and surrounded the building.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: In January 2015, certain ex-fighters who were expelled from the battalion due to misconduct began to accuse Semenchenko of criminal behavior. However, the majority of the personnel didn't believe the accusation.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: Nevertheless, on 13 January 2015 two companies of the battalion went to the ATO area. However, the promised armored vehicles that had been given to the battalion before start proved to be unsuitable for military tasks.At that time, the unit was performing tasks under the guidance of the Headquarters of 24th separate mechanized brigade. On 27 January, a battalion company came to the battlefield deployment from an early rotation.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 31 January, Semen Semenchenko took part in the operation to relieve the Svityaz battalion and was shell-shocked.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 1 February, there was an attack in the area of Vuglegirsk. The soldiers were killed; the commander happened to be in an accident.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: In January–February 2015, the Donbas battalion took part in battles near Debaltseve as in an attack of fortified areas of Russian mercenaries. Anti-diversion and assault groups were operating there. During fighting for Vuglegirsk on 1 February, the unit lost four fighters. On 9 February, the units of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, in cooperation with an anti-diversion group of the Donbas Battalion, did not allow Russian mercenaries to take control of Debaltsevo-Artemivsk route. On 12 February, the units of the Armed Forces of Ukraine took control of a part of Logvinovo and unblocked the Artemivsk-Debaltsevo highway. The remaining resistance cells were suppressed; the Donbas battalion units carried out a clearing operation of the village and an adjacent section of the highway. In the morning of 13 February, the clearing operation of the Donbas battalion near Logvinovo was stopped. When units of the Armed Forces of Ukraine together with armored vehicles were withdrawn, militants counterattacked using armored troops – 7 tanks; the intensity of fighting was increasing. In the battles for Logvinovo, the Donbas battalion destroyed about a platoon of enemies, a tank and an IFV, though three soldiers perished and four were injured. By midday of 13 February, the Donbas battalion and the Armed Forces had killed about 50 separatist fighters near Logvinovo. Seventeen Russian mercenaries had been captured, who were later transferred to the SSU for exchange. The Donbas battalion and the Armed Forces of Ukraine held "a road of life", parallel to the field track. It was fired upon but the battalion was able to successfully protect the convoys passing through . At some points, the situation was complicated, and fighters had to fight half-trapped by pro-Russian units. The Donbas battalion fighters captured an enemy's multi-purpose light-armored towered vehicle and a 122mm mortar as war trophies.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 15 February, a Donbas battalion company took part in an operation to destroy fortified areas of Russian mercenaries and entered Shirokino, but it was ambushed by separatist militants because a conductor "missed a turn." In the course of the battle, three battalion soldiers died, three were injured, and one of them died later because of mortal wounds. During the battle of Shirokino, from15–16 February more than 100 troops from the separatist forces were killed and 10 armored vehicles were destroyed by the Donbas, Azov and AFU units.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: Late evening on 16 February, the Ukrainian military managed to squeeze armed men who were not identified as soldiers of the Armed Forces of Ukraine out of one of the two heights near Shirokino. Earlier, 14 Donbas Battalion fighters were able to escape from an encirclement made by separatist forces in Shirokino. On 18 February, near Shirokino, having occupied a residential multi-storied building before, separatist supported by mercenaries began shelling Ukrainian positions with two mortars. Two hours later, a separatist armed group was kicked out by Ukrainian troops and began leaving in the direction of Novoazovsk. Another illegal armed group, as a result of actions of Ukrainian troops, went to the north-east – from the eastern outskirts of Shirokino under the cover of two tanks, one of the tanks malfunctioned and was evacuated by the retreating separatists. On that day, a representative of the Ukrainian intelligence reported that Shirokino was under the fire of mortar shells and tanks of separatist armed units; in the evening of 16 February, one soldier in a Donbas battalion platoon was killed and four were wounded. The next night, a battalion column fell into an ambush, and three soldiers were killed. On 7 March, the battalion fighters detected a sabotage-reconnaissance group of the Russian Special Forces. During the battle, three mercenaries were killed and other militants were captured. In order to take them back Russian mercenaries opened fire with tanks. While repulsing the attack a Donbas battalion soldier was killed. On 9 March, a Donbas battalion company supported by a tank of the 37th Battalion and the Armed Forces of Ukraine, was clearing up the sea coast and knocking off the invaders from the coastal positions and occupying a dominant position that blocked access to the battalion's rear. During the operation, 1 fighter was lightly wounded. 15 invaders were destroyed. The Azov's tank was put into a battle, an IFV belonging to DPR was damaged by joint efforts. Another Donbas fighter was shell-shocked.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 9 April, the barracks of separatist units were destroyed in Shirokino by joint actions of the Azov regiment and the Donbas battalion during the fire response to the Russian mercenary attack.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 25 April, after bombardment of an ambulance near Shirokino a wounded soldier of the Donbas battalion died on the way to hospital. On 2 May, another attack by pro-Russian separatists was defeated by the Donbas battalion fighters. Three military personnel were wounded. During one battle, at 13:05, a shot from a sniper rifle wounded a Donbas battalion fighter on his head. On 3 May, during the fighting in Shirokino, another soldier from the Donbas battalion was killed. On 24 May, in Shirokino, one soldier of the Donbas battalion was killed and one was wounded. Overnight into 26 May, an anti-tank platoon of the Donbas Battalion destroyed a KamAZ carrying separatist troops and ammunition. A Donbas Battalion soldier was wounded at night, in response, the enemy's fire points were suppressed. On 19 July, in Shirokino near Mariupol the Donbas battalion combatants took an IFV-2 from the Russian mercenaries during the battle. It had a torn caterpillar and beaten optics. The IFV was towed to the positions of the Ukrainian Army.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: During May–July 2015, in Mariupol, there were rallies against so-called demilitarization of Mariupol, which would mean a total withdrawal of the military personnel from the first line of defense in Shirokine within Minsk agreements. Demilitarization did not take place, but at the end of July 2015, the Donbas battalion was withdrawn from watching Shirokino's front positions. The Donbas and Azov volunteer battalions, which kicked the invaders out of Shirokino and from February to June 2015 "held" positions, were replaced by Marine Corps of the Armed Forces.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: From October 2015 to March 2016, the Donbas battalion was on duty on the checkpoints of the third defense line near Mariupol and Berdyansk.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: From March 2016 to April 2016, a significant part of the Donbas battalion was demobilized, serving as the mobilized for a calendar year, being reluctant to continue service on the third defense line. Part of the soldiers remained in the unit hoping that the unit would still fight on the first defense line.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: After April 2016, the battalion was on duty on checkpoints in Mariupol zone and protected the Azov Sea coast.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: In early August 2016 more than 160 battalion soldiers arrived at the military training ground in the village of Stare, Kyiv oblast (3070 military unit base), for the purpose of an operational coordination. Another company of the battalion remained in Mariupol and was preparing for retirement, as the battalion was taken out of the combat area.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: In mid-September, from the training ground in the village of Stare, the personnel was transferred to Slovyansk, Donetsk oblast (3035 military unit base). Part of the soldiers was sent back to the military unit 3057 in Mariupol.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: According to an order of the NGU commander on reducing the manpower in the military unit 3057 (end of August 2016) the special-purpose battalion Donbas was destroyed. Personnel were retired due to the organizational and staffing measures on 19 September 2016. On 26 September 2016, the battalion officers were retired.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: When the majority of personnel of the NGU Donbas battalion was demobilized into the reserve in 2016, together with an honorary commander of the Donbas battalion Semen Semenchenko and the second commander of the Donbas battalion Anatoliy Vinogrodskiy, an Internal Corps of the Donbas Battalion as a public organization was formed, and later as a non-governmental volunteer organization "Donbas volunteer battalion", where the battle flag was brought [115]. The organization consists of demilitarized soldiers of the battalion who participate and conduct community-oriented activities aimed at protecting Ukrainian citizens from the unlawful acts of titushky (bullies), law enforcement agencies and fighting corruption. Starting from July 2016, the battalion Internal Corps took part in actions against illegal construction, against unauthorized felling of green spaces in Kyiv and its suburbs; was engaged in protecting businesses and agricultural businesses from raider take-overs, protecting the population from Titushky, exposing criminal activities of police and cooperation between police and Titushky; provided legal and media support to political prisoners, was engaged in a civil control of court sessions in cases against corruptioners and traitors, anti-maidanivtsi and raiders; blocked railroad goods traffic to occupied territories during the Blockade of Trade with Occupants; it protected a protest camp at Hrushevskyi Street during the "Rally for Political Reform".


