title: United States Department of War

text: Secretary of War Elihu Root (1899–1904) sought to appoint a chief of staff as general manager and a European-type general staff for planning, aiming to achieve this goal in a businesslike manner, but General Nelson A. Miles stymied his efforts. Root enlarged the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York and established the United States Army War College and the General Staff. He changed the procedures for promotions and organized schools for the special branches of the service. He also devised the principle of rotating officers from staff to line. Concerned about the new territories acquired after the Spanish–American War, Root worked out the procedures for turning Cuba over to the Cubans, wrote the charter of government for the Philippines, and eliminated tariffs on goods imported to the United States from Puerto Rico.


title: United States Department of War

text: Root's successor as Secretary of War, William Howard Taft, returned to the traditional secretary-bureau chief alliance, subordinating the chief of staff to the adjutant general, a powerful office since its creation in 1775. Indeed, Secretary Taft exercised little power; President Theodore Roosevelt made the major decisions. In 1911, Secretary Henry L. Stimson and Major General Leonard Wood, his chief of staff, revived the Root reforms. The general staff assisted them in their efforts to rationalize the organization of the army along modern lines and in supervising the bureaus.


title: United States Department of War

text: The Congress reversed these changes in support of the bureaus and in the National Defense Act of 1916 reduced the size and functions of the general staff to few members before America entered World War I on April 6, 1917. President Woodrow Wilson supported Secretary of War Newton D. Baker, who opposed efforts to control the bureaus and war industry until competition for limited supplies almost paralyzed industry and transportation, especially in the North. Yielding to pressure from Congress and industry, Secretary Baker placed Benedict Crowell in charge of munitions and made Major General George W. Goethals acting quartermaster general and General Peyton C. March chief of staff. Assisted by industrial advisers, they reorganized the supply system of the army and practically wiped out the bureaus as quasi-independent agencies. General March reorganized the general staff along similar lines and gave it direct authority over departmental operations. After the war, the Congress again granted the bureaus their former independence. The Commission on Training Camp Activities addressed moral standards of the troops.


title: United States Department of War

text: In the 1920s, General John J. Pershing realigned the general staff on the pattern of his American Expeditionary Force (AEF) field headquarters, which he commanded. The general staff in the early 1920s exercised little effective control over the bureaus, but the chiefs of staff gradually gained substantial authority over them by 1939, when General George Marshall assumed the office of Army Chief of Staff.


title: United States Department of War

text: During World War II, General Marshall principally advised President Franklin D. Roosevelt on military strategy and expended little effort in acting as general manager of the Department of War. Many agencies still fragmented authority, burdening the chief of staff with too many details, making the whole Department of War poorly geared toward directing the army in a global war. General Marshall described the chief of staff then as a "poor command post." President Roosevelt brought in Henry L. Stimson as Secretary of War; after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Secretary Stimson supported General Marshall in reorganizing the army under the War Powers Act of 1941. He divided the Army of the United States (AUS) into three autonomous components to conduct the operations of the War Department: the Army Ground Forces (AGF) trained land troops; the U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) developed an independent air arm; and the Services of Supply (later Army Service Forces) directed administrative and logistical operations. The Operations Division acted as general planning staff for General Marshall. By 1942, the Army Air Forces gained virtual independence in every way from the rest of the army.


title: United States Department of War

text: After World War II, the Department of War abandoned the organization of General George Marshall for the fragmented prewar pattern while the independent services continually parried efforts to reestablish firm executive control over their operations. The National Security Act of 1947 split the War Department into the Department of the Army and the Department of the Air Force, and the Secretary of the Army and Secretary of the Air Force served as operating managers for the new Secretary of Defense.


title: United States Department of War

text: In the early years, between 1797 and 1800, the Department of War was headquartered in Philadelphia; it moved with the other federal agencies to the new national capital at Washington, District of Columbia, in 1800. In 1820, headquarters moved into a building at 17th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW, adjacent to the Executive Mansion, part of a complex of four matching brick Georgian/Federal style buildings for Cabinet departments with War in the northwest, Navy in the southwest and to the other side: State to the northeast and Treasury in the southeast. The War Department building was supplemented in the 1850s by a building across the street to the west known as the Annex and became very important during the Civil War with President Abraham Lincoln visiting the War Office's telegraph room for constant updates and reports and walking back and forth to the "Residence". The original 1820 structures for War and Navy on the west side of the now famous White House was replaced in 1888 by construction of a new building of French Empire design with mansard roofs, the "State, War, and Navy Building" (now the Old Executive Office Building, and later renamed to honor General and President Dwight D. Eisenhower), built in the same location as its predecessors.


title: United States Department of War

text: By the 1930s, the Department of State squeezed the War Department from its office space, and the White House also desired additional office space. In August 1939, Secretary of War Harry H. Woodring and Acting Chief of Staff of the Army George C. Marshall moved their offices into the Munitions Building, a temporary structure built on the National Mall during World War I. In the late 1930s, the government constructed the War Department Building (renamed in 2000 as the Harry S Truman Building) at 21st and C Streets in Foggy Bottom, but upon completion, the new building did not solve the space problem of the department, and the Department of State ultimately used it and continues to use it into the present day.


title: United States Department of War

text: Coming into office with World War II raging in Europe and Asia, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson faced with the situation of the War Department spread through the overcrowded Munitions Building and numerous other buildings across Washington, D.C., and suburban Maryland and Virginia. On July 28, 1941, Congress authorized funding for a new Department of War building in Arlington, Virginia, which would house the entire department under one roof. When construction of the Pentagon was completed in 1943, the Secretary of War vacated the Munitions Building and the department began moving into the Pentagon.


title: United States Department of War

text: The United States Secretary of War, a member of the United States Cabinet, headed the War Department.


title: United States Department of War

text: The National Security Act of 1947 established the "National Military Establishment", later renamed the United States Department of Defense. On the same day this act was signed, Executive Order 9877 assigned primary military functions and responsibilities with the former War Department split between the Department of the Army and Department of the Air Force.


title: United States Department of War

text: In the aftermath of World War II, the American government (among others around the world) decided to abandon the word 'War' when referring to the civilian leadership of their military. One vestige of the former nomenclature are the Army War College, Naval War College and the Air War College, which still train U.S. military officers in battlefield tactics and the strategy of war fighting.


title: United States Department of War

text: The date "MDCCLXXVIII" and the designation "War Office" are indicative of the origin of the seal. The date (1778) refers to the year of its adoption. The term "War Office" used during the Revolution, and for many years afterward, was associated with the Headquarters of the Army.


title: So Far Gone (mixtape)

text: So Far Gone is the third mixtape by Canadian rapper Drake. It was released on February 13, 2009, under his October's Very Own label. The mixtape proved to be a major catalyst in the launching of Drake's career on an international scale, and was universally well received by professional critics and hip-hop fans alike.


title: So Far Gone (mixtape)

text: The tracks "Best I Ever Had" and "Successful" were released as singles from the mixtape, and attained unexpected success on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. The mixtape was promoted with a release party in Toronto with Drake and LeBron James. Artists including Omarion, Lloyd, Lykke Li, Lil Wayne and Bun B provided guest vocals on the release. The mixtape helped launch the careers of producers 40 and Boi-1da, whose contributions to the musical direction of the mixtape were applauded by critics.


title: So Far Gone (mixtape)

text: On February 15, 2019, the mixtape was released on commercial streaming services for the first time, commemorating its tenth anniversary.


title: So Far Gone (mixtape)

text: In an interview with "Complex", Drake explains: "The whole tape extends from one of my closest friends Oliver. One night we were having a discussion about women and the way we were talking about them, it was so brazen and so disrespectful. He texted me right after we got off the phone and he was like, 'Are we becoming the men that our mothers divorced?' That's really where the cover comes from, too. It's just this kid in pursuit of love and money. We're good guys, I'm friends with some real good people and for him to even text me after we got off the phone it just showed we have a conscience. But sometimes you just get so far gone, you get wrapped up in this shit. The title has a lot of meanings—as the way we carry ourselves, the way we dress, the way people view us, not to sound cocky, it's just that feeling that we're just distanced in a good way. You’re just elevating past the bullshit and past all the shit that you used to be a part of and you're not that proud of, you're just so far gone."


title: So Far Gone (mixtape)

text: The mixtape's music was characterized by atmospheric keyboards, minor keys, snare drum, synth lead, smooth piano, live instruments, down tempo and mid tempo tracks, sparse and minimalist beats, and atmospheric chords. In a Complex interview, Drake's primary producer, Noah "40" Shebib, said that "808s & Heartbreak" was an influence on the mixtape's atmospheric sounds.


title: So Far Gone (mixtape)

text: Typically, lyrics in "So Far Gone" address his relationships with women, gaining fame, past struggles, and creates metaphors for the struggles of others ("Houstatlantavegas", a stripper, "November 18th", the city of Houston etc.) Many of the more upbeat songs also include themes of braggadociosness, ego, wealth, the music industry, confidence around women and sexual experiences.


title: So Far Gone (mixtape)

text: "Best I Ever Had" was released as the first single, in 7 months prior to the release of the EP as a digital download from the "So Far Gone" mixtape. The song was eventually released as an official single on June 16, 2009. The single charted for 24 weeks while eventually peaking at number 2 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. The single also managed to peak at number one on both the "Billboard" R&B/Hip-Hop Songs Chart and the "Billboard" Rap Songs Chart, thus becoming Drake's first number one hit on both of these charts. The song was certified 2× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) indicating sales of over 2,000,000 copies in the United States.


title: So Far Gone (mixtape)

text: "Successful" was released as the second single from "So Far Gone". The single managed to peak at number 17 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and spent a total of 18 weeks on the chart. The song also reached the Top 5 on both the R&B/Hip-Hop and Rap charts peaking at number 3 and number 2 respectively. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) indicating sales of over 500,000 copies in the United States.


