title: Colorado River (Texas)

text: The Colorado River, which means 'red' or 'reddish' river in Spanish, was frequently confused by Spanish explorers with the Brazos River to the north. The European discoverer of these two neighboring rivers called the present Colorado River the , and called the present Brazos the Colorado River. The two names would later be reversed.


title: Colorado River (Texas)

text: The upper Colorado River was controlled by Comanches from the early 18th century to the late 19th century. In 1757, Spanish Texas attempted to establish an outlying Catholic mission (Mission Santa Cruz de San Sabá) on the San Saba River, near its confluence with the Colorado River. Nearly defenseless and viewed by the Comanche tribe as a territorial invasion, the mission was sacked in 1758 by about 2,000 Comanches and their allies. The Comanche were not effectively challenged on the upper Colorado River for nearly a century.


title: Colorado River (Texas)

text: The river is an important source of water for farming, cities, and electrical power production. Major man-made reservoirs on the river include Lake Buchanan, Inks Lake, Lake LBJ, Lake Marble Falls, Lake Travis, Lake Austin, Town Lake now called Lady Bird Lake in Austin. Collectively, these lakes are known as the Highland Lakes. In addition to power plants operating on each of the major lakes, waters of the Colorado are used for cooling the South Texas Nuclear Project near Bay City. The Colorado River Municipal Water District owns and operates three reservoirs upstream of the Highland Lakes: Lake J. B. Thomas near Snyder, E.V. Spence Reservoir near Robert Lee, and O.H. Ivie Lake near Ballinger.


title: Colorado River (Texas)

text: Flood control and use of the Colorado River is managed by two agencies established by the Texas Legislature: the Upper Colorado River Authority and the Lower Colorado River Authority. There are 11 major reservoirs along the Colorado River.


title: Colorado River (Texas)

text: The Colorado River is joined by five significant tributaries: the Concho River, Pecan Bayou, the Llano River, the San Saba River and the Pedernales River. Beals Creek is also a tributary fed by arroyos such as the Sulphur Springs Draw, the Johnson Draw, and the McKenzie, Seminole, Monument, Mustang, and Midland draws.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: The North Borneo dispute, also known as the Sabah dispute, is the territorial dispute between Malaysia and the Philippines over much of the eastern part of the state of Sabah. Sabah was previously known as North Borneo prior to the formation of the Malaysian federation.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: The Philippines, presenting itself as the successor state of the Sultanate of Sulu, retains a "dormant claim" on Eastern Sabah on the basis that the territory was only leased to the British North Borneo Company in 1878, with the sovereignty of the sultanate (and subsequently the republic) over the territory never having been relinquished. However, Malaysia considers this dispute as a "non-issue", as it interprets the 1878 agreement as that of cession, and it deems that the residents of Sabah (including Eastern Sabah) had exercised their right to self-determination when they joined to form the Malaysian federation in 1963.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: The keyword in the agreement is the ambiguous term "pajakkan", a Malay term which was translated by Spanish linguists in 1878 and by American anthropologists H. Otley Beyer and Harold Conklin in 1946 as "arrendamiento" or "to lease". However, the British used the interpretation of historian Najeeb Mitry Saleeby in 1908 and William George Maxwell and William Summer Gibson in 1924, which translated "pajakkan" as "to grant and cede".


title: North Borneo dispute

text: It can be argued however, that "pajakkan" means "to mortgage" or "pawn" or even "wholesale", as per the contemporary meaning of "pajakkan" in Tausug and Malay, which essentially means that the land is pawned in perpetuity for the annual cession money, and the sultanate would need to repay the entire infinite value of the territory to redeem it back. Furthermore, the term "selama-lama," which means "forever" or "in perpetuity", indicates a binding effect beyond the lifetime of the then sultan.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: Another contentious translation is in the exclusive authority of the said territory, that is whereby in the original Jawi text (in Malay language) and the British translation, Her Britannic Majesty (in Malay, it is written as "Duli Queen") holds exclusive power on the transfer of the said territory and any arbitration will solely be decided by the Britannic Majesty’s Consul-General for Borneo, this translation is replaced as "Their Majesties Government" in the Tausug translation.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: The ambiguity led to the different interpretation of the original Malay text. A full transcription and translation of the original Malay text in 1878 agreement is as follows, and contentious translations by both Sulu and British counterparts are highlighted:


title: North Borneo dispute

text: Throughout the British administration of North Borneo, the British government continued to make the annual "cession money" payment to the sultan and his heirs, and these payments were expressly shown in the receipts as "cession money". In a 1961 conference in London, during which a Philippine and British panel met to discuss the Philippine claim of North Borneo, the British panel informed the Philippine congressman, Jovito Salonga, that the wording of the receipts had not been challenged by the sultan or his heirs.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: During a meeting of Maphilindo between the Philippine, Malayan and Indonesian governments in 1963, the Philippine government said the sultan of Sulu wanted the payment of 5,000 from the Malaysian government. The first Malaysian prime minister at the time, Tunku Abdul Rahman, said he would go back to Kuala Lumpur and get on the request. Malaysia considers the amount an annual "cession" payment for the land, while the sultan's descendants consider it "rent".