title: Donbas Battalion

text: On 2 July, during Kyiv Pechersk Court attempt to arrest a chief of staff of the Aydar battalion Valentin Likholit, several hundred veterans of the War for Independence and public figures protested in Khreshchatyk. They repelled Likholit without allowing him to be imprisoned illegally. On the same day, on Maidan Nezalezhnosti (Independence Square), Patriots’ Liberation Headquarters was proclaimed to be established. The main task was to provide legal and moral support to illegally imprisoned and repressed volunteers and patriots. At the meeting, when Patriots' Liberation Headquarters was established, three activity directions were announced: discharge from custody unlawfully or illegally imprisoned combatants; dismiss Anatoliy Matios, a military prosecutor; arrest and imprison people who contributed to Putin's aggression against Ukraine: in particular, Medvedchuk, Akhmetov, Boyko, Novinskyi, Yefremov, etc. Veterans from the Internal Corps of the Donbas Battalion are actively visiting court sessions concerning volunteer soldiers throughout Ukraine.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: The OHCHR reported that in August–September 2014 eight or ten members of the Donbas and Azov battalions sexually assaulted a man with a mental disability. After the different forms of violence (including cruel treatment and rape), the victim's health significantly deteriorated and he was taken to psychiatric clinic. The issue brought the attention of the Ukrainian Parliamentary Association "Forbidden to Forbid".


title: Donbas Battalion

text: In 2016, according to the OHCHR, five fighters of the battalion were taken to court and accused of different criminal activities committed against civilian population: banditry, abduction, armed robbery, extortion, hooliganism and illegal possession of weapons. However, after a political pressure put on the judges by the former commander of the Donbas battalion and three other parliamentarians, they were released.


