title: The customer is always right

text: "The customer is always right" is a motto or slogan which exhorts service staff to give a high priority to customer satisfaction. It was popularised by pioneering and successful retailers such as Harry Gordon Selfridge, John Wanamaker and Marshall Field. They advocated that customer complaints should be treated seriously so that customers do not feel cheated or deceived. This attitude was novel and influential when misrepresentation was rife and "caveat emptor" (let the buyer beware) was a common legal maxim. Variations include ""le client n'a jamais tort"" (the customer is never wrong) which was the slogan of hotelier César Ritz who said, "If a diner complains about a dish or the wine, immediately remove it and replace it, no questions asked". A variation frequently used in Germany is ""der Kunde ist König"" (the customer is king), while in Japan the motto ""okyakusama wa kamisama desu"" () meaning "the customer is a god", is common.


title: The customer is always right

text: It was pointed out as early as 1914 that this view ignores that customers can be dishonest, have unrealistic expectations, and/or try to misuse a product in ways that void the guarantee. "If we adopt the policy of admitting whatever claims the customer makes to be proper, and if we always settle them at face value, we shall be subjected to inevitable losses." The work concluded "If the customer is made perfectly to understand what it means for him to be right, what right on his part is, then he can be depended on to be right if he is honest, and if he is dishonest, a little effort should result in catching him at it." An article a year later by the same author addressed the "caveat emptor" aspect while raising many of the same points as the earlier piece.


title: Operation Storm-333

text: Operation Storm-333 (, ), also known as the Tajbeg Palace Assault, was executed by the Soviet Union in Afghanistan on 27 December 1979. It saw Spetsnaz storm the heavily fortified Tajbeg Palace in Kabul and subsequently assassinate Afghan leader Hafizullah Amin, a Khalqist of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) who had taken power in the Saur Revolution of April 1978. The Soviet military operation marked the beginning of what would later become known as the Soviet–Afghan War.


title: Operation Storm-333

text: The assassination of Amin was part of a larger Soviet plan to secure and take control of Afghanistan with support from the PDPA's Parcham faction, which opposed the hardline ideology espoused by the rival Khalq faction; a number of Soviet troops crossed the Amu Darya and entered Afghanistan by land while others flew to airbases around the country with exiled Parchamis in preparation for the assassination. The Tajbeg Palace, located on a high and steep hill in Kabul, was surrounded by landmines and guarded by extraordinarily large contingents of the Afghan National Army. Nonetheless, Afghan forces suffered major losses during the Soviet operation; 30 Afghan palace guards and over 300 army guards were killed while another 150 were captured. Two of Amin's sons, an 11-year-old and a 9-year-old, died from shrapnel wounds sustained during the clashes. In the aftermath of the operation, a total of 1,700 Afghan soldiers who surrendered to Soviet forces were taken as prisoners, and the Soviets installed Babrak Karmal, the leader of the PDPA's Parcham faction, as Amin's successor.


title: Operation Storm-333

text: Several other government buildings were seized from Amin's Khalqist government during the operation, including those for the Ministry of Interior Affairs, the KHAD, and the General Staff (Darul Aman Palace). Veterans of the Soviet Union's Alpha Group have stated that Operation Storm-333 was one of the most successful in the unit's history. Documents released following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the 1990s revealed that the Soviet leadership believed Amin had secret contacts within the American embassy in Kabul and "was capable of reaching an agreement with the United States"; however, allegations of Amin colluding with the Americans have been widely discredited.


title: Operation Storm-333

text: The Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was initially led by Nur Muhammad Taraki, who was pro-Soviet Union, which resulted in cordial Afghan–Soviet relations. In September 1979, Taraki was deposed by Hafizullah Amin, due to intra-party strife. After this event and the suspicious death of Taraki (an apparent assassination by Amin's orders), Afghan–Soviet relations started to deteriorate; by December the Soviet leadership had established an alliance with Babrak Karmal. The Soviet Union declared its plan to intervene in Afghanistan on 12 December 1979, and the Soviet leadership initiated Operation Storm-333 (the first phase of the intervention) on 27 December 1979.


title: Operation Storm-333

text: Storm-333 was part of a bigger operation, Baikal-79, aimed at taking control over approximately 20 key strongholds in and around Kabul, which included major military headquarters, communication centers and jails.


title: Operation Storm-333

text: The core of Storm-333 assault team included 25 men from the Гром ("Grom" – "Thunder") unit of Alpha Group, and 30 operators from a special KGB group Зенит ("Zenit" – "Zenith"), later known as Vympel and Гром ("Grom" - "Thunder"). There were also 87 troops of a company of the 345th Independent Guards Airborne Regiment. 520 men from the 154th Separate Spetsnaz Detachment of the USSR Ministry of Defence known as the "Muslim Battalion" because it consisted exclusively of soldiers from the southern republics of the USSR. This motorized rifle battalion had been formed in the USSR earlier in 1979 at the specific request of the Afghan leader to guard his residence as he could not rely on Afghan troops. These support troops were not issued armor or helmets, but one of them recalls that a magazine tucked inside his clothes protected him from an SMG bullet.


title: Operation Storm-333

text: The raid on the Tajbeg Palace, where General Secretary Amin was in residence with his family at the suggestion of his KGB security advisers, took place around 7 p.m. on 27 December 1979. The Tajbeg Palace was guarded by the Afghan National Army.


title: Operation Storm-333

text: During the attack, Amin still believed the Soviet Union was on his side, and told his adjutant, "The Soviets will help us." The adjutant replied that it was the Soviets who were attacking them; Amin initially replied that this was a lie. Only after he tried but failed to contact the Chief of the General Staff, he muttered, "I guessed it. It's all true." He was captured alive by Grom troops, but semi-conscious, suffering convulsions due to interrupted medical treatment related to a poisoning that occurred on December 16 of the same year. The exact details of his later death have never been confirmed by any eye witness. The official announcement of his death on Kabul Radio, as reported by the "New York Times" on 27 December 1979, was "Amin had been sentenced to death at a revolutionary trial for crimes against the state and that sentence had been carried out".


title: Operation Storm-333

text: One story at the time was Amin was killed by Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy, a previous Minister of Communication until ousted by Amin, who was present with two other previous ministers during the assault to give credence it was an Afghan-controlled operation. Gulabzoy and Mohammad Aslam Watanjar, the previous Minister for Defense, later confirmed his death. This story of his death after a summary trial is supported by the fate of Amin supporters who were executed on the spot with a bullet in the back of the neck, after a 'Revolutionary Troika' arrested and sentenced them to death. Amin's son were fatally wounded and died shortly after. Amin's daughter was wounded, but survived. 348 other Afghans, including 30 of Amin's most personal guards from Palace and Leader's guards, also died in the fighting, and part of the palace went up in flames.


title: Operation Storm-333

text: 150 of the 180 Palace and Leader's guards, who were regular troops, surrendered when they realized the attacking troops were from the USSR, not from an Afghan unit. A total of 1,700 Afghan soldiers surrendered to Soviet troops and were taken prisoner. The whole operation took about 40 minutes.


title: Operation Storm-333

text: During the assault on the Tajbeg 5 officers of the KGB special forces, 7 troops from the "Muslim Battalion", and 2 paratroopers were killed. The commander of the KGB contingent, Col. Boyarinov, was killed. All the surviving participants in the KGB troops in the operation were wounded. Also, Soviet army doctor Colonel Viktor Kuznechenkov, who was treating General Secretary Amin, was killed by friendly fire in the palace and was posthumously awarded the Order of the Red Banner.


title: Operation Storm-333

text: According to Oleg Balashov, who was second in command of the assault group, the group was led by two elite units of Alpha and Vympel (15–20 each). The Alpha group targeted Amin, and the Vympel group had the task of collecting factual evidence that Amin was collaborating with the United States. Both groups were brought to Afghanistan secretly and blended with Muslim Battalions to make an impression that the operation was carried out by local units, whereas in reality nearly all work was done by Alpha and Vympel.


title: Operation Storm-333

text: Before the operation, Balashov surveyed the area under the guise of a bodyguard of a Soviet diplomat. His unit knew that they were going to a death zone and felt uncomfortable about it – about 80% of them were wounded shortly after they left their vehicles, yet they continued the assault. As Balashov expected, Amin's troops targeted the first and last vehicle in the convoy of six. He placed his team of five men in the front BMP and, when the BMP was immobilized by fire from Amin's troops, ordered them to abandon the BMP and run to the palace. All five were quickly wounded by intensive fire from the guards, but were saved by bulletproof vests and helmets.


title: Operation Storm-333

text: This account generally agrees with that of Aleksandr Lyakhovskiy, Soviet war historian and former director of the USSR Defense Ministry in Afghanistan, who gives more details and accentuates the ferocity and professionalism on both the attacking and defending sides.


title: Baltimora

text: Baltimora was an Italian music project from Milan, active from 1984 to 1987. They are best known for their 1985 single "Tarzan Boy" and are often considered a one-hit wonder in the United Kingdom and the United States. In other European countries, including their native Italy, Baltimora scored a follow-up hit.


title: Baltimora

text: In early 1984, Maurizio Bassi, a music producer and musician from Milan, met Jimmy McShane, a native of Derry, Northern Ireland. McShane was an emergency medical technician (EMT) who worked for the Red Cross in Northern Ireland. They decided to form an act fronted by McShane, a trained actor and dancer, who had previously tried to break into the West End theater scene. Bassi recruited prominent Italian sessionmen to record their first album, such as Giorgio Cocilovo on guitar and Gabriele "Lele" Melotti on drums.


title: Baltimora

text: Fellow Italo disco producer Tom Hooker has claimed that Baltimora's lead vocals were performed by Maurizio Bassi, as he'd done with Carrara, with McShane sometimes providing the backing vocals. The bulk of Baltimora's song writing fell on Bassi and American lyricist Naimy Hackett, though McShane wrote the lyrics to their track "Survivor in Love".


title: Baltimora

text: Baltimora's first single, "Tarzan Boy", was released in April 1985, and became a huge European success, peaking at No. 6 on the Italian single chart and entering the top 5 in numerous European countries, including Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Sweden, France, the Netherlands and Norway. The song eventually made it to the United Kingdom charts, where it reached No. 3 in August 1985.