title: North Borneo dispute

text: The foregoing Sulu claim rests on the treaty signed by Sultan Jamalul Alam of Sulu appointing Baron de Overbeck as Dato Bendahara and Raja Sandakan on 22 January 1878. However, a further, earlier treaty signed by Sultan Abdul Momin of Brunei appointed Baron de Overbeck as the Maharaja Sabah, Rajah Gaya and Sandakan. This was signed on 29 December 1877, and granted the territories of Paitan as far as the Sibuco River, which overlaps the Sulu Sultanate's claim of their dominion in Sabah.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: As attested to by the International Court of Justice in 2002, the Sultan of Sulu relinquished the sovereign rights over all his possessions in favour of Spain, based on the "Bases of Peace and Capitulation" signed by the Sultan of Sulu and the crown of Spain in Jolo on 22 July 1878. The Sultan declared beyond discussion the sovereignty of Spain over all the Archipelago of Sulu and the dependencies thereof.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: In 1885, the United Kingdom, Germany and Spain signed the Madrid Protocol to cement Spanish influence over the islands of the Philippines. In the same agreement, Spain relinquished all claims to North Borneo which had belonged to the sultanate in the past in favour of the United Kingdom.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: On 22 April 1903, the successor of Sultan Jamalul Alam, Sultan Jamalul Kiram II, signed a document known as the "Confirmation of cession of certain islands", under which he grant and ceded additional islands, in addition to the land agreed upon in 1878, in the vicinity of the mainland of North Borneo from Banggi Island to Sibuku Bay to the British North Borneo Company.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: In the 1903 agreement, the ambiguous term "pajakkan" was no longer used, but instead the phrase "kita telah keredhai menyerahkan kepada pemerintah British North Borneo," which literally means "we have willingly surrendered to the Government of British North Borneo", was used in the agreement, asserting the understanding of the Sulu Sultanate of that time of the meaning of the earlier agreement in 1878.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: The confirmatory deed of 1903 makes it known and understood between the two parties that the islands mentioned were included in the cession of the districts and islands mentioned on 22 January 1878 agreement. The originally agreed 5,000 dollars increased to 5,300 dollars per year payable annually.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: In 1939, propriety claimants Dayang Dayang Hadji Piandao and eight other heirs filed a civil suit regarding the "cession money" payable to the heirs of the sultan of Suluthe then incumbent Jamalul Kiram II having died childless in June 1936. Chief Justice Charles Frederick Cunningham Macaskie of the High Court of North Borneo ruled on the share entitlement of each claimant.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: This ruling has often been quoted by proponents of the Sulu Sultanate's claim as proof of North Borneo's acknowledgment of the sultan's ownership of the territory, although it was made solely to determine who as heir was entitled to the "cession money" of 5,300 Malaysian ringgit per year.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: The Sultanate of Sulu was granted the north-eastern part of the territory as a prize for helping the Sultan of Brunei against his enemies in 1658. However, on 22 July 1878, the sultan of Sulu relinquished the sovereign rights over all his possessions in favour of Spain, based on the "Bases of Peace and Capitulation" signed by the sultan of Sulu and representatives of the Spanish government in Jolo. The Spanish then claimed the area in northern Borneo, but ended its claim soon under the Madrid Protocol of 1885, after the United Kingdom and Germany recognised its presence in the Philippine archipelago in return for the Spanish to stop interfering the British affairs in northern Borneo. Once the protocol had been ratified, the British North Borneo Chartered Company proceeded with the administration of North Borneo, and in 1888, North Borneo became a British protectorate.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: On 15 July 1946, the North Borneo Cession Order in Council, 1946, declared that the State of North Borneo is annexed to the British Crown, hence becoming a British colony. In September 1946, F. B. Harrison, former American governor-general of the Philippines, urged the Philippine government to protest this proclamation. The United States posited the claim on the premise that Spain had never acquired sovereignty over North Borneo, and thus did not have the right to transfer claims of sovereignty over North Borneo to the United Kingdom in the Madrid Protocol of 1885. This argument however, contradicts the treaty made between Spain and the Sultanate of Sulu in 1878, which expressly states that all of the territory of the Sultanate of Sulu is relinquished to Spain. Furthermore, the American view may be based on an erroneous interpretation of that part of the 1878 and the earlier 1836 treaties, that excluded North Borneo from the Sulu transfer to Spanish sovereignty (when in fact the exclusion merely referred to Spanish protection offered to the Sultan of Sulu in case he was attacked). The United States-based government also refused to intervene in the dispute, officially maintaining a neutral stance on the matter and continuing to recognise Sabah as part of Malaysia.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: On 12 September 1962, during President Diosdado Macapagal's administration, the Philippine government claimed the territory of North Borneo, and the full sovereignty, title and dominion over it were "ceded" by the heirs of the sultan of Sulu, Muhammad Esmail E. Kiram I, to the Philippines. The Philippines broke off diplomatic relations with Malaysia after the federation was formed with Sabah in 1963, but probably resumed relations unofficially through the Manila Accord, in which the Philippines made it clear that its position on the inclusion of North Borneo in the Federation of Malaysia was subject to the outcome of the Philippine claim to North Borneo. The representatives of Indonesia and the Federation of Malaya seconded that the inclusion of North Borneo into the aforementioned Federation "would not prejudice either the claim or any right thereunder". It was revealed later in 1968 that President Ferdinand Marcos was training a team of militants on Corregidor known as Operation Merdeka for infiltration into Sabah. The plan failed as a result of the Jabidah massacre.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: Republic Act No. 5446 of the Philippines, which was passed by the legislature on 26 August 1968 and signed by Marcos on 18 September, regards Sabah as a territory "over which the Republic of the Philippines has acquired dominion and sovereignty". The Malaysian government responded by suspending diplomatic relations and ceasing cooperation regarding smuggling. Perceived British support for Malaysia led to the British Embassy in Manila being broken into by a crowd. Philippine Foreign Secretary Narciso Ramos gave a speech at the UN General Assembly on 15 October, calling for the dispute to be settled in international courts.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: On 16 July 2011, the Philippine Supreme Court ruled that the Philippine claim over Sabah is retained and may be pursued in the future.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: At the ASEAN Summit on 4 August 1977, Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos announced that the Philippines would take "definite steps to eliminate one of the burdens of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) — the claim of the Philippine Republic to Sabah". The statement, however was not followed through, despite negotiations and reassurances made by Marcos again in 1984 with Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: Following the overthrow of Marcos, President Corazon Aquino sought to officially drop the claim before the 1987 ASEAN Summit.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: A bill to repeal Republic Act 5446 was filed by Leticia Ramos Shahani in the Philippine Senate in 1987. The bill was widely criticised for effectively dropping the country's claim over the territory. Muslim members of Congress also voiced their strong opposition to the measure for fears it would "endanger" the proprietary rights of the Sultanate of Sulu. This eventually led Shahani to not pursue the bill's passage.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: While Aquino's successor Fidel V. Ramos was similarly unable to obtain consensus to drop the claim, he officially put the dispute aside in order to improve ties with Malaysia. Later, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was similarly unable to gain consensus on the matter. The 2009 Philippine baseline law does not include Sabah within Philippine territory, although the Philippine Government at the time stated that this did not affect the claim.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: Prior to the formation of the Malaysia, two commissions of enquiry visited North Borneo, along with neighbouring Sarawak, to establish the state of public opinion there regarding merger with Malaya (and Singapore). The commission was mandated to address self-determination of the people of Sabah, i.e., the right of the people of Sabah to freely determine their own political status and freely pursue their own economic, social and cultural development.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: The first commission, known as the Cobbold Commission, was established by the Malayan and British governments and was headed by Lord Cobbold, along with two representatives of Malaya and Britain (but neither of the territories under investigation). The Commission found that 'About one third of the population of each territory [i.e. of North Borneo and of Sarawak] strongly favours early realisation of Malaysia without too much concern over terms and conditions. Another third, many of them favourable to the Malaysia project, ask, with varying degrees of emphasis, for conditions and safeguards. The remaining third is divided between those who insist upon independence before Malaysia is considered and those who would strongly prefer to see British rule continue for some years to come'.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: The Commission published its report on 1 August 1962 and made several recommendations. Unlike in Singapore, however, no referendum was ever conducted in North Borneo and Sarawak. Notably, the "referendum" did not involve the entire population of North Borneo and Sarawak at that time, but only representative consultations. The UN mission report stated that "[t]here was no reference to a referendum or plebiscite in the request..." and that "[t]he Mission accordingly arranged for consultations with the population through the elected representatives of the people, leaders of political parties and other groups and organisations, and with all persons who were willing to express their views". Indonesia and the Philippines rejected the findings of the Cobbold Commission.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: In July 1963, a tripartite meeting was held in Manila between Indonesian president Sukarno, Philippines president Diosdado Macapagal and Malayan Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman. The three heads of state signed an agreement known as the Manila Accord where Indonesia and the Philippines stated that they would welcome the formation of Malaysia "provided the support of the people of the Borneo territories is ascertained by an independent and impartial authority, the Secretary-General of the United Nations or his representative," and provided further that "the inclusion of North Borneo as part of Malaysia would not prejudice either the claim or any right thereunder" by the Philippines to the territory.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: Pursuant to the Accord, a United Nations mission to Borneo was thus established that same year, comprising members of the UN Secretariat from Argentina, Brazil, Ceylon, Czechoslovakia, Ghana, Pakistan, Japan and Jordan. The Mission's report, authored by UN Secretary-General U Thant found ‘a sizeable majority of the people' in favour of joining Malaysia. Indonesia and the Philippines subsequently rejected the report's findings – and Indonesia continued its semi-military policy of "konfrontasi" towards Malaysia. The new Federation of Malaysia was proclaimed on 16 September 1963.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: In a note verbale dated 7 February 1966, the government of Malaysia put itself on record "that it has never moved away from the Manila Accord of 31 July 1963 and the Joint Statement accompanying it and reiterates its assurance that it will abide by these agreements, particularly paragraph 12 of the said Manila Accord" (where Malaysia agreed that the inclusion of North Borneo in the Federation of Malaysia would not prejudice either the claim or any right of the Philippines to the territory) and "paragraph 8 of the Joint Statement" (where all parties agreed to seek a just and expeditious solution to the dispute by means of negotiation, conciliation and arbitration, judicial settlement, or other peaceful means of the parties' own choice in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations). In other words, this note verbale affirmed Malaysia's recognition of the still unresolved territorial dispute as regards North Borneo despite the findings of the Cobbold Commission or the 1963 UN Mission.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: A joint communique by Malaysia and the Philippines dated 3 June 1966 also provides that both parties have agreed to abide by the Manila Accord for the peaceful settlement of the Philippine claim to North Borneo (now called "Sabah") by "[recognizing] the need of sitting together, as soon as possible, for the purpose of clarifying the claim and discussing the means of settling it to the satisfaction of both parties" in consonance with said Accord and its accompanying Joint Statement.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: In 1968, the governments of Malaysia and the Philippines agreed to hold talks in Bangkok for the purpose of clarifying the territorial dispute and discussing the modes of settling it, as provided under the terms of the Manila Accord. As reflected in the official records of a plenary meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, the Malaysian delegation reportedly declared during such talks that "this exercise under the Joint Communique is over and done with" and that they "stalked out of the conference room, thus bringing the talks to an abrupt end," despite publicly announcing a few days earlier that they would discuss with their Philippine counterparts the modes of settlement for the issue.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: To date, Malaysia maintains that the Sabah claim is a non-issue and non-negotiable, thereby rejecting any calls from the Philippines to resolve the matter in ICJ. Sabah authorities stated in 2009 that they see the claim made by the Philippines' Moro leader Nur Misuari to take Sabah to International Court of Justice (ICJ) as a non-issue and that they dismiss the claim.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: In 1967, President Ferdinand Marcos secretly authorised Major Eduardo "Abdul Latif" Martelino, a Muslim convert, to take charge of the operations of a secret commando unit code-named "Jabidah" and embark on an operation called "Project Merdeka" ("merdeka" means "freedom" in Malay) to destabilise and take over Sabah. The alleged mastermind, however, included leading generals in the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP), Defense Undersecretary Manuel Syquio, and Marcos himself.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: This plan backfired when in 1968, due to some reason, the trainees refused to continue their training and demanded to be returned home. One batch of recruits were disarmed, with some of the trainees returned home and some others transferred to a regular military camp in Luzon. But another batch of recruits were killed by army troops, with only one survivor, Jibin Arula, managing to escape. This event is acknowledged as a major flashpoint that ignited the Moro insurgency in the Philippines.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: In September 1985, 15-20 armed foreign pirates from the neighbouring Philippines landed in Lahad Datu, and killed at least 21 people and injured 11 others in a series of robberies and random shootings. In addition, some $200,000 from a local bank as well as another $5,000 from the Malaysia Airlines office were stolen.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: In 2002, in a case concerning sovereignty over Ligitan and Sipadan islands between Indonesia and Malaysia, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruled in favour of Malaysia. The two islands are located in the Celebes Sea off the northeast coast of Borneo. The case was decided based on Malaysia's "effectivités" (evidence of possession and use by a particular state that is effective to claim title) on the two islands as both Indonesia and Malaysia did not possess treaty-based titles on Ligitan and Sipadan.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: The Philippines applied to intervene in the case based on its territorial claim to North Borneo. Indonesia objected to the application and stated that the "Philippines raises no claim with respect to [the two islands] and maintains that the legal status of North Borneo is not a matter on which the Court has been asked to rule". Malaysia further contended that "the issue of sovereignty over Ligitan and Sipadan is completely independent of that of the status of North Borneo" and that "the territorial titles are different in the two cases". The application was ultimately rejected by the ICJ because of the non-existence of an "interest of legal nature" such that the court did not find how the decision on the case concerning the two islands would affect the Philippines' territorial claim to North Borneo.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: On 11 February 2013, a group of approximately 100–200 individuals, some of them armed, arrived by boat in Lahad Datu, Sabah, from Simunul island, Tawi-Tawi, in the southern Philippines. They were sent by Jamalul Kiram III, one of the claimants to the throne of the Sultanate of Sulu. Their objective was to assert their unresolved territorial claim to North Borneo. During the ensuing standoff, 56 of his followers were killed, along with 6 civilians and 10 Malaysian soldiers.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: On 27 July 2020, Philippine foreign secretary Teodoro Locsin Jr. posted a tweet replying to a post from the US Embassy in Manila on the "US donation of hygiene kits to Filipinos from Sabah, Malaysia" by saying that "Sabah does not belong to Malaysia". In response, the Malaysian foreign minister, Hishammuddin Hussein, rebuked the Philippine foreign secretary's tweet as an irresponsible statement that affected bilateral ties, and on 30 July 2020 summoned the Philippine ambassador. Locsin then summoned the Malaysian ambassador in a tit-for-tat move.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: Sabah Chief Minister Shafie Apdal rejected the Philippine claim, suggesting that the issues "should be resolved once and for all" with both the governments of Malaysia and the Philippines to officially have a "government-to-government talk" through the ASEAN platform. He earlier stated that the proposal by the central government of the Philippines to include Sabah territory as part of the Philippines territory in their passports was nothing short of provocation and that the federal government of Malaysia had to make an immediate response. Shafie added that Sabah was a "sovereign state" and that this had been settled a long time ago where the residents of Sabah had been assured by the Malaysian federal government of "full security and protection" when it formed the Federation of Malaysia in 1963.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: In addition, former Sabah chief minister Musa Aman told the Philippines to back off from continuing its claim over the state and to cease any agendas relating to Sabah and its internal politics. Similarly, former Malaysia foreign minister Anifah Aman, who is also a Sabahan, criticised Locsin for his statement.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: The "South China Morning Post" reported that an elected official of Sulu province organised a meeting on December 2021, attended by mayors of Sulu; it was alleged that there was a plan to organise a 600-personnel "Royal Sulu Army" to organise an armed takeover of the contested area in North Borneo. Philippine Defense Secretary Delfin Lorenzana dismissed the alleged plot as fake news. The Philippine military in Sulu said that the allegation was without basis but confirmed that local officials organised a meeting where they discussed bolstering maritime security in the area.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: Malaysia stopped the annual payment of RM 5,300 cession money to the heirs of the Sulu Sultanate after the 2013 Lahad Datu standoff, despite being unable to prove a link between the 2013 Lahad Datu militants and the descendants of the Sultanate of Sulu. Former prime minister of Malaysia Najib Razak defended his government's move, stating that Jamalul Kiram III, one of the claimants of the Sulu throne, launched the attack in 2013. The Malaysian government initiated a suit against the supposed descendents of the Sulu Sultanate in March 2017 at the Kota Kinabalu High Court. In March 2020, the court ruled that Malaysia was the proper venue to resolve the dispute on the non-payment of cession money and the 1878 Deeds of Cession as there was no binding agreement between the Malaysian government and the heirs of the Sulu Sultanate that compels either party to submit an arbitration in an event of dispute.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: After that, the daughter of Jamalul Kiram III, Sheramar Kiram, initiated proceedings of a commercial arbitration in November 2017 against the government of Malaysia at the Madrid High Court in Spain. When the heirs of the Sultanate of Sulu filed claims in February 2018, Malaysia did not send any representatives there to dispute the claim. Malaysia did not participate or intervene in any of the proceedings except between 25 October 2019 and 18 November 2019 and 5 July 2021. Najib defended the Malaysian government's move of not sending any representatives there because Malaysia did not recognise the Spanish court as a venue to resolve arbitration issues.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: In 2019, Tommy Thomas, the attorney general of Malaysia, admitted that Malaysia had no legal grounds to refuse payments to the heirs of the Sultanate of Sulu and offered the resumption of payments in exchange for discontinuation of the commercial arbitration process. Thomas also agreed that the arbitration did not put Malaysian national sovereignty at stake. A preliminary award was given to the heirs of the Sultanate of Sulu in May 2020. Malaysia then filed a suit at the Civil and Criminal Chamber of the Superior Court of Justice of Madrid; where the court later decided on 29 June 2021 to nullify the appointment of Dr. Gonzalo Stampa, the arbitrator of the case, and to stop all the proceedings of the case, because the purported intentions of the heirs of the Sulu Sultanate were to reclaim the state of Sabah from Malaysia, thus threatening the integrity of Malaysian sovereignty. The venue of arbitration was later moved to Paris because the Tribunal de grande instance de Paris issued an exequatur of preliminary award in September 2021. Stampa disregarded the order from the criminal court of Spain to cease all proceedings.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: In February 2022, the Paris Court ruled that Malaysia had violated the treaty signed in 1878 of annual cession payment and would have to pay at least US$14.92 billion (RM62.59 billion) to the descendants of the sultanate of Sulu. In March 2022, Malaysia again filed an application to annul the final award over claims by the sultan of Sulu's heirs since the appointment of arbitrator Dr Gonzalo Stampa was itself annulled by the Madrid High Court in June 2021, rendering any decisions by him to be invalid, including the 2022 award. Lawyers for the heirs indicated that they would seek the award’s recognition and execution, citing a 1958 U.N. Convention on Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards.