title: So Far Gone (mixtape)

text: The mixtape was well received. It currently holds a score of 81 out of 100 on Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim." RapReviews.com gave a positive review of the mixtape and commented on it by saying "So Far Gone is unquestionably one of the most cohesive, atmospheric hip hop records in recent memory--which is almost the antithesis of what one expects from a mixtape." "The Boston Globe" gave the mixtape a positive score and commented by saying "His materialism threads throughout So Far Gone (champagne flutes, girls, BlackBerrys, more girls), but he chases that with soft touches of humor and honesty." "Pitchfork" reviewed the mixtape positively and said "So Far Gone still scans as one of the most compulsively listenable mixtapes of a great year for mixtapes." "Slant Magazine" gave the mixtape a mixed review, but commended Drake's effort, "For a beginner, even one whose big-time endorsements seem to have cemented a promising start, So Far Gone is a pretty brave effort, and Drake's ability to juggle standard bling-and-bluster narratives with intelligent narratives bodes well for his future".


title: So Far Gone (mixtape)

text: "So Far Gone" debuted at number five on the "Billboard" 200, with 45,000 equivalent album units earned in the week ending February 21, 2019, ten years after its release.


title: Silly Putty

text: Silly Putty is a toy based on silicone polymers that have unusual physical properties. It bounces, but it breaks when given a sharp blow, and it can also flow like a liquid. It contains a viscoelastic liquid silicone, a type of non-Newtonian fluid, which makes it act as a viscous liquid over a long time period but as an elastic solid over a short time period. It was originally created during research into potential rubber substitutes for use by the United States in World War II.


title: Silly Putty

text: The name "Silly Putty" is a trademark of Crayola LLC. Other names are used to market similar substances from other manufacturers.


title: Silly Putty

text: As a bouncing putty, Silly Putty is noted for its unusual characteristics. It bounces but breaks when given a sharp blow; it can also float in a liquid and will form a puddle given enough time. Silly Putty and most other retail putty products have viscoelastic agents added to reduce the flow and enable the putty to hold its shape.


title: Silly Putty

text: The original coral-colored Silly Putty is composed of 65% dimethylsiloxane (hydroxy-terminated polymers with boric acid), 17% silica (crystalline quartz), 9% Thixatrol ST (castor oil derivative), 4% polydimethylsiloxane, 1% decamethyl cyclopentasiloxane, 1% glycerine, and 1% titanium dioxide.


title: Silly Putty

text: Silly Putty's unusual flow characteristics are due to the ingredient polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), a viscoelastic substance. Viscoelasticity is a type of non-Newtonian flow, characterizing material that acts as a viscous liquid over a long time period but as an elastic solid over a short time period. Because its apparent viscosity increases directly with respect to the amount of force applied, Silly Putty can be characterized as a dilatant fluid.


title: Silly Putty

text: Silly Putty is also a fairly good adhesive. When newspaper ink was petroleum based, Silly Putty could be used to transfer newspaper images to other surfaces, providing amusement by distorting the transferred image afterwards. Newer papers with soy-based inks are more resistant to this process.


title: Silly Putty

text: Generally, Silly Putty is difficult to remove from textured items such as dirt and clothing. Hand sanitizers containing alcohol are often helpful. Silly Putty will dissolve when in contact with an alcohol; after the alcohol evaporates, the material will not exhibit its original properties.


title: Silly Putty

text: If Silly Putty is submerged in warm or hot water, it will become softer and thus "melt" much faster. It also becomes harder to remove small amounts of it from surfaces. After a long period of time, it will return to its original viscosity.


title: Silly Putty

text: Silly Putty is sold as a piece of clay inside an egg-shaped plastic container. The Silly Putty brand is owned by Crayola LLC (formerly the Binney & Smith company). , twenty thousand eggs of Silly Putty are sold daily. Since 1950, more than 300 million eggs of Silly Putty (approximately ) have been sold. It is available in various colors, including glow-in-the-dark and metallic. Other brands offer similar materials, sometimes in larger-sized containers, and in a similarly wide variety of colors or with different properties, such as magnetism and iridescence.


title: Silly Putty

text: During World War II, Japan invaded rubber-producing countries as it expanded its sphere of influence in the Pacific Rim. Rubber was vital for the production of rafts, tires, vehicle and aircraft parts, gas masks, and boots. In the US, all rubber products were rationed; citizens were encouraged to make their rubber products last until the end of the war and to donate spare tires, boots, and coats. Meanwhile, the government funded research into synthetic rubber compounds to attempt to solve this shortage.


title: Silly Putty

text: Credit for the invention of Silly Putty is disputed and has been attributed variously to Earl Warrick of the then newly formed Dow Corning; Harvey Chin; and James Wright, a Scottish-born inventor working for General Electric in New Haven, Connecticut. Throughout his life, Warrick insisted that he and his colleague, Rob Roy McGregor, received the patent for Silly Putty before Wright did; but Crayola's history of Silly Putty states that Wright first invented it in 1943. Both researchers independently discovered that reacting boric acid with silicone oil would produce a gooey, bouncy material with several unique properties. The non-toxic putty would bounce when dropped, could stretch farther than regular rubber, would not go moldy, and had a very high melting temperature. However, the substance did not have all the properties needed to replace rubber.


title: Silly Putty

text: In 1949, toy store owner Ruth Fallgatter came across the putty. She contacted marketing consultant Peter C. L. Hodgson (1912–1976). The two decided to market the bouncing putty by selling it in a clear case. Although it sold well, Fallgatter did not pursue it further. However, Hodgson saw its potential.


title: Silly Putty

text: Already US$12,000 in debt, Hodgson borrowed $147 to buy a batch of the putty to pack portions into plastic eggs for $1, calling it Silly Putty. Initial sales were poor, but after a "New Yorker" article mentioned it, Hodgson sold over 250,000 eggs of silly putty in three days. However, Hodgson was almost put out of business in 1951 by the Korean War. Silicone, the main ingredient in silly putty, was put on ration, harming his business. A year later, the restriction on silicone was lifted and the production of Silly Putty resumed. Initially, it was primarily targeted towards adults. However, by 1955, the majority of its customers were aged six to twelve. In 1957, Hodgson produced the first televised commercial for Silly Putty, which aired during the "Howdy Doody Show".


title: Silly Putty

text: In 1961, Silly Putty went worldwide, becoming a hit in the Soviet Union and Europe. In 1968, it was taken into lunar orbit by the Apollo 8 astronauts.


title: Silly Putty

text: Peter Hodgson died in 1976. A year later, Binney & Smith, the makers of Crayola products, acquired the rights to Silly Putty. , annual Silly Putty sales exceeded six million eggs.


title: Silly Putty

text: In addition to its success as a toy, other uses for the putty have been found. In the home, it can be used to remove substances such as dirt, lint, pet hair, or ink from various surfaces. The material's unique properties have found niche use in medical and scientific applications. Occupational therapists use it for rehabilitative therapy of hand injuries. A number of other brands (such as "Power Putty" and "TheraPutty") alter the material's properties, offering different levels of resistance. The material is also used as a tool to help reduce stress, and exists in various viscosities based on the user's preference.


title: Silly Putty

text: Because of its adhesive characteristics, it was used by Apollo astronauts to secure their tools in zero gravity. Scale model building hobbyists use the putty as a masking medium when spray painting model assemblies. The Steward Observatory uses a Silly-Putty backed lap to grind astronomical telescope mirrors.


title: Silly Putty

text: Researchers from Trinity College Dublin School of Physics (Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN) and Advanced Materials and Bioengineering Research (AMBER) Research Centers) have discovered nano composite mixtures of graphene and Silly Putty behave as sensitive pressure sensors, claiming the ability to measure the footsteps of a spider crawling on it.


title: Purple Haze

text: "Purple Haze" is a song written by Jimi Hendrix and released as the second single by the Jimi Hendrix Experience on March 17, 1967.


title: Purple Haze

text: The song features his inventive guitar playing, which uses the signature Hendrix chord and a mix of blues and Eastern modalities, shaped by novel sound processing techniques. Because of ambiguities in the lyrics, listeners often interpret the song as referring to a psychedelic experience, although Hendrix described it as a love song.


title: Purple Haze

text: "Purple Haze" is one of Hendrix's best-known songs and appears on many Hendrix compilation albums. The song featured regularly in concerts and each of Hendrix's group configurations issued live recordings. It was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame and is included on lists of the greatest guitar songs, including at number two by "Rolling Stone" and number one by "Q" magazine.


title: Purple Haze

text: By January 5, 1967, the Jimi Hendrix Experience's first single, "Hey Joe", backed with "Stone Free", had peaked at number six on the UK record chart. "Hey Joe" was not a Hendrix composition – it was written by Billy Roberts and recorded by several groups prior to the Experience. Hendrix commented, "That record isn't us. The next one's gonna be different. We're working on an LP which will mainly be our stuff." The group recorded several demos of original material at studios in London, including "Can You See Me", "Foxy Lady", "Third Stone from the Sun", "Red House", and "Remember". In the middle of December, producer Chas Chandler heard Hendrix toying around with a new guitar riff. "I heard him playing it at the flat and was knocked out. I told him to keep working on that, saying, 'That's the next single! Chandler claimed that after some more urging, Hendrix wrote the rest of "Purple Haze" in the dressing room of a London club during the afternoon of December 26, 1966, before a gig. In several interviews, Hendrix spoke about writing the song, but did not mention where or when he wrote it.