title: Baltimora

text: "Tarzan Boy" was released in Canada in October 1985 and peaked on the Canadian charts at No. 5 by the end of the year. However, it took a while for the single to enter the Hot 100 single chart in the United States (where it was released on EMI). When it did, it remained on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart for six months, peaking at No. 13 in February 1986. Baltimora performed on the American TV show "Solid Gold", which helped further their success in America. The second single, "Woody Boogie", which also gained notable success, entered the top 20 in Germany, Switzerland and Sweden.


title: Baltimora

text: Baltimora's first album, "Living in the Background," was released in Europe at the end of 1985 and in United States in 1986. Despite the success of "Tarzan Boy", "Living in the Background" only charted moderately, entering the top 20 album charts only in a few countries in Europe, including Sweden, reaching the no. 49 spot on the US charts.


title: Baltimora

text: When Baltimora's second album, "Survivor in Love" (1987) and the single "Key Key Karimba" failed to chart, Baltimora lost label support and Bassi decided to disband.


title: Baltimora

text: Baltimora's music style is mainly described as Italo disco and sometimes as new wave, including their first album, "Living in the Background".


title: New Britain

text: New Britain () is the largest island in the Bismarck Archipelago, part of the Islands Region of Papua New Guinea. It is separated from New Guinea by a northwest corner of the Solomon Sea (or with an island hop of Umboi the Dampier and Vitiaz Straits) and from New Ireland by St. George's Channel. The main towns of New Britain are Rabaul/Kokopo and Kimbe. The island is roughly the size of Taiwan. While the island was part of German New Guinea, it was named Neupommern ("New Pomerania").


title: New Britain

text: In common with most of the Bismarcks it was largely formed by volcanic processes, and has active volcanoes including Ulawun (highest volcano nationally), Langila, the Garbuna Group, the Sulu Range, and the volcanoes Tavurvur and Vulcan of the Rabaul caldera. A major eruption of Tavurvur in 1994 destroyed the East New Britain provincial capital of Rabaul. Most of the town still lies under metres of ash, and the capital has been moved to nearby Kokopo.


title: New Britain

text: New Britain extends from 148°18'31" to 152°23'57" E longitude and from 4°08'25" to 6°18'31" S latitude. It is crescent-shaped, approximately along its southeastern coastline, and from 29 to 146 km (18–91 miles) wide, not including a small central peninsula. The air-line distance from west to east is . The island is the 38th largest in the world, with an area of .


title: New Britain

text: Steep cliffs form some sections of the coastline; in others the mountains are further inland, and the coastal area is flat and bordered by coral reefs. The highest point, at , is the stratovolcano Mount Ulawun in the east. Most of the terrain is covered with tropical rainforest and several large rivers are fed by the high rainfall.


title: New Britain

text: New Britain was largely formed by volcanic processes, and has active volcanoes including Ulawun (highest volcano nationally), Langila, the Garbuna Group, the Sulu Range, and the volcanoes Tavurvur and Vulcan of the Rabaul caldera. A major eruption of Tavurvur in 1994 destroyed the East New Britain provincial capital of Rabaul. Most of the town still lies under metres of ash, and the capital has been moved to nearby Kokopo.


title: New Britain

text: New Britain forms part of the Islands Region, one of four regions of Papua New Guinea. It comprises the mainland of two provinces:


title: New Britain

text: In research science, there is evidence with Pleistocene-era cultural deposits discovered in open-site excavations in near Yombon, which show that New Britain has been inhabited by indigenous Papuans for thousands of years, with human occupation dating back to 21,000 BC.


title: New Britain

text: William Dampier became the first known British man to visit New Britain on 27 February 1700; he dubbed the island with the Latin name "Nova Britannia" (Eng: "New Britain").


title: New Britain

text: Whaling ships from Britain, Australia and America called at the island in the 19th century for food, water and wood. The first on record was the "Roscoe" in 1822. The last known whaling visitor was the "Palmetto" in 1881.


title: New Britain

text: In November 1884, Germany proclaimed its protectorate over the New Britain Archipelago; the German colonial administration gave New Britain and New Ireland the names of Neupommern (or Neu-Pommern; "New Pomerania") and Neumecklenburg (or Neu-Mecklenburg; "New Mecklenburg") respectively, and the whole island group was renamed the Bismarck Archipelago. New Britain became part of German New Guinea.


title: New Britain

text: In 1909, the indigenous population was estimated at 190,000; the foreign population at 773 (474 white). The expatriate population was practically confined to the northeastern Gazelle Peninsula, which included the capital, Herbertshöhe (now Kokopo). At the time 5,448 hectares (13,464 acres) had been converted to plantations, primarily growing copra, cotton, coffee and rubber. Westerners avoided exploring the interior initially, believing that the indigenous peoples were warlike and would fiercely resist intrusions.


title: New Britain

text: On 11 September 1914, New Britain became the site of one of the earliest battles of World War I when the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island. They quickly overwhelmed the German forces and occupied the island for the duration of the war.


title: New Britain

text: After World War I, the Treaty of Versailles was signed in June 1919. Germany was stripped of all its possessions outside Europe. In 1920 the League of Nations included New Britain, along with the former German colony on New Guinea, in the Territory of New Guinea, a mandated territory of Australia.


title: New Britain

text: During World War II the Japanese attacked New Britain soon after the outbreak of hostilities in the Pacific Ocean. Strategic bases at Rabaul and Kavieng (New Ireland) were defended by a small Australian detachment, Lark Force. During January 1942, the Japanese heavily bombed Rabaul. On 23 January, Japanese marines landed by the thousands, starting the Battle of Rabaul. Two hundred and fifty civilians were evacuated from places on New Britain in March 1942, but others were captured in Rabaul when it fell. The Japanese used Rabaul as a key base until 1944; it served as the key point for the failed invasion of Port Moresby on New Guinea (May to November 1942).


title: New Britain

text: New Britain was invaded by the U.S. 1st Marine Division in the Cape Gloucester area of the very western end of the island, and also by U.S. Army soldiers at some other coastal points. As for Cape Gloucester, with its swamps and mosquitos, the Marines said that it was "worse than Guadalcanal". They captured an airfield but accomplished little toward reducing the Japanese base at Rabaul.


title: New Britain

text: The Allied plan involved bypassing Rabaul by surrounding it with air and naval bases on surrounding islands and on New Britain itself. The adjacent island of New Ireland was bypassed altogether. Much of the story from the Japanese side, especially the two suicide charges by the Baalen group, are retold in Shigeru Mizuki's "Onward Towards Our Noble Deaths". The factual telemovie "Sisters of War" recounts experiences of Australian Army nurses and Catholic nuns during the conflict.


title: New Britain

text: The population of the main town of Rabaul was evacuated as a result of volcanic activity in 1994 which buried the town under a thick layer of volcanic ash.


title: New Britain

text: The indigenous people of New Britain fall into two main groups: the Papuans, who have inhabited the island for tens of thousands of years, and the Austronesians, who arrived around three thousand years ago. There are around ten Papuan languages spoken and about forty Austronesian languages, as well as Tok Pisin and English. The Papuan population is largely confined to the eastern third of the island and a couple of small enclaves in the central highlands. At Jacquinot Bay, in the south-east, they live beside the beach where a waterfall crashes directly into the sea.


title: New Britain

text: The population of New Britain was 493,585 in 2010. Austronesian people make up the majority on the island. The major towns are Rabaul/Kokopo in East New Britain and Kimbe in West New Britain.


title: New Britain

text: New Britain hosts diverse and complex traditional cultures. While the Tolai of the Rabaul area of East New Britain have a matrilineal society, other groups are patrilineal in structure. There are numerous traditions which remain active today, such as the "dukduk" secret society (also known as "tubuan") in the Tolai area.


title: New Britain

text: The island is part of two ecoregions. The New Britain-New Ireland lowland rain forests extend from sea level to 1000 meters elevation. The New Britain-New Ireland montane rain forests cover the mountains of New Britain above 1000 meters elevation.


title: New Britain

text: Forests on New Britain have been rapidly destroyed in recent years, largely to clear land for oil palm plantations.


title: New Britain

text: Lowland rainforest has been hardest hit, with nearly a quarter of the forest below 100 m disappearing between 1989 and 2000. If those rates of deforestation continue, it is estimated that all forest below 200 m will be cleared by 2060. Despite this, most forest birds on New Britain are still widespread and secure in conservation status though some forest-dependent species such as the New Britain Kingfisher are considered to be at risk of extinction if current trends continue.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: Richard III is a 1995 British/American film adaptation of William Shakespeare's play of the same name, directed by Richard Loncraine. The film adapts the play's story and characters to a setting based on 1930s Britain, with Richard depicted as a fascist plotting to usurp the throne.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: Ian McKellen portrays the titular Richard, as well as co-writing the screenplay with Loncraine. The cast also includes Annette Bening as Queen Elizabeth, Jim Broadbent as the Duke of Buckingham, Robert Downey Jr. as Rivers, Kristin Scott Thomas as Anne Neville, Nigel Hawthorne as the Duke of Clarence, Maggie Smith as the Duchess of York, John Wood as King Edward IV, Tim McInnerny as Sir William Catesby, and Dominic West as the Earl of Richmond (the latter's first feature film role).