title: North Borneo dispute

text: In July 2022, court bailiffs in Luxembourg served Petronas Azerbaijan (Shah Denis) and Petronas South Caucus with a "saiseie-arret" or a "seize order" on behalf of the descendants of the sultan of Sulu. Petronas said it would defend its legal position, and further clarified that the entire assets had been divested in 2021 and all the proceeds had been repatriated, rendering the actions baseless. In the same month, the Paris Court of Appeal allowed the Malaysian government's application to obtain a stay order against enforcement of the French arbitration court, since the enforcement of the award would infringe on Malaysia's sovereignty. The award however remains enforceable outside France under a United Nations treaty on international arbitration. In September 2022, the heirs asked a Dutch court for permission to seize Malaysian assets, including assets belong to state oil firm Petronas, in the Netherlands.


title: Líf and Lífþrasir

text: In Norse mythology, Líf (identical with the Old Norse noun meaning "life, the life of the body") and Lífþrasir (Old Norse masculine name from "líf" and "þrasir" and defined by "Lexicon Poëticum" as ""Livæ amator, vitæ amans, vitæ cupidus"" "Líf's lover, lover of life, zest for life"), sometimes anglicized as Lif and Lifthrasir, female and male respectively, are two humans who are foretold to survive the events of Ragnarök by hiding in a wood called Hoddmímis holt and, after the flames have abated, to repopulate the newly risen and fertile world. Líf and Lífþrasir are mentioned in the "Poetic Edda", which was compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the "Prose Edda", written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. Many scholars have speculated as to the underlying meaning and origins of the two names.


title: Líf and Lífþrasir

text: In the poem "Vafþrúðnismál", collected in the "Poetic Edda", the god Odin poses a question to the jötunn Vafþrúðnir, asking who among mankind will survive when Fimbulvetr, the winter at the end of the world, occurs. Vafþrúðnir responds that they will be Líf and Lífþrasir, that the two will have hidden in the wood of Hoddmímis Holt, they will consume the morning dew as food, and "from them generations will spring".


title: Líf and Lífþrasir

text: In chapter 53 of the "Prose Edda" book "Gylfaginning", High tells Gangleri (king Gylfi in disguise) that two people, Líf and Lífþrasir, will lie hid in Hoddmímis Holt during "Surt's fire", and that "from these people there will be descended such a great progeny that the world will be inhabited." The above-mentioned stanza of "Vafþrúðnismál" is then quoted.


title: Líf and Lífþrasir

text: Carolyne Larrington notes that it is nowhere expressly stated what will happen to the world tree Yggdrasil at Ragnarök, points to a connection between Mímir and Yggdrasil in the poem "Völuspá", and theorizes that "it is possible that Hoddmimir is another name for Mimir, and that the two survivors hide in Yggdrasill."


title: Líf and Lífþrasir

text: Rudolf Simek theorizes that the survival of Líf and Lífþrasir is "a case of reduplication of the anthropogeny, understandable from the cyclic nature of the Eddic eschatology." Simek says that Hoddmímis holt "should not be understood literally as a wood or even a forest in which the two keep themselves hidden, but rather as an alternative name for the world-tree Yggdrasil. Thus, the creation of mankind from tree trunks (Askr, Embla) is repeated after the Ragnarǫk as well." Simek says that in Germanic regions, the concept of mankind originating from trees is ancient. Simek additionally points out legendary parallels in a Bavarian legend of a shepherd who lives inside a tree, whose descendants repopulate the land after life there has been wiped out by plague (citing a retelling by F. R. Schröder). In addition, Simek points to an Old Norse parallel in the figure of Örvar-Oddr, "who is rejuvenated after living as a tree-man ("Ǫrvar-Odds saga" 24–27)".


title: Lydian mode

text: The modern Lydian mode is a seven-tone musical scale formed from a rising pattern of pitches comprising three whole tones, a semitone, two more whole tones, and a final semitone.


title: Lydian mode

text: Because of the importance of the major scale in modern music, the Lydian mode is often described as the scale that begins on the fourth scale degree of the major scale, or alternatively, as the major scale with the fourth scale degree raised half a step. This sequence of pitches roughly describes the scale underlying the fifth of the eight Gregorian (church) modes, known as Mode V or the authentic mode on F, theoretically using B but in practice more commonly featuring B. The use of the B as opposed to B would have made such piece in the modern day F major scale.


title: Lydian mode

text: The name Lydian refers to the ancient kingdom of Lydia in Anatolia. In Greek music theory, there was a Lydian scale or "octave species" extending from "parhypate hypaton" to "trite diezeugmenon", equivalent in the diatonic genus to the modern Ionian mode (the major scale).


title: Lydian mode

text: In the chromatic and enharmonic genera, the Lydian scale was equivalent to C D E F G A B C, and C C E F F A B C, respectively, where signifies raising the pitch by approximately a quarter tone.


title: Lydian mode

text: In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, this mode was described in two ways. The first way is the diatonic octave species from F up to F an octave above, divided at C to produce two segments:


title: Lydian mode

text: The second is as a mode with a final on F and an ambitus extending to F an octave higher and in which the note C was regarded as having an important melodic function. Many theorists of the period observed that B is used more typically than B in compositions in Lydian mode.


title: Lydian mode

text: The Lydian scale can be described as a major scale with the fourth scale degree raised a semitone, making it an augmented fourth above the tonic, e.g., an F-major scale with a B rather than B. This mode's augmented fourth and the Locrian mode's diminished fifth are the only modes to have a tritone above the tonic.


title: Lydian mode

text: In Lydian mode, the tonic, dominant, and supertonic triads are all major. The subdominant is diminished. The triads built on the remaining three scale degrees are minor.


title: Lydian mode

text: The "Paean and Prosodion to the God", familiarly known as the Second Delphic Hymn, composed in 128 BC by Athénaios Athenaíou is predominantly in the Lydian "tonos", both diatonic and chromatic, with sections also in Hypolydian.


title: Lydian mode

text: The 12th-century "Hymn to St. Magnus" from the Orkney Islands, referencing Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney, is in Gregorian mode or church mode V (F white notes), extending from the E below to the octave above, with B's throughout, in two-part harmony of mostly parallel thirds. The Sanctus, Agnus Dei, and Ite, missa est of Guillaume de Machaut's "Messe de Nostre Dame" feature extensive use of F and B, as well as F and B.