title: Donbas Battalion

text: A UN monitoring mission in Ukraine reported that during the Battle of Ilovaisk in 2014, the Donbas battalion took part in ill-treatment and torture of male population of the city, aged 30 to 66. From 18 to 28 August 2014, the majority of victims were locked in school No. 14 by members of Donbas battalion. The conditions of the incarceration may amount to ill-treatment, some victims were subjected to beatings, regarding thirteen of them the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights has documented cases of torture. All detained ones who were interviewed by the UN officers told they were beaten with intention to extract confessions that they were affiliated with rebel forces. After the withdrawal of Ukrainian forces from Ilovaisk, a grave with three bodies was exhumed in the backyard of Ilovaisk school No. 14 where the Donbas battalion had been stationed. The UN monitoring mission identified the victims as local civilians. According to the forensic reports, two of them had signs of firearm wounds on their bodies, and third had likely died as a result of shelling.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Miguel de Unamuno y Jugo (29 September 1864 – 31 December 1936) was a Spanish essayist, novelist, poet, playwright, philosopher, professor of Greek and Classics, and later rector at the University of Salamanca.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: His major philosophical essay was "The Tragic Sense of Life" (1912), and his most famous novel was "" (1917), a modern exploration of the Cain and Abel story.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Miguel de Unamuno was born in Bilbao, a port city of the Basque Country, Spain, the son of Félix de Unamuno and Salomé Jugo. As a young man, he was interested in the Basque language, which he could speak, and competed for a teaching position in the "Instituto de Bilbao" against Sabino Arana. The contest was finally won by the Basque scholar Resurrección María de Azkue.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Unamuno worked in all major genres: the essay, the novel, poetry, and theater, and, as a modernist, contributed greatly to dissolving the boundaries between genres. There is some debate as to whether Unamuno was in fact a member of the Generation of '98, an "ex post facto" literary group of Spanish intellectuals and philosophers that was the creation of José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín)—a group that includes, besides Azorín, Antonio Machado, Ramón Pérez de Ayala, Pío Baroja, Ramón del Valle-Inclán, Ramiro de Maeztu, and Ángel Ganivet, among others.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Unamuno would have preferred to be a philosophy professor, but was unable to get an academic appointment; philosophy in Spain was somewhat politicized. Instead he became a Greek professor.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: In 1901 Unamuno gave his well-known conference on the scientific and literary inviability of the Basque. According to Azurmendi, Unamuno went against the Basque language once his political views changed as a result of his reflection on Spain.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: In addition to his writing, Unamuno played an important role in the intellectual life of Spain. He served as rector of the University of Salamanca for two periods: from 1900 to 1924 and 1930 to 1936, during a time of great social and political upheaval. During the 1910s and 1920s, he became one of the most passionate advocates of Spanish social liberalism. Unamuno linked his liberalism with his hometown of Bilbao, which, through its commerce and connection with the civilized world, Unamuno believed had developed an individualism and independent outlook in stark contrast to the narrow-mindedness of Carlist traditionalism. When in 1912 José Canalejas was assassinated by an anarchist, he blamed it on the fact that Spain lacked a "true liberal democratic party" and in 1914 denounced the Spanish nobility for their alleged philistinism. Along with many other Spanish writers and intellectuals, such as Benito Pérez Galdós, he was an outspoken supporter of the Allied cause during the First World War despite Spain's official neutrality. Unamuno viewed the war as a crusade not just against the Imperial Family of the German Empire, but against the monarchy in Spain, and intensified his attacks upon King Alfonso XIII.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Unamuno was removed from his two university chairs by the dictator General Miguel Primo de Rivera in 1924, over the protests of other Spanish intellectuals. As a result of his vociferous criticisms of Primo de Rivera's dictatorship, he lived in exile until 1930, first banished to Fuerteventura, one of the Canary Islands; his house there is now a museum, as is his house in Salamanca. From Fuerteventura he escaped to France, as related in his book "De Fuerteventura a Paris". After a year in Paris, Unamuno established himself in Hendaye, a border town in the French Basque Country, as close to Spain as he could get while remaining in France. Unamuno returned to Spain after the fall of General Primo de Rivera's dictatorship in 1930 and took up his rectorship again. It is said in Salamanca that the day he returned to the university, Unamuno began his lecture by saying, as Fray Luis de León had done after four years of imprisonment by the Spanish Inquisition, "As we were saying yesterday..." (Decíamos ayer...).


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Also after the fall of Primo de Rivera's dictatorship, Spain embarked on its Second Republic. He was a candidate on the Republican/Socialist ticket and was elected, after which he led a large demonstration in the Plaza Mayor in which he raised the Republic's flag and declared its victory. He always was a moderate and refused all political and anticlerical extremism. In a speech delivered on 28 November 1932, at the Madrid Ateneo, Unamuno protested against Manuel Azaña's extremist anti-clerical policies: "Even the Inquisition was limited by certain legal guarantees. But now we have something worse: a police force which is grounded only on a general sense of panic and on the invention of non-existent dangers to cover up this over-stepping of the law."


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Unamuno's dislike for Manuel Azaña's ruling went so far as to tell a reporter who published his statement in "El Adelanto" in June 1936 that President Manuel Azaña "should commit suicide as a patriotic act". The Republican government had a serious problem with this statement, and on 22 August 1936, they decreed that Unamuno should once again be removed from his position as rector of the university. Moreover, the government removed his name from streets and replaced it with the name of Simón Bolívar.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Having begun his literary career as an internationalist, Unamuno gradually became convinced of the universal values of Spanish culture, feeling that Spain's essential qualities would be destroyed if influenced too much by outside forces. Thus he initially welcomed Franco's revolt as necessary to rescue Spain from the Red Terror by forces loyal to the Second Spanish Republic. When a journalist questioned how he could side with the military and "abandon a Republic that [he] helped create," Unamuno responded, it "is not a fight against the liberal Republic, but a fight for civilization. What Madrid represents now is not socialism or democracy, or even communism."