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: The film premiered in Brazil on 20 August 1995, and was released in the United States on 29 December 1995, and in the United Kingdom on 26 April of the following year. While unsuccessful at the box office, it received critical acclaim, and won several accolades. At the 50th British Academy Film Awards, it won the awards for Best Production Design and Best Costume Design, with nominations for Best British Film, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Actor in a Leading Role. It also earned Oscar nominations for Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design, and McKellen was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: In a fictitious timeline of England in the late 1930s, a chaotic and bloody civil war (which occurs 450 years later than the actual historical event) ends with Lancastrian King Henry and his son Prince Edward assassinated by Field Marshal Richard Gloucester of the rival faction supported by the House of York. Richard's elder brother Edward York becomes King. Richard is determined to take the crown, and pits King Edward against his brother, George Clarence, who is imprisoned under a sentence of death. Richard deceives and marries Prince Edward's widow Lady Anne Neville.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: Queen Elizabeth intercedes on Clarence's behalf and persuades Edward to spare his life. Richard destroys the royal pardon and commissions James Tyrrell to execute Clarence, ostensibly in compliance with Clarence's death sentence. Richard informs Edward of Clarence's death at a meeting with Prime Minister William Hastings, and the King dies from a stroke. As Edward's sons are underage, Richard becomes Regent, taking the title of Lord Protector with the support of the ambitious and corrupt Henry Buckingham.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: To undermine his rivals for the throne, Richard has Rivers, the Queen's brother, assassinated and uses the sordid circumstances of his death to damage the Queen's reputation and cast doubt on her sons' legitimacy. Hastings' reluctance to support Richard's claim to the crown so enrages Richard that he manufactures false charges of treason against Hastings, who is sentenced to death by hanging. Having made an example of his only vocal opponent, Richard persuades the Lord Mayor of London and members of the House of Lords to acknowledge his claim to the throne and crown him King. Acting on the advice of Archbishop Thomas and Lord Stanley, the Lancastrian heir, Henry Richmond, flees to France.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: Following his coronation Richard, now King Richard III, seeks to make his throne secure. He employs Tyrrell to murder the princes after failing to convince Buckingham to do so. Aware that Richmond intends to marry Elizabeth, he instructs Sir William Catesby to spread rumours that Lady Anne is ill and likely to die, intending to marry Elizabeth himself. Lady Anne is found dead sometime later from an apparent drug overdose. Impatient for the promised reward for his loyalty, Buckingham demands the Earldom of Hereford. Richard dismisses this in a high-handed manner, with the line "I am not in the giving vein". Buckingham, also disturbed by the murders of the princes and Hastings, flees to meet Richmond but is later captured and killed by Tyrrell under Richard's orders.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: Richmond gathers supporters, among them Archbishop Thomas and Richard's mother, the Duchess of York. They are joined by Air Marshal Thomas Stanley. Richmond marries Elizabeth and unites both Houses and political factions against Richard. With the army's loyalty slipping and the legitimacy of his claims to the crown weakened, Richard prepares for the final battle against the Lancastrians, who plan an invasion and an advance on London. Richard's remaining loyal troops, assembling in a marshalling yard, are attacked from the air, revealing Stanley's defection to the Lancastrian cause.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: The two armies meet soon after at a ruined Battersea Power Station. Richard and Richmond seek each other out but when his vehicle stalls Richard flees into the structure. Pursued by Richmond, Richard is forced to exit onto exposed metal beams high above the burning battlefield. Cornered by Richmond and refusing to surrender, Richard falls into the inferno with a maniacal grin, reflected by Richmond.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: Michael Elphick has an uncredited cameo appearance as the second murderer of George the Duke of Clarence.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: The film's concept was based on a stage production Richard Eyre directed for the Royal National Theatre, which also starred McKellen. The production was adapted for the screen by McKellen and directed by Richard Loncraine.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: The film is notable for its unconventional use of famous British landmarks, often using special effects to move them to new locations. The transformed landmarks include:


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: The visually rich production features various symbols, uniforms, weapons, and vehicles that draw openly from fascist aesthetics, similar to those of the Nazi Germany as depicted in Nazi propaganda (especially "Triumph of the Will") and war films. Richard's appearance (in terms of haircut and moustache) is modelled on that of Sir Oswald Mosley, leader of the British Union of Fascists, though the remainder of Richard's appearance includes the other deformities specified within Shakespeare's stage directions of a hunchback and withered arm - for the film in addition, a blinded left eye, the same side as the withered arm.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: At the same time, obvious care is put into diluting and mixing the totalitarian references with recognizable British and American uniforms, props, and visual motifs. The resulting military uniforms, for instance, range from completely standard 1930s British Army and Air Force uniforms for good characters to heavily squadristi and SS-inspired insignia on British uniforms for Richard's entourage, with SS collar tabs replacing the gorget patches and a white boar replacing the royal crown on Richard's uniform.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: For air transport, pre-war types were used again to ensure authenticity. As Lord Rivers arrives, he does so in a Pan-Am DC-3 airliner. As the Duchess of York (Maggie Smith) departs for France, she does so in a De Havilland Dragon Rapide biplane airliner. For the climactic final battle, the restored Bristol Blenheim is used to represent Lord Stanley's air-attack, which is also period-correct for RAF deployment immediately before and during the start of the Second World War, for the period at which the film ends.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: Another example of this balanced approach to production design is the choice of tanks for battle scenes between Richmond's and Richard's armies: both use Soviet tanks (T-55s and T-34s respectively), mixed with German, American, and British World War II-era vehicles. To convey the out-of-place nature of the common-born Queen Elizabeth, she is reconfigured as an American socialite similar to Wallis Simpson, and members of the court treat her and her brother with marked disapproval.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: One of the play's most famous lines—"A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!"—is re-contextualized by the 20th-century setting; during the climactic battle, Richard's jeep becomes stuck in a pile of debris, and his lament is a plea for a mode of transport with legs rather than wheels.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: The film enlarges the role of the Duchess of York considerably by combining her character with that of Queen Margaret, as compared with Laurence Olivier's 1955 film version of the play, in which the Duchess hardly appeared at all and Queen Margaret was completely eliminated. The roles of Rivers, Grey, Vaughan, and Dorset are combined into Rivers. The death scenes are shown rather than implied as in the play, and changed to suit the time (Hastings is hanged rather than beheaded) and historical accuracy (Clarence dies by having his throat cut in a bathtub, rather than being drowned in a wine barrel). Rivers—who usually dies offstage (or, in the case of Olivier's film, offscreen)—is impaled by a sharp spike spurting up from the bottom of his mattress while he lies in bed during sex with a woman in a hotel room. Each character's pre-death monologue is also removed, except those of Clarence and Buckingham.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: McKellen wrote, "When you put this amazing old story in a believable modern setting, it will hopefully raise the hair on the back of your neck, and you won't be able to dismiss it as 'just a movie' or, indeed, as 'just old-fashioned Shakespeare'."


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: "Richard III" received universal acclaim from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a "Certified Fresh" approval rating of 94% based on 49 reviews, with an average score of 8.2/10.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: "Empire" magazine gave the film 4 out of 5 stars, calling it "fascinating" and "cerebral". Jeffrey Lyons said the film was "mesmerizing", while Richard Corliss in "Time" called it "cinematic". Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" wrote, "the picture never stops coming at you". Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film four stars out of four and included it on his "Great Movies" list.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: "Come Live With Me" is a 1930s-style swing song, performed by Stacey Kent at the ball celebrating Edward IV's triumph. It is an original composition by Trevor Jones with anachronistic lyrics adapted from Christopher Marlowe's "The Passionate Shepherd To His Love", a poem actually written a century after the events depicted in the play.


title: Richard III (1995 film)

text: One of the T-34 tanks used in the film, originally in service with the Czech army, can still be seen in London, permanently located on a plot of land in Bermondsey on the corner of Mandela Way and Page's Walk. It is regularly repainted by graffiti artists.


title: Lapse rate

text: The lapse rate is the rate at which an atmospheric variable, normally temperature in Earth's atmosphere, falls with altitude. "Lapse rate" arises from the word "lapse", in the sense of a gradual fall. In dry air, the adiabatic lapse rate is 9.8 °C/km (5.4 °F per 1,000 ft).


title: Lapse rate

text: Although this concept is most often applied to the Earth's troposphere, it can be extended to any gravitationally supported parcel of gas.


title: Lapse rate

text: where formula_2 (sometimes formula_3) is the lapse rate given in units of temperature divided by units of altitude, "T" is temperature, and "z" is altitude.


title: Lapse rate

text: The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between thermal conduction, thermal radiation, and natural convection. Sunlight hits the surface of the earth (land and sea) and heats them. They then heat the air above the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer energy from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly .


title: Lapse rate

text: However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and carry internal energy upward. This is the process of convection. Vertical convective motion stops when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as the other air at the same elevation.


title: Lapse rate

text: When a parcel of air expands, it pushes on the air around it, doing thermodynamic work. An expansion or contraction of an air parcel without inward or outward heat transfer is an adiabatic process. Air has low thermal conductivity, and the bodies of air involved are very large, so transfer of heat by conduction is negligibly small. Also, in such expansion and contraction, intra-atmospheric radiative heat transfer is relatively slow and so negligible. Since the upward-moving and expanding parcel does work but gains no heat, it loses internal energy so that its temperature decreases.


title: Lapse rate

text: The adiabatic process for air has a characteristic temperature-pressure curve, so the process determines the lapse rate. When the air contains little water, this lapse rate is known as the dry adiabatic lapse rate: the rate of temperature decrease is ( per 1,000 ft) (3.0 °C/1,000 ft). The reverse occurs for a sinking parcel of air.


title: Lapse rate

text: When the lapse rate is less than the adiabatic lapse rate the atmosphere is stable and convection will not occur.


title: Lapse rate

text: Only the troposphere (up to approximately of altitude) in the Earth's atmosphere undergoes convection: the stratosphere does not generally convect. However, some exceptionally energetic convection processes, such as volcanic eruption columns and overshooting tops associated with severe supercell thunderstorms, may locally and temporarily inject convection through the tropopause and into the stratosphere.


title: Lapse rate

text: Energy transport in the atmosphere is more complex than the interaction between radiation and convection. Thermal conduction, evaporation, condensation, precipitation all influence the temperature profile, as described below.


title: Lapse rate

text: These calculations use a very simple model of an atmosphere, either dry or moist, within a still vertical column at equilibrium.


title: Lapse rate

text: where "g" is the standard gravity. Combining these two equations to eliminate the pressure, one arrives at the result for the dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR),


title: Lapse rate

text: The presence of water within the atmosphere (usually the troposphere) complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As a parcel of air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated; that is, the vapor pressure of water in equilibrium with liquid water has decreased (as temperature has decreased) to the point where it is equal to the actual vapor pressure of water. With further decrease in temperature the water vapor in excess of the equilibrium amount condenses, forming cloud, and releasing heat (latent heat of condensation). Before saturation, the rising air follows the dry adiabatic lapse rate. After saturation, the rising air follows the moist (or "wet") adiabatic lapse rate. The release of latent heat is an important source of energy in the development of thunderstorms.