title: Lydian mode

text: A rare, extended use of the Lydian mode in the Classical repertoire is Simon Sechter's 1822 "Messe in der lydischen Tonart" (Mass in the Lydian Mode). A more famous example from around the same time is the third movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's String Quartet No. 15 in A minor, Op. 132 (1825), titled by the composer "Heiliger Dankgesang eines Genesenen an die Gottheit, in der lydischen Tonart" ("Holy Song of Thanksgiving by a Convalescent to the Divinity, in the Lydian Mode"). The alternating passages in F use the Lydian scale with sharp fourth scale degree exclusively.


title: Lydian mode

text: Charles-Valentin Alkan's "Allegro barbaro" (Étude Op. 35, No. 5, published in 1848) is written strictly in F Lydian, with no B's present at all.


title: Lydian mode

text: Anton Bruckner employed the sharpened fourth of the Lydian scale in his motet "Os justi" (1879) more strictly than Renaissance composers ever did when writing in this mode.


title: Lydian mode

text: In the 20th century, composers began once again to exploit modal scales with some frequency. George Enescu, for example, includes Lydian-mode passages in the second and third movements of his 1906 Decet for Winds, Op. 14. An example from the middle of the century is the scherzo movement of Carlos Chávez's Symphony No. 3 (1951–54). The movement opens with a fugue subject, featuring extremely wide leaps, in C Lydian with following entries in F and G Lydian. Alexei Stanchinsky wrote a Prelude in Lydian mode earlier in the 20th century.


title: Lydian mode

text: In "Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization", George Russell developed a theory that became highly influential in the jazz world, inspiring the works of people such as Miles Davis, John Coltrane, Ornette Coleman, and Woody Shaw.


title: This Is Acting

text: This Is Acting is the seventh studio album by Australian singer and songwriter Sia. It was released on 29 January 2016 by Inertia, Monkey Puzzle and RCA Records. The album is mostly composed of songs written by Sia for other pop artists that were not included on their albums. Sia described songwriting for others as "play-acting," hence the title "This Is Acting".


title: This Is Acting

text: "Alive", the album's lead single, was released on 24 September 2015. The second single, "Cheap Thrills", was released on 11 February 2016. It reached the top 5 in a number of markets and marked Sia's first number one on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. A remix of the track featuring guest vocals from Sean Paul was also released. A deluxe edition of "This Is Acting" was released on 21 October 2016 featuring seven new tracks, including solo and Kendrick Lamar-assisted versions of the single "The Greatest". The album's fourth and final single, "Move Your Body", was released on 6 January 2017.


title: This Is Acting

text: The album received generally positive reviews from music critics, who complimented Sia's vocals and deemed it a concept album. However, some criticized the impersonal and indirect nature of the songs. The album debuted at number one in Australia, and also reached number four on the US "Billboard" 200, selling 81,000 album equivalent units in its first week—of which 68,000 were from pure album sales, becoming Sia's highest first week sales in the country. To further promote the album, Sia embarked on the accompanying Nostalgic for the Present Tour in September 2016. "This Is Acting" was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album.


title: This Is Acting

text: "This Is Acting" is the follow-up to Sia's sixth studio album "1000 Forms of Fear", released in 2014. In December 2014, Sia told "Spin" that she had "two [more records] completed and ready to go". She revealed details of "This Is Acting" for the first time in an interview published by "NME" in February 2015. In the article, she confirmed once again that work on the album was finished and that its content was "more pop" than her previous material. She also revealed that the success of "1000 Forms of Fear", specifically its lead single "Chandelier", encouraged her to continue releasing new material, and said of the album's title: "I'm calling it "This Is Acting" because they are songs I was writing for other people, so I didn't go in thinking 'this is something I would say'. It's more like play-acting. It's fun." The album's cover art features Sia's face digitally altered. Shortly after Sia's announcement, "Out" published a list of her "10 Greatest Hits for Other Artists" in anticipation of the album.


title: This Is Acting

text: During an online chat with fans in April 2015, Sia revealed that the album would "probably" be released in early 2016, but possibly before the end of 2015.


title: This Is Acting

text: The Target-exclusive deluxe edition of "This Is Acting" features a song by the name of "Summer Rain." It is believed that this song was rejected by Christina Aguilera. An alleged track list for Aguilera's eighth studio album was leaked early in 2015, and the fifth track was entitled "Summer Rain", suggesting that she was planning on recording and releasing a song dedicated to her daughter with the same name. Sia is also listed as one of the producers on the record. Now that a song whose title is identical to Aguilera's alleged track name has been realized and placed on Sia's extended album, it is thought to have been planned for Aguilera initially, but declined shortly after.


title: This Is Acting

text: On 7 November 2015, Sia performed "Alive" and "Bird Set Free" on "Saturday Night Live"; the episode was hosted by Donald Trump. She performed "Alive" on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" and "The Voice" on 1 December, and again on "The X Factor" in the United Kingdom on 6 December. She further appeared on "The Graham Norton Show" on 11 December, where she sang "Alive", and on 27 January 2016, she performed "Cheap Thrills" on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon". In February 2016, Sia appeared on "The Late Late Show with James Corden", in the Carpool Karaoke segment with Corden.


title: This Is Acting

text: A deluxe edition of "This Is Acting" was released on 21 October 2016 featuring seven new tracks, including 3 brand new tracks: "Confetti", "Midnight Decisions", and "Jesus Wept", as well as the single remix of "Cheap Thrills", the Alan Walker remix of "Move Your Body", and the solo and Kendrick Lamar-assisted versions of "The Greatest".


title: This Is Acting

text: In September 2015, Sia confirmed the album's lead single "Alive" would be released later that month and was originally written for Adele; the English singer and songwriter co-wrote but "rejected" the song at the last minute. The album's release date, 29 January 2016, was confirmed in early November 2015.


title: This Is Acting

text: "Cheap Thrills" was released as the album's second official single on 17 December 2015, and it was originally planned for Rihanna.


title: This Is Acting

text: "The Greatest" was released as the first single from the deluxe version of the album on 5 September 2016. It features vocals from American rapper Kendrick Lamar.


title: This Is Acting

text: "Move Your Body" was released as the fourth single from the album on 6 January 2017. The song was originally planned for Shakira.


title: This Is Acting

text: "Unstoppable" was released as the fifth official single from the album on 18 July 2022, after gaining traction over the years from usage in commercials and TikTok videos.


title: This Is Acting

text: "Bird Set Free" was released as the first promotional single along with the pre-order of the album on 4 November 2015. The song was originally written for "Pitch Perfect 2" but it was rejected in favor of "Flashlight". The song was then pitched to Rihanna. After being rejected, it was then recorded by Adele but did not make the cut for her third studio album, "25".


title: This Is Acting

text: "One Million Bullets" was released as the second promotional single on 27 November 2015. The song is the only one on the album that was not pitched to another artist.


title: This Is Acting

text: "Cheap Thrills" was announced as the album's third promotional release and was released on 16 December 2015. The song was one of two tracks rejected by Rihanna who, as Sia described, was a no-show at the recording sessions.


title: This Is Acting

text: "Reaper" was released as the fourth promotional single on 7 January 2016. The song was written by herself and Kanye West for Rihanna, but Sia decided to keep it.


title: This Is Acting

text: "Unstoppable" was released as the fifth and final promotional single on 21 January 2016. Jessie Morris of "Complex" commented that the song sounds like a "page torn right out of Demi Lovato's "Confident" book", while editors of other media platforms like Idolator noticed this as well, which raised speculation that the track was intentionally written for Lovato.


title: This Is Acting

text: On 16 May 2016, Sia announced her first tour in five years, Nostalgic for the Present Tour, and the tour dates for the North American leg. Miguel and AlunaGeorge were announced as the opening acts for the first leg.


title: This Is Acting

text: "This Is Acting" received generally positive reviews from music critics. "The A.V. Club" gave the album a favorable review, stating that "There's a clear theme here, and it's emancipation—from fear, from doubt, and most of all, from feeling as though she wasn’t meant to be a star. Gone is the uncertainty that still clung to many of her earlier efforts at mainstream pop hits of her own; success has granted her the confidence to dive into the deep end of the mainstream music pool, and the results are potent."


title: This Is Acting

text: Jon Pareles from "The New York Times" gave the album a mixed review, writing "In 'Alive,' as she repeats 'I'm still breathing!' in the chorus, she makes her voice break a different way each time she sings it. But Sia's success as a hitmaker has also turned into a pitfall. Even as she and her producers flaunt their layered vocals and whiz-bang sound effects, there are already so many of Sia's midtempo victim-to-victory anthems around that they offer diminishing returns, particularly when listened to as an album."


title: This Is Acting

text: Kathy Iandoli of "Idolator" was more positive towards the effort, stating that it "feels like the aftermath of coming to terms with her nagging demons, as Sia maintains brutal honesty cloaked in cinematic, mainstream music — albeit through songs that, as we well know by now, were written for and rejected by other artists."


title: This Is Acting

text: She continues: "Her voice is so bold and beautiful that when she attempts to wedge herself into songs designed for thin voices (check "Sweet Design"), she sounds like an opera singer in a dancehall."


title: This Is Acting

text: On a more personal aspect, she writes "feels as though Sia's career has been idyllic thus far to everyone but her. She started in the super cool indie world, moved over to mid-level pop majesty, took a break to be a hit songwriter and then slid into near-icon status. But when you live inside your head, none of that really matters, and that's what This Is Acting reveals."


title: This Is Acting

text: "Billboard" listed "This is Acting" among the best albums of the first half of 2016, with an editor writing "While other artists shudder at the thought of being labeled a sellout, Sia celebrated the moniker – and turned it into a concept album."


title: This Is Acting

text: "This Is Acting" debuted atop the ARIA Albums Chart in Australia, and received a gold certification for sales of over 35,000 copies. It debuted at number four on the US "Billboard" 200 with first-week sales of 81,000 album equivalent units (68,000 in pure album sales), which became Sia's highest sales week in the country. As of 1 January 2017, the album has sold 299,600 copies and 904,000 total equivalent units in the United States.


title: This Is Acting

text: In its 26th week on "Billboard" 200, the album vaulted back into the top 10 for the first time since its debut week, as it rose 11–6 with 30,000 units, supported by the success of the second single "Cheap Thrills", which reached the summit of the "Billboard" Hot 100 at the time.