title: Purple Haze

text: The Experience began recording "Purple Haze" on January 11, 1967, at De Lane Lea Studios in London. According to drummer Mitch Mitchell, he and bassist Noel Redding learned the song in the studio: "Hendrix came in and kind of hummed us the riff and showed Noel the chords and the changes. I listened to it and we went, 'OK, let's do it.' We got it on the third take as I recall." The basic track was recorded in four hours, according to Chandler. Multitrack recording technology allowed engineers to record and complete additional parts on the final master. After the basic track was finished, Chandler explained that he and Hendrix developed the song:


title: Purple Haze

text: In interviews, Hendrix usually gave different answers about the development of the song's lyrics. Biographer Harry Shapiro points out that "Purple Haze" is most likely "a pot-pourri of ideas" which Hendrix developed over time. As a fan of science fiction, he frequently incorporated its imagery in his songwriting. Hendrix read "Night of Light", a 1966 novel by Philip José Farmer, that expanded on a short story published in 1957. In the story set on a distant planet, sunspots produce a "purplish haze" which has a disorienting effect on the inhabitants. An early handwritten draft by Hendrix, titled "Purple Haze – Jesus Saves", uses dream-like imagery where the sense of direction and time is distorted. In an interview on January 28, 1967, before the song was completed, Hendrix was asked how he wrote songs; he responded, "I dream a lot and I put my dreams down as songs. I wrote one called 'First Look Around the Corner' and another called 'The Purple Haze,' which was about a dream I had that I was walking under the sea." He later expressed frustration that he was unable to more fully develop his ideas for the song:


title: Purple Haze

text: So far, only a crumpled single sheet of ruled yellow tablet paper is on exhibit at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and does not include any of the lyrics used in the Experience song. Chandler admitted that in the early stages, he helped Hendrix shape the songs and lyrics to radio single length. Biographer Keith Shadwick comments that although much of the complexity may have been sacrificed, it resulted in verses that are "simple, focused and striking".


title: Purple Haze

text: After its release, Hendrix offered another explanation: "He [the song's protagonist] likes this girl so much, that he doesn't know what [state] he's in, ya know. A sort of daze, I suppose. That's what the song is all about." This draws on an experience Hendrix had while still in New York, where he felt that a girl was attempting to use voodoo to trap him and he became ill. Shapiro believes that this is reflected in most of the first two verses:


title: Purple Haze

text: Many fans and the press interpret the song as referring to a psychedelic experience due to lines such as "purple haze all in my brain" and "'scuse me while I kiss the sky". However, Hendrix and those closest to him never discussed any connection between psychedelic drugs and the song, although Shapiro admits that, at the time, to do so would have been "professional suicide". Chandler, who claimed he was present when Hendrix wrote it, later denied suggestions that Hendrix did so while under the influence of psychedelics. Commenting on the lyrics, Shadwick concludes "the music [was allowed] to tell the larger story. Poised effectively between the twin intoxicants of drugs and desire, they could be interpreted to the listener's taste". In concert, Hendrix sometimes substituted lyrics for comic effect; "'scuse me while I kiss the sky" was rendered "'scuse me while I kiss this guy" (while gesturing towards Mitchell), "'scuse me while I kiss that policeman" (at a near riot in Los Angeles), or "'scuse me while I fuck the sky" (during a downpour in Seattle).


title: Purple Haze

text: Music critic William Ruhlmann describes "Purple Haze" as having "relentlessly driving, if relatively slow-paced underlying music, which provides a good platform for some of Hendrix's inventive guitar playing". Beginning with its dissonant opening and heavy use of distortion, Hendrix's techniques "all contributed to the dirty, raw, metallic, [and] angular sounds" heard in the song, according to Shapiro. The intro consists of the melodic interval of a tritone or diminished (sometimes called flattened) fifth. Historically, this dissonant interval has been referred to as "diabolus in musica" (literally "Devil in music"). It is sounded during the first two measures by Hendrix playing a B on guitar against an E played by Redding on bass, followed by the respective octaves. Mitchell on drums comes in for the third measure, when Hendrix introduces the riff that piqued Chandler's interest, and Redding continues playing the octaves in E.


title: Purple Haze

text: After the riff, the verse sections begin, which Shadwick describe as "simplicity itself, consisting of just three chords": E79, G, and A. The E79, or dominant seventh sharp ninth chord, has come to be called the "Hendrix chord" by guitarists and was used primarily in rhythm and blues and jazz before Hendrix helped popularize it. He also used an unconventional fingering technique for the G and A chords. Because Hendrix used his thumb to fret the roots of the G and A chords on the sixth string, his fingers were left in a position to create different chord voicings. Instead of the usual G barre chord (G–D–G–B–D–G), a G5 (G–X–G–G–D–G) is sometimes played with the major third (B) being muted on the fifth string and replaced by the open third string (G). Redding follows the chord changes mostly by playing the root with occasional passing notes, while Mitchell heightens the tension with drum flourishes that accentuate Hendrix's vocal and guitar.


title: Purple Haze

text: Biographer David Henderson describes Hendrix's guitar tone as "at the razor edge of distort". However, individual notes are still clear, as well as the harmonically more complex chords, even with the use of extreme overdrive for the time. The tension is maintained until the guitar solo, which "arrives as something of a release rather than a further racking up of the atmosphere." It is also when Hendrix first introduces the Octavia, coupled with a Fuzz Face distortion unit. Whitehill describes the solo as "almost sound[ing] likes he's playing a blues raga. He starts out playing in the Mixolydian mode and then he goes right into the blues side. The Octavia has the effect of a sitar, kind of like Ravi Shankar meets B.B. King." During the song's outro, the guitar part recorded at 7½ inches per second (ips) played back at 15 ips, is combined with the Octavia, further extending the guitar's upper frequency range. Henderson describes it as "an uncanny piercing tone that takes off, Eastern-sounding beyond the range of the guitar" and, according to Shadwick, "gives the impression that the guitar notes are flying off into the ether."


title: Purple Haze

text: On March 17, 1967, "Purple Haze" was released in the UK as the first single on Track Records. Another Hendrix composition, the R&B-influenced "51st Anniversary" was included as the B-side. Paul McCartney, who was an early Hendrix supporter, gave the record an enthusiastic pre-release review in "Melody Maker". The single entered the charts at number 39 on "Record Mirror" and at number 43 on "Melody Maker". It peaked at number three and spent 14 weeks on the chart. During March 1967, several performances of "Purple Haze" were filmed to promote the song and used for television programs, such as "Beat-Club", "Dee Time", and "Top of the Pops". Live performances were also broadcast on German NDR and BBC Radio's "Saturday Club". In 2022, the British Phonographic Industry awarded "Purple Haze" its Gold certification, signifying sales of over 400,000.


title: Purple Haze

text: For the American single, Reprise Records paired the song with "The Wind Cries Mary". It was released on June 19, 1967, the day following the Experience's performance at the Monterey Pop Festival. The single entered the "Billboard" Hot 100 pop chart on August 26, where it spent eight weeks and reached number 65. "Purple Haze" was included as the opening track on the American release of "Are You Experienced" on August 23, 1967. Because of the song's airplay on underground FM radio, the album became more popular than Hendrix's singles.


title: Purple Haze

text: One of Hendrix's most popular songs, "Purple Haze" appears on numerous compilation albums. Some of these include "Smash Hits", "The Essential Jimi Hendrix", "The Singles Album", "Kiss the Sky", "", "The Ultimate Experience", "", "", and "The Singles Collection". An alternative version recorded at the same time, but with different vocal and guitar overdubs, is the first song on "The Jimi Hendrix Experience" 2000 box set. Live recordings of "Purple Haze" as performed by each of the different Hendrix lineups have been released. These include "Live at Monterey" (the Experience), "Live at Woodstock" (Gypsy Sun and Rainbows), "Live at the Fillmore East" (Band of Gypsys), and "Live at Berkeley" (the Cry of Love touring group). Additional live recordings with the Experience appear on "Winterland" (2011 "Billboard" number 49 album) and "Miami Pop Festival" (2013 "Billboard" number 39 album).


title: Purple Haze

text: In March 2005, "Q" magazine ranked "Purple Haze" at number one in its list of the "100 Greatest Guitar Tracks Ever!" The song placed at number two on "Rolling Stone" magazine's "100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time" list, which noted that the song "unveiled a new guitar language charged with spiritual hunger and the poetry possible in electricity and studio technology". It also appeared at number 17 on the magazine's "500 Greatest Songs of All Time" list in 2004, with the comment that "it launched not one but two revolutions: late-Sixties psychedelia and the unprecedented genius of Jimi Hendrix". Author and music critic Dave Marsh called it the "debut single of the Album Rock Era". In 1995, "Purple Haze" was included as one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's "500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll". NPR named the song to its list of the "100 Most Important American Musical Works of the 20th Century" in 2000. In 2000, it was given a Grammy Hall of Fame Award, which "honor[s] recordings of lasting qualitative or historical significance". In 2020, "Far Out" ranked the song number one on their list of the 20 greatest Jimi Hendrix songs, and in 2021, "American Songwriter" ranked the song number two on their list of the 10 greatest Jimi Hendrix songs.


title: Purple Haze

text: Many musicians have recorded their interpretations of the song, making it one of Hendrix's most covered songs. Dion DiMucci included an acoustic version with strings on his 1968 comeback album "Dion". Released as a single in 1969, it appeared at number 63 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, which was two positions higher than Hendrix' single in 1967. In Canada, where Hendrix's single did not reach the charts, Dion's version reached number 72. Also with a new arrangement, the Cure recorded it for the various artist's "" in 1993. Their rendition reached number two on "Billboard's" Modern Rock Tracks alternative rock chart. "Purple Haze" has achieved an unusual level of interest among classical musicians. The Meridian Arts Ensemble, the Hampton String Quartet, and Nigel Kennedy have recorded their interpretations and the Kronos Quartet often play it as an encore.


title: Zaxby's

text: Zaxby's is an American chain of fast casual restaurants offering chicken wings, chicken fingers, sandwiches, and salads. The chain operates primarily in the Southern United States and has more than 900 locations. Most Zaxby's restaurants are owned by franchisees, but 123 locations are owned by Zaxby company.


title: Zaxby's

text: Zaxby's chicken and Zax Sauce is based on another smaller chicken finger chain called Guthrie's that existed in Athens, Georgia, while Zach McLeroy attended the University of Georgia. The first Zaxby's was established in Statesboro, Georgia in March 1990, near the Georgia Southern University campus, by childhood friends Zach McLeroy and Tony Townley. The company's first restaurant outside of Georgia was opened in September 1994 in Bowling Green, Kentucky. In 2013, they opened locations in Utah, the first expansion outside of the southeastern United States.