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: However, the tactics employed by the Nationalist faction in the struggle against their republican opponents caused Unamuno to also turn against Franco. Unamuno said that the military revolt would lead to the victory of "a brand of Catholicism that is not Christian and of a paranoid militarism bred in the colonial campaigns," referring in the latter case to the 1921 war with Abd el-Krim in Spanish Morocco.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: In 1936 Unamuno had a public argument with Nationalist general Millán Astray at the university in which he denounced both Astray—with whom he had had verbal battles in the 1920s—and elements of the Nationalist faction. Shortly afterwards, Unamuno was removed for a second time as the rector of the University of Salamanca. A few days later he confided to Nikos Kazantzakis:


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: On 21 November, he wrote to the Italian philosopher Lorenzo Giusso that "The barbarism is unanimous. It is a regime of terror on both sides." In one of his final letters, dated 13 December, Unamuno, in terms that were to be widely quoted, condemned the White Terror being committed by Franco's forces:


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: On 12 October 1936, the Spanish Civil War had been underway for just under three months; the celebration of Discovery of America had brought together a politically diverse crowd at the University of Salamanca, including Enrique Pla y Deniel, the Archbishop of Salamanca, and Carmen Polo Martínez-Valdés, the wife of Franco, Africanist General José Millán Astray and Unamuno himself.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Unamuno had supported Franco's uprising because he believed it necessary to bring order to the anarchy created by the Popular Front, and that day he was representing General Franco in the event. By then the Republican Government had removed Unamuno from his perpetual rectory at the Salamanca University and the rebel government had restored him.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: According to the British historian Hugh Thomas in his "magnum opus" "The Spanish Civil War" (1961), the evening began with an impassioned speech by the Falangist writer José María Pemán. After this, Professor Francisco Maldonado decried Catalonia and the Basque Country as "cancers on the body of the nation," adding that "Fascism, the healer of Spain, will know how to exterminate them, cutting into the live flesh, like a determined surgeon free from false sentimentalism."


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: From somewhere in the auditorium, someone cried out the Spanish Legion's motto ""¡Viva la Muerte!"" [Long live death!]. As was his habit, Millán Astray, the founder and first commander of the Spanish Legion, responded with ""¡España!"" [Spain!]; the crowd replied with ""¡Una!"" [One!]. He repeated ""¡España!""; the crowd then replied ""¡Grande!"" [Great!]. A third time, Millán Astray shouted ""¡España!""; the crowd responded ""Libre!"" [Free!] This—Spain, one, great, and free—was a common Falangist cheer and would become a francoist motto thereafter. Later, a group of uniformed Falangists entered, saluting the portrait of Franco that hung on the wall.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Millán Astray responded: "Death to intelligence! Long live death!" provoking applause from the Falangists. Pemán, in an effort to calm the crowd, exclaimed "No! Long live intelligence! Death to the bad intellectuals!"


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Unamuno continued: "This is the temple of intelligence, and I am its high priest. You are profaning its sacred domain. You will win "[venceréis]", because you have enough brute force. But you will not convince "[pero no convenceréis]". In order to convince it is necessary to persuade, and to persuade you will need something that you lack: reason and right in the struggle. I see it is useless to ask you to think of Spain. I have spoken." Millán Astray, controlling himself, shouted "Take the lady's arm!" Unamuno took Carmen Polo by the arm and left under her protection.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: In 2018, the details of Unamuno's speech were disputed by the historian Severiano Delgado, who argued that the account in a 1941 article by Luis Gabriel Portillo (who was not present at Salamanca) in the British magazine "Horizon" may not have been an accurate representation of events.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Severiano Delgado, a historian and librarian at the University of Salamanca, asserts that Unamuno's words were put in his mouth by Luis Portillo, in 1941, possibly with some help from George Orwell, in a piece in the literary magazine Horizon, entitled Unamuno's Last Lecture. Portillo had not witnessed the event.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Severiano Delgado's book, titled "Archeology of a Myth: The act of October 12, 1936 in the auditorium of the University of Salamanca," shows how the propaganda myth arose regarding the confrontation that took place that day between Miguel de Unamuno and the general Millán Astray.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Delgado agrees that a "very fierce and violent verbal confrontation" between Unamuno and Millán Astray definitely occurred, which led to Unamuno being removed from his rectorship, but he thinks that the famous speech attributed to Unamuno was invented and written by Luis Portillo."


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Unamuno took the floor, not to confront Millán Astray, but to answer a previous speech by Professor of Literature Francisco Maldonado who had identified Catalonia and the Basque Country with the ""antiespaña"" (Antispain). Unamuno himself was Basque and was revolted with Francisco Maldonado's speech, but when addressing the audience, Unamuno used the example of what had happened with José Rizal (a Filipino nationalist and polymath during the tail end of the Spanish colonial period of the Philippines, executed by the Spanish colonial government for the crime of rebellion after the Philippine Revolution). Millán Astray had fought in the Philippines and it was the reference to José Rizal that annoyed Millán Astray, who shouted "The traitoring intellectuals die".