title: Lapse rate

text: While the dry adiabatic lapse rate is a constant ( per 1,000 ft, ), the moist adiabatic lapse rate varies strongly with temperature. A typical value is around , (, , ). The formula for the moist adiabatic lapse rate is given by:


title: Lapse rate

text: The environmental lapse rate (ELR), is the rate of decrease of temperature with altitude in the stationary atmosphere at a given time and location. As an average, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines an international standard atmosphere (ISA) with a temperature lapse rate of or from sea level to 11 km or . From 11 km up to 20 km or , the constant temperature is , which is the lowest assumed temperature in the ISA. The standard atmosphere contains no moisture. Unlike the idealized ISA, the temperature of the actual atmosphere does not always fall at a uniform rate with height. For example, there can be an inversion layer in which the temperature increases with altitude.


title: Lapse rate

text: The varying environmental lapse rates throughout the Earth's atmosphere are of critical importance in meteorology, particularly within the troposphere. They are used to determine if the parcel of rising air will rise high enough for its water to condense to form clouds, and, having formed clouds, whether the air will continue to rise and form bigger shower clouds, and whether these clouds will get even bigger and form cumulonimbus clouds (thunder clouds).


title: Lapse rate

text: As unsaturated air rises, its temperature drops at the dry adiabatic rate. The dew point also drops (as a result of decreasing air pressure) but much more slowly, typically about per 1,000 m. If unsaturated air rises far enough, eventually its temperature will reach its dew point, and condensation will begin to form. This altitude is known as the lifting condensation level (LCL) when mechanical lift is present and the convective condensation level (CCL) when mechanical lift is absent, in which case, the parcel must be heated from below to its convective temperature. The cloud base will be somewhere within the layer bounded by these parameters.


title: Lapse rate

text: The difference between the dry adiabatic lapse rate and the rate at which the dew point drops is around per 1,000 m. Given a difference in temperature and dew point readings on the ground, one can easily find the LCL by multiplying the difference by 125 m/°C.


title: Lapse rate

text: If the environmental lapse rate is less than the moist adiabatic lapse rate, the air is absolutely stable — rising air will cool faster than the surrounding air and lose buoyancy. This often happens in the early morning, when the air near the ground has cooled overnight. Cloud formation in stable air is unlikely.


title: Lapse rate

text: If the environmental lapse rate is between the moist and dry adiabatic lapse rates, the air is conditionally unstable — an unsaturated parcel of air does not have sufficient buoyancy to rise to the LCL or CCL, and it is stable to weak vertical displacements in either direction. If the parcel is saturated it is unstable and will rise to the LCL or CCL, and either be halted due to an inversion layer of convective inhibition, or if lifting continues, deep, moist convection (DMC) may ensue, as a parcel rises to the level of free convection (LFC), after which it enters the free convective layer (FCL) and usually rises to the equilibrium level (EL).


title: Lapse rate

text: If the environmental lapse rate is larger than the dry adiabatic lapse rate, it has a superadiabatic lapse rate, the air is absolutely unstable — a parcel of air will gain buoyancy as it rises both below and above the lifting condensation level or convective condensation level. This often happens in the afternoon mainly over land masses. In these conditions, the likelihood of cumulus clouds, showers or even thunderstorms is increased.


title: Lapse rate

text: Meteorologists use radiosondes to measure the environmental lapse rate and compare it to the predicted adiabatic lapse rate to forecast the likelihood that air will rise. Charts of the environmental lapse rate are known as thermodynamic diagrams, examples of which include Skew-T log-P diagrams and tephigrams. (See also Thermals).


title: Lapse rate

text: The difference in moist adiabatic lapse rate and the dry rate is the cause of foehn wind phenomenon (also known as "Chinook winds" in parts of North America). The phenomenon exists because warm moist air rises through orographic lifting up and over the top of a mountain range or large mountain. The temperature decreases with the dry adiabatic lapse rate, until it hits the dew point, where water vapor in the air begins to condense. Above that altitude, the adiabatic lapse rate decreases to the moist adiabatic lapse rate as the air continues to rise. Condensation is also commonly followed by precipitation on the top and windward sides of the mountain. As the air descends on the leeward side, it is warmed by adiabatic compression at the dry adiabatic lapse rate. Thus, the foehn wind at a certain altitude is warmer than the corresponding altitude on the windward side of the mountain range. In addition, because the air has lost much of its original water vapor content, the descending air creates an arid region on the leeward side of the mountain.


title: France in the American Revolutionary War

text: French involvement in the American Revolutionary War of 1775–1783 began in 1776 when the Kingdom of France secretly shipped supplies to the Continental Army of the Thirteen Colonies when it was established in June 1775. France was a long-term historical rival with the Kingdom of Great Britain, from which the Colonies were attempting to separate.


text: A Treaty of Alliance between the French and the Continental Army followed in 1778, which led to French money, matériel and troops being sent to the United States. An ignition of a global war with Britain started shortly thereafter. Subsequently, Spain and the Dutch Republic also began to send assistance, which, along with other political developments in Europe, left the British with no allies during the conflict (excluding the Hessians). Spain openly declared war in 1779, and war between British and Dutch followed soon after.


text: France's help was a major and decisive contribution towards the United States' eventual victory and independence in the war. However, as a cost of participation in the war, France accumulated over 1 billion livres in debt, which significantly strained the nation's finances. The French government's failure to control spending (in combination with other factors) led to unrest in the nation, which eventually culminated in a revolution a few years after the conflict between the US and Great Britain concluded. Relations between France and the United States thereafter deteriorated, leading to the Quasi-War in 1798.


text: After its defeat in the Seven Years' War in 1763, France lost all of its far holdings in North America. Meanwhile, the American colonists and the British government began to fight over whether Parliament in London or the colonial assemblies had primary responsibility for taxation. As part of that conflict, the colonists organized the Boston Tea Party in response to a tax on tea. The British government responded by passing the Intolerable Acts, which included the closing of Boston Harbor and the revocation of Massachusetts's colonial charter. This conflict exacerbated tensions further. The ideological conflict escalated into open warfare in 1775, at which point the American patriots revolted against British rule. France, who had been rebuilding their Navy and other forces, saw this as a perfect opportunity to avenge her defeat in the previous war and severely undermine her nemesis.


text: France bitterly resented its loss in the Seven Years' War and sought revenge. It also wanted to strategically weaken Britain. Following the Declaration of Independence, the American Revolution was well received by both the general population and the aristocracy in France. The Revolution was perceived as the incarnation of the Enlightenment Spirit against the "English tyranny." Ben Franklin traveled to France in December 1776 in order to rally the nation's support, and he was welcomed with great enthusiasm. At first, French support was covert: French agents sent the Patriots military aid (predominantly gunpowder) through a company called "Rodrigue Hortalez et Compagnie", beginning in the spring of 1776. Estimates place the percentage of French-supplied arms to the Americans in the Saratoga campaign at up to 90%. By 1777, over five million "livres" of aid had been sent to the American rebels.


text: Motivated by the prospect of glory in battle or animated by the sincere ideals of liberty and republicanism, volunteers like Pierre Charles L'Enfant joined the American army. The most famous was Lafayette, a charming young aristocrat who defied the king's order and enlisted in 1777 at age 20. He became an aide to George Washington and a combat general. More importantly, he solidified a favorable American view of France. Kramer argues that Lafayette provided a legitimacy for the war and confidence that there was serious European support for independence. Lafayette's personal style was highly attractive; the young man learned quickly, adapted to the Patriot style, avoided politics, and became a fast friend of General Washington. Fifty years later, after a major career in French politics, he returned as a beloved hero of the war.


text: Up against the British power, the young nation lacked arms and allies, and so it turned towards France. France was not directly interested in the conflict, but saw it as an opportunity to contest British power by supporting a new British opponent. Through negotiations conducted first by Silas Deane and then by Benjamin Franklin, France began covert support of the patriots' cause.


text: Secretly approached by Louis XVI and France's foreign minister, the comte de Vergennes, Pierre Beaumarchais was authorized to sell gunpowder and ammunition to the Americans for close to a million pounds under the veil of the French company "Rodrigue Hortalez et Compagnie". The aid given by France, much of which passed through the neutral Dutch West Indies port of Sint Eustatius, contributed to George Washington's survival against the British onslaught in 1776 and 1777. The aid was also a major factor in the defeat of General Burgoyne's expedition in the Champlain corridor that ended in a British disaster at Saratoga. French ports accommodated American ships, including privateers and Continental Navy warships, that acted against British merchant ships. France provided significant economic aid, either as donations or loans, and also offered technical assistance, granting some of its military strategists "vacations" so they could assist American troops.


text: Silas Deane, appointed by the Americans and helped by French animosity towards Britain, obtained unofficial aid, starting in early 1776. However, the goal was the total involvement of France in the war. A new delegation composed of Franklin, Deane, and Arthur Lee, was appointed to lobby for the involvement of European nations. (The British paid Edward Bancroft and Paul Wentworth to spy). Franklin, age 70 and already well known in French intellectual circles for his scientific discoveries, served as the chief diplomat with the title of "minister" (the term "ambassador" was not used). He dressed in rough frontier clothes rather than formal court dress, and met with many leading diplomats, aristocrats, intellectuals, scientists and financiers. Franklin's image and writings caught the French imagination – there were many images of him sold on the market – and he became the image of the archetypal new American and a hero for aspirations for a new order inside France. When the international climate at the end of 1777 had become tenser, Habsburg Austria requested the support of France in the War of the Bavarian Succession against the Prussia in line with the Franco-Austrian Alliance. France refused, causing the relationship with Austria to turn sour. Under these conditions, asking Austria to assist France in a war against the British was impossible. Attempts to rally Spain also failed: Spain did not immediately recognize potential gains, and the American revolutionary spirit was seen as threatening the legitimacy of the Spanish Crown in its own American colonies.


text: Public opinion in France was in favor of open war, but King Louis and his advisors were reluctant due to the possible risks and heavy expenses involved. The king's economic and military advisors, in particular, remained reluctant. The French Navy was being rapidly rebuilt, but there were doubts as to how ready it was for serious conflict. Financiers Turgot and Necker warned war would be very expensive for France's wobbly system of taxation and finance.


text: The Americans argued that an alliance of the United States, France, and Spain would assure a rapid defeat of the British, but Vergennes, waiting until his navy was ready, hesitated. On July 23, 1777, Vergennes decided that it was time to decide either total assistance, with war, or abandonment of the new nation. The choice, ratified by the king, was war.