title: Zaxby's

text: As of 2019, Zaxby's has locations in 17 U.S. states. In December 2019, the Oklahoma-based Zaxby's franchisee announced it would be shuttering five of its nine locations across the state. Like other restaurants, since mid-March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic caused Zaxby's dine-in lobbies to shut down indefinitely. However, some locations have reopened since mid-May.


title: Zaxby's

text: In 2022, Zaxby's introduced a new CEO, Bernard Acoca; he was the first CEO that was not one of the co-founders. Outgoing CEO Zach McLeroy stayed on as Chairman.


title: Zaxby's

text: The company operates as a fast casual dining restaurant, offering prepared-at-order chicken fingers, chicken wings, sandwiches, salads, and appetizers. Dipping sauces are offered with chicken finger orders, and range from mild, to the moderate "Zax sauce", to the intensely hot "Nuclear". Dining rooms at Zaxby's restaurants are decorated with assorted whimsical objects and signs, which often vary in theme by location and region. Some locations in college towns feature objects and decorations related to the local university. Similarly, citrus-industry themed decorations line the walls at a location in Orlando, Florida.


title: Zaxby's

text: Since the December 2013 announcement that Zaxby's would begin to offer the Coca-Cola Freestyle machine at their locations, the decor in the fountain drink dispensing area has been dominated by that distinctive dispenser and other Coca-Cola branding.


title: Zaxby's

text: In late 2007, the chain began running a series of commercials featuring celebrities eating Zaxby's menu items. The celebrities of 2007–2008 included "Laverne and Shirley" stars Penny Marshall and Cindy Williams, Bobby Allison, Diana DeGarmo, Herschel Walker, Evander Holyfield, Elijah Kelley, Lorenzo Lamas, Cody Linley, Jerry Rice, John Schneider, Alyson Stoner, Kerri Strug, Richard Thomas, Richard Karn, Reginald VelJohnson, David Garrard, and Spud Webb. In 2009, celebrities included "Orange County Choppers" Paul Teutul Sr. and Michael Teutul, Béla Károlyi, Fred Willard, Paul Sorvino, and Mike Ditka. 2010 and 2011 celebrities included Doris Roberts, "E! News" host Giuliana Rancic, Jaime Pressly, Ryan Stiles, and musician Little Richard. In 2012, the chain featured celebrities Rachel Dratch, Chris Kattan, Jill Hennessy, Lee Ann Womack, and National Football League linebacker Clay Matthews in its commercials. Zaxby's 2013 commercials featured David Alan Grier and Waylon Payne, with comedian Wayne Brady and actress Leigh-Allyn Baker.


title: Zaxby's

text: In October 2008, the video game "" featured Zaxby's as a restaurant on the streets of Los Angeles. California, however, has none in reality.


title: Zaxby's

text: Zaxby's is "The Official Chicken of Sports Fanz®" and has collective intellectual property rights at nearly 30 Division I colleges through 2015 through a deal with their football and basketball teams. The sponsorship, which was made through IMG College, includes 25 states, seven conferences, and the entire area of Zaxby's locations. Included are ten colleges from the Southeastern Conference, six colleges from the Atlantic Coast Conference, three colleges from Conference USA, two each from the Big Ten Conference and Sun Belt Conference, and one college from the Big 12 Conference. Additionally, Zaxby's has a separate agreement with Clemson University to provide brand presence at all football and men's and women's basketball games.


title: Zaxby's

text: Zaxby's was a sponsor for Joey Clanton in the No. 09 JTG Daugherty Racing truck in the NCWTS. Zaxby's also sponsored John Wes Townley (son of co-founder Tony) in NASCAR's Camping World Truck Series and Xfinity Series, and Townley's Athenian Motorsports. John Wes retired from competition after 2016, thus ending the sponsorship.


title: Zaxby's

text: In honor of the children the restaurant chain serves every year, Zaxby's is a supporter of Make-A-Wish.


title: Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance

text: The Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance is an award presented at the Grammy Awards to recording artists for works (songs or albums) containing quality performances in the heavy metal music genre. The Grammy Awards is an annual ceremony, where honors in several categories are presented by The Recording Academy of the United States to "honor artistic achievement, technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry, without regard to album sales or chart position". The ceremony was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards.


title: Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance

text: The Recording Academy recognized heavy metal music artists for the first time at the 31st Annual Grammy Awards (1989). The category was originally presented as Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance Vocal or Instrumental, combining two of the most popular music genres of the 1980s. Jethro Tull won that award for the album "Crest of a Knave", beating Metallica, which were expected to win with the album "...And Justice for All". This choice led to widespread criticism of The Recording Academy, as journalists suggested that the music of Jethro Tull did not belong in the hard rock or heavy metal genres. In response, The Recording Academy created the categories Best Hard Rock Performance and Best Metal Performance, separating the genres.


title: Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance

text: The Best Metal Performance category was first presented at the 32nd Annual Grammy Awards in 1990, and was again the subject of controversy when rock musician Chris Cornell (lead vocalist for the band Soundgarden) was perplexed by the academy's nomination of the band Dokken in this category. Metallica won in the first three years. The awards were presented for the song "One", a cover version of Queen's "Stone Cold Crazy", and the album "Metallica". During 2012–2013, the award was temporarily discontinued in a major overhaul of Grammy categories; all solo or duo/group performances in the hard rock and metal categories were shifted to the newly formed Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance category. However, in 2014, the Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance category was split, returning the Best Metal Performance category and recognizing quality hard rock performances in the Best Rock Performance category.


title: Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance

text: The award goes to the artist. The producer, engineer and songwriter can apply for a Winners Certificate.


title: Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance

text: Metallica holds the record for the most wins in this category, with a total of six. Tool has received the award three times. Black Sabbath, Nine Inch Nails, and Slayer have each received the award twice. The band Ministry holds the record for the most nominations without a win, with six, while the band Megadeth holds the record for most nominations before their first win, winning on their 10th nomination. Poppy is the only female solo artist to be nominated in the category, 30 years after the establishment of the category.


title: Kawasaki Ninja 250R

text: The Kawasaki Ninja 250R (codenamed EX250; previous generations had market-specific names) is a motorcycle in the Ninja sport bike series from the Japanese manufacturer Kawasaki originally introduced in 1986. As the marque's entry-level sport bike, the motorcycle has undergone few changes throughout its quarter-century lifetime, having received only three substantial redesigns. In some markets the Ninja 250R has been succeeded by the Ninja 300.


title: Kawasaki Ninja 250R

text: Since 2008, the bike is marketed as the Ninja 250R in all markets. It is also referred to by its platform designation, EX250, to which a generational suffix is attached. In the United States, previous models (EX250-E/F/G/H) were already being marketed as members of the Ninja family of sport bikes, while outside of the U.S. the bike was known variously as the ZZR-250, ZX-250, or as the GPX-250R. One of the earliest models, the EX250-C, was given the name GPZ-250.


title: Kawasaki Ninja 250R

text: The Ninja 250R's particular ergonomics, chassis design, and engine placement have resulted in a motorcycle that straddles the standard and sport classes. The Ninja's riding posture also falls between standard and sport.


title: Kawasaki Ninja 250R

text: The first generation was produced between 1983 and 1985, and known by the production number EX250-C. It was sold as the GPZ-250. Sold only in its home market of Japan, this earliest, belt-driven version was first produced in 1983, and shares no commonality with later generations. The bike has 32 mm fork tubes.


title: Kawasaki Ninja 250R

text: Produced between 1986 and 1987 was the EX250-E. This model was sold as the Ninja 250R in Canada and the U.S. between 1986 and 1987. It was known as the GPZ-250R elsewhere. When originally introduced, it was more costly than the Honda Rebel, and reviewers complained that while the 14,000 rpm redline was nice, the engine was slow to rev.


title: Kawasaki Ninja 250R

text: For the 1988 model year, there were both cosmetic changes and changes in engine tuning. While the bore and stroke, and other major engine components, were unchanged, minor tuning adjustments were made. The carburetor diameters were reduced 2 mm to , the cylinder compression ratio was increased from 12.0:1 to 12.4:1, ignition timing advance was increased, and the rear sprocket was increased by three teeth to 45. Reviewers reported that this made the engine more free-revving, reaching the high 14,000 redline more quickly, and the tested top speed increased by a few miles per hour. The new, more fully enclosed bodywork was complimented for being stylish, at the time, and easily mistaken for the larger Ninja 750.


title: Kawasaki Ninja 250R

text: In 2008, Kawasaki gave the EX250 its most extensive redesign in twenty years. The EX250-J model is known as the Ninja 250R worldwide, regardless of market.


title: Kawasaki Ninja 250R

text: Parts from the third generation are still found on the -J, but its redesigned exterior panels bring the Ninja's appearance out of the 1990s and into line with late-2000s sportbikes. The engine and drivetrain retain 30% of the -F model's parts, according to Kawasaki. The engine's compression and maximum torque have been lowered to provide better midrange performance. The redesign of the engine resulted in improvements in engine response at low engine speeds, making the bike smoother and "much easier to ride."


title: Kawasaki Ninja 250R

text: Though the previous generation Ninja 250R had a peak power advantage of , the new version's 20 or 30 percent increase in mid-range power allows the bike to pull from 3,000 rpm where previously it had to be revved to 4,000 rpm.


title: Kawasaki Ninja 250R

text: The U.S. -J model uses dual carburetors like the -F model, but the European, Brazilian and Thai models have fuel injection. The wheels were increased in size to 17 inches, the front suspension was improved, and the brake rotors were replaced with a larger petal shape. On the carbureted version, a fuel gauge was added in place of the temperature gauge. With the additional and redesigned equipment, the EX250-J suffered a increase in wet weight over its predecessors.


title: Kawasaki Ninja 250R

text: The 2013 Ninja 250R had a new bodywork, twin headlights, a digital instruments cluster, new wheels with a wider rear tire, and a reworked engine and exhaust. ABS is available as an option. Like the previous generation, the engine is fuel injected in some markets and carbureted in others. For 2013, in some markets, the Ninja 250R was replaced by the Ninja 300 (EX300), while in others they are sold alongside each other.


title: Kawasaki Ninja 250R

text: At the 2017 Tokyo Motor Show, Kawasaki introduced the 2018 Ninja 250R along with the all-new 2018 Ninja 400, with the latter to be sold in Europe and America, replacing the Ninja 300.


title: Amy Roloff

text: Amy Jo Roloff (née Knight; born September 17, 1962) is an American television personality, author, baker, and motivational speaker. Roloff is best known for her reality television role on TLC's "Little People, Big World". The show featured the daily life of the Roloff family, where the two parents have dwarfism.


title: Amy Roloff

text: Roloff was born Amy Jo Knight on September 17, 1962 to Gordon Knight, who worked for Ford Motor Company, and Patricia Knight (died 2019). Her parents had three other children: Cyndi (died 2015), Katherine, and Roger. She was born with a genetic condition called achondroplasia that causes short stature.


title: Amy Roloff

text: Amy Roloff attended Franklin High School in Livonia, Michigan. She earned a degree in business from Central Michigan University.


title: Amy Roloff

text: Roloff and her family began filming Little People, Big World in 2006. She has also been featured on "The View", "Jay Leno", "Oprah", "Good Morning America", "Celebrity Buzz, Celebrity Chopped", and the "Rachel Ray Show".


title: Amy Roloff

text: In 2012, a book by Roloff, "Short and Simply Family Recipes", was published by WestWinds Press. It contains 75 original family recipes. She is also the author of an autobiography, "A Little Me", and "Little People Big Values".


title: Amy Roloff

text: In 2016, Roloff opened an online bakery named Amy Roloff's Little Kitchen. Some of her products include seasonal baked goods.


title: Amy Roloff

text: In 2009, Roloff founded the Amy Roloff Charity Foundation. She uses her fame to help youth at risk and people with disabilities. Roloff has also donated to the Dwarf Athletic Association of America and a foster care organization, and supported low-income senior housing and homeless shelters.


title: Amy Roloff

text: Amy Roloff also works as a motivational speaker. She was the keynote speaker at Lakes Health Conference in 2010, Empowering Women in Business Conference (EWIB) in 2015, Adrian College's Dr. James Borland Convocational Series in 2019, and Women's Power Lunch. She participates in the Get Motivated business seminar speaking series.


title: Amy Roloff

text: Roloff, then Amy Knight, met Matt Roloff at a Little People of America convention in 1987. The two married on September 12, 1987. They had four children: fraternal twins Jeremy and Zachary (born 1990), Molly (1993), and Jacob (1997). The couple publicly expressed interest in a divorce in March 2014. On June 5, 2015, the couple officially announced a divorce. The divorce was finalized in May 2016.


title: Amy Roloff

text: Amy and Matt owned a farm near Helvetia, Oregon. The farm opens to the public during October, featuring attractions such as a pumpkin patch. In 2009, a woman who visited the farm sued the Roloffs, claiming to have fallen due to their negligence of safety procedures. The couple denied wrongdoing and the case was settled out of court in 2013. Due to the divorce, Matt bought the farm from Amy, and she purchased a new home in Oregon.


title: Amy Roloff

text: On September 19, 2019, Amy became engaged to then-boyfriend Chris Marek. They were married on August 28, 2021, at the farm she had lived on with her first husband.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: In quantum mechanics, the angular momentum operator is one of several related operators analogous to classical angular momentum. The angular momentum operator plays a central role in the theory of atomic and molecular physics and other quantum problems involving rotational symmetry. Such an operator is applied to a mathematical representation of the physical state of a system and yields an angular momentum value if the state has a definite value for it. In both classical and quantum mechanical systems, angular momentum (together with linear momentum and energy) is one of the three fundamental properties of motion.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: There are several angular momentum operators: total angular momentum (usually denoted J), orbital angular momentum (usually denoted L), and spin angular momentum (spin for short, usually denoted S). The term "angular momentum operator" can (confusingly) refer to either the total or the orbital angular momentum. Total angular momentum is always conserved, see Noether's theorem.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: The classical definition of angular momentum is formula_1. The quantum-mechanical counterparts of these objects share the same relationship:


title: Angular momentum operator

text: where r is the quantum position operator, p is the quantum momentum operator, × is cross product, and L is the "orbital angular momentum operator". L (just like p and r) is a "vector operator" (a vector whose components are operators), i.e. formula_3 where "L", "L", "L" are three different quantum-mechanical operators.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: In the special case of a single particle with no electric charge and no spin, the orbital angular momentum operator can be written in the position basis as:formula_4


title: Angular momentum operator

text: There is another type of angular momentum, called "spin angular momentum" (more often shortened to "spin"), represented by the spin operator formula_5. Spin is often depicted as a particle literally spinning around an axis, but this is only a metaphor: spin is an intrinsic property of a particle, unrelated to any sort of (yet experimentally observable) motion in space. All elementary particles have a characteristic spin, which is usually nonzero. For example, electrons always have "spin 1/2" while photons always have "spin 1" (details below).


title: Angular momentum operator

text: Finally, there is total angular momentum formula_6, which combines both the spin and orbital angular momentum of a particle or system:


title: Angular momentum operator

text: Conservation of angular momentum states that J for a closed system, or J for the whole universe, is conserved. However, L and S are "not" generally conserved. For example, the spin–orbit interaction allows angular momentum to transfer back and forth between L and S, with the total J remaining constant.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: The orbital angular momentum operator is a vector operator, meaning it can be written in terms of its vector components formula_3. The components have the following commutation relations with each other:


title: Angular momentum operator

text: where "l", "m", "n" are the component indices (1 for "x", 2 for "y", 3 for "z"), and denotes the Levi-Civita symbol.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: The commutation relations can be proved as a direct consequence of the canonical commutation relations formula_13, where is the Kronecker delta.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: where "L" is a component of the "classical" angular momentum operator, and formula_15 is the Poisson bracket.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: The same commutation relations apply for the other angular momentum operators (spin and total angular momentum):


title: Angular momentum operator

text: These can be "assumed" to hold in analogy with L. Alternatively, they can be "derived" as discussed below.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: These commutation relations mean that L has the mathematical structure of a Lie algebra, and the are its structure constants. In this case, the Lie algebra is SU(2) or SO(3) in physics notation (formula_17 or formula_18 respectively in mathematics notation), i.e. Lie algebra associated with rotations in three dimensions. The same is true of J and S. The reason is discussed below. These commutation relations are relevant for measurement and uncertainty, as discussed further below.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: In molecules the total angular momentum F is the sum of the rovibronic (orbital) angular momentum N, the electron spin angular momentum S, and the nuclear spin angular momentum I. For electronic singlet states the rovibronic angular momentum is denoted J rather than N. As explained by Van Vleck,


title: Angular momentum operator

text: the components of the molecular rovibronic angular momentum referred to molecule-fixed axes have different commutation relations from those given above which are for the components about space-fixed axes.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: One way to prove that these operators commute is to start from the ["L", "L"] commutation relations in the previous section:


title: Angular momentum operator

text: where formula_26 is a component of the "classical" angular momentum operator, and formula_15 is the Poisson bracket.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: Returning to the quantum case, the same commutation relations apply to the other angular momentum operators (spin and total angular momentum), as well,


title: Angular momentum operator

text: In general, in quantum mechanics, when two observable operators do not commute, they are called complementary observables. Two complementary observables cannot be measured simultaneously; instead they satisfy an uncertainty principle. The more accurately one observable is known, the less accurately the other one can be known. Just as there is an uncertainty principle relating position and momentum, there are uncertainty principles for angular momentum.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: where formula_30 is the standard deviation in the measured values of "X" and formula_31 denotes the expectation value of "X". This inequality is also true if "x, y, z" are rearranged, or if "L" is replaced by "J" or "S".


title: Angular momentum operator

text: Therefore, two orthogonal components of angular momentum (for example L and L) are complementary and cannot be simultaneously known or measured, except in special cases such as formula_32.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: It is, however, possible to simultaneously measure or specify "L" and any one component of "L"; for example, "L" and "L". This is often useful, and the values are characterized by the azimuthal quantum number ("l") and the magnetic quantum number ("m"). In this case the quantum state of the system is a simultaneous eigenstate of the operators "L" and "L", but "not" of "L" or "L". The eigenvalues are related to "l" and "m", as shown in the table below.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: In quantum mechanics, angular momentum is "quantized" – that is, it cannot vary continuously, but only in "quantum leaps" between certain allowed values. For any system, the following restrictions on measurement results apply, where formula_33 is reduced Planck constant:


title: Angular momentum operator

text: A common way to derive the quantization rules above is the method of "ladder operators". The ladder operators for the total angular momentum formula_6 are defined as:


title: Angular momentum operator

text: Suppose formula_36 is a simultaneous eigenstate of formula_37 and formula_38 (i.e., a state with a definite value for formula_37 and a definite value for formula_38). Then using the commutation relations for the components of formula_41, one can prove that each of the states formula_42 and formula_43 is either zero or a simultaneous eigenstate of formula_37 and formula_38, with the same value as formula_36 for formula_37 but with values for formula_38 that are increased or decreased by formula_33 respectively. The result is zero when the use of a ladder operator would otherwise result in a state with a value for formula_38 that is outside the allowable range. Using the ladder operators in this way, the possible values and quantum numbers for formula_37 and formula_38 can be found.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: where 1 is the identity operator. Also notice that "R" is an additive morphism : formula_55 ; as a consequence


title: Angular momentum operator

text: In simpler terms, the total angular momentum operator characterizes how a quantum system is changed when it is rotated. The relationship between angular momentum operators and rotation operators is the same as the relationship between Lie algebras and Lie groups in mathematics, as discussed further below.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: Just as J is the generator for rotation operators, L and S are generators for modified partial rotation operators. The operator


title: Angular momentum operator

text: rotates the position (in space) of all particles and fields, without rotating the internal (spin) state of any particle. Likewise, the operator


title: Angular momentum operator

text: rotates the internal (spin) state of all particles, without moving any particles or fields in space. The relation J = L + S comes from:


title: Angular momentum operator

text: i.e. if the positions are rotated, and then the internal states are rotated, then altogether the complete system has been rotated.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: Although one might expect formula_60 (a rotation of 360° is the identity operator), this is "not" assumed in quantum mechanics, and it turns out it is often not true: When the total angular momentum quantum number is a half-integer (1/2, 3/2, etc.), formula_61, and when it is an integer, formula_62. Mathematically, the structure of rotations in the universe is "not" SO(3), the group of three-dimensional rotations in classical mechanics. Instead, it is SU(2), which is identical to SO(3) for small rotations, but where a 360° rotation is mathematically distinguished from a rotation of 0°. (A rotation of 720° is, however, the same as a rotation of 0°.)