title: This Is Acting

text: In its 39th week, it vaulted 18-11 due to the deluxe edition of the album being released, and became the greatest gainer of the week. Also, during this week, the lead single off the deluxe edition, "The Greatest", rose 25–19.


title: Little Creatures

text: Little Creatures is the sixth studio album by American rock band Talking Heads, released on June 10, 1985, by Sire Records. The album examines themes of Americana and incorporates elements of country music, with many songs featuring steel guitar. It was voted as the best album of the year in "The Village Voice" Pazz & Jop critics poll, and is the band's best-selling studio album, with over two million copies sold in the United States. The cover art was created by outsider artist Howard Finster, and was selected as album cover of the year by "Rolling Stone".


title: Erie County, New York

text: Erie County is a county along the shore of Lake Erie in western New York State. As of the 2020 census, the population was 954,236. The county seat is Buffalo, which makes up about 28% of the county's population. Both the county and Lake Erie were named for the regional Iroquoian language-speaking Erie tribe of Native Americans, who lived in the area before 1654. They were later pushed out by the more powerful Iroquoian nations tribes.


title: Erie County, New York

text: Erie County, along with its northern neighbor Niagara County, makes up the Buffalo-Niagara Falls metropolitan area, the second largest in New York State behind New York City. The county's southern part is known as the Southtowns. The county has seen one of the highest growth rates of any county in New York State from the 2010 to 2020 census.


title: Erie County, New York

text: When counties were established by the English colonial government in the Province of New York in 1683, present-day Erie County was part of Indian territory occupied by Iroquoian-speaking peoples. It was administered as part of New York colony. Significant European-American settlement did not begin until after the United States had gained independence with the end of the American Revolutionary War in 1783. They forced the Iroquois to cede most of their lands, as many had been allies of the British. ["They" ambiguous; reference required]


title: Erie County, New York

text: About 1800, the Holland Land Company, formed by Americans and Dutch associates, extinguished Indian claims by purchasing the land from New York, acquired the title to the territory of what are today the eight westernmost counties of New York, surveyed their holdings, established towns and began selling lots to individuals. The state was eager to attract settlers and have homesteads and businesses developed. At this time, all of western New York was included in Ontario County.


title: Erie County, New York

text: As the population increased, the state legislature created Genesee County in 1802 out of part of Ontario County. In 1808, Niagara County was created out of Genesee County. In 1821, Erie County was created out of Niagara County, encompassing all the land between Tonawanda Creek and Cattaraugus Creek. The first towns formed in present-day Erie County were the Town of Clarence and the Town of Willink. Clarence and Willink comprised the northern and southern portions of Erie county, respectively. Clarence is still a distinct town, but Willink was quickly subdivided into other towns. When Erie County was established in 1821, it consisted of the towns of Amherst, Aurora, Boston, Clarence, Collins, Concord, Eden, Evans, Hamburg, Holland, Sardinia and Wales.


title: Erie County, New York

text: The county has a number of houses and other properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places listings in Erie County, New York.


title: Erie County, New York

text: In 1861, the hamlet of Town Line in the Town of Lancaster voted 85–40 to secede from the Union. Town Line never sought admission into the Confederate States of America and there is no evidence that men from the community ever fought for the Confederacy. Some reporting from that time indicates the vote was a joke. On January 24, 1946, as part of a nationally reported event, Town Line voted to officially return to the Union after 85 years of Union secession.


title: Erie County, New York

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which (85%) is land and (15%) is water.


title: Erie County, New York

text: Erie County is in the western portion of upstate New York, bordering on the lake of the same name. Part of the industrial area that has included Buffalo, it is the most populous county in upstate New York outside of the New York City metropolitan area. The county also lies on the international border between the United States and Canada, bordering the Province of Ontario.


title: Erie County, New York

text: The northern border of the county is Tonawanda Creek. Part of the southern border is Cattaraugus Creek. Other major streams include Buffalo Creek (Buffalo River), Cayuga Creek, Cazenovia Creek, Scajaquada Creek, Eighteen Mile Creek and Ellicott Creek. The county's northern half, including Buffalo and its suburbs, is known as the Northtowns and is relatively flat and rises gently up from the lake. The southern half, known as the Southtowns, is much hillier. It has the northwesternmost foothills of the Appalachian Mountains. The highest elevation in the county is a hill in the Town of Sardinia that tops out at around 1,940 feet (591 m) above sea level. The lowest ground is about 560 feet (171 m), on Grand Island at the Niagara River. The Onondaga Escarpment runs through the northern part of Erie County.


title: Erie County, New York

text: As of the 2020, there were 954,236 people living in the county. The population density was 915 people per square mile (353/km). There were 438,747 housing units at an average density of 421 per square mile (162/km). The racial makeup of the county was 72.6% White, 14.1% Black or African American, 0.6% Native American, 4.9% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 2.3% from other races and 5.4% from two or more races. 6.3% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 19.6% were of German, 17.2% Polish, 14.9% Italian, 11.7% Irish and 5.0% English ancestry according to Census 2000. 91.1% spoke English, 3% Spanish and 1.6% Polish as their first language.


title: Erie County, New York

text: The median income for a household in the county was $38,567 and the median income for a family was $49,490. Males had a median income of $38,703 versus $26,510 for females. The per capita income for the county was $20,357. About 9.2% of families and 12.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.3% of those under 18 and 7.8% of those older than 65.


title: Erie County, New York

text: Plans to merge Erie County with the City of Buffalo have been suggested, which proponents say would eliminate much of the extensive bureaucracy and political and municipal subdivisions among the various towns, cities and villages in the county. The result would be a consolidated city-county controlled by a single government, effectively making Buffalo's borders and population contiguous with that of Erie County's. These plans have proven controversial; there is controversy on the impact of the city's debt on a regional government. Concerns have also been raised that a regional government would dilute minority representation in government.


title: Erie County, New York

text: Prior to 1936, Erie County predominantly backed Republican Party candidates, with only four Democratic Party candidates winning the county in a presidential election - James Buchanan in 1856, George B. McClellan in 1864, Grover Cleveland in 1892 and Woodrow Wilson in 1912. However, starting with the 1936 election, it has turned predominantly Democratic since then, with only two Republicans carrying the county in a presidential election-- Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and 1956 and Richard Nixon in 1972, with Nixon being the most recent. In 2016, like many other counties in the Rust Belt, Donald Trump drastically expanded the Republican vote share thanks to his appeal to working-class whites and Ethnic-Catholic voters. Four years later, in 2020, Joe Biden won 267,270 votes in Erie County, more than Barack Obama in 2008. Biden's margin of victory, however, was smaller than Obama's 2008 victory within the county.


title: Erie County, New York

text: As of the 2010 U.S. Census some parts of this county were not in a defined school district, with some undefined land and some undefined water.


title: Erie County, New York

text: Erie County is home to three professional teams—the NFL's Buffalo Bills, the NHL's Buffalo Sabres and the NLL's Buffalo Bandits, along with Division I's Buffalo Bulls and MILB's Buffalo Bisons. The city of Buffalo also features the Buffalo Zoo, Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society, Burchfield-Penney Art Center and Albright-Knox Art Gallery (all located within a mile of each other in the Delaware Park System), Buffalo and Erie County Botanical Gardens and Buffalo Museum of Science, in addition to tourist districts such as Canalside and Larkinville. The Erie County Fair, held every August in the Town of Hamburg from 1820 to 2019 (the 2020 event, like much everything else across the country, was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic), is one of the largest county fairs in the United States.


title: Erie County, New York

text: The Erie County Department of Parks, Recreation and Forestry was established in 1925 with four parks spanning . As of 2003, the county managed 38 properties, totaling approximately of land. Management objectives include providing and maintaining recreational space and the conservation of the county's natural and historic resources. A 2003 Master Plan identified several broad categories of parks operated by the county, including heritage parks, waterfront parks, conservation parks, special purpose parks and forest management areas.


title: Erie County, New York

text: Erie County's heritage parks include the five original county parks that were established during the 1920s and 1930s. These parks are examples of multiple-use sites with significant scenic, natural and historic features. Each park has unique man-made structures of historical character, many constructed as part of the Works Progress Administration movement in the 1930s.


title: Erie County, New York

text: Waterfront parks include the significant scenic sites and recreational trail systems along the county's Lake Erie shoreline.


title: Erie County, New York

text: These largely-undeveloped parks are managed primarily for conservation of the natural environment and passive nature-based outdoor recreation activities. These lands are intended to generally remain in a natural state.


title: Erie County, New York

text: Special purpose parks have unique characteristics that provide specific recreational functions within the county's park system.


title: Erie County, New York

text: Forest management areas are managed by the Erie County Bureau of Forestry, which was established in 1927. These areas include several thousand acres of mostly-coniferous plantation style forest, much of which was planted on abandoned farmland by the Civilian Conservation Corps in the 1930s. These areas are located mostly in the rural southern portion of the county. These lands have limited recreation potential, mostly in the form of trails. Management of these lands is focused on natural resource conservation, in addition to potential commercial resource extraction of timber products or maple syrup.


title: Cindy Herron

text: Cynthia Ann Herron (born September 26, 1961), professionally known as Cindy Herron and sometimes credited as Cindy Herron–Braggs is an American singer and actress. Herron is best known as a founding member of the R&B/pop group En Vogue, one of the world's best-selling girl groups of all time. She sang lead vocals on the group's first single "Hold On", which garnered mainstream success and sold over a million copies. Despite being absent from the group during certain periods, Herron and fellow group member Terry Ellis are the only original members to appear on all of the group's album releases to date. In the 1980s, Herron began her career as an actress, making her debut appearance in "Up and Coming" as "Valerie".


title: Cindy Herron

text: She would eventually land roles in more popular TV series including "Amen" and "Full House". She landed a supporting role in the 1986 film release "Johnnie Mae Gibson: FBI", and co-starred in "Wally and the Valentines" as "Roxanne Valentine". Throughout her career, Herron has sold a total of over 20 million records with En Vogue. Her work has earned her several awards and nominations, including two American Music Awards, a Billboard Music Award, seven MTV Video Music Awards, four Soul Train Music Awards and six Grammy nominations.


title: Cindy Herron

text: Herron was born in San Francisco, California, to an African-American father and a Swiss-German mother. Herron attended Balboa High School, graduating in 1979. Herron began her musical career in the cabaret scene in San Francisco, during the early-1980s. Herron also worked as a background vocalist for local San Francisco Bay Area acts such as Tiggi Clay. She also appeared in the original company of the Jerry Herman musical revue "Showtune" (then titled "Tune the Grand Up").


title: Cindy Herron

text: Herron was featured as a Jet Magazine's JET beauty in the January 13, 1980 issue. Herron was named "Miss San Francisco 1986" and placed 2nd-Runner Up in the 1986 Miss California Pageant. She is also a former Miss Black California. Herron has also worked as an actress, beginning in 1980 as a cast member of the PBS television drama "Up and Coming". She appeared in episodes of 'Amen' & 'Full House' in the late-1980s. She had a regular role on The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air as Will's girlfriend. She later appeared in such films as ""Juice"", En Vogue appeared on two episodes of Fox's "Roc" sitcom in 1993, with Herron playing the love interest of the title character's brother Joey (Rocky Carroll). Batman Forever and "Lexie". In 2007, Herron played Deena Jones in the stage version of Dreamgirls.


title: Cindy Herron

text: In 1988, Herron was chosen along with Dawn Robinson and Maxine Jones to be in a three-piece girl group by producers Denzil Foster and Thomas McElroy. After adding Terry Ellis to the line-up, the group became a quartet and chose the name En Vogue. Herron sang lead vocals on the group's first single "Hold On", which peaked at number 2 on "Billboard"'s Hot 100 chart, and sold over a million copies becoming platinum certified by the RIAA. Later that year, the group released their debut album "Born to Sing", which went platinum. Herron also sang lead vocals on the singles "Lies" and "You Don't Have to Worry", both of which peaked at number 1 on "Billboard's" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart.


title: Cindy Herron

text: The group released their second album "Funky Divas" in 1992, which sold over 3.5 million copies in the United States. Herron shares lead vocals on one of the album's top-charting singles "Free Your Mind". "Free Your Mind" won two MTV Video Music Awards, for "Best R&B Video" and "Best Dance Video". En Vogue released an EP in the fall of 1993, entitled "Runaway Love". In 1994, Herron went on maternity leave and temporarily left the group. Due to her brief absence from En Vogue, Herron did not record on the single "Freedom (Theme from Panther)" without the rest of the members in the music video.


title: Cindy Herron

text: In 1996, En Vogue recorded "Don't Let Go (Love)" with Herron singing the outro of the song. The song was featured on the soundtrack to the motion picture "Set It Off". Released in the autumn, it became the group's biggest hit to date going number one worldwide. It also sold over 1.8 million copies worldwide and became certified platinum by the RIAA. In response to the large commercial success of "Don't Let Go (Love)", the group steadfastly went to work on its third album. As the album was nearing completion, Robinson chose to leave the group in April 1997 after difficult contractual negotiations reached a stalemate. The ending result saw En Vogue re-recording their third album with Herron singing lead vocals on more of the songs. In June 1997, the group released their third studio album "EV3", which went platinum. Throughout the years, Herron continued to record on the group's album: "Masterpiece Theatre" (2000), "The Gift of Christmas" (2002), and "Soul Flower" (2004). Following the release of "Soul Flower", Herron chose not to tour with En Vogue during the latter part of 2004 due to being on maternity leave again, but returned to the group the following year.


title: Cindy Herron

text: In 2012, Herron and fellow member Terry Ellis sued now-former member Maxine Jones demanding $1 million for unauthorized use of the name, though the damages request was ultimately determined to be without merit, as Herron and Ellis could not demonstrate harm done to the company from Jones's use of the name (although Robinson was named in the suit, she was not directly involved in the dispute, as she had surrendered her rights to use the name herself when she departed from the LLC years earlier). However, the judge decided to award full rights of the "En Vogue" name to Herron and Ellis.


title: Cindy Herron

text: In July 2014, Herron signed to Pyramid Records along with fellow member Ellis and Rhona Bennett. In November 2014, they released "An En Vogue Christmas". In February 2015, Rufftown Entertainment filed a lawsuit against En Vogue, which names Herron and Ellis for breach of contract. Rufftown owner Rene Moore is seeking $310 million from the group.


title: Cindy Herron

text: Herron is a classically trained soprano. Possessing a two-octave range, Herron sang second soprano and alternated with Dawn Robinson when she was a member of the group, and even sang lower harmonies when Maxine led songs.


title: Cindy Herron

text: Herron has been married to former MLB player Glenn Braggs since June 1993. Together, they have four children; Donovan Andrew Braggs (born March 17, 1994), Jordan Braggs (born April 22, 1998), Natalia Braggs (born 1999) and Solomon Braggs. Herron has recently filed for a divorce from Braggs in Los Angeles.


title: Galleria Borghese

text: The Galleria Borghese () is an art gallery in Rome, Italy, housed in the former Villa Borghese Pinciana. At the outset, the gallery building was integrated with its gardens, but nowadays the Villa Borghese gardens are considered a separate tourist attraction. The Galleria Borghese houses a substantial part of the Borghese Collection of paintings, sculpture and antiquities, begun by Cardinal Scipione Borghese, the nephew of Pope Paul V (reign 1605–1621). The building was constructed by the architect Flaminio Ponzio, developing sketches by Scipione Borghese himself, who used it as a "villa suburbana", a country villa at the edge of Rome.


title: Galleria Borghese

text: Scipione Borghese was an early patron of Bernini and an avid collector of works by Caravaggio, who is well represented in the collection by his "Boy with a Basket of Fruit", "St Jerome Writing", "Sick Bacchus" and others. Additional paintings of note include Titian's "Sacred and Profane Love", Raphael's "Entombment of Christ" and works by Peter Paul Rubens and Federico Barocci.


title: Galleria Borghese

text: The "Casino Borghese" was erected in an area that in the seventeenth-century was outside of the walls of Rome, with the closest access being the Porta del Popolo. At the origins, the villa grounds covered an area with a circumference of nearly 3 miles. The main building was designed by the Flemish architect Giovanni Vasanzio. The portico had spolia derived from the Arch of Claudius, once on the Via Flaminia.


title: Galleria Borghese

text: By 1644, John Evelyn described it as "an Elysium of delight" with "Fountains of sundry inventions, Groves and small Rivulets of Water". Evelyn also described the "Vivarium" that housed ostriches, peacocks, swans and cranes "and divers strange Beasts". Prince Marcantonio IV Borghese (1730–1800), who began the recasting of the park's formal garden architecture into an English landscape garden, also set out about 1775, under the guidance of the architect Antonio Asprucci, to replace the now-outdated tapestry and leather hangings and renovate the "Casina", restaging the Borghese sculptures and antiquities in a thematic new ordering that celebrated the Borghese position in Rome. The rehabilitation of the much-visited villa as a genuinely public museum in the late eighteenth century was the subject of an exhibition at the Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, in 2000, spurred by the Getty's acquisition of fifty-four drawings related to the project.


title: Galleria Borghese

text: In 1808, Prince Camillo Borghese, Napoleon's brother-in-law, was forced to sell the Borghese Roman sculptures and antiquities to the Emperor. The result is that the "Borghese Gladiator", renowned since the 1620s as the most admired single sculpture in Villa Borghese, must now be appreciated in the Musée du Louvre. The "Borghese Hermaphroditus" is also now in the Louvre.


title: Galleria Borghese

text: The Borghese villa was modified and extended down the years, eventually being sold to the Italian government in 1902, along with the entire Borghese estate and surrounding gardens and parkland.


title: Galleria Borghese

text: The main floor is mostly devoted to classical antiquities of the 1st–3rd centuries AD (including a famous 320–30 AD mosaic of gladiators found on the Borghese estate at Torrenova, on the Via Casilina outside Rome, in 1834), and classical and neo-classical sculpture such as the "Venus Victrix".


title: Galleria Borghese

text: The main floor's main large room, called the "Salone", has a large "trompe-l'œil" ceiling fresco in the first room by the Sicilian artist Mariano Rossi makes such good use of foreshortening that it appears almost three-dimensional. The fresco depicts "Marcus Furius Camillus relieving the siege of the Capitoline Hill by the Gauls". The grotteschi decorations were painted by Pietro Rotari, and the animal decorations by Venceslaus Peter Boemo.


title: Galleria Borghese

text: The first room off the Salone, is the Camera di Cerere, with marble vase depicting "Oedipus and the Sphinx". The second room has a ceiling frescoed by Francesco Caccianiga with the "Fall of Phaeton". The third room houses Bernini's "Apollo and Daphne".


title: Galleria Borghese

text: Many of the sculptures are displayed in the spaces for which they were intended, including many works by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, which comprise a significant percentage of his output of secular sculpture, starting with early works such as the "Goat Amalthea with Infant Jupiter and Faun" (1615) and "Aeneas, Anchises & Ascanius" (1618–19) to his dynamic "Rape of Proserpine" (1621–22), "Apollo and Daphne" (1622–25) and "David" (1623) which are considered seminal works of baroque sculpture. In addition, several portrait busts are included in the gallery, including one of Pope Paul V, and two portraits of one of his early patrons, "Cardinal Scipione Borghese" (1632). The second Scipione Borghese portrait was produced after a large crack was discovered in the marble of the first version during its creation.


title: Galleria Borghese

text: Also in Villa Borghese gardens or nearby are the Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna, which specialises in 19th- and 20th-century Italian art, and Museo Nazionale Etrusco, a collection of pre-Roman objects, mostly Etruscan, excavated around Rome.


title: Harbin Z-20

text: The Harbin Z-20 (Chinese: 直-20; official codename Chinese: “神雕”, "Divine Eagle") is a Chinese medium-lift utility helicopter produced by the Harbin Aircraft Industry Group (HAIG). It was first flown on 23 December 2013 and has a maximum takeoff weight in the range of . The Z-20 can operate from locations above in altitude as well as from the "Liaoning" aircraft carrier. It is regarded to be comparable in performance to the US-made Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter, of which the civilian Sikorsky S-70C-2 variant has been used by the People's Liberation Army since 1984.


title: Harbin Z-20

text: The People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) has had a requirement for a high-altitude medium utility helicopter that can operate in the mountainous regions in China since the 1980s. In 1984, the PLAAF acquired 24 Sikorsky S-70C-2s with enhanced General Electric T700-701A engines. These 24 Sikorsky S-70C-2 helicopters are the civilian version of the military UH-60 Black Hawk, but went straight into service with the People’s Liberation Army.