text: The British had taken Philadelphia in 1777, but American victory at the Battle of Saratoga brought back hope to the Patriots and enthusiasm in France. The army of Burgoyne surrendered to American forces after Saratoga and France realized that the United States could be victorious. The king directed Vergennes to negotiate an alliance with the Americans.


text: France formally recognized the United States on February 6, 1778, with the signing of the Treaty of Alliance. Hostilities soon followed after Britain declared war on France on March 17, 1778. The British naval force, then the largest fleet afloat, and French fleet confronted each other from the beginning. The British avoided intercepting a French fleet that left Toulon under the comte d'Estaing in April for North America, fearing the French fleet at Brest might then be used to launch an invasion of Britain. France had kept the Brest fleet to protect commercial shipping in European waters, and it sailed out only after a British fleet was confirmed to have left in pursuit of d'Estaing, thus weakening the British Channel fleet. In spite of this reduction, the British fleet still outnumbered the French fleet at Brest, and Admiral d'Orvilliers was instructed to avoid combat when he sailed in July. D'Orvilliers met the fleet of Admiral Augustus Keppel in the indecisive Battle of Ushant on July 27, after which both fleets returned to port for repairs.


text: France did consider the landing of 40,000 men in the nearby British Isles but abandoned the idea because of logistical issues. On the continent, France was protected through its alliance with Austria which, even if it did not take part in the American Revolutionary War, affirmed its diplomatic support of France.


text: Other nations in Europe at first refused to openly join the war but both Spain and the Dutch Republic gave unofficial support to the American cause. Vergennes was able to convince the Spanish to formally enter the war in 1779 and, in 1780, Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic over claims of Dutch violations of neutrality.


text: French participation in North America was initially maritime in nature and marked by some indecision on the part of its military leaders. In 1778, American and French planners organized an attempt to capture Newport, Rhode Island, then under British occupation. The attempt failed, in part because Admiral d'Estaing did not land French troops prior to sailing out of Narragansett Bay to meet the British fleet. He then sailed to Boston after his fleet was damaged in a storm. In 1779, d'Estaing again led his fleet to North America for joint operations, this time against British-held Savannah, Georgia. About 3,000 French joined with 2,000 Americans in the Siege of Savannah, in which a naval bombardment was unsuccessful. An attempted assault of the entrenched British position was repulsed with heavy losses.


text: Support became more notable when, in 1780, 6,000 soldiers led by Rochambeau landed at Newport, itself abandoned in 1779 by the British, and then established a naval base there. These forces were largely inactive since the fleet was closely watched by the British fleet from its bases in New York and eastern Long Island. By early 1781, with the war dragging on, French military planners were finally convinced that more significant operations would be required in North America to bring a decisive end to the war. That year's West Indies fleet was commanded by the comte de Grasse, and specific arrangements were made to coordinate operations with him. De Grasse asked to be supplied with North American pilots and to be informed of possible operations in North America to which he might contribute. Rochambeau and Washington met in Wethersfield, Connecticut in May 1781 to discuss their options. Washington wanted to drive the British from both New York City and Virginia (the latter led first by Benedict Arnold, then by Brigadier William Phillips and eventually by Charles Cornwallis). Virginia was also seen as a potent threat that could be fought with naval assistance. These two options were dispatched to the Caribbean along with the requested pilots. Rochambeau, in a separate letter, urged de Grasse to come to the Chesapeake Bay for operations in Virginia. Following the Wethersfield conference, Rochambeau moved his army to White Plains, New York and placed his command under Washington.


text: De Grasse received these letters in July at roughly the same time Cornwallis was preparing to occupy Yorktown, Virginia. De Grasse concurred with Rochambeau and subsequently sent a dispatch indicating that he would reach the Chesapeake at the end of August but that agreements with the Spanish meant he could only stay until mid-October. The arrival of his dispatches prompted the Franco-American army to begin a march for Virginia. De Grasse reached the Chesapeake as planned and his troops were sent to assist Lafayette's army in the blockade of Cornwallis's army. A British fleet sent to confront de Grasse's control of the Chesapeake was defeated by the French on September 5 at the Battle of the Chesapeake and the Newport fleet delivered the French siege train to complete the allied military arrival. The Siege of Yorktown and following surrender by Cornwallis on October 19 were decisive in ending major hostilities in North America.


text: Other important battles between the French and the British were spaced out around the world, from the West Indies to India. France's navy at first dominated in the West Indies, capturing Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent, Tobago but losing St. Lucia at the beginning of the war. After the siege of Yorktown the French returned to the West Indies and were successful in taking St. Kitts (despite a naval defeat), Montserrat as well as Demerara and Essequibo in South America by February 1782. A planned Franco-Spanish invasion of Jamaica was aborted after the decisive Battle of the Saintes in 1782. This put French forces on the defensive in the Caribbean although the French captured the Turks and Caicos Islands at the end of the war.


text: In European waters, France and Spain joined forces with the entry of Spain into the war in 1779. An attempted invasion of Britain was a failure due to a variety of factors. A French invasion of Jersey ended in defeat. French and Spanish forces captured Minorca in February 1782 but the Great Siege of Gibraltar the largest operation of the war from 1779 to 1783, was unsuccessful in either storming the place, or preventing repeated British relief of its garrison.


text: In India, British troops gained control of French outposts in 1778 and 1779, sparking the Kingdom of Mysore, a longtime French ally, to begin the Second Anglo-Mysore War. Allied with the French, the Mysoreans for a time threatened British positions on the east coast. A French fleet commanded by the Bailli de Suffren fought a series of largely inconclusive battles with a British fleet under Sir Edward Hughes, and the only major military land action, the 1783 Siege of Cuddalore, was cut short by news that a preliminary peace had been signed. The French failed to attain their goal of regaining territories in India that were lost in the Seven Years war. The British fought on with Mysores until that conflict ended as "status quo ante bellum" in 1784.


text: Because of decisive battles on American soil, the French were in a strong position during the peace negotiations in Paris at the beginning of 1782. Rodney's victory at the Battle of the Saintes back in April however changed all that – news of the French defeat arrived nearly six weeks later in France and was met with dismay. The defeat was costly militarily and financially. The Royal Navy now had the strategic initiative, and as a result British demands at the peace talks greatly strengthened. France was also approaching the limits of its ability to borrow money and now sought a quick end to the war. The defeat also signalled a collapse in the Franco-American alliance – as a result Benjamin Franklin never informed France of the secret negotiations that took place directly between Britain and the United States.


text: The British position was strengthened even more in September with the destruction of the Franco-Spanish assault on Gibraltar and the garrison's relief by the Royal Navy the following month. A preliminary peace treaty between Great Britain and America was signed on 30 November; Britain acknowledged that the United States owned all the land south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River, except for Florida (which went to Spain). The French accepted the preliminary with protests but no action. Since France was not included in the American-British peace discussions the influence of France and Spain in future negotiations was limited.


text: With the Americans split from their allies the war formally ended in September 1783 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. Losses from the 1763 Treaty of Paris and the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) were not regained. All territories that were captured by the powers were returned except for Tobago and a part of the Senegal River area which were acquired by France who also gained some concessions in the Newfoundland fisheries. Spain managed better having regained Florida and Minorca, but Gibraltar remained in the hands of the British.


text: Because the French involvement in the war was distant and naval in nature, over a billion livres tournois were spent by the French government to support the war effort, raising its overall debt to about 3.315 billion. The finances of the French state were in disastrous shape and were made worse by Jacques Necker, who, rather than increase taxes, used loans to pay off debts. State secretary of Finances Charles Alexandre de Calonne attempted to fix the deficit problem by asking for the taxation of the property of nobles and clergy but was dismissed and exiled for his ideas. The French instability further weakened the reforms that were essential in the re-establishment of stable French finances. Trade also severely declined during the war, but was revived by 1783.


text: The war was especially important for the prestige and pride of France, who was reinstated in the role of European arbiter. However, Great Britain, not France, became the leading trading partner of the United States. The French took pride in their cultural influence on the young country through the Enlightenment, as attested by Franklin and Jefferson, and as embodied in the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the United States Constitution in 1787. In turn, the Revolution influenced France. Liberal elites were satisfied by the victory but there were also some major consequences. European conservative Royalists and nobility had become nervous, and began to take measures in order to secure their positions. On May 22, 1781, the Decree of Ségur closed the military post offices of the upper rank to the common persons, reserving those ranks exclusively for the nobility.


text: In all the French spent 1.3 billion livres to support the Americans directly in addition to the money it spent fighting Britain on land and sea outside the U.S.


text: France's status as a great modern power was re-affirmed by the war, but it was detrimental to the country's finances. Even though France's European territories were not affected, victory in a war against Great Britain with battles like the decisive siege of Yorktown in 1781 had a large financial cost which severely degraded fragile finances and increased the national debt. France gained little except that it weakened its main strategic enemy and gained a new, fast-growing ally that could become a welcome trading partner. However, the trade never materialized, and in 1793 the United States proclaimed its neutrality in the war between Great Britain and the French Republic.