title: Angular momentum operator

text: On the other hand, formula_63 in all circumstances, because a 360° rotation of a "spatial" configuration is the same as no rotation at all. (This is different from a 360° rotation of the "internal" (spin) state of the particle, which might or might not be the same as no rotation at all.) In other words, the formula_64 operators carry the structure of SO(3), while formula_65 and formula_66 carry the structure of SU(2).


title: Angular momentum operator

text: which is to say that the orbital angular momentum quantum numbers can only be integers, not half-integers.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: Starting with a certain quantum state formula_70, consider the set of states formula_71 for all possible formula_53 and formula_73, i.e. the set of states that come about from rotating the starting state in every possible way. The linear span of that set is a vector space, and therefore the manner in which the rotation operators map one state onto another is a "representation" of the group of rotation operators.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: The ladder operator derivation above is a method for classifying the representations of the Lie algebra SU(2).


title: Angular momentum operator

text: Classical rotations do not commute with each other: For example, rotating 1° about the "x"-axis then 1° about the "y"-axis gives a slightly different overall rotation than rotating 1° about the "y"-axis then 1° about the "x"-axis. By carefully analyzing this noncommutativity, the commutation relations of the angular momentum operators can be derived.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: The Hamiltonian "H" represents the energy and dynamics of the system. In a spherically symmetric situation, the Hamiltonian is invariant under rotations:


title: Angular momentum operator

text: where "R" is a rotation operator. As a consequence, formula_77, and then formula_78 due to the relationship between J and "R". By the Ehrenfest theorem, it follows that J is conserved.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: To summarize, if "H" is rotationally-invariant (spherically symmetric), then total angular momentum J is conserved. This is an example of Noether's theorem.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: If "H" is just the Hamiltonian for one particle, the total angular momentum of that one particle is conserved when the particle is in a central potential (i.e., when the potential energy function depends only on formula_79). Alternatively, "H" may be the Hamiltonian of all particles and fields in the universe, and then "H" is "always" rotationally-invariant, as the fundamental laws of physics of the universe are the same regardless of orientation. This is the basis for saying conservation of angular momentum is a general principle of physics.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: For a particle without spin, J = L, so orbital angular momentum is conserved in the same circumstances. When the spin is nonzero, the spin–orbit interaction allows angular momentum to transfer from L to S or back. Therefore, L is not, on its own, conserved.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: Often, two or more sorts of angular momentum interact with each other, so that angular momentum can transfer from one to the other. For example, in spin–orbit coupling, angular momentum can transfer between L and S, but only the total J = L + S is conserved. In another example, in an atom with two electrons, each has its own angular momentum J and J, but only the total J = J + J is conserved.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: In these situations, it is often useful to know the relationship between, on the one hand, states where formula_80 all have definite values, and on the other hand, states where formula_81 all have definite values, as the latter four are usually conserved (constants of motion). The procedure to go back and forth between these bases is to use Clebsch–Gordan coefficients.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: One important result in this field is that a relationship between the quantum numbers for formula_82:


title: Angular momentum operator

text: For an atom or molecule with J = L + S, the term symbol gives the quantum numbers associated with the operators formula_84.


title: Angular momentum operator

text: Angular momentum operators usually occur when solving a problem with spherical symmetry in spherical coordinates. The angular momentum in the spatial representation is


title: Angular momentum operator

text: In spherical coordinates the angular part of the Laplace operator can be expressed by the angular momentum. This leads to the relation


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: The "Achille Lauro" hijacking took place on 7 October 1985, when the Italian ocean liner MS "Achille Lauro" was hijacked by four men representing the Palestine Liberation Front (PLF) off the coast of Egypt, as she was sailing from Alexandria to Ashdod, Israel. A 69-year-old Jewish American man in a wheelchair, Leon Klinghoffer, was murdered by the hijackers and thrown overboard. The hijacking sparked the "Sigonella Crisis".


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: After the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) was driven by Israel out of Jordan in 1970 and Southern Lebanon and Beirut in 1978 and 1982, respectively, PLO guerrillas had dispersed (under international guarantees of safety) to Tunisia, Yemen, Southern Yemen, Algeria, Jordan, Syria, Iraq and the Sudan.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Meanwhile, in Lebanon, PLO chairman Yasser Arafat had run into problems with Syrian President Hafez al-Assad, who in 1983 sought to wrest effective control of the group from him by backing a mutiny within the PLO. Arafat was backed by the Soviet Union and was helped to escape Lebanon by the president's brother, Rifaat Assad, and his "Red Knights" of Alawite notables near the Lebanese border with Syria. When the attempt to wrest control failed, the Syrian military backed the mutineers in an attack on Arafat loyalists within the Lebanese city of Tripoli. Arafat moved his loyalists and the PLO headquarters out of Tripoli to Tunisia.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Throughout the 1980s, other members of the PLO, as well as the Palestine Liberation Front (PLF), launched attacks on both civilian and military targets in the north of Israel, across the Lebanese border. One such attack by the PLO's Force 17 on September 25, 1985, targeting an Israeli yacht in Larnaca, Cyprus, killed three Israelis. In response, the Israeli Air Force bombed the PLO headquarters in Tunis in Operation Wooden Leg on October 1, 1985. The headquarters was completely destroyed in this attack, and sixty PLO members were killed.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: When "Achille Lauro" was hijacked, speculation arose that this an act of retaliation for the Israeli bombing in Tunis. This was disputed by Abu Abbas' widow Reem al-Nimer in 2013. According to al-Nimer, the hijacking had been planned eleven months in advance, and the hijackers had already been on two 'dummy' training runs on "Achille Lauro". The plan was to open fire on Israeli soldiers when the ship reached Ashdod – a suicide mission.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: The hijacking of "Achille Lauro" was planned and executed by one of the three factions of the PLF. The first faction was headed by Taalat Yacoub, a Palestinian who opposed Arafat and was supported by Syria. The second faction was headed by Abd al-Fatah Ghanim, who also opposed Arafat. The last faction was headed by Abbas, who was loyal to Arafat and sat on the PLO Executive Committee; his faction of the PLF had already carried out a series of armed raids in Israel and the West Bank since the late 1970s.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: In exchange for the release of hostages aboard "Achille Lauro", the hijackers demanded the release of Lebanese national Samir Kuntar, a friend of Abbas. Kuntar and an accomplice had been jailed by five years before for attempting on April 22, 1979, to kidnap a Jewish family in the northern Israeli city of Nahariya, close to the Lebanese border. The botched kidnapping had resulted in the death of Israeli policeman Eliyahu Shahar, 31-year-old father Danny Kaiser, and his two daughters, four-year-old Einat and two year-old Yael, leaving wife and mother Smadar Haran Kaiser as the sole survivor.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: "Achille Lauro" embarked from Genoa, Italy, on 3 October 1985, with an itinerary for an eleven-day cruise which included ports of call in Alexandria in Egypt and Ashdod in Israel. The fares for a double-berthed cabin were between $955 and $1,550. The ship had become the property of the Italian government when its previous owner, Costa Lines, went bankrupt. The vessel was seized by the company's creditors, who in 1983 sold it to the state, who in turn leased it to Chandris cruise line under an agreement that would last until 1987.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: The ship set out with 748 passengers. Among them was a group of close friends from New York and New Jersey who forwent their usual Jersey shore vacation in favor of a cruise. The trip celebrated the 58th birthday of Marilyn Klinghoffer, a personnel manager at a small publishing firm, who had fought colon cancer into remission, as well as her 36th wedding anniversary with Leon, who owned and operated a small appliance manufacturing firm. The pair had two adult daughters, 34-year-old Lisa, who was married, and 28-year-old Ilsa, who was engaged. Paralyzed on his right side as a result of two strokes, Leon could occasionally walk with a cane but usually relied on a wheelchair. In fact, the group had specifically chosen the "Achille Lauro" over other ships due to its wheelchair accessibility. Travelling with the Klinghoffers were their friends Frank and Mildred Hodes, Neil and June Kantor, Seymour and Viola Meskin, Sylvia Sherman, and Charlotte Spiegel.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Because ship hijackings were relatively rare at the time, the cruise line's security amounted to checking passports at Genoa. Standard procedure at the time did not include checking luggage. The "New York Times" reported at the time that the ship had security personnel, but it could not determine if they were armed. This lax security is particularly notable in a year that had already seen a spate of terrorist incidents within Europe and the Middle East, including the hijacking of TWA Flight 847, in which a hostage was slain. The TWA incident had even impacted the Mediterranean cruise business: Greece's Epirotiki Line took three of its ships – "Jupiter", "Jason", and "Neptune" – out of service when terrorism fears led to decreased travel demand overall in the region.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: On Friday, October 4, "Achille Lauro" called in Naples, then sailed through the Straits of Messina; the Mediterranean was calm and the fall day was warm. Cruise manager Max Fico would later recall that he noticed that several young men were acting suspicious, in that they kept to themselves, refusing any of the congenial friendliness common to the other cruise guests. They claimed to be Argentinean when other guests tried to engage them in English, but did not understand fluent Spanish when it was spoken to them. They had passports from Portugal, Norway, and Argentina; later, it was theorized that they were trying to maintain a cover story.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: On October 7, at Alexandria, Egypt, 651 of the passengers from the "Achille Lauro" left for a bus tour of the pyramids. They were to rendezvous with the ship fourteen hours later at Port Said, at the mouth of the Suez Canal, 150 miles to the east.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Passengers who stayed aboard the "Achille Lauro", such as Rene Sprecher, would later report watching a camera crew record what appeared to be people running on and off the ship firing guns with blanks. At the end of this, a car arrived, and a man took two wrapped packages from it, carrying them aboard ship. It was later theorized that this was how weapons were brought aboard.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: On Monday, October 7, 1985, four PLF militants hijacked "Achille Lauro" off Egypt. The hijackers had been surprised by a crew member and acted prematurely. The Palestinians had hidden their weapons in the gas tank of a car parked in Italy in preparation for boarding the ship. Their smuggled weapons, still with gasoline residue on them, gave off a smell that the crew had noticed but had not acted on. A cabin steward, with the hijackers' stateroom in his responsibilities, surprised the four Palestinians (as they were trying to use a hairdryer to clean the residue off their weapons) by entering their unlocked room in order to deliver complementary fruit. The hijackers' original plan to launch an attack on Ashdod, Israel, was put aside as the terrorists panicked and moved to hijack the ship instead.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: The four terrorists stormed into the ship's dining room. They fired their automatic weapons over the heads of the eating passengers. Screams from the passengers meshed with the shouting of the gunmen and with the sound of falling glass shards and splinters. Viola Meskin tried to run to a door but was intercepted by a terrorist with a gun who turned her back. Austrian passenger Anna Hoeranter ran to an exit but was pushed down an adjacent flight of stairs by one of the terrorists. Other passengers ran in a panic from the dining room into the kitchen and were chased by one of the terrorists. Inside the kitchen, the pursuing terrorist beat two of the kitchen staff to the floor.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: The ship's executive officer notified Captain Gerardo de Rosa that there were armed men on board, shooting at passengers. Captain De Rosa descended quickly through several decks, moving towards the ship's stern. An agitated voice came over the ship's loudspeakers requesting that he come immediately to the bridge. Arriving there, De Rosa was faced with machine guns. The terrorists fired some shots into the deck and then shouted in Arabic. They demanded he sail the ship 300 miles to the northeast, to the Syrian port of Tartus.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Due to most of the passengers having disembarked at Alexandria to tour the pyramids, only 97 remained on board and became hostages.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: The hijackers rounded up the rest of the passengers aboard and herded them into the dining room. They missed Hoeranter, who, after having been pushed down the stairs by a terrorist, had entered the first open cabin she found and had hidden in the bathroom. She would remain there until found by the cleaning staff four days later (after the hijackers had left). She survived on two apples she had found and rationed.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: The terrorists ordered Captain De Rosa to instruct the 450 crew members to continue with their normal duties but to stay clear of the hostages. They claimed to have a total of 20 hijackers on board. Only later would De Rosa and his officers discover that there were only four hijackers.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Within the dining room, the terrorists put on displays of power to intimidate the hostages, menacing them with their machine guns, and pulling the pins from their grenades but keeping the safety levers depressed. They had two of the women hostages hold the live grenades, causing the worry that if they fell asleep, the safety levers would detach, causing an explosion. The hijackers veered erratically from politeness to barbarity – one moment one would wash a cup for a hostage to use, the next a hijacker would ram a gun stock into Mrs. Klinghoffer to force her from the floor, then a hijacker would escort a captive to her cabin to change out of a wet swimsuit. The hijackers also tried to engage in some political persuasion, telling the hostages "Reagan no good, Arafat good."


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Before the hijackers enforced radio silence, the crew of the "Achille Lauro" managed to send out an S.O.S. that was picked up by a monitoring facility in Sweden. This alerted the international community that Palestinians had seized an Italian ship.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: As night approached, the hijackers took all the hostages up several decks to the Arazzi Lounge on the Promenade deck and gave them blankets to spend the night. While they ordered the ship's kitchen to send food up for the hostages, they placed containers they claimed were filled with gasoline around the room (apparently as a bluff to ward off the ship's crew). Despite fears of grenades and gasoline, the passengers attempted to sleep on the floor while the ship sailed for Syria.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: The tourists who had visited the pyramids reached Port Said by 10:30 but found no ship. At first, they were told that traffic in the canal had delayed the ship, but at 1:30 a.m. were given the truth. Passengers began to worry.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Upon learning of the hijacking and that there were Americans on board, members of the Reagan administration in Washington, D.C., in a time zone seven hours behind Egypt's, moved to take decisive action. The Terrorist Incident Working Group (which included National Security Council staff member U.S. Marine Corps LtCol Oliver North) met in accord with predetermined counter-terrorist procedures. They recommended that a State Department Emergency Support Team be sent to Rome to assist the embassy there as the vessel was Italian. The Group also recommended that the Pentagon dispatch a team of special operations forces to Europe in case the ship needed to be seized to rescue the hostages. These recommendations were approved by the Operational Sub-Group chaired by John Poindexter and orders were sent to the State and Defense Departments. U.S. Army MG Carl Stiner put two platoons, drawn from the Navy's counter-terrorism unit SEAL Team Six, Army commandos from Delta Force, and Air Force Combat Controllers from BRAND X, en route to Europe to be operating with NATO ally permission from a British base at Akrotiri, Cyprus. The U.S. State Department asked countries along the Mediterranean to deny "Achille Lauro" access to their ports in order to keep it in international waters. They also sought to keep the press away from the ship to prevent giving the terrorists a worldwide stage.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: The Italian Government took a mixed approach. Defense Minister Giovanni Spadolini had the military send 60 paratroopers, four helicopters, and experts on the ship's layout to the British base at Akrotiri. Prime Minister Bettino Craxi looked for a diplomatic solution beginning a near-continuous dialogue with every country involved, including the nations with citizens aboard, and the Arab states of Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and Tunisia.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Italy had called on the PLO to publicly declare whether they had any involvement. In response Yasser Arafat denounced the hijacking and offered to assist in negotiating for a peaceful conclusion to the incident. Arafat sent two men to Egypt to join a joint negotiating team alongside Italians and Egyptians – one of his advisors and PLO executive committee member Hani al-Hassan and Abu Abbas. At Port Said, Egypt, these two joined the PLO representative from Cairo – Zohdi al-Qoudra. (It is unknown if Arafat was ignorant of Abbas’s involvement or if he was sent to ensure the incident would end quickly.)


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: On the morning of Tuesday, October 8, the hijackers began to separate the hostages. They were looking for Jews and Americans, asking for the hostages to identify themselves but meeting refusal. They collected the passports of the passengers and pulled aside 12 Americans and six female British dancers who had been hired as entertainers (originally set to perform in the very lounge they were being held hostage in). Looking at the passports of an elderly couple, the hijackers asked if they were Jewish. Upon hearing that they were, one of the terrorists knocked the man to the floor and repeatedly hit him with the butt of his gun.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: The terrorists ordered the 20 separated passengers up the stairs but Leon Klinghoffer's wheelchair could not make the climb and his wife Marilyn refused to abandon him. She was ordered by the terrorists to leave him, when she protested they put a machine gun to her head and ordered her up the stairs. Fellow passenger Anna Scheider offered to take Mr. Klinghoffer but was refused, with one of the hijackers saying "You go! We will take care of him."


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: On Lido Deck, below the bridge and above the lounge the other hostages were being held on, the separated hostages were forced to lie on the deck. Containers said to contain fuel were placed around them with threats from the terrorists that they would shoot the cans if provoked. One of the terrorists told hostage Evelyn Weltman that if commandos tried a rescue all the hostages would be executed. At this point it became clear to the hostages and Captain De Rosa that one of the four hijackers was their leader – twenty-three year-old Youssef Majed Molqi (recruited by Abbas from a crowded Palestinian refugee camp in Jordan).


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: The "Achille Lauro" arrived off Tartus at 11:00 a.m. and Molqi broke radio silence. He asked Syrian authorities to allow him to dock the ship at Tartus and demanded that they send someone from the International Red Cross to the ship, along with British and American representatives. He stated that he was with the PLF and demanded that the Israeli Government be contacted and given the demand that 50 Palestinians held in its jails be freed, including specifically Samir Kuntar.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: If the prisoners were not released, Molqi said they would begin killing hostages, "We will start executing at 3:00 p.m. sharp." Syria, having consulted with the U.S. and Italian governments, did not respond to any of the demands.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: As 3:00 p.m. neared, the terrorists began to decide whom to kill by shuffling the U.S., British, and Austrian hostages' passports. They selected Leon Klinghoffer to be killed first, to be followed by Mildred Hodes.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Several reasons have been put forward that may have contributed to why Klinghoffer was chosen. Earlier in the hijacking, he had refused to be silent when gunmen took his watch and cigarettes, becoming brusque and complaining in his slurred speech, which antagonized some of the hijackers, though one of them gave Klinghoffer his possessions back. Additionally Klinghoffer was Jewish and American, and his wheelchair made him both hard to move around the ship and meant his extended absence from the main group was less likely to trigger a chain reaction of resistance among the surviving hostages. Molqi later gave a statement on why he was chosen: "I and Bassm [al-Ashker] agreed that the first hostage to be killed had to be an American. I chose Klinghoffer, an invalid, so that they would know that we had no pity for anyone, just as the Americans, arming Israel, do not take into consideration that Israel kills women and children of our people."


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Molqi ordered Manuel De Souza, a Portuguese waiter, to accompany him and push Klinghoffer outside onto the open deck. Klinghoffer was taken back along the entire deck of the ship to the stern. Molqi ordered De Souza to return into the ship.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: The other terrorists moved the rest of the hostages back down into the lounge. Marilyn Klinghoffer noticed that Leon was not there and began to weep. A hijacker told her that he had been moved to the ship's infirmary due to illness.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Molqi shot Leon Klinghoffer once in the head and again in the chest. He died instantly, toppling onto his face. Molqi then went in and ordered De Souza to throw the body over the side of the ship. When De Souza was unable to do the task alone, Molqi found Italian hairdresser Ferruccio Alberti and forced the two of them at gunpoint to throw the body and then the wheelchair into the sea. Several of the hostages heard the shots and splashes, including Marilyn Klinghoffer. She pleaded with the hijackers to let her see her husband in the infirmary, but they refused. She feared the worst but remained hopeful.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Molqi, with blood splattered clothing, returned to the other terrorists and told them "I have killed the American." He and Bassam al-Ashker then went to the bridge. Handing Klinghoffer's passport to Captain De Rosa, he raised a finger and said "boom, boom." He then handed Mrs. Hodes' passport to him and said "This will be the second one." At that point, De Rosa told them they could kill him instead of the passengers.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Molqi ordered De Rosa to tell the Syrians that a passenger had been killed and that they were prepared to kill another. The Syrians responded by telling Molqi to "go back where you came from." Finding no help in Syria, Molqi ordered De Rosa to sail for Libya.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: In an effort to resolve the situation, communications with the hijackers and discussions about their fate took place.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Before "Achille Lauro" could head towards Libya, Abbas, unable to contact the ship using Egyptian Naval communications, called into Cyprus' Arabic language station Radio Monte Carlo. He, using the name "Abu Khaled", asked the station to broadcast a message to the vessel, instructing the hijackers to return immediately to Port Said and treat the passengers "kindly." Molqi on the bridge with Captain De Rosa was listening to the station and became overjoyed, ordering the captain to set course for Port Said at 7:20 p.m., Tuesday, October 8. Following the instructions of Abbas, the "Achille Lauro" headed back towards Port Said, where it had previously made a tourist stop.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Abbas, still using the name "Abu Khaled," was later able to contact the ship by naval radio from Port Said. Abbas told Majed to treat the passengers well and to apologize to them, the crew, and the captain. He told Majed to tell them that their objective was not to take control of the ship and that their friendship with Italy was "so important that it is unthinkable that any action would be taken against our European friends."


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Abbas then spoke to Captain De Rosa; he apologized to him, saying, "We are truly sorry, because we didn't intend to hijack you, but our situation was such that we had to assume control for several hours." De Rosa replied "I am familiar with your situation and I understand it well. We understand the Palestinians, we understand the Palestinian aspirations, and for that reason we are all with you." The radio contact allowed the International community to pinpoint the location of the vessel. The Israelis were able to provide information about Abbas' radio discussions with the ship to the Reagan administration and notified them that it was Abbas' faction behind the hijacking. Fearing that the terrorists’ threat to kill passengers had been followed through, and not wanting a repeat of the TWA Flight 847 terrorist incident where the administration looked impotent to act, the American special forces staged in Cyprus were ordered to make preparations to storm the vessel.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: That afternoon, Maxwell M. Rabb, U.S. ambassador to Italy, advised Prime Minister Craxi of the U.S. intention to mount a military assault on the vessel, after Italy had already weighed taking the same action. Craxi protested, saying the ship was Italian, and therefore only Italy should act and that there was no confirmation of any killings. He maintained that negotiations for the release of the ship seemed possible. He relayed that in response to his inquires the Egyptians had told him that no one had been killed. The Egyptian Government began to conduct negotiations through the medium of PLO representative Muhammad "Abu" Abbas.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: By Tuesday evening, the PLO began seeking to have the hijackers turned over to them should they surrender. Arafat had Abbas communicate to Italian Prime Minister Craxi that the hijackers promised to release unharmed all the passengers and to drop demands for the release of prisoners. Arafat, through Abbas, also got Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak to pledge to turn over the hijackers to the PLO in Tunis for prosecution.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: The PLF issued a statement from Nicosia, Cyprus, apologizing to the passengers for the hijacking, "The aim of the operation was not to hijack the ship or its passengers, or any civilian of any nationality. The operation was likewise not aimed against states that are friendly to our people and their cause. ... [The mission was to] travel on an ordinary sea journey to Ashdod harbor in occupied Palestine, from where our comrades were to proceed to a specified Israeli military target, as a reply to the war of extermination and terrorism against them and to avenge the martyrs of the Israeli raid on Tunis. Our comrades were compelled to take control of the ship before reaching the specified target. We wish to mention that the course toward Arab ports was the result of the situation and the confusion into which the squad fell."


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: At 7:30 a.m. Wednesday, October 9, the "Achille Lauro" anchored off Port Said. While the hostages remained in the lounge, a small boat approached the ship. Molqi descended to speak with the new arrivals which included Abu Abbas and Hani al-Hassan.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Speaking with the support of both the Egyptian and Italian officials, Abbas and Hassan began talking to the hijackers – giving the appearance of real negotiations. The PLO hailed the incident as successful negotiations and took credit for it. Hassan notified Arafat of the talk and Arafat called Italian Prime Minister Craxi midday Wednesday. Arafat told him that the hijackers would release the captives if two demands were met, that the ambassadors from U.S., Italy, West Germany, and Great Britain visit the ship, then the hijackers be given safe passage off the ship.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Italian ambassador Giovanni Migliuolo asked the other ambassadors to accompany him on a helicopter flight to Port Said in order to speak to the hijackers. U.S. ambassador to Egypt Nicholas A. Veliotes refused, saying it would give the hijackers the media platform they wanted and that more importantly the U.S. policy was not to negotiate with terrorists.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: While the diplomats were reviewing their options the Egyptian foreign minister Abdel Meguid telephoned and asked them to report to his office. There he proposed a new offer – the hostages would be released if the four governments promised not to pursue the hijackers. The ambassadors told him that they could not commit to that without consulting with their governments. Meguid loaned each an office and telephone. He demanded an answer in twenty minutes, the ambassadors ignored his deadline and began discussing the matter with their governments. The American and British ambassadors informed Meguid that their governments refused, repeating their policies of not negotiating with terrorists.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: By Wednesday morning, the Reagan administration had implemented a plan for the "Achille Lauro" to be liberated by the U.S. military that evening. SEAL Team Six embarked on board the USS Iwo Jima (LPH-2) an amphibious assault ship which then steamed for Port Said. It was decided that the raid would go ahead as long as the ship was in international waters, but would be put on hold if it was found in Egyptian waters.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: At mid-afternoon Wednesday, a ship-to-shore radio broadcast was made by Captain De Rosa, "I am the captain. I am speaking from my office, and my officers and everybody is in good health". It was later discovered that De Rosa had made this false claim because Molqi was holding a gun to his head.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: Citing De Rosa's broadcast the Egyptian foreign minister met again with the four ambassadors urging them to accept a transfer of the hijackers to PLO control rather than seeking their arrest. Veliotes refused, holding that even without any murders the terrorists must be arrested for the hijacking itself. The British ambassador also refused to sign off on the proposal. The Italian ambassador embraced the agreement, and the West German ambassador offered general but undefined support. The split positions was enough for the Egyptian government, and Foreign Minister Meguid informed Abbas and Hassan that the hijackers could leave the ship. Captain De Rosa told the passengers that the Palestinians had told him to relay an apology and the message that they had never intended to hijack the ship, "They had an assignment to do something in Israel."


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: At 5:00 p.m., the four Palestinian hijackers left the ship being taken ashore by the Egyptians in a tugboat. The terrorists waved goodbye to the former hostages, who applauded in relief at finding themselves freed. A crowd of Egyptian civilians ashore burst into cheers for the hijackers as they came into view of land, "Fedayeen, fedayeen, Allah akbar!" ("The guerrillas, the guerrillas, God is great!"). British Journalist Robert Fisk reported from the shore that one could see a streak down the side of the vessel, which turned out to be Klinghoffer's blood.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: As soon as the hijackers left the ship Marilyn Klinghoffer rushed to the infirmary looking for Leon. Not finding him the staff informed her to ask the captain who was still on the bridge. Klinghoffer climbed the steps on the infirmary's level – near the bottom of the ship, all the way to the bridge – near the top of the vessel. Captain De Rosa informed her of her husband's murder. Klinghoffer collapsed, sobbing uncontrollably, and friends helped her to her cabin.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: De Rosa received a call from Italian Foreign Minister Giulio Andreotti in Rome. He confirmed that he had regained control of the ship but inexplicably relayed that all of the passengers were well. Andreotti informed Craxi, who was about to hold a press conference, on the successful conclusion of the situation. Craxi decided that it was best to double check the condition of the passengers and called De Rosa who finally admitted the murder of Leon Klinghoffer. Craxi altered his prepared remarks and at the news conference the world learned from him of the murder for the first time. The Klinghoffers’ daughters and friends in New York had been celebrating the previous news which claimed all the hostages were safe, but were contacted by the "New York Times" which had a reporter at the Craxi press conference. Informed of the death of their father and friend, their joy turned into despair.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: American ambassador Nicholas Vliotes boarded the "Achille Lauro" to confirm Craxi's information about Klinghoffer's death. He found De Rosa distraught, learned that Molqi had held the gun to his head during the ship-to-shore communication that claimed all the hostages were healthy. De Rosa in tears handed the ambassador Klinghoffer's passport. Veliotes called the American embassy with the ship-to-shore radio to give orders "Leon Klinghoffer was murdered by the terrorists off of Tartus when they were trying to get the attention of the Syrians. In my name, I want you to call the [Egyptian] foreign minister, tell him what we learned, tell him the circumstances, tell him in view of this and the fact that we – and presumably them – didn't have those facts, we insist that they prosecute those sons of bitches."


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: The American passengers of the "Achille Lauro", having been held hostage for 51 hours, were taken by a U.S. military aircraft back to America on October 12, 1985. The aircraft had flown out of Rhein-Main Air Base, West Germany, and stopped there for refueling during the flight to the United States from Egypt.


title: Achille Lauro hijacking

text: With the hijackers on Egyptian soil and the knowledge of Klinghoffer's murder revealed, different state actors put forward their position on what should be done. Italy's position was that the ship being Italian, it was legally Italian territory and therefore the hijackers should be extradited to Italy. Israel demanded that the hijackers be prosecuted, Benjamin Netanyahu (its representative to the United Nations) declared "Klinghoffer and his wife were singled out for one thing – because they were Jewish."