title: Harbin Z-20

text: China was unable to purchase more Sikorsky aircraft following the fallout from the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests that resulted in an EU and US arms embargo. This led to the development of an indigenous so-called "10-tonne helicopter project" that started in 2006, and the Z-20 made its first flight on 23 December 2013.


title: Harbin Z-20

text: Helicopter production in China received a massive boost after the 2008 Sichuan earthquakes highlighted the value of helicopters in humanitarian missions. In addition to the PLAAF, the Z-20 will likely be used by other services in the People's Liberation Army. It could fill the role of a multi-role naval helicopter for the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) that is small enough to be interoperable across all PLAN vessels while still have a full suite of anti-submarine warfare (ASW) capabilities installed.


title: Harbin Z-20

text: The Z-20 has been tested carrying missiles on wing pylons. A stealth Z-20 variant has been indicated under development since 2015. One analyst said China could produce the stealth variant relatively easily because of their access to a modified MH-60 Black Hawk tail section, recovered by Pakistani security forces after a crash during the Bin Laden raid.


title: Harbin Z-20

text: The Z-20 is based on the proven 1970s S-70/UH-60 Black Hawk, which China acquired in the 1980s. Pakistan may also have allowed China to examine wreckage from the US special forces Black Hawk abandoned during the assassination of Osama bin Laden on 1 May 2011.


title: Harbin Z-20

text: The helicopter uses fly-by-wire controls and a five-bladed main rotor; the Black Hawk has four blades. The tail-to-fuselage joint frame is more angular than the Black Hawk's, for greater lift, cabin capacity, and endurance. The fairings behind the engine exhausts and on the spine are likely for satellite communications or the BeiDou satellite navigation system.


title: Harbin Z-20

text: The Z-20 is believed to be powered by the domestic WZ-10 turboshaft engine providing 1,700-2,000 shp of power, comparable to the latest iteration of the Black Hawk engine, the GE T700-701D. The Z-20 also incorporates new technologies that reduce weight and improve lift as well as cutting edge de-icing tech on the rotor-blades. These features enable it to conduct operations at altitudes above 4,000 m (13,200 ft).


title: Robert Huth

text: Robert Huth (, ; born 18 August 1984) is a German former professional footballer who played as a centre-back. He is a three-time Premier League winner and has made the most Premier League appearances (322) by a German player.


title: Robert Huth

text: Huth was signed for Chelsea from the youth system of German club 1. FC Union Berlin in 2001 by Claudio Ranieri. He struggled to establish himself in the Chelsea first team and with the likes of John Terry, William Gallas and Ricardo Carvalho ahead of him in the pecking order at Stamford Bridge, he joined Middlesbrough in August 2006 for a fee of £6 million. He spent three years at the Riverside and after the club was relegated in 2009, Huth signed for Stoke City for a then-club record fee of £5 million.


title: Robert Huth

text: After a successful 2010–11 season for Huth which saw him play in the FA Cup Final, he was named as Stoke's Player of the Year. Under the management of Tony Pulis, Huth remained a vital member of the Stoke squad in 2011–12 and 2012–13. He also played regularly under Mark Hughes in 2013–14 before he suffered a knee injury which ruled him out nearly a year. He was unable to force his way back into the team and he joined Leicester on loan in February 2015, helping them avoid relegation from the top flight. Huth then joined Leicester permanently, helping them to win the Premier League title in 2016.


title: Robert Huth

text: Huth was also a German international, earning 19 caps and scoring two goals between 2004 and 2009. He was part of the German squads which came third at the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup and the 2006 FIFA World Cup, both on home soil.


title: Robert Huth

text: Huth was born in Biesdorf, East Berlin, and played for local side VfB Fortuna Biesdorf and then the youth teams at 1. FC Union Berlin before joining English side Chelsea in 2001. Huth made his debut for Chelsea at the age of 17 in the last game of the 2001–02 season, coming on as a substitute at half-time for Jesper Grønkjær in a 1–3 home defeat against Aston Villa. In August 2003, Reading tried to sign Huth on loan for the 2003–04 season, but their bid was rejected by Chelsea. He made 20 appearances during that season, stating he was happy to stay at Chelsea. In the 2004–05 season, injuries restricted him to 15 appearances for the Blues.


title: Robert Huth

text: When the 2005–06 season started, Huth's chances of becoming a first-choice player at Chelsea in the near future seemed limited with John Terry, William Gallas and Ricardo Carvalho ahead of him in the Chelsea squad. These were the preferred central defenders for Chelsea manager José Mourinho, who had succeeded Ranieri in the summer of 2004. Huth scored twice for Chelsea, with one against MŠK Žilina in a Champions League qualifier and the other against Birmingham City in the FA Cup. At the end of the 2005–06 season, Huth stated that he was unhappy with his lack of first team chances, prompting Middlesbrough, Wigan Athletic and Everton to submit bids for his services. He stated that he would join Middlesbrough after the 2006 FIFA World Cup after agreeing a five-year deal.


title: Robert Huth

text: On 13 July 2006, a proposed transfer to Middlesbrough was scuppered when Huth failed a medical. Middlesbrough continued to track Huth, and on 31 August he signed for the club for a fee of £6 million on a five-year contract. Huth had a tough start to his career at Middlesbrough as they lost 1–0 to Notts County in the League Cup. Manager Gareth Southgate stated that Huth was lacking in match fitness and decided to play him in a number of reserve matches. By mid-October, Huth had regained his fitness and played his first league match for Boro against Everton, which they won 2–1. He scored his first Boro goal in a 2–1 defeat at Tottenham Hotspur on 5 December 2006. Huth's progress in a Middlesbrough shirt, however, was halted when he picked up a foot injury in a training session. Scans later revealed that he had suffered a stress fracture and was out for six weeks. He made his return as a substitute in an FA Cup tie against Manchester United on 19 March 2007, but shortly afterwards he again picked up an injury in a 3–1 defeat against Aston Villa.


title: Robert Huth

text: Huth underwent ankle surgery in the summer of 2007 in order to fix his problem; he consulted a specialist after failing to recover. Huth returned to training in November 2007 and made his comeback against Reading on 1 December. After the departure of Jonathan Woodgate to Tottenham, Huth was paired in central defence with David Wheater. On 3 February, Huth scored against Newcastle United to earn a point against Kevin Keegan's team. He again struggled with injuries and missed the last two months of the 2007–08 season.


title: Robert Huth

text: Huth recovered well and made a strong start to the 2008–09 season. However, he again suffered an ankle injury. He returned to the side in December time and by February the team had been enduring a tough season and were in deep relegation trouble. Boro failed to improve and they suffered relegation to the Championship, losing 2–1 to West Ham United on the final day of the season. He played five league matches for Boro at the start of the 2009–10 season before he returned to the Premier League with Stoke City.


title: Robert Huth

text: On 27 August 2009, Huth signed a four-year contract with Stoke City for £5 million. He made his Stoke debut in a 1–0 win over Sunderland on 29 August 2009, replacing goalscorer Dave Kitson. He celebrated his 100th Premier League appearance by scoring his first Stoke goal on 4 October 2009, against Everton. On 17 October, Huth punched Matthew Upson in the face during a match against West Ham, though he received no card from the referee. Huth was later charged by the FA for the incident. He admitted his guilt the following day, and apologised for the incident. Huth was subsequently suspended for three matches by the FA. Huth scored a 90th-minute equaliser against Liverpool on 16 January 2010. He then scored his third Stoke goal in a 2–1 win over Portsmouth. He was given the captain's armband for Stoke's 2009–10 FA Cup quarter-final tie at former club Chelsea, which he described as a proud moment for himself.


title: Robert Huth

text: Huth opened his account for the 2010–11 season with a 93rd-minute winner against Aston Villa to help Stoke record their first win of the season. He followed this up with goals against Birmingham City, Wigan, Blackburn Rovers, Wolverhampton Wanderers and two against Sunderland. He also scored in the FA Cup quarter-final against West Ham, helping Stoke to reach the semi-final stage for the first time since 1972. He scored in the 5–0 FA Cup Semi-final victory against Bolton Wanderers, becoming the first Stoke defender to score nine goals in a season. He then played in the FA Cup final against Manchester City as Stoke lost 1–0. After a successful season for Huth, he was named Stoke's Player of the Year.


title: Robert Huth

text: In the summer of 2011, manager Tony Pulis signed former England international centre backs Jonathan Woodgate and Matthew Upson, forcing Huth into playing in the unfamiliar right back position. After a series of poor defensive performances by Stoke, however, Huth returned to his centre-back pairing with Ryan Shawcross, going on to score his first goal of the season against Everton. In a match against Sunderland, Huth was sent-off for tackling David Meyler, although replays showed that he pulled out of the challenge. Sunderland took full advantage of the extra man and scored the only goal through James McClean. Stoke attempted to have Huth's red card overturned on appeal, but failed in their efforts. Huth scored twice towards the end of the season against Midlands opponents Wolves and Aston Villa respectively. His performances for the side prompted Pulis to open discussions with Huth over a new contract.


title: Robert Huth

text: In June 2012, Huth signed a new three-year contract with Stoke, keeping him at the Britannia Stadium until 2016. Huth fell ill at the start of August with viral meningitis. He made a full recovery soon after and played against Reading on the opening day of the 2012–13 season. Afterwards, he explained that he caught the virus whilst in the United States on Stoke's pre-season tour. Huth scored his first goal of the season in a 2–1 victory against Reading on 9 February 2013. Huth was given a retrospective three-match ban after an off-the-ball altercation with Fulham's Philippe Senderos on 23 February 2013. He played 39 times for Stoke in 2012–13 as the side finished in 13th position; at the end of campaign, manager Tony Pulis was replaced by Mark Hughes.<ref name="2012/2013"></ref> Under Hughes, Huth remained a regular in the side, but suffered a knee injury in November 2013 that required surgery. Despite trying to make a quick recovery, Huth required a second operation on his knee and missed the remainder of the 2013–14 season.


title: Robert Huth

text: Huth returned from injury at the beginning of the 2014–15 season, playing in League Cup matches against Portsmouth and Sunderland. However, he then suffered another injury in training that ruled him out for a further two months. He played his first league game for over a year against Arsenal on 6 December 2014. Huth left Stoke in June 2015 after spending six seasons with the Potters, making 188 appearances and scoring 18 goals.


title: Robert Huth

text: On 2 February 2015, Huth joined Leicester City on loan until the end of the season. He made his debut eight days later, playing the entirety of a 2–1 defeat away at Arsenal. His first goal for the club came on 11 April 2015, heading an equaliser as they came from behind to win 3–2 away at West Bromwich Albion. Huth's arrival at Leicester saw the Foxes embark on a run of seven victories in their final nine fixtures, which saw them retain their Premier League status. Leicester manager Nigel Pearson admitted that he would like to sign Huth on a permanent basis.


title: Robert Huth

text: Huth completed a permanent transfer to Leicester on 24 June 2015, signing a three-year contract for an undisclosed fee, reported to be £3 million. The following 13 January, he scored his first goal of the season for the title-chasing Foxes, heading in Christian Fuchs' corner for the only goal of the game at Tottenham. On 6 February, he scored twice in a 3–1 win at title rivals Manchester City, putting Leicester six points clear at the top of the table. Leicester won the title at 5,000–1 odds, and Huth became only the seventh player to win the Premier League with two different teams. He missed only three league games as a result of a retrospective three-match suspension by The FA for pulling Marouane Fellaini's hair during a 1–1 draw at Manchester United on 1 May 2016.


title: Robert Huth

text: On 29 October 2016, Huth fouled Vincent Janssen in a 1–1 draw away at Tottenham Hotspur to concede his first penalty since January 2013. Huth remarked in an interview in November that he thought referees were getting penalty decisions wrong "a lot of the time" and felt he was being judged on "reputation". He admitted in a post-match interview on 2 January 2017 that his side were lucky not to concede a penalty when he brought down Adama Traoré in a goalless draw at Middlesbrough, a view not shared by Pat Nevin, watching the game for BBC Radio 5 live.


title: Robert Huth

text: Huth missed the entire 2017–18 season due to ankle and foot injuries, eventually opting to leave the club in June 2018. He announced his retirement on 11 January 2019, following speculation that he was set to join Derby County. He appeared in 326 league matches on the first two levels in English football.


title: Robert Huth

text: After leaving Leicester in June 2018, Huth spent time back in Germany studying sporting directorship. Huth made a return to Leicester in October 2022 taking the position of loans manager taking over from Guy Branston.


title: Robert Huth

text: From a young age, Huth was already a member of the German national team. He also played at the 2003 FIFA World Youth Championship. Huth was first invited on 16 August 2004 in the senior national team of Germany, when he was nominated for the friendly match at the Ernst Happel Stadium in Vienna against Austria. Two days later, he appeared as a substitute in this friendly match in the 86th minute for Andreas Hinkel.


title: Robert Huth

text: Together with a young Per Mertesacker, he was the first-choice central defender for Germany at the 2005 Confederations Cup. On 29 June, he scored his first goal for Germany in a 4–3 extra-time win against Mexico during the third-place play-off.


title: Robert Huth

text: His second goal for Germany came in a 4–1 defeat to Italy in a friendly game played in Florence in March 2006. During the World Cup on home soil, Huth lost his place to Christoph Metzelder as Mertesacker's first-choice partner after being blamed for some defensive errors in several pre-tournament games and only started one game, the last group stage match against Ecuador.


title: Robert Huth

text: He was recalled to the German national team for the first time since the 2006 World Cup in a friendly against Switzerland on 20 March 2008 owing to his impressive recent club form. He was later ruled out after suffering from a foot injury. He totalled only 19 games and two goals for Germany, ending his international career very early.


title: Robert Huth

text: Growing up in Berlin, Huth decided to support Werder Bremen, as local Hertha BSC were rarely on TV. He was a ball boy at the 1997 DFB-Pokal Final at his city's Olympic Stadium.


title: Robert Huth

text: In January 2015, the FA began an investigation into Huth after he took part in a game on Twitter in which users guessed the gender of people in sexually explicit photos. He deleted his interactions with the game and apologised. Later that month, he was fined £15,000 and banned for two matches by the FA for the interactions, which were deemed "an aggravated breach."


title: Culture industry

text: The term culture industry () was coined by the critical theorists Theodor Adorno (1903–1969) and Max Horkheimer (1895–1973), and was presented as critical vocabulary in the chapter "The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception", of the book "Dialectic of Enlightenment" (1947), wherein they proposed that popular culture is akin to a factory producing standardized cultural goods—films, radio programmes, magazines, etc.—that are used to manipulate mass society into passivity. Consumption of the easy pleasures of popular culture, made available by the mass communications media, renders people docile and content, no matter how difficult their economic circumstances. The inherent danger of the culture industry is the cultivation of false psychological needs that can only be met and satisfied by the products of capitalism; thus Adorno and Horkheimer especially perceived mass-produced culture as dangerous to the more technically and intellectually difficult high arts. In contrast, true psychological needs are freedom, creativity, and genuine happiness, which refer to an earlier demarcation of human needs, established by Herbert Marcuse.


title: Culture industry

text: Members of The Frankfurt School were much influenced by the dialectical materialism and historical materialism of Karl Marx, as well as the revisitation of the dialectical idealism of Hegel; both events are studied not in isolation, but as part of the process of change. As a group later joined by Jürgen Habermas, they were responsible for the formulation of critical theory. In works such as "Dialectic of Enlightenment" and "Negative Dialectics", Adorno and Horkheimer theorized that the phenomenon of mass culture has a political implication, namely that all the many forms of popular culture are parts of a single "culture industry" whose purpose is to ensure the continued obedience of the "masses" to market interests.


title: Culture industry

text: The essay is concerned with the production of cultural content in capitalist societies. It critiques the extortionate nature of cultural economies as well as the apparently inferior products of the system. Horkheimer and Adorno argue that mass-produced entertainment aims, by its very nature, to appeal to vast audiences and therefore both the intellectual stimulation of high art and the basic release of low art. The essay does not suggest that all products of this system are inherently inferior, simply that they have replaced other forms of entertainment without properly fulfilling the important roles played by the now-defunct sources of culture.


title: Culture industry

text: Horkheimer and Adorno make consistent comparisons between Fascist Germany and the American film industry. They highlight the presence of mass-produced culture, created and disseminated by exclusive institutions and consumed by a passive, homogenised audience in both systems. This illustrates the logic of domination in post-enlightenment modern society, by monopoly capitalism or the nation state. Horkheimer and Adorno draw attention to the problems associated with a system that 'integrates its consumers from above', arguing that in attempting to realise enlightenment values of reason and order, the holistic power of the individual is undermined.


title: Culture industry

text: Adorno and Horkheimer's work was influenced by both the broader socio-political environment in which it was written and by other major theorists. Written in California in the early 1940s in an era which characterized them as two ethnically Jewish, German émigrés, "The Culture Industry" is influenced by European politics and the war by which the continent was consumed. Simultaneously, the American film industry was characterised by an unprecedented level of studio monopolisation, it was "Hollywood at its most classical, American mass culture at its most Fordist".


title: Culture industry

text: Horkheimer and Adorno were influenced heavily by major developers of social, political and economic theory, most notably:


title: Culture industry

text: Anything made by a person is a materialization of their labour and an expression of their intentions. There will also be a use value: the benefit to the consumer will be derived from its utility. The exchange value will reflect its utility and the conditions of the market: the prices paid by the television broadcaster or at the box office. Yet, the modern soap operas with their interchangeable plots and formulaic narrative conventions reflect standardized production techniques and the falling value of a mass-produced cultural product. Only rarely is a film released that makes a more positive impression on the general discourse and achieves a higher exchange value, e.g. "Patton" (1970), starring George C. Scott as the eponymous American general, was released at a time of considerable anti-war sentiment. The opening shot is of Patton in front of an American flag making an impassioned speech. This was a form of dialectic in which the audience could identify with the patriotism either sincerely (the thesis) or ironically (the antithesis) and so set the tone of the interpretation for the remainder of the film. However, the film is manipulating specific historical events, not only as entertainment, but also as a form of propaganda by demonstrating a link between success in strategic resource management situations and specified leadership qualities. Given that the subtext was instrumental and not "value-free", ethical and philosophical considerations arise.


title: Culture industry

text: Normally, only high art criticizes the world outside its boundaries, but access to this form of communication is limited to the elite classes where the risks of introducing social instability are slight. A film like "Patton" is popular art which intends controversy in a world of social order and unity which, according to Adorno, is regressing into a cultural blandness. To Hegel, order is good "a priori", i.e. it does not have to answer to those living under it. But, if order is disturbed? In "Negative Dialectics", Adorno believed this tended towards progress by stimulating the possibility of class conflict. Marx's theory of Historical Materialism was teleological, i.e. society follows through a dialectic of unfolding stages from ancient modes of production to feudalism to capitalism to a future communism. But Adorno felt that the culture industry would never permit a sufficient core of challenging material to emerge on to the market that might disturb the "status quo" and stimulate the final communist state to emerge.


title: Culture industry

text: A center point of the "Dialectic of Enlightenment" is the topic of "the Enlightenment as Mass Deception." The term "culture industry" is intended to refer to the commercial marketing of culture, the branch of industry that deals specifically with the production of culture that is in contrast to "authentic culture".


title: Culture industry

text: Horkheimer and Adorno contend that industrially produced culture robs people of their imagination and takes over their thinking for them. The culture industry delivers the "goods" so that the people then only have left the task of consuming them. Through mass production, everything becomes homogenized and whatever diversity remains is constituted of small trivialities. Everything becomes compressed through a process of the imposition of schemas under the premise that what's best is to mirror physical reality as closely as possible. Psychological drives become stoked to the point where sublimation is no longer possible.


title: Culture industry

text: Movies serve as an example. "All films have become similar in their basic form. They are shaped to reflect facts of reality as closely as possible. Even fantasy films, which claim to not reflect such reality, don't really live up to what they claim to be. No matter how unusual they strive to be, the endings are usually easy to predict because of the existence of prior films which followed the same schemas. Also, for example, erotic depictions become so strong and so pronounced that a transformation to other forms is no longer possible."