text: Some historians argue that France primarily sought revenge against Great Britain for the loss of territory in North America and India from the previous conflict. But Jonathan R. Dull states that France intervened because of dispassionate calculation, not because of Anglophobia or a desire to avenge the loss of Canada.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: The Evolution Championship Series, commonly known as Evo, is an annual esports event that focuses exclusively on fighting games. The tournaments are completely open and use the double elimination format. As with Super Battle Opera, contestants travel from all over the world to participate, most notably from Japan. The first Evolution was originally held as a "Super Street Fighter II Turbo" and "Street Fighter Alpha 2" tournament called the Battle by the Bay. It changed its name to Evo in 2002. Every successive tournament has seen an increase of attendees. It has been held at various venues across the Las Vegas Valley since 2005. As of 2021, the event is jointly owned by Sony Interactive Entertainment and the Endeavor esports venture RTS.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo was founded by Tom Cannon, also known for his work on Shoryuken.com, a fighting game website. The tournament started as "Battle by the Bay", a 40-man "Super Street Fighter II Turbo" and "Street Fighter Alpha 2" tournament in 1996 in Sunnyvale, California. The event eventually moved to its recurring venue in the Las Vegas Valley. The event changed its name to Evolution Championship Series, or EVO for short, in 2002. Over time, the tournament grew, recording over one thousand participants in 2009.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Originally the tournament used arcade cabinets, but in 2004 the decision was made to move all games over to their console versions, to a large amount of controversy. During the transition to games on the seventh generation consoles, most games were played on a PlayStation 3, though Evo 2014 ran most games on the Xbox 360. Aside from the official tournaments, there is also a "BYOC" ("bring your own console") area in which many different games are played and side tournaments are held.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: B3: Battle by the Bay was organized by Tom "inkblot" Cannon, Tony "Ponder" Cannon, Joey "MrWizard" Cuellar, and Seth "S-Kill" Killian, and held in the Golfland arcade hall in Sunnyvale, California. The tournament had 40 contenders mostly from the United States, though B3 also featured players from Canada and Kuwait. B3 featured a "Super Street Fighter II Turbo" and "Street Fighter Alpha 2" tournament.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: The B4 "Street Fighter" Championships were held on July 15–16, 2000, in Folsom, California. B4 introduced several new Capcom fighting games to the roster: "Street Fighter Alpha 3", "", and "". The newly released "Marvel vs. Capcom 2" was the first non-"Street Fighter" game to be included, and a precedent for the tournament to branch out to other games. The "Capcom Versus" series has since had a large presence in the Battle of the Bay and Evolution Championship Series events.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Held in August 2001 in Folsom, California, the B5 Championships was attended by a much larger international crowd, particularly from Japan. "" made its introduction in the tournament roster at B5, and "Marvel vs. Capcom 2" was again a headliner of the event, being described by TechTV as "the hottest arcade fighting game of the season."


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: In 2002, the event became formally known as its current name, "Evo". Evo 2002 took place on August 9, 2002, at the University of California, Los Angeles.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2004 took place at California State Polytechnic University, Pomona in Southern California from July 29 to August 1. The tournament amassed approximately 700 competitors from over 30 countries to compete in over nine different games. The games featured included "Super Street Fighter II Turbo", "", "Marvel vs. Capcom 2", "Capcom vs. SNK 2", "", "Guilty Gear XX", "Soulcalibur II", "Tekken 4", and "Tekken Tag Tournament".


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2004 used home consoles for most of their tournament games instead of arcade cabinets, with the only exception being "3rd Strike" which used the more traditional arcade cabinets. Evo 2004 was the birthplace of "Evo Moment #37". During the "Street Fighter III: 3rd Strike" tournament, Daigo Umehara (playing as Ken), while facing Justin Wong (using Chun-Li), successfully parried one of Chun-Li's "Super Moves" while having very little health left and then countered with his own, winning the match. This highlight became highly influential within the fighting game community.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2006 took place at the Red Rock Resort Spa and Casino in Las Vegas. 2006 was the first year that Capcom gave its official, public support of the Evolution tournaments. Traditionally, Evo has only included fighting games, but in 2006 it included "Mario Kart DS" in its lineup. The other games featured were "Dead or Alive 4", "Guilty Gear XX Slash", and "Hyper Street Fighter II".


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2007, officially called Evo World 2007, took place from August 24 to 26 at the Green Valley Ranch, in Las Vegas. Throughout the year there were several other tournaments held throughout the US bearing the Evo name. The game roster had eight games, "Street Fighter III: 3rd Strike", "Capcom vs. SNK 2", "Virtua Fighter 5", "Marvel vs. Capcom 2", "Street Fighter II Turbo", "Tekken 5: Dark Resurrection", "Guilty Gear XX Λ Core", and "Super Smash Bros. Melee".


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2008 took place at the Tropicana Las Vegas on the Las Vegas Strip. from August 8 to 10. The tournament would feature six games within its official roster: "Capcom vs. SNK 2", "", "", "Super Smash Bros. Brawl", "Super Street Fighter II Turbo", and "Marvel vs. Capcom 2". The "Brawl" tournament was widely criticized for its ruleset, which allowed items on and saw a relatively unknown player defeat Ken Hoang.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2008 also allowed attendees a preview of "", "Street Fighter IV", "Super Street Fighter II Turbo HD Remix", and "Tatsunoko vs. Capcom.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2009 took place on July 17 to 19. Held at the Rio Convention Center, in Las Vegas, Nevada, the tournament itself would feature six games on its official roster: "Soulcalibur IV", "Guilty Gear XX: Accent Core", "Marvel vs. Capcom 2", "", "Super Street Fighter II Turbo HD Remix" and "Street Fighter IV". Notably, the newly released "Street Fighter IV" increased Evo attendance by a considerable margin, and the tournament for it alone boasted more than 1000 participants, almost three times that of the tournaments for the other games.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2010, held at Caesars Palace from July 9, 2010 through July 11, 2010 had a massive number of competitors, with "Super Street Fighter IV" amassing approximately 1,800 players to duel for a $20,000 guaranteed prize pot. Most notable in this EVO was Justin Wong cementing his dominance in "Marvel vs. Capcom 2" in its proverbial swan song, defeating the champion of the previous year, Sanford Kelly. Also notable was Wong failing to make the top 8 in "Super Street Fighter IV", falling victim first to Vance "Vangief" Wu, and soon after to Taiwanese player Bruce "GamerBee" Hsiang. "" was included after a poll on Shoryuken.com to decide on the final game of the tournament, beating out "Street Fighter III: 3rd Strike", "Capcom vs. SNK 2", "Marvel vs. Capcom 2", "Soulcalibur IV", and "The King of Fighters XII". "" was to be included, but after a majority of the community moved on to "", the decision was made to replace it with "Marvel vs. Capcom 2". Also notable was G4's limited coverage of the event, even offering "X-Play" host Adam Sessler for commentary of the "Super Street Fighter IV" finals.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: For Evo 2011, a tournament season was announced in which players could earn ranking points at one of eight tournaments. It took place at the Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino from July 29 to 31, utilizing a ballroom. All 50 states of the U.S. were represented, as well as 44 additional countries. Its livestream was watched by over 2 million unique viewers on UStream over the course of the event.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: In attendance was Street Fighter series producer Ono Yoshinori, who announced a free balance patch for "Super Street Fighter IV Arcade Edition". "Tekken" series producer Katsuhiro Harada was also on hand to show new mechanics for "Tekken Tag Tournament 2" and "Soulcalibur V". Other unreleased games shown were "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3", "King of Fighters XIII", "Skullgirls" and "Street Fighter III: 3rd Strike Online Edition". A "Skullgirls" side tournament was held in which the winner received a one-of-a-kind Skullgirls-themed arcade stick. Media outlets G4, GameSpot and Destructoid were all present to cover the event.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2012 took place July 6 to 8, 2012, at Caesars Palace, Las Vegas. On January 3, Joey Cuellar announced that Evo 2012 would have 6 main tournament games, "", "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3", "Mortal Kombat", "Soulcalibur V", "The King of Fighters XIII" and "Street Fighter X Tekken". The tournament series from the previous year returned, featuring seeding points for all six games in 17 events all across the world.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2013 was announced on December 2, 2012. It was held on July 12–14 at Paris Las Vegas. On January 8, Joey Cuellar announced that EVO 2013 would have eight main tournament games, with the first seven revealed being "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3", "", "Tekken Tag Tournament 2", "Mortal Kombat", "Street Fighter X Tekken (Version 2013)", "The King of Fighters XIII", and "Persona 4 Arena". The eighth game was voted on by players via online donations, all proceeds of which went to the Breast Cancer Research Foundation. The eventual winner of the poll was "Super Smash Bros. Melee" with $94,683 raised for that game, while the total amount of donations was $225,744. Nintendo of America initially sent a cease and desist letter to cancel the streaming of "Melee" matches, although after popular backlash a live stream was ultimately allowed to be carried out as planned. On May 7, 2013, it was announced that "" would be a main tournament game, thus expanding the game roster from eight to nine.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2014 was announced on September 15, 2013. It was held on July 11–13, 2014 at the Westgate Las Vegas Resort & Casino On February 6, 2014, Cuellar announced that Evo 2014 would include "", "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3", "Injustice: Gods Among Us", "The King of Fighters XIII", "Killer Instinct", and "Ultra Street Fighter IV" while also mentioning that discussions were ongoing with Nintendo on the possible inclusion of "Super Smash Bros. Melee". "Melee" was eventually officially added to the roster with Nintendo's approval. "Tekken Tag Tournament 2" was also later added to the roster.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2015 took place on July 17–19, 2015 at the Bally's / Paris Las Vegas Casino. On January 20, 2015, Cuellar announced that Evo 2015 would include "Guilty Gear Xrd -SIGN-", "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3", "Super Smash Bros. for Wii U", "Killer Instinct", "Mortal Kombat X", "Persona 4 Arena Ultimax", "Ultra Street Fighter IV", "Super Smash Bros. Melee", and "Tekken 7".