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: As proof that the incident was nothing more than a crossroads of hard words, the photograph reproduced on the cover of his book shows Millán Astray and Miguel de Unamuno calmly saying goodbye in the presence of Bishop Plà, with no tension between them. The photo was discovered in 2018 in the National Library and was part of the chronicle of the act that the newspaper "The Advancement of Salamanca" published the following day, 13 October 1936.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: According to Delgado, Portillo's account of the speech became famous when a then very young British historian Hugh Thomas, aged 30, came across it in a Horizon anthology while researching his seminal book, "The Spanish Civil War", and mistakenly took it as a primary source.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Unamuno died on 31 December 1936 during house arrest imposed by the military forces that occupied Salamanca at the time. He died as a result of the inhalation of gases from a brazier during a one hour long interview with a visitor. A recent theory cites a 2020 book by and to suggest that he may have been murdered by Bartolomé Aragón, the last person to have visited him, based on the fact that he falsely claimed to be a former student of his, was a fascist militant (and requeté) with opposed political ideas to Unamuno and had collaborated with Nationals propaganda before. In fact, the Rabaté couple never defended this theory, since they have no new evidence to supports it. These circumstances are however well known since the time of the events in 1936, and Aragón and Unamuno had indeed a previous intellectual relationship. Additional telltale findings were: the lack of autopsy (despite having been mandatory, as the cause of death was determined to be a sudden death due to a intracranial bleeding), two screams from Unamuno heard by his maid during the Aragón visit and discrepancies in the time of death registered by the coroner and the authorities.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Unamuno's philosophy was not systematic but rather a negation of all systems and an affirmation of faith "in itself." He developed intellectually under the influence of rationalism and positivism, but during his youth he wrote articles that clearly show his sympathy for socialism and his great concern for the situation in which he found Spain at the time. An important concept for Unamuno was "intrahistoria". He thought that history could best be understood by looking at the small histories of anonymous people, rather than by focusing on major events such as wars and political pacts. Some authors relativize the importance of "intrahistoria" in his thinking. Those authors say that more than a clear concept is an ambiguous metaphor. The term first appears in the essay "En torno al casticismo" (1895), but Unamuno leaves it soon.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: In the late nineteenth century Unamuno suffered a religious crisis and left the positivist philosophy. Then, in the early twentieth century, he developed his own thinking influenced by existentialism. Life was tragic, according to Unamuno, because of the knowledge that we are to die. He explains much of human activity as an attempt to survive, in some form, after our death. Unamuno summarized his personal creed thus: "My religion is to seek for truth in life and for life in truth, even knowing that I shall not find them while I live." He said, "Among men of flesh and bone there have been typical examples of those who possess this tragic sense of life. I recall now Marcus Aurelius, St. Augustine, Pascal, Rousseau, "René", "Obermann", Thomson, Leopardi, Vigny, Lenau, Kleist, Amiel, Quental, Kierkegaard—men burdened with wisdom rather than with knowledge." He provides a stimulating discussion of the differences between faith and reason in his most famous work: "Del sentimiento trágico de la vida" ("The Tragic Sense of Life", 1912).


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: A historically influential paperfolder from childhood to his last, difficult days, in several works Unamuno ironically expressed philosophical views of Platonism, scholasticism, positivism, and the "science vs religion" issue in terms of "origami" figures, notably the traditional Spanish "". Since he was also a linguist (professor of Greek), he coined the word "cocotología" ("cocotology") to describe the art of paper folding. After the conclusion of "Amor y pedagogía" ("Love and Pedagogy", 1902), he included in the volume, attributing it to one of the characters, "Notes for a Treatise on Cocotology" ("Apuntes para un tratado de cocotología").


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Along with "The Tragic Sense of Life", Unamuno's long-form essay "La agonía del cristianismo" ("The Agony of Christianity", 1931) and his novella "San Manuel Bueno, mártir" ("Saint Emmanuel the Good, Martyr", 1930) were all included on the "Index Librorum Prohibitorum".


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: After his youthful sympathy for socialism ended, Unamuno gravitated towards liberalism. Unamuno's conception of liberalism, elaborated in essays such as "La esencia del liberalismo" in 1909, was one that sought to reconcile a great respect for individual freedom with a more interventionist state, bringing him to a position closer to social liberalism. In writing about the Church in 1932 during the second Spanish Republic, Unamuno urged the clergy to end their attacks on liberalism and instead embrace it as a way of rejuvenating the faith.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Unamuno was probably the best Spanish connoisseur of Portuguese culture, literature, and history of his time. He believed it was as important for a Spaniard to become familiar with the great names of Portuguese literature as with those of Catalan literature. He believed that Iberian countries should come together through the exchange of manifestations of the spirit but he was openly against any type of Iberian Federalism.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: In the final analysis Unamuno's significance is that he was one of a number of notable interwar intellectuals, along with Julien Benda, Karl Jaspers, Johan Huizinga, and José Ortega y Gasset, who resisted the intrusion of ideology into Western intellectual life.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: For Unamuno, the art of poetry was a way of expressing spiritual problems. His themes were the same in his poetry as in his other fiction: spiritual anguish, the pain provoked by the silence of God, time and death.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Unamuno was always attracted to traditional meters and, though his early poems did not rhyme, he subsequently turned to rhyme in his later works.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Questions such as individual spirituality, faith as a "vital lie", and the problem of a double personality were at the center of "La esfinge" ("The Sphinx") (1898), and "La verdad" ("Truth"), (1899).


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: Unamuno's theatre is schematic; he did away with artifice and focused only on the conflicts and passions that affect the characters. This austerity was influenced by classical Greek theatre. What mattered to him was the presentation of the drama going on inside of the characters, because he understood the novel as a way of gaining knowledge about life.


title: Miguel de Unamuno

text: By symbolizing passion and creating a theatre austere both in word and presentation, Unamuno's theatre opened the way for the renaissance of Spanish theatre undertaken by Ramón del Valle-Inclán, Azorín, and Federico García Lorca.


title: Palm sugar

text: Palm sugar is a sweetener derived from any variety of palm tree. Palm sugar is sometimes qualified by the type of palm, as in coconut palm sugar. While sugars from different palms may have slightly different compositions, all are processed similarly and can be used interchangeably.


title: Palm sugar

text: The Palmyra palm ("Borassus" spp.) is grown in Africa, Asia, and New Guinea. The tree has many uses, such as thatching, hatmaking, timber, use as a writing material, and in food products. Palm sugar is produced from sap ('toddy') from the flowers.


title: Palm sugar

text: The date palm has two species, "Phoenix dactylifera" and "P. sylvestris", and both are sources of palm sugar. "P. dactylifera" is common in the Mediterranean and Middle East. "P. sylvestris" is native to Asia, mainly Pakistan and India. Date palms are cultivated mainly for dates. Palm sugar is made from the tree's sap.


title: Palm sugar

text: The nipa palm ("Nypa fruticans") is native to the coastlines and tropical regions of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the only palm tree that grows in a watery mangrove biome. Only its leaves and flowers grow above water. Palm sugar is made from the sugar-rich sap.


title: Palm sugar

text: The sugar palm ("Arenga pinnata") is native to the coastal and tropical regions of Asia, mainly China, Malaysia and Indonesia. The sap used to produce palm sugar is known in India as "gur" and in Indonesia as "gula aren".


title: Palm sugar

text: The coconut palm ("Cocos nucifera") yields coconut palm sugar from the sap of its flowers. It grows in coastal areas of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Major suppliers are Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines.


title: Palm sugar

text: Palm sugar is produced by boiling collected sap until it thickens. The boiled sap can be sold as palm syrup. It is sold in bottles or tins and tends to thicken and crystallise over time. The boiled sap can also be solidified and sold in the form of bricks or cakes. It can range in colour from golden brown to dark brown or almost black, like Indonesian "gula aren".


title: Palm sugar

text: Palm sugar is an ingredient in both sweet and savoury dishes used throughout Asia, the Middle East and North Africa.


title: Palm sugar

text: Palm sugar is known in many names and many variants, depends on its ingredient, production method, or the region. It is known as (Javanese sugar) in Indonesia, and in Malaysia. There is specific difference on palm sugar naming in Indonesia; if it is made from coconut, it is called as or (red sugar), on the other hand (aren sugar) refer to palm sugar that specifically made from the sap of aren palm flowerbuds. has an earthy aroma and deep sweetness with a darker colour closely resembling molasses, while has paler colour.


title: Water heating

text: Water heating is a heat transfer process that uses an energy source to heat water above its initial temperature. Typical domestic uses of hot water include cooking, cleaning, bathing, and space heating. In industry, hot water and water heated to steam have many uses.


title: Water heating

text: Domestically, water is traditionally heated in vessels known as "water heaters", "kettles", "cauldrons", "pots", or "coppers". These metal vessels that heat a batch of water do not produce a continual supply of heated water at a preset temperature. Rarely, hot water occurs naturally, usually from natural hot springs. The temperature varies with the consumption rate, becoming cooler as flow increases.


title: Water heating

text: Appliances that provide a continual supply of hot water are called "water heaters", "hot water heaters", "hot water tanks", "boilers", "heat exchangers", "geysers" (Southern Africa and the Arab world), or "calorifiers". These names depend on region, and whether they heat potable or non-potable water, are in domestic or industrial use, and their energy source. In domestic installations, potable water heated for uses other than space heating is also called "domestic hot water" ("DHW").


title: Water heating

text: Fossil fuels (natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, oil), or solid fuels are commonly used for heating water. These may be consumed directly or may produce electricity that, in turn, heats water. Electricity to heat water may also come from any other electrical source, such as nuclear power or renewable energy. Alternative energy such as solar energy, heat pumps, hot water heat recycling, and geothermal heating can also heat water, often in combination with backup systems powered by fossil fuels or electricity.


title: Water heating

text: Densely populated urban areas of some countries provide district heating of hot water. This is especially the case in Scandinavia, Finland and Poland. District heating systems supply energy for water heating and space heating from combined heat and power (CHP) plants such as incinerators, central heat pumps, waste heat from industries, geothermal heating, and central solar heating. Actual heating of tap water is performed in heat exchangers at the consumers' premises. Generally the consumer has no in-building backup system as redundancy is usually significant on the district heating supply side.


title: Water heating

text: Today in the United States, domestic hot water used in homes is most commonly heated with natural gas, electric resistance, or a heat pump. Electric heat pump water heaters are significantly more efficient than electric resistance water heaters, but also more expensive to purchase. Some energy utilities offer their customers funding to help offset the higher first cost of energy efficient water heaters.


title: Water heating

text: Hot water used for space heating may be heated by fossil fuels in a boiler, while potable water may be heated in a separate appliance. This is common practice in the US, especially when warm-air space heating is usually employed.


title: Water heating

text: In household and commercial usage, most North American and Southern Asian water heaters are the tank type, also called "storage water heaters". These consist of a cylindrical vessel or container that keeps water continuously hot and ready to use. Typical sizes for household use range from 75400 L (20100 US gallons). These may use electricity, natural gas, propane, heating oil, solar, or other energy sources. Natural gas heaters are most popular in the US and most European countries, since the gas is often conveniently piped throughout cities and towns and currently is the cheapest to use. In the United States, typical natural gas water heaters for households without unusual needs are with a burner rated at .


title: Water heating

text: This is a popular arrangement where higher flow rates are required for limited periods. Water is heated in a pressure vessel that can withstand a hydrostatic pressure close to that of the incoming mains supply. A pressure reducing valve is sometimes employed to limit the pressure to a safe level for the vessel. In North America, these vessels are called "hot water tanks", and may incorporate an electrical resistance heater, a heat pump, or a gas or oil burner that heats water directly.


title: Water heating

text: Where hot-water space heating boilers are installed, domestic hot water cylinders are usually heated indirectly by primary water from the boiler, or by an electric immersion heater (often as backup to the boiler). In the UK these vessels are called "indirect cylinders" and "direct cylinders", respectively. Additionally, if these cylinders form part of a sealed system, providing mains-pressure hot water, they are known as unvented cylinders. In the US, when connected to a boiler, they are called "indirect-fired water heaters".


title: Water heating

text: Compared to tankless heaters, storage water heaters have the advantage of using energy (gas or electricity) at a relatively slow rate, storing the heat for later use. The disadvantage is that over time, heat escapes through the tank wall and the water cools down, activating the heating system to heat the water back up, so investing in a tank with better insulation improves this standby efficiency. Additionally, when heavy use exhausts the hot water, there is a significant delay before hot water is available again. Larger tanks tend to provide hot water with less temperature fluctuation at moderate flow rates.


title: Water heating

text: Volume storage water heaters in the United States and New Zealand are typically vertical cylindrical tanks, usually standing on the floor or on a platform raised a short distance above the floor. Volume storage water heaters in Spain are typically horizontal. In India, they are mainly vertical. In apartments they can be mounted in the ceiling space over laundry-utility rooms. In Australia, gas and electric outdoor tank heaters have mainly been used (with high temperatures to increase effective capacity), but solar roof tanks are becoming fashionable.


title: Water heating

text: Tiny "point-of-use" (POU) electric storage water heaters with capacities ranging from 832 L (26 gallons) are made for installation in kitchen and bath cabinets or on the wall above a sink. They typically use low power heating elements, about 1 kW to 1.5 kW, and can provide hot water long enough for hand washing, or, if plumbed into an existing hot water line, until hot water arrives from a remote high capacity water heater. They may be used when retrofitting a building with hot water plumbing is too costly or impractical. Since they maintain water temperature thermostatically, they can only supply a continuous flow of hot water at extremely low flow rates, unlike high-capacity tankless heaters.


title: Water heating

text: In tropical countries like Singapore and India, a storage water heater may vary from 10 L to 35 L. Smaller water heaters are sufficient, as ambient weather temperatures and incoming water temperature are moderate. The Coldest regions in India like Kashmir, people are mostly dependent on the storage type electric water heaters. Mostly 50L or 75L Storage type electric water heaters are connected to overhead water source.


title: Water heating

text: A locational design decision may be made between point-of-use and centralized water heaters. Centralized water heaters are more traditional, and are still a good choice for small buildings. For larger buildings with intermittent or occasional hot water use, multiple POU water heaters may be a better choice, since they can reduce long waits for hot water to arrive from a remote heater. The decision where to locate the water heater(s) is only partially independent of the decision of a tanked vs. tankless water heater, or the choice of energy source for the heat.


title: Water heating

text: Tankless water heaters—also called instantaneous, continuous flow, inline, flash, on-demand, or instant-on water heaters—are gaining in popularity. These high-power water heaters instantly heat water as it flows through the device, and do not retain any water internally except for what is in the heat exchanger coil. Copper heat exchangers are preferred in these units because of their high thermal conductivity and ease of fabrication.


title: Water heating

text: Tankless heaters may be installed throughout a household at more than one point-of-use (POU), far from a central water heater, or larger centralized models may still be used to provide all the hot water requirements for an entire house. The main advantages of tankless water heaters are a plentiful continuous flow of hot water (as compared to a limited flow of continuously heated hot water from conventional tank water heaters), and potential energy savings under some conditions. The main disadvantage is their much higher initial costs; a US study in Minnesota reported a 20- to 40-year payback for the tankless water heaters. In a comparison to a less efficient natural gas fired hot water tank, on-demand natural gas will cost 30% more over its useful life.


title: Water heating

text: Stand-alone appliances for quickly heating water for domestic usage are known in North America as "tankless" or "on demand" water heaters. In some places, they are called "multipoint heaters", "geysers" or "ascots". In Australia and New Zealand they are called "instantaneous hot water units". In Argentina they are called "calefones". In that country "calefones" use gas instead of electricity, although gas powered tankless water heaters can also be found in other countries. A similar wood-fired appliance was known as the chip heater.


title: Water heating

text: A common arrangement where hot-water space heating is employed is for a boiler also to heat potable water, providing a continuous supply of hot water without extra equipment. Appliances that can supply both space-heating and domestic hot water are called "combination" (or "combi") boilers. Though on-demand heaters provide a continuous supply of domestic hot water, the rate at which they can produce it is limited by the thermodynamics of heating water from the available fuel supplies.


title: Water heating

text: An electric shower head has an electric heating element which heats water as it passes through. These self-heating shower heads are specialized point-of-use (POU) tankless water heaters, and are widely used in some countries.


title: Water heating

text: Invented in Brazil in the 1930s due to a lack of central gas distribution and used frequently since the 1940s, the electric shower is a home appliance often seen in South and Central American countries due to the higher costs of gas distribution, combined with households that in most cases do not support conventional water heaters. Earlier models were made of chromed copper or brass, which were expensive, but since 1970, units made of injected plastics are popular due to low prices similar to that of a hair dryer. Electric showers have a simple electric system, working like a coffee maker, but with a larger water flow. A flow switch turns on the device when water flows through it. Once the water is stopped, the device turns off automatically. An ordinary electric shower often but not always has three heat settings: high (5.5 kW), low (2.5 kW), or cold (0 W) to use when a central heater system is available or in hot seasons. Higher power (up to 7.5 KW) and lower power (up to 3.2 KW) versions are also made, as well as versions with 4 heat settings or a variable heat setting.


title: Water heating

text: The power consumption of electric showers in the max. heating setting is about 5.5 kW for 120 V and 7.5 kW for 220 V. The lower costs with electric showers compared to the higher costs with tank boilers is due to the time of use: an electric shower uses energy only while the water flows, while a tank boiler works many times a day to keep a quantity of standing water hot for use throughout the day and night. Moreover, the transfer of electric energy to the water in an electric shower head is very efficient, approaching 100%. Electric showers may save energy compared to electric tank heaters, which lose some standby heat.


title: Water heating

text: There is a wide range of electric shower heads, with various designs and types of heating controls. The heating element of an electric shower is immersed in the water stream, using an often replaceable nichrome resistive heating element which is often not sheathed and electrically isolated, in which case isolation is provided by earthing electrodes that directly touch the water before it exits the head. Electric shower heads with sheathed and electrically isolated heating elements are often marketed as such (Chuveiros blindados in Portuguese) and are more expensive. Due to electrical safety standards as well as cost, modern electric showers are made of plastic instead of using metallic casings like in the past. As an electrical appliance that uses more electric current than a clothes washer or a hair dryer, an electric shower installation requires careful planning, and generally is intended to be wired directly from the electrical distribution box with a dedicated circuit breaker and ground system. A poorly installed system with old aluminum wires, bad connections or an unconnected ground wire (which is often the case) may be dangerous, as the wires can overheat or electric current may leak via the water stream through the body of the user to earth.


title: Water heating

text: Increasingly, solar powered water heaters are being used. Their solar collectors are installed outside dwellings, typically on the roof or walls or nearby, and the potable hot water storage tank is typically a pre-existing or new conventional water heater, or a water heater specifically designed for solar thermal. In Cyprus and Israel 90 percent of homes have solar water heating systems.


title: Water heating

text: The most basic solar thermal models are the direct-gain type, in which the potable water is directly sent into the collector. Many such systems are said to use "integrated collector storage" (ICS), as direct-gain systems typically have storage integrated within the collector. Heating water directly is inherently more efficient than heating it indirectly via heat exchangers, but such systems offer very limited freeze protection (if any), can easily heat water to temperatures unsafe for domestic use, and ICS systems suffer from severe heat loss on cold nights and cold, cloudy days.


title: Water heating

text: By contrast, "indirect" or "closed-loop" systems do not allow potable water through the panels, but rather pump a heat transfer fluid (either water or a water/antifreeze mix) through the panels. After collecting heat in the panels, the heat transfer fluid flows through a heat exchanger, transferring its heat to the potable hot water. When the panels are cooler than the storage tank or when the storage tank has already reached its maximum temperature, the controller in closed-loop systems stops the circulation pumps. In a "drainback" system, the water drains into a storage tank contained in conditioned or semi-conditioned space, protected from freezing temperatures. With antifreeze systems, however, the pump "must" be run if the panel temperature gets too hot (to prevent degradation of the antifreeze) or too cold (to prevent the water/antifreeze mixture from freezing.)


title: Water heating

text: "Flat panel collectors" are typically used in closed-loop systems. Flat panels, which often resemble skylights, are the most durable type of collector, and they also have the best performance for systems designed for temperatures within of ambient temperature. Flat panels are regularly used in both pure water and antifreeze systems.


title: Water heating

text: Another type of solar collector is the "evacuated tube collector", which are intended for cold climates that do not experience severe hail and/or applications where high temperatures are needed (i.e., over ). Placed in a rack, evacuated tube collectors form a row of glass tubes, each containing absorption fins attached to a central heat-conducting rod (copper or condensation-driven). The "evacuated" description refers to the vacuum created in the glass tubes during the manufacturing process, which results in very low heat loss and lets evacuated tube systems achieve extreme temperatures, far in excess of water's boiling point.


title: Water heating

text: In countries like Iceland and New Zealand, and other volcanic regions, water heating may be done using geothermal heating, rather than combustion.


title: Water heating

text: Where a space-heating water boiler is employed, the traditional arrangement in the UK is to use boiler-heated ("primary") water to heat potable ("secondary") water contained in a cylindrical vessel (usually made of copper)—which is supplied from a cold water storage vessel or container, usually in the roof space of the building. This produces a fairly steady supply of DHW (domestic hot water) at low static pressure head but usually with a good flow. In most other parts of the world, water heating appliances do not use a cold water storage vessel or container, but heat water at pressures close to that of the incoming mains water supply.


title: Water heating

text: Other improvements to water heaters include check valve devices at their inlet and outlet, cycle timers, electronic ignition in the case of fuel-using models, sealed air intake systems in the case of fuel-using models, and pipe insulation. The sealed air-intake system types are sometimes called "band-joist" intake units. "High-efficiency" condensing units can convert up to 98% of the energy in the fuel to heating the water. The exhaust gases of combustion are cooled and are mechanically ventilated either through the roof or through an exterior wall. At high combustion efficiencies a drain must be supplied to handle the water condensed out of the combustion products, which are primarily carbon dioxide and water vapor.


title: Water heating

text: In traditional plumbing in the UK, the space-heating boiler is set up to heat a separate "hot water cylinder" or "water heater" for potable hot water. Such water heaters are often fitted with an auxiliary electrical "immersion heater" for use if the boiler is out of action for a time. Heat from the space-heating boiler is transferred to the water heater vessel/container by means of a heat exchanger, and the boiler operates at a higher temperature than the potable hot water supply. Most potable water heaters in North America are completely separate from the space heating units, due to the popularity of HVAC/forced air systems in North America.