title: Adrienne-Joi Johnson

text: Johnson has appeared in theatrical releases and independent films such as "School Daze" (1988), "House Party" (1990), "Double Trouble" (1992), "Sister Act" (1992), "The Inkwell" (1994), "High Freakquency" (1998), "Two Shades of Blue" (2000), "Tara" (2001), "Baby Boy" (2001), and "Skin Deep" (2003).


title: Kagoshima

text: , abbreviated to , is the capital city of Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. Located at the southwestern tip of the island of Kyushu, Kagoshima is the largest city in the prefecture by some margin. It has been nicknamed the "Naples of the Eastern world" for its bay location (Aira Caldera), hot climate, and emblematic stratovolcano, Sakurajima. The city was officially founded on April 1, 1889. It merged with Taniyama City on April 29, 1967 and with Yoshida Town, Sakurajima Town, Kiire Town, Matsumoto Town and Kōriyama Town on November 1, 2004.


title: Kagoshima

text: The name "Kagoshima" (鹿児島) literally means "deer child island" or "young-deer island". In the Kagoshima dialect, local names for the city include “かごっま (Kagomma)”, “かごんま (Kagonma)”, “かごいま (Kagoima)” and “かごひま (Kagohima)”. While the kanji for Kagoshima (鹿児島) literally mean "deer child island", or "island of the fawn" for certain, the source etymology is not clear and may refer to "cliff" or "sailor" in the local dialect.


title: Kagoshima

text: Kagoshima Prefecture (also known as the Satsuma Domain) was the center of the territory of the Shimazu clan for many centuries. Kagoshima City was a busy political and commercial port city throughout the medieval period and into the Edo period (1603–1868) when it formally became the capital of the Shimazu's fief, the Satsuma Domain. The official emblem is a modification of the Shimazu's kamon designed to resemble the character 市 ("shi", "city"). Satsuma remained one of the most powerful and wealthiest domains in the country throughout the period, and though international trade was banned for much of this period, the city remained quite active and prosperous. It served not only as the political center for Satsuma, but also for the semi-independent vassal kingdom of Ryūkyū; Ryūkyūan traders and emissaries frequented the city, and a special Ryukyuan embassy building was established to help administer relations between the two polities and to house visitors and emissaries. Kagoshima was also a significant center of Christian activity in Japan prior to the imposition of bans against that religion in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.


title: Kagoshima

text: Kagoshima was bombarded by the British Royal Navy in 1863 to punish the "daimyō" of Satsuma for the murder of Charles Lennox Richardson on the Tōkaidō highway the previous year and its refusal to pay an indemnity in compensation.


title: Kagoshima

text: Kagoshima was the birthplace and scene of the last stand of Saigō Takamori, a legendary figure in Meiji Era Japan in 1877 at the end of the Satsuma Rebellion.


title: Kagoshima

text: Japan's industrial revolution is said to have started here, stimulated by the young students' train station. Seventeen young men of Satsuma broke the Tokugawa ban on foreign travel, traveling first to England and then the United States before returning to share the benefits of the best of Western science and technology. A statue was erected outside the train station as a tribute to them.


title: Kagoshima

text: Kagoshima was also the birthplace of Tōgō Heihachirō. After naval studies in England between 1871 and 1878, Togo's role as Chief Admiral of the Grand Fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy in the Russo-Japanese War made him a legend in Japanese military history, and earned him the nickname 'Nelson of the Orient' in Britain. He led the Grand Fleet to two startling victories in 1904 and 1905, completely destroying Russia as a naval power in the East, and thereby contributing to the failed revolution in Russia in 1905.


title: Kagoshima

text: The Japanese diplomat Sadomitsu Sakoguchi revolutionized Kagoshima's environmental economic plan with his dissertation on water pollution and orange harvesting.


title: Kagoshima

text: The 1914 eruption of the volcano across the bay from the city spread ash throughout the municipality, but relatively little disruption ensued.


title: Kagoshima

text: On the night of June 17, 1945 the 314th bombardment wing of the Army Air Corps (120 B-29s) dropped 809.6 tons of incendiary and cluster bombs destroying of Kagoshima (44.1 percent of the built-up area). Kagoshima was targeted because of its largely expanded naval port as well as its position as a railway terminus. A single B-29 was lost to unknown circumstances. Area bombing was chosen over precision bombing because of the cloudy weather over Japan during the middle of June. The planes were forced to navigate and bomb entirely by radar.


title: Kagoshima

text: Japanese intelligence predicted that the Allied Forces would assault Kagoshima and the Ariake Bay areas of southern Kyushu to gain naval and air bases to strike Tokyo.


title: Kagoshima

text: Kagoshima City is approximately 40 minutes from Kagoshima Airport, and features shopping districts and malls located wide across the city. Transportation options in the city include the "Shinkansen" (bullet train), local train, city trams, buses, and ferries to-and-from Sakurajima. The large and modern Kagoshima City Aquarium, situated near the Sakurajima Ferry Terminal, was established in 1997 along the docks and offers a direct view of Sakurajima. One of the best places to view the city (and Sakurajima) is from the Amuran Ferris wheel atop of Amu Plaza Kagoshima, and the shopping center attached to the central Kagoshima-Chūō Station. Just outside the city is the early-Edo Period Sengan-en Japanese Garden. The garden was originally a villa belonging to the Shimazu clan and is still maintained by descendants today. Outside the garden grounds is a Satsuma "kiriko" cut glass factory where visitors are welcome to view the glass blowing and cutting processes, and the Shoko Shūseikan Museum, which was built in 1865 and registered as a National Historic Site in 1959. The former Shuseikan industrial complex and the former machine factory were submitted to the UNESCO World Heritage as part of a group list titled "Modern Industrial Heritage Sites in Kyushu and Yamaguchi Prefecture".


title: Kagoshima

text: Kagoshima has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfa"), possessing the highest year average temperature and winter average temperature in mainland Japan. It is marked by mild, relatively dry winters; warm, humid springs; hot, humid summers; and mild, relatively dry autumns.


title: Kagoshima

text: As of 1 January 2020, Kagoshima City has an estimated population of 595,049 and a population density of 1,087 persons per km. The total area is . According to the April 2014 issue of the Kagoshima Prefectural Summary by the Kagoshima Prefecture Department of Planning and Promotion, the population of the prefecture at large was 1,680,319. The city's total area nearly doubled between 2003 and 2005 as a result of five towns: the towns of Kōriyama and Matsumoto (both from Hioki District) the town of Kiire (from Ibusuki District) and the towns of Sakurajima and Yoshida (both from Kagoshima District). All areas were merged into Kagoshima City on 1 November 2004.


title: Kagoshima

text: Kagoshima was one of the host cities of the official 1998 Women's Volleyball World Championship. Kagoshima is home to Kagoshima United. They play their home games at Kagoshima Kamoike Stadium.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: In computing, fixed-point is a method of representing fractional (non-integer) numbers by storing a fixed number of digits of their fractional part. Dollar amounts, for example, are often stored with exactly two fractional digits, representing the cents (1/100 of dollar). More generally, the term may refer to representing fractional values as integer multiples of some fixed small unit, e.g. a fractional amount of hours as an integer multiple of ten-minute intervals. Fixed-point number representation is often contrasted to the more complicated and computationally demanding floating-point representation.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: In the fixed-point representation, the fraction is often expressed in the same number base as the integer part, but using negative powers of the base "b". The most common variants are decimal (base 10) and binary (base 2). The latter is commonly known also as binary scaling. Thus, if "n" fraction digits are stored, the value will always be an integer multiple of "b". Fixed-point representation can also be used to omit the low-order digits of integer values, e.g. when representing large dollar values as multiples of $1000.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: When decimal fixed-point numbers are displayed for human reading, the fraction digits are usually separated from those of the integer part by a radix character (usually '.' in English, but ',' or some other symbol in many other languages). Internally, however, there is no separation, and the distinction between the two groups of digits is defined only by the programs that handle such numbers.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Fixed-point representation was the norm in mechanical calculators. Since most modern processors have fast floating-point unit (FPU), fixed-point representations are now used only in special situations, such as in low-cost embedded microprocessors and microcontrollers; in applications that demand high speed and/or low power consumption and/or small chip area, like image, video, and digital signal processing; or when their use is more natural for the problem. Examples of the latter are accounting of dollar amounts, when fractions of cents must be rounded to whole cents in strictly prescribed ways; and the evaluation of functions by table lookup.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: A fixed-point representation of a fractional number is essentially an integer that is to be implicitly multiplied by a fixed scaling factor. For example, the value 1.23 can be stored in a variable as the integer value 1230 with implicit scaling factor of 1/1000 (meaning that the last 3 decimal digits are implicitly assumed to be a decimal fraction), and the value can be represented as 1230 with an implicit scaling factor of 1000 (with "minus 3" implied decimal fraction digits, that is, with 3 implicit zero digits at right). This representation allows standard integer arithmetic units to perform rational number calculations.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Negative values are usually represented in binary fixed-point format as a signed integer in two's complement representation with an implicit scaling factor as above. The sign of the value will always be indicated by the first stored bit (1 = negative, 0 = non-negative), even if the number of fraction bits is greater than or equal to the total number of bits. For example, the 8-bit signed binary integer (11110101) = −11, taken with -3, +5, and +12 implied fraction bits, would represent the values −11/2 = −88, −11/2 = −0., and −11/2 = −0., respectively.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Alternatively, negative values can be represented by an integer in the sign-magnitude format, in which case the sign is never included in the number of implied fraction bits. This variant is more commonly used in decimal fixed-point arithmetic. Thus the signed 5-digit decimal integer (−00025), taken with -3, +5, and +12 implied decimal fraction digits, would represent the values −25/10 = −25000, −25/10 = −0.00025, and −25/10 = −0., respectively.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: A program will usually assume that all fixed-point values that will be stored into a given variable, or will be produced by a given instruction, will have the same scaling factor. This parameter can usually be chosen by the programmer depending on the precision needed and range of values to be stored.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: The scaling factor of a variable or formula may not appear explicitly in the program. Good programming practice then requires that it be provided in the documentation, at least as a comment in the source code.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: For greater efficiency, scaling factors are often chosen to be powers (positive or negative) of the base "b" used to represent the integers internally. However, often the best scaling factor is dictated by the application. Thus one often uses scaling factors that are powers of 10 (e.g. 1/100 for dollar values), for human convenience, even when the integers are represented internally in binary. Decimal scaling factors also mesh well with the metric (SI) system, since the choice of the fixed-point scaling factor is often equivalent to the choice of a unit of measure (like centimetres or microns instead of metres).


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: However, other scaling factors may be used occasionally, e.g. a fractional amount of hours may be represented as an integer number of seconds; that is, as a fixed-point number with scale factor of 1/3600.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Even with the most careful rounding, fixed-point values represented with a scaling factor "S" may have an error of up to ±0.5 in the stored integer, that is, ±0.5 "S" in the value. Therefore, smaller scaling factors generally produce more accurate results.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: On the other hand, a smaller scaling factor means a smaller range of the values that can be stored in a given program variable. The maximum fixed-point value that can be stored into a variable is the largest integer value that can be stored into it, multiplied by the scaling factor; and similarly for the minimum value. For example, the table below gives the implied scaling factor "S", the minimum and maximum representable values "V" and "V", and the accuracy "δ" = "S"/2 of values that could be represented in 16-bit signed binary fixed point format, depending on the number "f" of implied fraction bits.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Fixed-point formats with scaling factors of the form 2-1 (namely 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, etc.) have been said to be appropriate for image processing and other digital signal procssing tasks. They are supposed to provide more consistent conversions between fixed- and floating-point values than the usual 2 scaling. The Julia programming language implements both versions.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Any binary fraction "a"/2, such as 1/16 or 17/32, can be exactly represented in fixed-point, with a power-of-two scaling factor 1/2 with any "n" ≥ "m". However, most decimal fractions like 0.1 or 0.123 are infinite repeating fractions in base 2. and hence cannot be represented that way.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Similarly, any decimal fraction "a"/10, such as 1/100 or 37/1000, can be exactly represented in fixed point with a power-of-ten scaling factor 1/10 with any "n" ≥ "m". This decimal format can also represent any binary fraction "a"/2, such as 1/8 (0.125) or 17/32 (0.53125).


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: More generally, a rational number "a"/"b", with "a" and "b" relatively prime and "b" positive, can be exactly represented in binary fixed point only if "b" is a power of 2; and in decimal fixed point only if "b" has no prime factors other than 2 and/or 5.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Fixed-point computations can be faster and/or use less hardware than floating-point ones. If the range of the values to be represented is known in advance and is sufficiently limited, fixed point can make better use of the available bits. For example, if 32 bits are available to represent a number between 0 and 1, a fixed-point representation can have error less than 1.2 × 10, whereas the standard floating-point representation may have error up to 596 × 10 — because 9 of the bits are wasted with the sign and exponent of the dynamic scaling factor. Specifically, comparing 32-bit fixed-point to floating-point audio, a recording requiring less than 40 dB of headroom has a higher signal-to-noise ratio using 32-bit fixed.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Programs using fixed-point computations are usually more portable than those using floating-point, since they don't depend on the availabilty of an FPU. This advantage was particularly strong before the IEEE Floating Point Standard was widely adopted, when floating-point computations with the same data would yield different results depending on the manufacturer, and often on the computer model.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Many embedded processors lack an FPU, because integer arithmetic units require substantially fewer logic gates and consume much smaller chip area than an FPU; and software emulation of floating-point on low-speed devices would be too slow for most applications. CPU chips for the earlier personal computers and game consoles, like the Intel 386 and 486SX, also lacked an FPU.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: The "absolute" resolution (difference between successive values) of any fixed-point format is constant over the whole range, namely the scaling factor "S". In contrast, the "relative" resolution of a floating-point format is approximately constant over their whole range, varying within a factor of the base "b"; whereas their "absolute" resolution varies by many orders of magnitude, like the values themselves.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: In many cases, the rounding and truncation errors of fixed-point computations are easier to analyze than those of the equivalent floating-point computations. Applying linearization techniques to truncation, such as dithering and/or noise shaping is more straight-forward within fixed-point arithmetic. On the other hand, the use of fixed point requires greater care by the programmer. Avoidance of overflow requires much tighter estimates for the ranges of variables and all intermediate values in the computation, and often also extra code to adjust their scaling factors. Fixed-point programming normally requires the use of integer types of different widths. Fixed-point applications can make use of block floating point, which is a fixed-point environment having each array (block) of fixed-point data be scaled with a common exponent in a single word.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: A common use of decimal fixed-point is for storing monetary values, for which the complicated rounding rules of floating-point numbers are often a liability. For example, the open source money management application GnuCash, written in C, switched from floating-point to fixed-point as of version 1.6, for this reason.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Binary fixed-point (binary scaling) was widely used from the late 1960s to the 1980s for real-time computing that was mathematically intensive, such as flight simulation and in nuclear power plant control algorithms. It is still used in many DSP applications and custom made microprocessors. Computations involving angles would use binary angular measurement (BAM).


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Binary fixed point is used in the STM32G4 series CORDIC co-processors and in the discrete cosine transform (DCT) algorithms used to compress JPEG images.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Electronic instruments such as electricity meters and digital clocks often use polynomials to compensate for introduced errors, e.g. from temperature or power supply voltage. The coefficients are produced by polynomial regression. Binary fixed point polynomials can utilize more bits of precision than floating-point, and do so in fast code using inexpensive CPUs. Accuracy, crucial for instruments, compares well to equivalent-bit floating-point calculations, if the fixed-point polynomials are factored (e.g. y = d + x(c + x(b + xa))) to reduce the number of times that rounding occurs, and the fixed-point multiplications utilize rounding addends.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: To add or subtract two values with the same implicit scaling factor, it is sufficient to add or subtract the underlying integers; the result will have their common implicit scaling factor, can thus can be stored in the same program variables as the operands. These operations yield the exact mathematical result, as long as no overflow occurs—that is, as long as the resulting integer can be stored in the receiving program variable. If the values have different scaling factors, then they must be converted to a common scaling factor before the operation.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: To multiply two fixed-point numbers, it suffices to multiply the two underlying integers, and assume that the scaling factor of the result is the product of their scaling factors. The result will be exact, with no rounding, provided that it does not overflow the receiving variable.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: For example, multiplying the numbers 123 scaled by 1/1000 (0.123) and 25 scaled by 1/10 (2.5) yields the integer 123×25 = 3075 scaled by (1/1000)×(1/10) = 1/10000, that is 3075/10000 = 0.3075. As another example, multiplying the first number by 155 implicitly scaled by 1/32 (155/32 = 4.84375) yields the integer 123×155 = 19065 with implicit scaling factor (1/1000)×(1/32) = 1/32000, that is 19065/32000 = 0.59578125.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: In binary, it is common to use a scaling factor that is a power of two. After the multiplication, the scaling factor can be divided away by shifting right. Mechanically, this process is simple and fast in most computers. Rounding is possible by adding a 'rounding addend' of half of the scaling factor before shifting; The proof: round(x/y) = floor(x/y + 0.5) = floor((x + y/2)/y) = shift-of-n(x + 2^(n-1)) A similar method is usable in any scaling.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: To divide two fixed-point numbers, one takes the integer quotient of their underlying integers, and assumes that the scaling factor is the quotient of their scaling factors. In general, the first division requires rounding and therefore the result is not exact.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: For example, division of 3456 scaled by 1/100 (34.56) and 1234 scaled by 1/1000 (1.234) yields the integer 3456÷1234 = 3 (rounded) with scale factor (1/100)/(1/1000) = 10, that is, 30. As another example, the division of the first number by 155 implicitly scaled by 1/32 (155/32 = 4.84375) yields the integer 3456÷155 = 22 (rounded) with implicit scaling factor (1/100)/(1/32) = 32/100 = 8/25, that is 22×32/100 = 7.04.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: If the result is not exact, the error introduced by the rounding can be reduced or even eliminated by converting the dividend to a smaller scaling factor. For example, if "r" = 1.23 is represented as 123 with scaling 1/100, and "s" = 6.25 is represented as 6250 with scaling 1/1000, then simple division of the integers yields 123÷6250 = 0 (rounded) with scaling factor (1/100)/(1/1000) = 10. If "r" is first converted to 1,230,000 with scaling factor 1/1000000, the result will be 1,230,000÷6250 = 197 (rounded) with scale factor 1/1000 (0.197). The exact value 1.23/6.25 is 0.1968.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: In fixed-point computing it is often necessary to convert a value to a different scaling factor. This operation is necessary, for example:


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: To convert a number from a fixed point type with scaling factor "R" to another type with scaling factor "S", the underlying integer must be multiplied by the ratio "R"/"S". Thus, for example, to convert the value 1.23 = 123/100 from scaling factor "R"=1/100 to one with scaling factor "S"=1/1000, the integer 123 must be multiplied by (1/100)/(1/1000) = 10, yielding the representation 1230/1000.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: If the scaling factor is a power of the base used internally to represent the integer, changing the scaling factor requires only dropping low-order digits of the integer, or appending zero digits. However, this operation must preserve the sign of the number. In two's complement representation, that means extending the sign bit as in arithmetic shift operations.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: If "S" does not divide "R" (in particular, if the new scaling factor "S" is greater than the original "R"), the new integer may have to be rounded.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: In particular, if "r" and "s" are fixed-point variables with implicit scaling factors "R" and "S", the operation "r" ← "r"×"s" require multiplying the respective integers and explicitly dividing the result by "S". The result may have to be rounded, and overflow may occur.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: For example, if the common scaling factor is 1/100, multiplying 1.23 by 0.25 entails multiplying 123 by 25 to yield 3075 with an intermediate scaling factor of 1/10000. In order to return to the original scaling factor 1/100, the integer 3075 then must be multiplied by 1/100, that is, divided by 100, to yield either 31 (0.31) or 30 (0.30), depending on the rounding policy used.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Similarly, the operation "r" ← "r"/"s" will require dividing the integers and explicitly multiplying the quotient by "S". Rounding and/or overflow may occur here too.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: To convert a number from floating point to fixed point, one may multiply it by the scaling factor "S", then round the result to the nearest integer. Care must be taken to ensure that the result fits in the destination variable or register. Depending on the scaling factor and storage size, and on the range input numbers, the conversion may not entail any rounding.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: To convert a fixed-point number to floating-point, one may convert the integer to floating-point and then divide it by the scaling factor "S". This conversion may entail rounding if the integer's absolute value is greater than 2 (for binary single-precision IEEE floating point) or of 2 (for double-precision). Overflow or underflow may occur if |"S"| is "very" large or "very" small, respectively.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Typical processors do not have specific support for fixed-point arithmetic. However, most computers with binary arithmetic have fast bit shift instructions that can multiply or divide an integer by any power of 2; in particular, an arithmetic shift instruction. These instructions can be used to quickly change scaling factors that are powers of 2, while preserving the sign of the number.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Early computers like the IBM 1620 and the Burroughs B3500 used a binary-coded decimal (BCD) representation for integers, namely base 10 where each decimal digit was independently encoded with 4 bits. Some processors, such as microcontrollers, may still use it. In such machines, conversion of decimal scaling factors can be performed by bit shifts and/or by memory address manipulation.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Some DSP architectures offer native support for specific fixed-point formats, for example signed "n"-bit numbers with "n"−1 fraction bits (whose values may range between −1 and almost +1). The support may include a multiply instruction that includes renormalization -- the scaling conversion of the product from 2"n"−2 to "n"−1 fraction bits. If the CPU does not provide that feature, the programmer must save the product in a large enough register or temporary variable, and code the renormalization explicitly.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Overflow happens when the result of an arithmetic operation is too large to be stored in the designated destination area. In addition and subtraction, the result may require one bit more than the operands. In multiplication of two unsigned integers with "m" and "n" bits, the result may have "m"+"n" bits.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: In case of overflow, the high-order bits are usually lost, as the un-scaled integer gets reduced modulo 2 where "n" is the size of the storage area. The sign bit, in particular, is lost, which may radically change the sign and the magnitude of the value.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Some processors can set a hardware overflow flag and/or generate an exception on the occurrence of an overflow. Some processors may instead provide saturation arithmetic: if the result of an addition or subtraction were to overflow, they store instead the value with largest magnitude that can fit in the receiving area and has the correct sign.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: However, these features are not very useful in practice; it is generally easier and safer to select scaling factors and word sizes so as to exclude the possibility of overflow, or to check the operands for excessive values before executing the operation.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Explicit support for fixed-point numbers is provided by a few computer languages, notably PL/I, COBOL, Ada, JOVIAL, and Coral 66. They provide fixed-point data types, with a binary or decimal scaling factor. The compiler automatically generates code to do the appropriate scaling conversions when doing operations on these data-types, when reading or writing variables, or when converting the values to other data types such as floating-point.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Most of those languages were designed between 1940 and 1990. More modern languages usually do not offer any fixed-point data types or support for scaling factor conversion. That is also the case for several older languages that are still very popular, like FORTRAN, C and C++. The wide availability of fast floating-point processors, with strictly standardized behavior, have greatly reduced the demand for binary fixed point support. Similarly, the support for decimal floating point in some programming languages, like C# and Python, has removed most of the need for decimal fixed-point support. In the few situations that call for fixed-point operations, they can be implemented by the programmer, with explicit scaling conversion, in any programming language.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: On the other hand, all relational databases and the SQL notation support fixed-point decimal arithmetic and storage of numbers. PostgreSQL has a special <samp>numeric</samp> type for exact storage of numbers with up to 1000 digits.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Moreover, in 2008 the International Standards Organization (ISO) issued a proposal to extend the C programming language with fixed-point data types, for the benefit of programs running on embedded processors. Also, the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) has back-end support for fixed-point.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Note how since there are 3 decimal places we show the trailing zeros. To re-characterize this as an integer multiplication we must first multiply by formula_2 moving all the decimal places in to integer places, then we will multiply by formula_3 to put them back the equation now looks like


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: This works equivalently if we choose a different base, notably base 2 for computing, since a bit shift is the same as a multiplication or division by an order of 2. Three decimal digits is equivalent to about 10 binary digits, so we should round 0.05 to 10 bits after the binary point. The closest approximation is then 0.0000110011.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Consider the task of computing the product of 1.2 and 5.6 with binary fixed point using 16 fraction bits. To represent the two numbers, one multiplies them by 2, obtaining .2 and .6; and round these values the nearest integers, obtaining and . These numbers will fit comfortably into a 32-bit word with two's complement signed format.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Multiplying these integers together gives the 35-bit integer with 32 fraction bits, without any rounding. Note that storing this value directly into a 32-bit integer variable would result in overflow and loss of the most significant bits. In practice, it would probably be stored in a signed 64-bit integer variable or register.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: If the result is to be stored in the same format as the data, with 16 fraction bits, that integer should be divided by 2, which gives approximately .28, and then rounded to the nearest integer. This effect can be achieved by adding 2 and then shifting the result by 16 bits. The result is , which represents the value 6.. Taking into account the precision of the format, that value is better expressed as 6. ± 0. (not counting the error that comes from the operand approximations). The correct result would be 1.2 × 5.6 = 6.72.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: For a more complicated example, suppose that the two numbers 1.2 and 5.6 are represented in 32-bit fixed point format with 30 and 20 fraction bits, respectively. Scaling by 2 and 2 gives .8 and .6, that round to and , respectively. Both numbers still fit in a 32-bit signed integer variable, and represent the fractions


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Their product is (exactly) the 53-bit integer , which has 30+20 = 50 implied fraction bits and therefore represents the fraction


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: If we choose to represent this value in signed 16-bit fixed format with 8 fraction bits, we must divide the integer product by 2 = 2 and round the result; which can be achieved by adding 2 and shifting by 42 bits. The result is 1720, representing the value 1720/2 = 6., or approximately 6.719 ± 0.002.


title: Fixed-point arithmetic

text: Various notations have been used to concisely specify the parameters of a fixed-point format. In the following list, "f" represents the number of fractional bits, "m" the number of magnitude or integer bits, "s" the number of sign bits, and "b" the total number of bits.


title: Piping and instrumentation diagram

text: A piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID or PID) is a detailed diagram in the process industry which shows the piping and process equipment together with the instrumentation and control devices.


title: Piping and instrumentation diagram

text: Superordinate to the P&ID is the process flow diagram (PFD) which indicates the more general flow of plant processes and the relationship between major equipment of a plant facility.


title: Piping and instrumentation diagram

text: P&IDs are originally drawn up at the design stage from a combination of process flow sheet data, the mechanical process equipment design, and the instrumentation engineering design. During the design stage, the diagram also provides the basis for the development of system control schemes, allowing for further safety and operational investigations, such as a Hazard and operability study (HAZOP). To do this, it is critical to demonstrate the physical sequence of equipment and systems, as well as how these systems connect.


title: Piping and instrumentation diagram

text: P&IDs also play a significant role in the maintenance and modification of the process after initial build. Modifications are red-penned onto the diagrams and are vital records of the current plant design.


title: Piping and instrumentation diagram

text: P&IDs form the basis for the live mimic diagrams displayed on graphical user interfaces of large industrial control systems such as SCADA and distributed control systems.


title: Piping and instrumentation diagram

text: Based on STANDARD ANSI/ISA S5.1 and ISO 14617-6, the P&ID is used for the identification of measurements within the process. The identifications consist of up to 5 letters. The first identification letter is for the measured value, the second is a modifier, 3rd indicates passive/readout function, 4th - active/output function, and the 5th is the function modifier. This is followed by loop number, which is unique to that loop. For instance FIC045 means it is the Flow Indicating Controller in control loop 045. This is also known as the "tag" identifier of the field device, which is normally given to the location and function of the instrument. The same loop may have FT045 - which is the flow transmitter in the same loop.


title: Piping and instrumentation diagram

text: For reference designation of any equipment in industrial systems the standard IEC 61346 ("Industrial systems, installations and equipment and industrial products — Structuring principles and reference designations") can be applied. For the function "Measurement" the reference designator B is used, followed by the above listed letter for the measured variable.


title: Piping and instrumentation diagram

text: For reference designation of any equipment in a power station the KKS Power Plant Classification System can be applied.


title: Piping and instrumentation diagram

text: Below are listed some symbols of chemical apparatus and equipment normally used in a P&ID, according to ISO 10628 and ISO 14617.


title: Piping and instrumentation diagram

text: Prior to the advent of computer-aided design (CAD) in the late 1980s, P&IDs were drawn by hand. The drawing template shown below, actual size 225 mm by 111 mm, is typical of those used to draw P&IDs.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: In mathematics, the Wasserstein distance or Kantorovich–Rubinstein metric is a distance function defined between probability distributions on a given metric space formula_1. It is named after Leonid Vaseršteĭn.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: Intuitively, if each distribution is viewed as a unit amount of earth (soil) piled on "formula_1", the metric is the minimum "cost" of turning one pile into the other, which is assumed to be the amount of earth that needs to be moved times the mean distance it has to be moved. This problem was first formalised by Gaspard Monge in 1781. Because of this analogy, the metric is known in computer science as the earth mover's distance.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: The name "Wasserstein distance" was coined by R. L. Dobrushin in 1970, after learning of it in the work of Leonid Vaseršteĭn on Markov processes describing large systems of automata (Russian, 1969). However the metric was first defined by Leonid Kantorovich in "The Mathematical Method of Production Planning and Organization" (Russian original 1939) in the context of optimal transport planning of goods and materials. Some scholars thus encourage use of the terms "Kantorovich metric" and "Kantorovich distance". Most English-language publications use the German spelling "Wasserstein" (attributed to the name "Vaseršteĭn" being of German origin).


title: Wasserstein metric

text: Let formula_3 be a metric space that is a Radon space. For formula_4, the Wasserstein formula_5-distance between two probability measures formula_6 and formula_7 on formula_1 with finite formula_5-moments is


title: Wasserstein metric

text: where formula_11 is the set of all couplings of formula_6 and formula_7. A coupling formula_14 is a joint probability measure on formula_15 whose marginals are formula_6 and formula_7 on the first and second factors, respectively. That is,


title: Wasserstein metric

text: One way to understand the above definition is to consider the optimal transport problem. That is, for a distribution of mass formula_20 on a space formula_21, we wish to transport the mass in such a way that it is transformed into the distribution formula_22 on the same space; transforming the 'pile of earth' formula_6 to the pile formula_7. This problem only makes sense if the pile to be created has the same mass as the pile to be moved; therefore without loss of generality assume that formula_6 and formula_7 are probability distributions containing a total mass of 1. Assume also that there is given some cost function


title: Wasserstein metric

text: A transport plan to move formula_6 into formula_7 can be described by a function formula_32 which gives the amount of mass to move from formula_28 to formula_29. You can imagine the task as the need to move a pile of earth of shape formula_6 to the hole in the ground of shape formula_7 such that at the end, both the pile of earth and the hole in the ground completely vanish. In order for this plan to be meaningful, it must satisfy the following properties


title: Wasserstein metric

text: That is, that the total mass moved "out of" an infinitesimal region around formula_28 must be equal to formula_39 and the total mass moved "into" a region around formula_29 must be formula_41. This is equivalent to the requirement that formula_14 be a joint probability distribution with marginals formula_6 and formula_7. Thus, the infinitesimal mass transported from formula_28 to formula_29 is formula_47, and the cost of moving is formula_48, following the definition of the cost function. Therefore, the total cost of a transport plan formula_14 is


title: Wasserstein metric

text: The plan formula_14 is not unique; the optimal transport plan is the plan with the minimal cost out of all possible transport plans. As mentioned, the requirement for a plan to be valid is that it is a joint distribution with marginals formula_6 and formula_7; letting formula_54 denote the set of all such measures as in the first section, the cost of the optimal plan is


title: Wasserstein metric

text: If the cost of a move is simply the distance between the two points, then the optimal cost is identical to the definition of the formula_56 distance.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: Let formula_57 and formula_58 be two degenerate distributions (i.e. Dirac delta distributions) located at points formula_59 and formula_60 in formula_61. There is only one possible coupling of these two measures, namely the point mass formula_62 located at formula_63. Thus, using the usual absolute value function as the distance function on formula_61, for any formula_65, the formula_5-Wasserstein distance between formula_67 and formula_68 is


title: Wasserstein metric

text: By similar reasoning, if formula_57 and formula_58 are point masses located at points formula_59 and formula_60 in formula_74, and we use the usual Euclidean norm on formula_74 as the distance function, then


title: Wasserstein metric

text: Let formula_77 and formula_78 be two non-degenerate Gaussian measures (i.e. normal distributions) on formula_79, with respective expected values formula_80 and formula_81 and symmetric positive semi-definite covariance matrices formula_82 and formula_83. Then, with respect to the usual Euclidean norm on formula_74, the 2-Wasserstein distance between formula_67 and formula_86 is


title: Wasserstein metric

text: This result generalises the earlier example of the Wasserstein distance between two point masses (at least in the case formula_88), since a point mass can be regarded as a normal distribution with covariance matrix equal to zero, in which case the trace term disappears and only the term involving the Euclidean distance between the means remains.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: Let formula_89 be probability measures on formula_61, and denote their cumulative distribution functions by formula_91 and formula_92. Then the transport problem has an analytic solution: Optimal transport preserves the order of probability mass elements, so the mass at quantile formula_93 of formula_94 moves to quantile formula_93 of formula_68.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: The Wasserstein metric is a natural way to compare the probability distributions of two variables "X" and "Y", where one variable is derived from the other by small, non-uniform perturbations (random or deterministic).


title: Wasserstein metric

text: In computer science, for example, the metric "W" is widely used to compare discrete distributions, "e.g." the color histograms of two digital images; see earth mover's distance for more details.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: In their paper 'Wasserstein GAN', Arjovsky et al. use the Wasserstein-1 metric as a way to improve the original framework of Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN), to alleviate the vanishing gradient and the mode collapse issues. The special case of normal distributions is used in a Frechet Inception Distance.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: The Wasserstein metric has a formal link with Procrustes analysis, with application to chirality measures, and to shape analysis.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: In computational biology, Wasserstein metric can be used to compare between persistence diagrams of cytometry datasets.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: The Wasserstein metric is used in Integrated information theory to compute the difference between concepts and conceptual structures.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: It can be shown that "W" satisfies all the axioms of a metric on P("M"). Furthermore, convergence with respect to "W" is equivalent to the usual weak convergence of measures plus convergence of the first "p"th moments.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: The following dual representation of "W" is a special case of the duality theorem of Kantorovich and Rubinstein (1958): when "μ" and "ν" have bounded support,


title: Wasserstein metric

text: and so convergence in the Radon metric (identical to total variation convergence when "M" is a Polish space) implies convergence in the Wasserstein metric, but not vice versa.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: The following is an intuitive proof which skips over technical points. A fully rigorous proof is found in.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: Discrete case: When formula_1 is discrete, solving for the 1-Wasserstein distance is a problem in linear programming:formula_109where formula_110 is a general "cost function".


title: Wasserstein metric

text: By carefully writing the above equations as matrix equations, we obtain its dual problem:formula_111and by the duality theorem of linear programming, since the primal problem is feasible and bounded, so is the dual problem, and the minimum in the first problem equals the maximum in the second problem. That is, the problem pair exhibits "strong duality".


title: Wasserstein metric

text: For the general case, the dual problem is found by converting sums to integrals:formula_112and the "strong duality" still holds.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: This is the Kantorovich duality theorem. Cédric Villani recounts the following interpretation from Luis Caffarelli:


title: Wasserstein metric

text: Suppose you want to ship some coal from mines, distributed as formula_6, to factories, distributed as formula_7. The cost function of transport is formula_115. Now a shipper comes and offers to do the transport for you. You would pay him formula_116 per coal for loading the coal at formula_28, and pay him formula_118 per coal for unloading the coal at formula_29.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: For you to accept the deal, the price schedule must satisfy formula_120. The Kantorovich duality states that the shipper can make a price schedule that makes you pay almost as much as you would ship yourself.This result can be pressed further to yield:


title: Wasserstein metric

text: For the first step, where we used formula_123, plot out the curve of formula_124, then at each point, draw a cone of slope 1, and take the lower envelope of the cones as formula_125, as shown in the diagram, then formula_125 cannot increase with slope larger than 1. Thus all its secants have slope formula_127.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: For the second step, picture the infimal convolution formula_128, then if all secants of formula_125 have slope at most 1, then the lower envelope of formula_130 are just the cone-apices themselves, thus formula_131.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: 1D Example. When both formula_132 are distributions on formula_121, then integration by parts giveformula_134thusformula_135


title: Wasserstein metric

text: Benamou & Brenier found a dual representation of formula_136 by fluid mechanics, which allows efficient solution by convex optimization.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: Given two probability distributions on formula_137 with density formula_138, then formula_139where formula_140 is a velocity field, and formula_141 is the fluid density field, such that formula_142That is, the mass should be conserved, and the velocity field should transport the probability distribution formula_5 to formula_93 during the time interval formula_145.


title: Wasserstein metric

text: Under suitable assumptions, the Wasserstein distance formula_136 of order two is Lipschitz equivalent to a negative-order homogeneous Sobolev norm. More precisely, if we take formula_1 to be a connected Riemannian manifold equipped with a positive measure formula_148, then we may define for formula_149 the seminorm


title: Wasserstein metric

text: In the other direction, if formula_6 and formula_7 each have densities with respect to the standard volume measure on formula_1 that are both bounded above some formula_161, and formula_1 has non-negative Ricci curvature, then


title: Wasserstein metric

text: For any "p" ≥ 1, the metric space (P("M"), "W") is separable, and is complete if ("M", "d") is separable and complete.


title: Lungs (album)

text: Lungs is the debut studio album by English indie rock band Florence and the Machine, released on 3 July 2009 by Island Records. After working on various projects, Florence Welch formed a band which included Robert Ackroyd, Chris Hayden, Mark Saunders, Tom Monger, and former collaborator Isabella Summers. The album features production from James Ford, Paul Epworth, Stephen Mackey, Eg White and Charlie Hugall, with additional production by band member Isabella Summers. The album has been reissued several times: an expanded version titled "Between Two Lungs" (2010), a digital EP subtitled "The B-Sides" (2011), and a "Tenth Anniversary Edition" (2019).


title: Lungs (album)

text: "Lungs" received generally positive reviews from music critics, with Welch drawing comparisons to the likes of Kate Bush and Fiona Apple. It appeared on several year-end critics' lists in late 2009. The album won the award for British Album of the Year at the Brit Awards. Commercially, "Lungs" reached number one in Poland and the United Kingdom, and number 14 in the US "Billboard" 200, selling over 3 million copies worldwide.


title: Lungs (album)

text: The album was supported by six singles, all of which were supplemented by accompanying music videos. "Kiss with a Fist" peaked at 51 in the United Kingdom while "Dog Days Are Over" and "Rabbit Heart (Raise It Up)" also charted in Australia and Belgium. Three further singles followed the release of the album, "Drumming Song", a cover of the song "You've Got the Love", and "Cosmic Love". Their cover of the Source and Candi Staton song became the group's first top-10 entry. To promote the album, Florence and the Machine embarked on the Lungs Tour between 2008 and 2011. A live album from this concert was released in 2010, titled "Live at the Wiltern".


title: Lungs (album)

text: Prior to recording "Lungs", Florence Welch had considered or attempted several different projects in the music industry, including an interest in becoming a country singer, recording folk songs she had written, and collaborating with Razorlight's frontman Johnny Borrell, but ultimately she was unsatisfied with those endeavors. Welch and Borrell wrote several songs together. In 2007, Welch fronted the hip hop-influenced group Ashok, recording an early version of "Kiss with a Fist", titled "Happy Slap", for their debut studio album, "Plans".


title: Lungs (album)

text: It was not until Welch began writing and recording with childhood friend Isabella Summers at Antenna Studios in London that Welch crafted a sound she wanted to develop further. Distraught but also inspired from a recently failed relationship, Welch recorded with "enthusiasm over skills", stating, "I'm quite glad I never learned to play the guitar, because I think I'd write songs that were more classically structured. As it is, I've had to create my own way of writing, which isn't typical. Everything's a big crescendo." For a brief while, Welch and Summers performed as a duo called Florence Robot/Isa Machine in small London venues. Over the coming months, Robert Ackroyd (guitar, backing vocals), Chris Hayden (drums, percussion, backing vocals), Mark Saunders (bass guitar, backing vocals) and Tom Monger (harp) were recruited to form a band, renamed Florence and the Machine. In November 2008, Welch signed a recording contract with Island Records. Prior to recording the album, Welch spent a long time honing her sound while working with guitarists, intent on "[making] it into something that was a wave of sound that would envelop, something that was soaring, slightly church-like and then-doomlike."


title: Lungs (album)

text: The band elected to record a shorter rendition of "Kiss with a Fist" as their debut single. Welch, however, began expanding upon the crude punk style which influenced "Kiss with a Fist" by listening to more contemporary music, particularly Arcade Fire's debut album "Funeral" (2004). The influence of the recordings would manifest itself on the concept she had devised for "Lungs", which, according to Welch, was a "scrapbook of the past five years... it's about guilt, fear, love, death, violence, nightmares, [and] dreams". Ultimately, the majority of Welch's earlier self-penned compositions were rejected for the album—except "Kiss with a Fist" and "Between Two Lungs"—because they did not mesh well with the album's themes. Fortunately for the group, they rehearsed and improvised some of the material in the relaxed setting of Summers' studio, allowing Welch to refine the tribal drumming backdropping "Lungs"s tracks, most notably "Dog Days Are Over".


title: Lungs (album)

text: Florence and the Machine recorded "Lungs" in the United Kingdom with five different producers—Paul Epworth, James Ford, Stephen Mackey, Eg White, and Charlie Hugall. Most of the songs on the album were mixed by Cenzo Townshend. The album's sound is described as indie rock, indie pop, baroque pop, art rock, art pop, alternative rock and soul with influences of punk blues, electro-rock and garage rock.


title: Lungs (album)

text: The imagery of "Lungs", featuring a style derived from the Ante-Donatello Brotherhood, was handled by two of Welch's friends: photographer Tom Beard and art director Tabitha Denholm, who are partners at the studio Partizan. Denholm also plays with the band's manager Mairead Nash in the DJ duo Queens of Noize. For the album cover, Denholm created a concept built around a pair of lungs worn visibly on Welch's chest. Welch's personal stylist Aldene Johnson handled the wardrobe, "an Emma Cook chain dress that was in a kind of 1920s style", while Orlando Weeks, an art student and frontman of the band the Maccabees, built the prostethic lungs, which he intended to give "a Victoriana, industrial punchbag kind of look".


title: Lungs (album)

text: Florence and the Machine announced via their website on 24 September 2010 that "Lungs" would be re-released on 15 November as a two-disc package titled "Between Two Lungs". The reissue features new sleeve art, liner notes by Welch, and a 12-track bonus disc including live versions, remixes, Welch's mashup collaboration with Dizzee Rascal, "You Got the Dirtee Love", and "Heavy in Your Arms", which was released as a single from the to "" (2010). The live recordings are taken from the band's performance at the 2010 iTunes Festival, most of which were not previously available on the band's "iTunes Festival: London 2010" EP.


title: Lungs (album)

text: On 27 February 2011, "Lungs: The B-Sides" was released exclusively in the United States to digital music retailers such as the iTunes Store and Amazon MP3. This was followed by the release of a deluxe edition of "Lungs" in the US on 26 April 2011, featuring all 11 tracks from "Lungs: The B-Sides" on a bonus disc to accompany the original 13-track album. On 3 July 2019, ten years after the original release of the album, the band announced that a limited "tenth anniversary edition" was available for pre-order. It was released digitally on 16 August, with the LPs and cassettes released the same day. An exclusive box set was released on 4 October. The box set comprises the original LP; a second LP with "three previously unreleased demo tracks, a rare acoustic version of "My Boy Builds Coffins", a cover of the Beatles' "Oh! Darling" Live at Abbey Road, and a number of B sides [and] rarities." It also includes "postcards and inserts, showcasing previously unseen images from the "Lungs" era" chosen by Welch herself.


title: Lungs (album)

text: "Kiss with a Fist" was released on 9 June 2008 as the lead single from "Lungs", peaking at number 51 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Lungs (album)

text: "Dog Days Are Over" was released on 1 December 2008 as the album's second single. While the 2010 reissue charted higher, the 2008 release only reached number 89 on the UK Singles Chart. The song was used in the theatrical trailer for the 2010 film "Eat Pray Love", starring Julia Roberts. The Yeasayer remix of "Dog Days Are Over", which is included on "Between Two Lungs", was released on 12 October 2010 on iTunes.


title: Lungs (album)

text: "Rabbit Heart (Raise It Up)" was released as the third single from the album on 22 June 2009, peaking at number 12 on the UK Singles Chart. "Drumming Song" was released as the album's fourth single on 7 September 2009, reaching number 54 in the UK.


title: Lungs (album)

text: "You've Got the Love" was the fifth single to be released from the album, and reached a new peak of number five on the UK Singles Chart in January 2010. The band had recorded a version of this the Source song which had been a live staple and issued it as a B-side to "Dog Days Are Over", but the success of the previous singles made Island request "You've Got the Love" as a single. Welch went on to record new vocal takes with engineer Cenzo Townshend, replacing the first two verses and the first chorus. Townshend also remixed the bass and drums to be "a bit harder and the bottom end a bit heavier." Florence and the Machine's duet with rapper Dizzee Rascal at the 2010 Brit Awards on 16 February 2010, a mashup of "You've Got the Love" and Dizzee Rascal's "Dirtee Cash" titled "You Got the Dirtee Love", was released on iTunes the day after the ceremony. "You Got the Dirtee Love" reached number two on the UK chart.


title: Lungs (album)

text: On 5 January 2010, "Hurricane Drunk" was originally announced as the sixth single from the album. A video for the song was filmed in Paris on 8 January 2010 and premiered on 29 January after the "Celebrity Big Brother 2010" final on Channel 4. However, on 3 March 2010, a reissue of "Dog Days Are Over" was announced through the band's website. The single was released digitally on 11 April and as a seven-inch vinyl the following day, along with a new music video. It reached a new peak of number 23 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Lungs (album)

text: "Cosmic Love" was released on 5 July 2010 as the album's sixth and final single. The song reached number 51 on the UK Singles Chart. The band made a guest appearance in the 7 February 2011 episode of "Gossip Girl", titled "Panic Roommate", where they performed an acoustic rendition of "Cosmic Love".


title: Lungs (album)

text: "Lungs" received generally positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 79, based on 22 reviews. James Christopher Monger of AllMusic praised it as "one of the most musically mature and emotionally mesmerizing albums of 2009" and stated, "With an arsenal of weaponry that included the daring musicality of Kate Bush, the fearless delivery of Sinéad O'Connor, and the dark, unhinged vulnerability of Fiona Apple, the London native crafted a debut that not only lived up to the machine-gun spray of buzz that heralded her arrival, but easily surpassed it." Ryan Dombal wrote for "Pitchfork" that Florence Welch "bursts mouth wide wide over garage rock, epic soul, pint-tipping Britbeat, and—best of all—a mystic brand of pop that's part Annie Lennox, Grace Slick, and Joanna Newsom." "Q" noted that "there's a lot going on, but Welch never confuses breadth with depth". "Entertainment Weekly"s Joseph Brannigan Lynch opined that Welch's "immaculately constructed indie pop recalls Regina Spektor, but without the studied artiness: Welch is more concerned with raw emotional release." "Spin"s Melissa Maerz stated, "From the way she sings, in big gulps and "Teen Wolf" growls, to the mystical art-rock ballads she bedazzles with sleigh bells, harps, and choirs, there's enough drama here for a Broadway musical. But her delivery is so raw that every mess feels genuine."


title: Lungs (album)

text: "Rolling Stone"s Jon Dolan expressed that "[t]he best bits feel like being chased through a moonless night by a sexy moor witch." "Slant Magazine"s Nick Day referred to the band's music as "particularly sensitive to studio gloss" and praised Welch's singing as "a fine balance between elegance and frenzy." In a review for "The Guardian", Dave Simpson viewed that Welch "has created a sonic labyrinth of xylophones, percussion, Gregorian chants and werewolves. It can sound affected, occasionally crass, but there's enough adventure to make this worth backing for the Mercury." Jamie Fullerton of "NME" commended the work of producers James Ford and Paul Epworth, writing that they "create epic cauldron-swirls of "Terminator"-theme drums, Massive Attack atmospherics and twinkle-eye harp matched by Florence's grappling of skyward choruses", but found that "with the likes of 'I'm Not Calling You A Liar' and 'Howl' boasting similarly windy production yet no identifiable tunes the results sound aimless—if harmless." Genevieve Koski of "The A.V. Club" felt that "[a]t times, "Lungs" borders on exhausting, careening as it does from one over-the-top track to the next. [...] But with a voice as strong and emotive as hers, it's not surprising that Welch has little use for moments of quiet contemplation." Despite criticising instances of "over-smoothed" production on certain tracks, "The Observer"s Sheryl Garratt concluded that "there's a real joy about this debut. It's the sound of someone who has found their voice and is keen to use it – as loudly and freely as possible."


title: Lungs (album)

text: "Lungs" was shortlisted for the 2009 Mercury Prize. The following year, the album won the MasterCard British Album award at the Brit Awards.


title: Lungs (album)

text: "Lungs" debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart (behind Michael Jackson's 2005 compilation album "The Essential Michael Jackson"), selling 63,020 copies in its first week—the second highest amount for a debut album in 2009, after Susan Boyle's "I Dreamed a Dream". On 17 January 2010, after spending 28 consecutive weeks in the top 40, the album topped the UK chart for the first time, selling 51,005 copies. It spent a second consecutive week atop the chart, with 42,359 copies sold. On 8 March 2019, "Lungs" was certified sextuple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), and had sold 1,813,557 copies in the United Kingdom by August 2019.


title: Lungs (album)

text: Following the band's performance of "Dog Days Are Over" at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards, "Lungs" jumped from number 44 to number 14 on the US "Billboard" 200 with sales of 21,000 copies, an increase of 165% from the previous week. The album was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on 25 June 2018. It had sold 1,142,000 copies in the United States as of February 2013. Worldwide, "Lungs" had sold over three million copies as of November 2011.


title: Kerch

text: Kerch (; , ; Old East Slavic: Кърчевъ; Ancient Greek: , "Pantikápaion"; Medieval Greek: "Bosporos"; ; ) is a city of regional significance on the Kerch Peninsula in the east of the Crimea, Ukraine. Kerch has a population of about


title: Kerch

text: Founded 2,600 years ago as an ancient Greek colony, Kerch is considered to be one of the most ancient cities in Crimea. The city experienced rapid growth starting in the 1920s and was the site of a major battle during World War II.


title: Kerch

text: Today, it is one of the largest cities in Crimea and is among the republic's most important industrial, transport and tourist centres.


title: Kerch

text: Archeological digs at Mayak village near the city ascertained that the area had already been inhabited in 17th–15th centuries BC. While many finds from Kerch can be found in the Hermitage Museum in St Petersburg and the local museum, a large number of antique sculptures, reliefs, bronze and glassware, ceramics and jewellery were excavated in 1855-1856 during the Crimean War by Doctor Duncan MacPherson, a surgeon from the British Army, and later donated to the British Museum in London.


title: Kerch

text: Kerch as a city starts its history in 7th century BC, when Greek colonists from Miletus founded a city-state named Panticapaeum on Mount Mithridat near the mouth of the Melek-Chesme river. Panticapaeum subdued nearby cities and by 480 BC became a capital of the Kingdom of Bosporus. Later, during the rule of Mithradates VI Eupator, Panticapaeum for a short period of time became the capital of the much more powerful and extensive Kingdom of Pontus.


title: Kerch

text: The city was located at the intersection of trade routes between the steppe and Europe. This caused it to grow rapidly. The city's main exports were grain and salted fish; wine-making was also common. Panticapaeum minted its own coins. According to extant documents the Melek-Chesme river (small and shallow nowadays) was navigable in Bosporan times, and sea galleys were able to enter the river. A large portion of the city's population was ethnically Scythian, later Sarmatian, as the large royal barrow (Kurgan) at Kul-Oba testifies.


title: Kerch

text: In the 1st century AD Panticapaeum and the Kingdom of Bosporus suffered from Ostrogoth raids; then the city was devastated by the Huns in AD 375.


title: Kerch

text: Myrmekion was founded in the eastern part of the Kerch, 4 km NE of ancient Panticapaeum. The settlement was founded by Ionians in the first half of the 6th c. BC.


title: Kerch

text: From the 6th century the city was under the control of the Byzantine Empire. By order of Emperor Justinian I, a citadel named Bospor was built there. Bospor was the centre of a bishopric, the diocese of Bosporus and developed under the influence of Greek Christianity. In 576, it withstood a siege by the Göktürks under Bokhan, aided by Anagai, the last khan (ruler) of the Uturgurs (tribe of Huns).


title: Kerch

text: In the 7th century, the Turkic Khazars took control of Bospor, and the city was named Karcha from Turkic "karşı" meaning 'opposite, facing.' The main local government official during Khazar times was the tudun. Christianity was a major religion in Kerch during the period of Khazar rule. Kerch's Church of St. John the Baptist was founded in 717; thus, it is the oldest church in Ukraine. The "Church of the Apostles" existed during the late 8th and early 9th centuries, according to the "Life of the Apostle Andrew" by Epiphanius of Salamis.


title: Kerch

text: Following the fall of Khazaria to Kievan Rus' in the late 10th century, Kerch became the centre of a Khazar successor-state. Its ruler, Georgius Tzul, was deposed by a Byzantine-Rus expedition in 1016.


title: Kerch

text: From the 10th century, the city was a Slavic settlement named Korchev, which belonged to the Tmutarakan principality. Kerch was a center of trade between Russia', Crimea, Caucasus and the Orient.


title: Kerch

text: In the 13th century, the Crimea including Korchev was invaded by Mongols. After Mongols, the city became the Genoese colony of Cerco (Cherkio) in 1318 and served as a sea harbour, where townspeople worked at salt-works and fishery.


title: Kerch

text: In 1475, city was passed to the Ottoman Empire. During the Turkish rule Kerch fell into decay and served as a slave-market. It repeatedly suffered from raids of Zaporizhian Cossacks.


title: Kerch

text: In response to strengthening of Russian military forces in Azov area, the Turks built a fortress, named Yenikale, near Kerch on the shore of Kerch Strait. The fortress was completed by 1706. In 1771 the Imperial Russian Army invaded Crimea and approached Yenikale. The Turks decided to abandon the fortress, though reinforcements from the Ottoman Empire had arrived a few days earlier. By the Peace Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji in 1774, Kerch and Yenikale were ceded to Russia. As a result, the Turkish heritage has been almost completely wiped out.


title: Kerch

text: In 1790 Russian naval forces under the command of admiral Fyodor Ushakov defeated the Turkish fleet at the Battle of Kerch Strait.


title: Kerch

text: Because of its location, from 1821 Kerch developed into an important trade and fishing port. The state museum of ancient times and a number of educational institutions were opened in the city. The ironwork factory was built in 1846 based on a huge iron ore deposit found on Kerch Peninsula.


title: Kerch

text: In the late 19th century, mechanical and cement factories were built, and tinned food and tobacco factories were established. By 1900, Kerch was connected to a railroad system, and the fairway of Kerch Strait was deepened and widened. At this time, the population had reached 33,000.


title: Kerch

text: After suffering a decline during the First World War and the Russian Civil War, the city resumed its growth in the late 1920s, with the expansion of various industries, iron ore and metallurgy in particular, and by 1939 its population had reached 104,500.


title: Kerch

text: On the Eastern Front of World War II from 1941 to 1945, Kerch was the site of heavy fighting between Red Army and Axis forces. After fierce fighting, the city was taken by the Germans in November 1941. On 31 December 1941 the 302nd Mountain Rifle Division recaptured the city following a naval landing operation at Kamysh Burun, to the south of the city, five days earlier. In 1942 the Germans occupied the city again. The Red Army lost over 160,000 men, either killed or taken POW at the Battle of the Kerch Peninsula. On 31 October 1943 another Soviet naval landing operation was launched. Kerch returned to Soviet control on 11 April 1944.


title: Kerch

text: The German invaders killed about 15,000 citizens and deported another 14,000 during their occupation. Evidence of German atrocities in Kerch was presented in the Nuremberg trials. After the war, the city was awarded the title Hero City.


title: Kerch

text: The Adzhimushkay catacombs in the city's suburbs were the site of guerrilla warfare against the occupation. Thousands of soldiers and refugees found shelter inside, and were involved in counterattacks. Many of them died underground, including those who died of numerous alleged poison gas attacks. Later, a memorial was established on the site.


title: Kerch

text: On 11 November 2007, a powerful storm passed through the city, causing much damage and an ecological disaster as a few ships, including an oil tanker, were shipwrecked and blocked the Kerch Strait.


title: Kerch

text: Kerch has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfa") with cool to cold winters and warm to hot summers.


title: Kerch

text: The city municipality stretches over a substantial area and includes several separate neighborhoods that are part of the Kerch city: Eltigen (Heroyevskoe), Kamysh-Burun (Arshyntsevo), Port Krym, Adzhimushkai, and Tuzla Island.


title: Kerch

text: Today Kerch is considered as a city of metallurgists, shipbuilders and fishermen, and also has a significant tourism sector.


title: Kerch

text: Construction-materials, food processing, and light industries play a significant role in the city's economy. Kerch is also a fishing fleet base and an important processing centre for numerous fish products.


title: Kerch

text: Because of its location on the shores of the Azov and Black seas, Kerch became a popular summer resort among people of the former USSR. Also, several mud-cure sources are located near the city. Despite the seaside location, the tourist appeal of Kerch today is limited because of the industrial character of the city and associated pollution.


title: Kerch

text: Despite the lack of beaches in the town's area, there are a lot of them at a distance of 20 minutes' travel by bus, train or taxi.


title: Kerch

text: Kerch has a number of impressive architectural and historical monuments. Ancient historical heritage of the city makes it attractive for scientific tourism. The most notable of Kerch's sights are:


title: Kerch

text: Kerch has a harbour on the Kerch Strait, which makes it a key to the Sea of Azov, several railroad terminals and a small airport. The Kerch Strait ferry line across the Kerch Strait was established in 1953, connecting Crimea and the Krasnodar Krai (Port Krym – Port Kavkaz line); (as of November 2009) there are also plans for a Kerch-Poti ferry route.


title: Kerch

text: Tavrida Highway work in progress along Kerch railway (two rails) highway (four lanes) bridge to connect Rostov Krasnodar with peninsula.


title: Kerch

text: There are several ports in Kerch, including Kerch Maritime Trading Port, Kerch Maritime Fishing Port, Port Krym (ferry crossing), Kamysh-Burun Port.


title: Kerch

text: On 25 April 2010, Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev signed an agreement to build a bridge across the Kerch Strait. In January 2015, with Russia now in control, the contract for the construction of the bridge was awarded to Arkady Rotenberg's S.G.M. Group. In May 2015 construction commenced, and the road section of the bridge was opened to traffic in May 2018. The rail section was opened in 2019, with Russian President Vladimir Putin taking the first train across on December 23. It was heavily damaged by an explosion on 8 October 2022.


title: Kerch

text: Archaeological digs in Kerch were launched under Russian auspices in the middle of the 19th century. Since then the site of ancient Panticapaeum city on Mount Mithridat has been systematically excavated. Located nearby are several ancient burial mounds (kurgans) and excavated cities. Kerch takes part in UNESCO's "Silk Road" programme.


title: Kerch

text: Treasures and historical findings of Kerch adorn the collections of major museums around the world. Such as: the Hermitage, the Louvre, the British Museum, the Berlin Museum, the Moscow State Museum of fine arts and many others.


title: Kerch

text: Currently, excavations at ancient fortresses of Kerch are led by scientists from Russia, Ukraine, and Poland.


title: Kerch

text: A minor planet 2216 Kerch discovered in 1971 by Soviet astronomer Tamara Mikhailovna Smirnova is named after the city.


title: Andy Lau filmography

text: Lau made his film acting debut in a supporting role the 1981 film, "Once Upon a Rainbow" and his television acting debut in an episode of the 1981 RTHK series, "Til We Meet Again", in the leading role of "Dragon". The following year, Lau played a major role in director Ann Hui's "Boat People", which earned him a Hong Kong Film Award for Best New Performer nomination, as well as starring in the TVB series, "The Emissary", which shot him to stardom. In 1983, Lau starred as "Yeung Kuo" in "The Return of the Condor Heroes", which was the top rated TV series of the year in Hong Kong, further boosting his popularity throughout Asia, and landed him the opportunity to star in his first leading film role in the action drama film, "On the Wrong Track" in the same year. Lau left TVB in 1985 to fully concentrate in his film career and starring in multiple box office hits before earning his first Hong Kong Film Award for Best Actor nomination for his role in the 1988 film, "As Tears Go By", directed by Wong Kar-wai. In 1989 alone, Lau appeared in 16 films, including the top-grossing blockbuster of the year, "God of Gamblers", as "Michael "Dagger" Chan", a role he would reprise in the sequel the following year.


title: Andy Lau filmography

text: In 1991, Lau established his own production company, Teamwork Motion Pictures, with its first production being the martial arts film, "Saviour of the Soul", which Lau starred as a mercenary in the same year, being a critical and commercial success. Throughout the 1990s, Lau starred in over 50 films which include his signature role as "Wah Dee" in 1990's "A Moment of Romance", the "Lee Rock" film series (1991) as real life corrupt officer Lui Lok, the 1992 "wuxia" film, "Moon Warriors", the 1995 biker film, "Full Throttle" and the 1999 Johnnie To-directed action thriller film, "Running Out of Time", which won him his first Hong Kong Film Award for Best Actor. In 1997, Lau also produced the Fruit Chan-directed drama film, "Made in Hong Kong", which won the Hong Kong Film Award for Best Film.


title: Andy Lau filmography

text: In 2000, Lau starred as a Muay thai fighter in his 100th film, "A Fighter's Blues", in which he also produced, and netted him the Golden Bauhinia Awards for Best Actor. In 2002, he starred as triad mole Lau Kin-ming in the highly acclaimed crime thriller, "Infernal Affairs", a film considered to have "single-handedly revived the moribund Hong Kong film industry." "Infernal Affairs" grossed HK$55,057,176 at the Hong Kong box office, making it Lau's highest-grossing film in Hong Kong to date, and also earned Lau a Best Actor nomination both at the Hong Kong Film Awards and at the Golden Horse Awards. The following year, Lau starred in the sequel, "Infernal Affairs III", which won him the Golden Horse Award for Best Leading Actor, and in the Buddhism-themed action thriller, "Running on Karma", winning him his second Hong Kong Film Award for Best Actor. The same year, Lau directed and starred in his only directorial feature to date, the musical short "Love Under the Sun" to raise awareness about AIDS and dispel common misconceptions regarding its contagiousness. In 2004, Lau renamed his company, Teamwork Motion Pictures, to Focus Group Holdings Limited, with its first film production being the crime film, "Jiang Hu", which he also produced and starred as a triad leader who is a target of an assassination hit. The same year, Lau also made his first venture in the Mainland Chinese film market, starring in the "wuxia" film, "House of Flying Daggers", which premiered at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival, and the action drama "A World without Thieves", with the two films being the second and third-highest-grossing films of the year at the Chinese box office respectively. In 2007, he played a drug lord in the crime drama film, "Protégé", which won him the Hong Kong Film Award for Best Supporting Actor.


title: Andy Lau filmography

text: In 2010, Lau played Di Renjie in Tsui Hark's "Detective Dee and the Mystery of the Phantom Flame", which was nominated for the Golden Lion at the 2010 Venice Film Festival. The following year, he starred in Ann Hui 's "A Simple Life", which won four awards at the 68th Venice Film Festival, as well as earning his third Hong Kong Film Award for Best Actor and second Golden Horse Award for Best Leading Actor. In 2013, Lau produced and starred as morally-conflicted cop in the high-octane action film, "Firestorm", which was also the first 3D film production he worked on. In 2016, Lau starred in his first Hollywood film, "The Great Wall". In 2017, Lau produced and starred as a righteous bomb disposal officer in "Shock Wave", which earned him another Best Actor nomination for at the 27th Hong Kong Film Awards. He returned in 2020 in the thematic sequel, "Shock Wave 2", playing a different character greatly contrasting his role from its predecessor, and the film has grossed US$226.4 million worldwide, making it Lau's highest-grossing film at the global box office to date.


title: Andy Lau filmography

text: Lau has received the "No.1 Box office Actor 1985–2005" award of Hong Kong in 2005, yielding a box office total of HK$1.7 billion for shooting 108 films in that period and was also awarded the "Nielsen Box Office Star of Asia" award by the Nielsen Company (ACNielsen) in 2007.


title: Arthur Penn

text: Arthur Hiller Penn (September 27, 1922 – September 28, 2010) was an American director and producer of film, television and theater. Closely associated with the American New Wave, Penn directed critically acclaimed films throughout the 1960s such as the drama "The Chase" (1966), the biographical crime film "Bonnie and Clyde" (1967) and the comedy "Alice's Restaurant" (1969). He also received attention for his acclaimed revisionist Western "Little Big Man" (1970). "Night Moves" (1975) and "The Missouri Breaks" (1976) which were commercial flops, though the first generated positive reviews.


title: Arthur Penn

text: In the 1990s he returned to stage and television direction and production, including an executive producer role for the crime series "Law & Order". By his death in 2010, he had been nominated for three Academy Awards for Best Director, a BAFTA, a Golden Globe, two Emmys, and two Directors Guild of America Awards. He was the recipient of several honorary accolades, including an Honorary Golden Bear, a Tony Award, and an Akira Kurosawa Award from the San Francisco International Film Festival.


title: Arthur Penn

text: Penn was born to a Russian Jewish family in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the son of Sonia (Greenberg), a nurse, and Harry William Penn, originally Chaim Michelsohn, a watchmaker, both natives of then Novoaleksandrovsk, Russia now Zarasai, Lithuania. He was the younger brother of Irving Penn, the successful fashion photographer. During his early years, he moved in with his mother after she divorced his father. Some time after, he came back to his sickly father, leading him to run his father's watch repair shop. At 19, he was drafted into the United States Army during World War II (1943–1946), serving as an infantryman in the Battle of the Bulge. While stationed in Britain, he became interested in theater. He started to direct and take part in shows being put on for the soldiers around England at the time. As Penn grew up, he became increasingly interested in film, especially after seeing the Orson Welles film "Citizen Kane". He later attended Black Mountain College in North Carolina, and was a featured commentator in the documentary "Fully Awake" about the college.


title: Arthur Penn

text: After making a name for himself as a director of quality television dramas, Penn made his feature debut with "The Left Handed Gun" (1958) for Warner Brothers. A retelling of the Billy the Kid legend, it was distinguished by Paul Newman's portrayal of the outlaw as a psychologically troubled youth (the role was originally intended for James Dean). The production was completed in only 23 days, but Warner Brothers reedited the film against his wishes with a new ending he disapproved of. The film failed upon release in North America, but was well received in Europe.


title: Arthur Penn

text: Penn's second film was "The Miracle Worker" (1962), the story of Anne Sullivan's struggle to teach the blind and deaf Helen Keller how to communicate. It garnered two Academy Awards for its leads Anne Bancroft and Patty Duke. Penn had won a Tony Award for directing the stage production, written by William Gibson, also starring Bancroft and Duke, and he had directed Bancroft's Broadway debut in playwright Gibson's first Broadway production, "Two for the Seesaw".


title: Arthur Penn

text: Penn began working on "The Train" in France in June and August 1963 when star Burt Lancaster had Penn fired after three days of Penn's filming and called on John Frankenheimer to take over the film.


title: Arthur Penn

text: In 1965 Penn directed "Mickey One". Heavily influenced by the French New Wave, it was the dreamlike story of a standup comedian (played by Warren Beatty) on the run from sinister, ambiguous forces. In 2010, Penn commented: "You know, you could not have gone through the Second World War with all that nonsense with Russia being an ally and then being the big black monster. It was an absurd time. The McCarthy period was ridiculous and humiliating, deeply humiliating. When I finally did 'Mickey One', it was in repudiation of the kind of fear that overtook free people to the point where they were telling on each other and afraid to speak out. It just astonished me, really astonished me. I mean, I was a vet, so it was nothing like what we thought we were fighting for."


title: Arthur Penn

text: Penn's next film was "The Chase" (1966) a thriller following events in a small corrupt Southern town on the day an escaped convict, played by Robert Redford, returns. Although not a major success, "The Chase" nonetheless caught the mood of the turbulent times, a 'state of the nation' tale of racism, corruption and the violence endemic in American society. Also that year, he directed the stage version of the thriller "Wait Until Dark" starring Lee Remick and Robert Duvall.


title: Arthur Penn

text: He reunited with Warren Beatty for the gangster film "Bonnie and Clyde" (1967). The film went on to become a worldwide phenomenon. It was strongly influenced by the French New Wave and itself went on to make a huge impression on a younger generation of filmmakers. Indeed, there was a strong resurgence in the "love on the run" subgenre in the wake of "Bonnie and Clyde," peaking with "Badlands" (1973; in which Penn received acknowledgement in the credits). Beatty had given him 10% of the potential profits of the film before production started and the success of the film earned Penn over $2 million.


title: Arthur Penn

text: At the time he had completed "Bonnie and Clyde", Penn was residing in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, when he heard a story of a large-scale littering incident that had happened in the town two years prior. He contacted Arlo Guthrie, received permission to adapt his song "Alice's Restaurant Massacree" into a film, and secured Guthrie's participation as well as several other Stockbridge town residents while filming in many of the same locations where the events took place. The film "Alice's Restaurant" was released in 1969. His next film was "Little Big Man" (1970), a "shaggy dog" account of the life of a white man (played by Dustin Hoffman) who gets adopted into the Cheyenne tribe.


title: Arthur Penn

text: In 1973 Penn provided a segment for a promotional film for the Olympics titled "Visions of Eight" along with several other major directors such as John Schlesinger and Miloš Forman. His next film was "Night Moves" (1975) about a private detective (played by Gene Hackman) on the trail of a runaway. Next came "The Missouri Breaks" (1976), a ramshackle, eccentric story of a horse thief (Jack Nicholson) facing off with an eccentric bounty hunter (played by Marlon Brando).


title: Arthur Penn

text: In the 1980s, Penn's career began to lose its momentum with critics and audiences. "Four Friends" (1981) was a traumatic look back at the 1960s. "Target" (1985) was a mainstream thriller reuniting the director with Gene Hackman, and "Dead of Winter" (1987) was a horror/thriller. Subsequently, Penn returned to work in television, including as an executive producer for the crime series "Law & Order".


title: Arthur Penn

text: In 1955, he married actress Peggy Maurer. They had two children: son Matthew Penn and daughter, Molly Penn.


title: Arthur Penn

text: Penn died in Manhattan, on September 28, 2010, a day after his 88th birthday from congestive heart failure.


title: Elephant Island

text: Elephant Island is an ice-covered, mountainous island off the coast of Antarctica in the outer reaches of the South Shetland Islands, in the Southern Ocean. The island is situated north-northeast of the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, west-southwest of South Georgia, south of the Falkland Islands, and southeast of Cape Horn. It is within the Antarctic claims of Argentina, Chile and the United Kingdom.


title: Elephant Island

text: The Brazilian Antarctic Program maintains a shelter on the island, Goeldi, supporting the work of up to six researchers each during the summer, and formerly had another (Wiltgen), which was dismantled in the summers of 1997 and 1998.


title: Elephant Island

text: Elephant Island's name is attributed to both its elephant head-like appearance and the sighting of elephant seals by Captain George Powell in 1821, one of the earliest sightings. However, in Russia it is still known under the name given by its discoverers in 1821 – Mordvinova Island.


title: Elephant Island

text: The island is oriented approximately east–west, with a maximum elevation of at Pardo Ridge. The weather is normally foggy with much snow, and winds can reach .


title: Elephant Island

text: Significant named features are Cape Yelcho, Cape Valentine and Cape Lookout at the northeastern and southern extremes, and Point Wild, a spit on the north coast. The Endurance Glacier is the main discharge glacier.


title: Elephant Island

text: Elephant Island is part of the Scotia metamorphic complex, which was created by Cretaceous sea floor sediments being scraped off and metamorphosed at the Scotia subduction zone. The resulting rocks are phyllites, blueschists and greenschists typical of an accretionary wedge, with increased metamorphism from northeast to southwest. These rocks are at the surface here because of uplift along the Shackleton Fault Zone where it meets the South Scotia Ridge. This complex is very similar in age and rock types to those of coastal California, including Catalina Island and the Big Sur coast.


title: Elephant Island

text: The island supports no significant flora or native fauna, although migratory gentoo penguins and seals may be found, and chinstrap penguins nest in season. A lack of safe anchorage has prevented any permanent human settlement, despite the island being well placed to support scientific, fishing and whaling activities. Due to slow recoveries and illegal whaling by the Soviet Union with support from Japan, numbers of southern right whales visiting Elephant island are still at low levels.


title: Elephant Island

text: The First Russian Antarctic expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on the 985-ton sloop-of-war "Vostok" ("East") and the 530-ton support vessel "Mirny" ("Peaceful") discovered Elephant Island on 29 January 1821 and named it "Остров Мордвинова" ("Mordvinov Island") in honour of .


title: Elephant Island

text: The island was the desolate refuge of the British explorer Ernest Shackleton and his crew in 1916 following the loss of their ship "Endurance" in the pack ice of the Weddell Sea. The crew of 28 reached Cape Valentine on Elephant Island after months spent drifting on ice floes and a harrowing crossing of the open ocean in small lifeboats. After camping at Cape Valentine for two nights, Shackleton and his crew moved west to a small, rocky spit at the terminus of a glacier, which offered better protection from rockfalls and from the sea, and which they called "Point Wild".


title: Elephant Island

text: Realizing that there was no chance of passive rescue, Shackleton decided to sail to South Georgia, where he knew there were several whaling stations. Shackleton sailed with Tom Crean, Frank Worsley, Harry "Chippy" McNish, Tim McCarthy, and John Vincent on an voyage in the lifeboat "James Caird" beginning on Easter Monday, April 24, 1916, and arriving at South Georgia 16 days later. His second-in-command, Frank Wild, was left in charge of the remaining party on Elephant Island, waiting for Shackleton's return with a rescue ship.


title: Elephant Island

text: There was much work for the stranded men. Because the island had no natural source of shelter, they constructed a shack and wind blocks from their remaining two lifeboats and pieces of canvas tents. Blubber lamps were used for lighting. They hunted for penguins and seals, neither of which were plentiful in autumn or winter. Shackleton instructed Wild to depart with the crew for Deception Island if he did not return to rescue them by the beginning of summer, but after four and a half months, on August 30, 1916, the artist George Marston spotted a ship. The ship, with Shackleton on board, was the tug "Yelcho", from Punta Arenas, Chile, commanded by Luis Pardo, which rescued all the men who had set out on the original expedition.


title: Elephant Island

text: A Joint Services Expedition led by Commander Malcolm Burley was dropped off on Elephant Island by . The party then spent six months carrying out a survey of the island and other scientific research for the British Antarctic Survey and climbing some of the peaks on the island. The expedition visited Point Wild but found no trace of the "Endurance" expedition; it did, however, find the wreckage of a large sailing vessel, likely the remains of the schooner "Charles Shearer" from Stonington, New London, Connecticut, under Captain William Henry Appelman. The expedition also landed on and climbed the highest peak on nearby Clarence Island.


title: Elephant Island

text: Point Wild contains the Endurance Memorial Site, an Antarctic Historic Site (HSM 53), with a bust of Captain Pardo and several plaques. Hampson Cove on the southwest coast of the island, including the foreshore and intertidal area, contains the wreckage of a large wooden sailing vessel; it has been designated a Historic Site or Monument (HSM 74), following a proposal by the United Kingdom to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting.


title: Doctor of Education

text: The Doctor of Education (Ed.D. or D.Ed.; Latin "Educationis Doctor" or "Doctor Educationis") is (depending on region and university) a research or professional doctoral degree that focuses on the field of education. It prepares the holder for academic, research, administrative, clinical, or professional positions in educational, civil, private organizations, or public institutions.


title: Doctor of Education

text: When research universities were established in the late 19th century in the United States, they primarily awarded doctorates in the sciences and later the arts. By the early 20th century, these universities began to offer doctoral degrees in professional fields. The first professional degrees were awarded in medicine and law. Shortly thereafter, in response to the societal demand for expert practitioners, doctorates began to be awarded in education. The first Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree in the field of education was granted at Teachers College, Columbia University in 1893. The first Doctor of Education (EdD) degree was granted at Harvard University in 1921. Henry Holmes, an educator at Harvard College, raised funds to establish the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Holmes saw value in increasing Harvard's role in the professional training of educators and established doctorate of education, or Ed.D., for students who had had a successful teaching experience, possessed a "working knowledge of biology, psychology, and the social sciences", and who sought a higher position within the school system. The program of study comprised five areas of education plus the study of social theory in education, history of education, and educational psychology. The dissertation served to teach the student to conduct an independent investigation utilizing existing knowledge and producing a "constructive result of importance and value". The purpose of the Ed.D. was to offer a rigorous course of study that would enhance candidates’ prior knowledge and skills and better prepare them to lead as school practitioners.


title: Doctor of Education

text: The EdD degree was then added by Teachers College in 1934. Between 1925 and 1940 many institutions, including the University of California-Berkeley, Stanford University, and the University of Michigan followed the steps of Columbia and Harvard and established schools and colleges of education that offered graduate study and eventually, the two doctoral degrees. Despite this growth, however, these and other schools of education struggled to establish their identity as professional schools and were perpetually engulfed in debate over the purpose of the Ed.D.


title: Doctor of Education

text: The history of the Ed.D. throughout the 20th century was one of confusion. In many graduate schools of education it was a practitioner degree, while in others it was considered education's research doctorate. Several factors contributed to the confusion: First, offering two doctoral degrees resulted in constant conflict between the "demands of theory and those of practice". Second, the advancement of professional training was further complicated as schools of education competed with schools of arts and sciences. Graduate programs in arts and sciences were older and more established. Traditionally arts and science faculty offered doctoral preparation in the form of the Ph.D. Both the school of arts and sciences and its faculty had difficulty relinquishing their expertise in doctoral studies or in acknowledging the need for a professional doctorate degree. Third, from the inception of both doctoral degrees in education, unclear goals and similar programmatic content have confused the degree purposes and plagued professionalization efforts.


title: Doctor of Education

text: In Australia, entry requirements for the EdD are similar to the PhD except that the former requires a number of years professional experience in education or academia.


title: Doctor of Education

text: In Canada, the Ed.D. tends to be granted by faculties of education at Universities and is a terminal degree in education. Much like the United States and Great Britain, some universities offer the EdD (Simon Fraser University), while others offer a PhD in education (McGill University, Queen's University, University of Toronto, University of Manitoba, University of New Brunswick), and still others offer both (Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto, The University of Western Ontario, University of Alberta, University of Calgary, University of British Columbia).


title: Doctor of Education

text: Much like the UK, in Canada, the Ed.D. is a full academic doctorate that can only be granted by AUCC-accredited institutions and shares equal parity with a Ph.D. (Education). The dissertation to be completed as part of an Ed.D. program differs only in focus but not in breadth of study, nor academic rigour required. Ed.D. programs in Canadian institutions must include an original contribution to knowledge which must be chaired (supervised) by an accomplished researcher and orally defended (viva) to internal and external examiners. In many cases, the only salient difference between the Ph.D. and Ed.D. relates to the professional field of practice of the candidate as Ed.D. programs often tend to focus on existing pedagogical problems.