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: While EVO 2015 initially was supposed to run on the PlayStation 4 version for "Ultra Street Fighter IV", the tournament instead used the Xbox 360 version, due to a large number of bugs and glitches found by players in the newly released port. Cuellar also confirmed that EVO 2015 would use the technically outdated build of "Persona 4 Arena Ultimax" on PlayStation 3. On May 25, Cuellar confirmed that both "Super Smash Bros. Melee" and "Super Smash Bros. for Wii U" surpassed 1,500 entrants each. Cuellar later confirmed that "Ultra Street Fighter IV" surpassed 2,000 entrants. EVO 2015 also acted as a Capcom Cup qualifier for "Ultra Street Fighter IV", as well as a Killer Instinct World Cup qualifier for "Killer Instinct", with both games receiving respective bonus pots of $50,000 from Capcom/Sony and Iron Galaxy/Microsoft respectively. NetherRealm and Warner Bros. have also donated $50K towards the bonus pot for "Mortal Kombat X", due to the success of the Blue Steel Sub-Zero skin. In addition, Atlus has donated $10K towards the bonus pot for "Persona 4 Arena Ultimax", while Arc System Works and Aksys Games donated the same amount to the bonus pot for "Guilty Gear Xrd". Bandai Namco has announced that they have provided a $30K bonus pot for "Tekken 7" as well as providing all competitors in said game an exclusive T-shirt featuring franchise veteran Lili and Tekken Revolution newcomer Eliza.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2016 took place from July 15–17 at the Las Vegas Convention Center, while Sunday finals took take place at the Mandalay Bay Events Center. The tournament featured "Guilty Gear Xrd -REVELATOR-", "Street Fighter V", "Super Smash Bros. Melee", "Super Smash Bros. for Wii U", "Mortal Kombat XL", "Pokkén Tournament", "Killer Instinct", "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3", and "Tekken 7: Fated Retribution". The tournaments for "Street Fighter V", "Super Smash Bros. Melee", "Guilty Gear Xrd -REVELATOR-", "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3", and "Mortal Kombat XL" finished on Sunday. The finals for "Street Fighter V" was broadcast live on ESPN2 and live coverage of the tournament was available through ESPN's WatchESPN service, in addition to the tournament's regular Twitch streams.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Joey Cuellar has announced record breaking numbers which includes "Street Fighter V" reaching more than 5,000 entrants, Smash 4 and Melee each reaching more than 2,000; Pokkén reaching more than 1,000 entrants while other games either increased or decreased. Like EVO 2015's Ultra Street Fighter IV finals, Capcom and Sony have provided a $50,000 bonus pot towards Street Fighter V's prize pool and is also a Capcom Pro Tour qualifier. The Pokémon Company has announced a $10,000 bonus pot towards Pokkén Tournament's prize pool and is a Pokkén Tournament Championship Series qualifier, with 1st and 2nd place being able to qualify for the finals. As with EVO 2015, NetherRealm and Warner Bros. have provided a $50,000 bonus pot towards Mortal Kombat XL's prize pool. "Killer Instinct" will be receiving a $15,000 bonus pot as part of the KI Ultra Tour funding. On July 11, Aksys Games announced a $10,000 bonus pot towards Guilty Gear Xrd -REVELATOR-'s prize pool.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2017 took place on July 14 to 16 with the entire event being held at the Mandalay Bay resort. The tournament featured "Guilty Gear Xrd REV2", "", "Super Smash Bros. for Wii U", "Super Smash Bros. Melee", "Injustice 2", "Street Fighter V", "Tekken 7", "The King of Fighters XIV", and "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3". The ninth game was chosen by a donation drive which all of the funds have gone towards Make-A-Wish International. "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" was the winning game with "Pokkén Tournament" being the runner-up. Other games in contention were "", "ARMS", "Mortal Kombat XL", "Nidhogg", "Windjammers", "Killer Instinct", and "Super Street Fighter II Turbo". The Sunday finals included "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3" (as the opening game), "BlazBlue: Central Fiction", "Tekken 7", "Super Smash Bros. for Wii U", and "Street Fighter V". Upon the victory of "UMvC3", Cuellar announced that Evo 2017 would be running the event with the PlayStation 4 version being used.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2018 took place on August 3 to 5 with the entire event being held at the Mandalay Bay resort. The tournament featured "Street Fighter V: Arcade Edition", "Tekken 7", "Super Smash Bros. for Wii U", "Super Smash Bros. Melee", "", "Guilty Gear Xrd REV2", "Injustice 2", and "Dragon Ball FighterZ".


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2019 took place on August 2 to 4 with the entire event being held at the Mandalay Bay resort. The tournament featured "Street Fighter V: Arcade Edition", "Tekken 7", "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate", "Mortal Kombat 11", "Soulcalibur VI", "Under Night In-Birth Exe:Late[st]", "Dragon Ball FighterZ", "BlazBlue Cross Tag Battle", and "Samurai Shodown".


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2020 was to have taken place from July 31 to August 2 at the Mandalay Bay resort. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the physical event had been cancelled, with all event and hotel reservations to be refunded. Online tournament events had been scheduled from July 4 to August 2 as replacement activities. However, at the start of July 2020, charges of sexual misconduct were leveled at EVO CEO Joey Cuellar. The EVO board released Cuellar on July 2 and replaced him with Tony Cannon as interim CEO but by then, several publishers including Capcom, Bandai Namco, NetherRealm, and Mane6 had decided to pull out from the event. The EVO board decided to cancel the event, refund those tickets and donate the remaining funds to Project HOPE.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: On March 18, 2021, it was announced that Evo had been acquired by a joint venture between Sony Interactive Entertainment and the talent agency Endeavor (RTS). It was concurrently announced that Evo Online 2021 will be held August 6–8 and August 13–15, 2021, and feature "Guilty Gear Strive," "Mortal Kombat 11 Ultimate," "Street Fighter V: Champion Edition", "Tekken 7", and "". Evo stated that the Sony ownership of the competition will not affect its ability to include events for non-PlayStation games, although all games in the 2021 lineup are either available on, or console-exclusive to, PlayStation.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Evo 2022 took place from August 5 to 7 at the Mandalay Bay resort. The event is the first since 2019 to take place in-person due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The tournament featured "Dragon Ball FighterZ", "", "Guilty Gear Strive", "The King of Fighters XV", "", "Mortal Kombat 11 Ultimate", "Skullgirls: 2nd Encore", "Street Fighter V: Champion Edition", and "Tekken 7".


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: In 2010, the Evolution Championship organizers announced an official spin-off to the tournament series called "Evo vs Godsgarden", to be held in Japan the following year. However, the tournament was called off following the Tohoku earthquake and postponed indefinitely. During a Nico Nico livestream following Evo 2013, Cuellar stated that he was still interested in holding a Japan-based tournament.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: It was announced at Evo 2016 that a separate event simply titled "Evo Japan" is to be held in Japan. Japanese media companies Aetas, Hearts United Group, and Shochiku Broadcasting together invested a total of US$1 million into the event. During a presentation at the Tokyo Game Show in 2016, the Evolution organizers announced that the tournament is to be held in January 2018, while some form of "pre-tournament" took place in 2017.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: At Evo 2017, the Evo Japan 2018 lineup was revealed to consist of "Street Fighter V", "Guilty Gear Xrd REV 2", "Tekken 7", "Super Smash Bros. for Wii U", "", "The King of Fighters XIV", and "ARMS"; the event took place from January 26 to 28. The lineup is known to emphasize titles that are popular in Japan, as titles such as "Super Smash Bros. Melee", "Injustice 2", and "" are notably absent mostly due to their lack of popularity in the region.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Despite the 7,000 entrants, Evo Japan ended up reporting a $1.13m loss according to financial reports by Hearts United Group.


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: In October 2019, it was revealed that "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate" would be the headlining game for "Evo Japan 2020".


title: Evolution Championship Series

text: Following EVO 2022, the EVO Japan 2023 tournament was unveiled. This will have a lineup of "Guilty Gear Strive", "Street Fighter V", "Tekken 7", and "King of Fighters XV""." The event will take place in March 2023.


title: Victoria Sellers

text: Victoria Sellers (born 20 January 1965) is a British-American model, actress, comedian, and jewellery designer.


title: Victoria Sellers

text: Born in London, Sellers attended Lycée Français de Los Angeles in West Los Angeles, University High School in West Los Angeles and Crossroads School for Arts and Sciences in the class of 1981.


title: Victoria Sellers

text: A letter auctioned in 2010, one of the last documents signed by her father before his death, indicates that he was trying to increase the amount of money to be inherited by her from £800 to £20,000 (£ as of 2022).


title: Victoria Sellers

text: Sellers posed for "Playboy" in April 1986. In the same year she was indicted for her role in a cocaine-trafficking gang, and was placed on probation for three years.


title: Victoria Sellers

text: She performed as a stand-up comic in the early 1990s. With Heidi Fleiss, she hosted and produced an instructional DVD titled "Sex Tips with Heidi Fleiss and Victoria Sellers" in 2001.


title: Victoria Sellers

text: In 2005, Sellers began designing jewellery. At one time she was filming the reality show "The Eklands" for Swedish television with her mother and half-brothers, Nick and T.J.


title: Victoria Sellers

text: In 2009, she was the subject of episode 4 of the British reality series "Rehab". In 2013–14 she appeared on Swedish television along with her mother in "Svenska Hollywoodfruar".


title: Caesar (Planet of the Apes)

text: Caesar is a fictional character in the "Planet of the Apes" franchise. He is the leader of the apes in both the original and reboot series. Caesar is portrayed by Roddy McDowall in "Conquest of the Planet of the Apes" (1971) and "Battle for the Planet of the Apes" (1973). Later on Andy Serkis portrays the character in the reboot series consisting of "Rise of the Planet of the Apes" (2011) "Dawn of the Planet of the Apes" (2014) and "War for the Planet of the Apes" (2017).


title: Caesar (Planet of the Apes)

text: Caesar is an evolved chimpanzee who is the leader of the ape army, the king of the ape colony, and the patriarch of the royal ape family. In the original series, Caesar is the biological son of Cornelius and Zira, the husband of Lisa, and the father of Cornelius II. In the rebooted series, he is the son of Alpha and Bright Eyes, the adoptive son of Will Rodman and Caroline Aranha, and the father of Blue Eyes and Cornelius. Caesar is raised by Will and Caroline after the death of his mother, but is to live in captivity after he attacks a neighbor.


title: Caesar (Planet of the Apes)

text: Caesar later leads his fellow apes in a rebellion against abusive handlers and the police by unleashing the deadly ALZ-113 virus, which is dangerous to the human population, but not to the apes. Caesar maintains dominance over his community of intelligent apes while also having to deal with the threat of war against human survivors, who had been pushed to near-extinction due to a pandemic known as the Simian Flu.


title: Caesar (Planet of the Apes)

text: Born as "Milo", named after his parents' friend Dr. Milo, Caesar first appeared in "Escape from the Planet of the Apes" as the son of talking chimpanzees Cornelius and Zira after they travelled back in time to the Earth of Taylor's era. As the infant was feared to be the cause of the future where his parents originated, Milo was raised by circus owner Armando after Zira switched him with a young chimpanzee recently born to Armando's primitive chimpanzee, Heloise, prior to his parents' death by the action of the human Dr. Otto Hasslein. As Hasslein killed the infant with Zira deposing of the body, Milo was assumed dead and was raised by Armando as a mute acrobat who was renamed "Caesar".


title: Caesar (Planet of the Apes)

text: In "Conquest of the Planet of the Apes", two decades after the events in "Escape", a now-adult Caesar and Armando maintain a charade by having Armando keep him on a chain as a pet, while Armando secretly educates Caesar on the events that led to the apes' state of slavery. Caesar is taken to a city for the first time and sees groups of apes being dispersed, chimps and orangutans being scolded or punished for honest mistakes or for exhibiting apelike behavior. Upon seeing the barbaric treatments of his fellow apes, he impulsively cries out, "Lousy human bastards!" Armando attempts to convince the police that he was the one who spoke, but Caesar panics and runs away in the commotion with Armando deciding to have him join an arrival shipment of apes while he attempts to bluff his way out of trouble.


title: Caesar (Planet of the Apes)

text: Passing his conditioning with flying colors, Caesar is held at an auction and is sold to Governor Breck and supervised by his assistant Mr. MacDonald. When Breck brings out a reference book as a means to formally name him, Caesar chooses his adopted name under the guise of a random picking and is assigned to the city's "ape management" command post and its lockup for disobedient apes. He is also selected to mate with Lisa at that time. When Caesar learns that Armando died while in custody, he plots an ape revolt and convinces the other apes to join him. But Caesar is belatedly traced, where he soon gets captured and then gets interrogated and tortured by Breck, who forces him to expose his identity as the offspring of Cornelius and Zira. When Breck is about to execute Caesar, MacDonald excuses himself from the scene and turns off the breaker settings for the electroshock table, where Caesar pretends to be dead before he kills the handler and begins the revolt. Within hours, the city is in flames, the police and military have been beaten down, and the apes are now in control. Caesar predicts that word will spread of his revolution and the same thing will soon happen around the world. Despite MacDonald's pleas to prevent further violence, Caesar declares that humanity will destroy itself and the apes will become the masters of the world, only to cease when Lisa musters the ability to speak, convincing Caesar not to condemn all of humanity.


title: Caesar (Planet of the Apes)

text: In "Battle for the Planet of the Apes", 29 years after Caesar led the revolt in "Conquest" and 12 years after the world got destroyed by a nuclear war, Caesar took his apes and the remaining captive humans and they started a new civilization together. Even though apes and humans are coexisting in peace, a gorilla named Aldo is the only one who opposes Caesar and despises the humans. Wanting to know about his parents, Caesar travels to the ruined city to find the archives about his parents, where he is accompanied by MacDonald, the younger brother of the late MacDonald from "Conquest" and his ape advisor Virgil. After learning who they are and about the eventual destruction of Earth, Caesar manages to escape the city when he, MacDonald and Virgil get attacked by a group of mutated, radiation-scarred humans led by Governor Kolp who have survived and are living in the city. Meanwhile, Aldo plots to overthrow Caesar and have the gorillas take control of the ape-human village, where Caesar's son Cornelius eavesdrops on Aldo, who kills the young ape in the process. Taking advantage of Caesar's grief and absence, Aldo has all the humans in the village imprisoned and raids the armory to prepare for battle against the mutated humans and to overthrow Caesar.


title: Caesar (Planet of the Apes)

text: When Kolp and the mutated humans launch an attack on the village, Caesar and the apes manage to defeat and capture most of them, where Kolp and his remaining forces try to escape but they get killed by Aldo and his troops. Caesar tries to defend the imprisoned humans when Aldo tries to kill the rest of the humans and threatens Caesar. When Virgil reveals that Aldo has killed Cornelius, Caesar becomes furious and chases him up a tree, which results in Aldo falling to his death. Realizing that apes are no different from humans, Caesar agrees with MacDonald that humans are to be treated as equals in order to coexist.


title: Caesar (Planet of the Apes)

text: The movie is told as a flashback, where the beginning and ending scene takes place 600 years after Caesar's death and it shows the Lawgiver telling a story to a group of both ape and human children. He tells them the story about how Caesar fought a battle that solidified his position as ape leader and convinced him to give a joint ape-human society a chance, instead of one species dominating the other. Screenwriter Paul Dehn said the tear on Caesar's statue at the end of the film was to tell the audience that Caesar's efforts ultimately failed.


title: Caesar (Planet of the Apes)

text: Caesar is the main protagonist of the reboot series, sharing the previous version's compassionate nature while forbidding his followers from killing innocent humans and those who don't seek to harm them.


title: Caesar (Planet of the Apes)

text: First appearing in "Rise of the Planet of the Apes", Caesar is the son of a female chimpanzee Bright Eyes who was taken from the African wild to the pharmaceutical company Gen-Sys in the San Francisco Bay Area to be subjected to an experimental viral-based cure of Alzheimer's known as ALZ-112. Developed by Will Rodman, ALZ-112 genetically increases Bright Eyes' intelligence that gets passed onto Caesar as he was still in his mother's womb. When born, Caesar ends up orphaned after his mother gets killed trying to protect him, an action mistaken by lab security after she runs amok, which labels the experiment a failure. Caesar is saved by sympathetic ape handler Franklin, after which Will smuggles the little ape out of the lab and takes him back home. Caesar spends years getting raised and living with Will, displaying his enhanced intelligence and convincing his foster father that the ALZ-112 works. Following an incident where he attacks their aggressive neighbor who threatens Will's dementia-suffering father Charles, Caesar is forced to stay at the San Bruno Primate Shelter, an ape sanctuary where he is tormented by one of the caretakers while gradually taking command of the apes, while also developing a close friendship with a Bornean orangutan named Maurice. Caesar eventually proves smart enough when he breaks free from his cage, steals the ALZ-113, a stronger version of the intelligence-enhancing formula and releases it among the other captive apes. After saying his first word "No!" in a confrontation with one of the caretakers, Caesar leads the apes out of the sanctuary as they recruit other captive apes from the zoo and from Gen-Sys, rallying them to escape San Francisco and make their way to the Muir Woods while clashing with the police. Once in the Muir Woods, Caesar shares an emotional farewell with Rodman as he decides to live free among his own kind.


title: Caesar (Planet of the Apes)

text: In "Dawn of the Planet of the Apes", 10 years after the ALZ-113 virus decimated most of the human population, Caesar is now middle-aged, married to Cornelia and has two sons; Blue Eyes and the newborn Cornelius. While assuming the humans to have died out, Caesar discovers that humans are still alive when he sees a group from the remnants of San Francisco entering their territory and personally warns them to stay out. When the group's leader Malcolm explains they are trying to repair a dam to return power to the city, Caesar allows them to do their work. Despite the successful repairing of the dam and the growing friendship between apes and humans, Koba, a scarred bonobo, becomes disillusioned with Caesar after seeing his leader's compassion and respect for the humans. He shoots Caesar, making it look like the humans did it, and leads the apes into attacking the humans and their colony. Caesar survives the gunshot and is nursed back to health by Malcolm's wife, Ellie. Blue Eyes helps Caesar free his loyal allies before Caesar confronts Koba and ultimately kills him. As the military arrives, having been called during Koba's takeover, Caesar realizes that the damage has already been done. He convinces Malcolm to flee with his family as he and his clan prepare to fight the military.


title: Caesar (Planet of the Apes)

text: In "War for the Planet of the Apes", 2 years after the events in "Dawn", Caesar and the apes are fighting in an ongoing war with Alpha-Omega, a paramilitary group. After a recent victory in the Muir Woods, Caesar, in an attempt to make peace, spares the lives of soldier Preacher and three other soldiers. He sends them back to Alpha-Omega's leader, Colonel J. Wesley McCullough. After the battle, Blue Eyes and Rocket return from a journey, where they have discovered a place within the desert that can be safe for the apes. Later, the Colonel launches an assault on the apes' home, where he kills Cornelia and Blue Eyes, leaving only Cornelius alive. Leaving Cornelius in the care of Blue Eyes' mate Lake, Caesar departs to confront McCullough, accompanied by Maurice, Luca and Rocket, while the other apes head for the desert. After unintentionally killing the albino western lowland gorilla Winter for betraying the location of the apes to the humans, Caesar fears that his desire for vengeance may cause him to end up like Koba. He and the group are joined by a mute girl named Nova and an ape hermit named Bad Ape. When Caesar reaches Alpha-Omega's base, a former weapons depot that was turned into a relocation facility when the virus began to spread, he discovers that his clan has been captured by McCullough and he gets captured as well. Witnessing his fellow apes being forced to build a wall, Caesar learns that McCullough is fending off rival military forces who seek to destroy him for killing humans, including his own men, who are infected with a mutated strain of ALZ-113 that is making them devolve into mute primitives. While Caesar is tortured with hypothermia and starvation, Nova sneaks into the facility to give him food and water. Caesar, together with Rocket, Bad Ape and Maurice, free the apes from their cages and help them escape via an underground tunnel that leads out of the facility. Caesar sends his followers away while he confronts McCullough, but the facility is attacked by the military forces. Caesar reaches McCullough, but he spares his life upon realizing that he has succumbed to the infection. He watches McCullough, who would rather die than become a primitive, take his own life. In a battle among Caesar's apes, Alpha-Omega and the military forces, Caesar detonates the facility's fuel supply before joining the others in taking refuge when an oncoming avalanche wipes out the remaining soldiers. Departing the facility, the remaining apes cross the desert and settle in an oasis. With Caesar dying from a wound that Preacher inflicted on him, he accepts his end with grace and dies peacefully while Maurice promises Caesar that Cornelius will know who his father was, what he stood for and what he did to protect the apes.


title: Caesar (Planet of the Apes)

text: Andy Serkis's performance as Caesar in the rebooted "Planet of the Apes" trilogy garnered massive critical acclaim. Andrew Howley from National Geographic has compared Caesar's evolution to that of natural human evolution. Fans have embraced Caesar as one of the best film characters of the 2010s, as well as one of the most impressive displays of visual effects in cinema. Many fans were upset due to the lack of Academy Award nominations Serkis received for his performance. In particular, fans were upset that Serkis was not nominated for Best Actor for his performance in "War For the Planet of the Apes".


title: Caesar (Planet of the Apes)

text: Serkis's performance as Caesar gained many nominations for several awards. Serkis won the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in "Rise of the Planet of the Apes", as well as nominations Empire Award for Best Actor, Broadcast Film Critics Association award for Best Supporting Actor, and the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture.