title: Arthur Guinness

text: Many of Guinness's social positions were based in his beliefs of temperance and moderation. He believed that the duty of the wealthy and powerful was to set a strong moral example for their citizenry and looked unfavorably on what he viewed as displays of excess. He once protested the traditional feast of a new alderman, worried that the occasion would lead to drunken impropriety, and instead suggested that the money set aside for the banquet be donated to The King's Hospital. Guinness's investment in penal reform similarly stemmed from his displeasure towards what he believed was excess punishment towards criminals. He was particularly opposed to the culture of dueling among the Irish elite, which he viewed as a deadly sport masquerading as honour, but his efforts to eliminate or reduce dueling were unsuccessful. Despite his generally temperate positions, Guinness never ventured into the teetotalism movement, instead joining the belief of his fellow brewers that drunkenness was attributed to liquor, not to beer.


title: Arthur Guinness

text: The Guinnesses moved into Beaumont House, an estate located north of Dublin, in 1764. He continued to expand and renovate the brewery throughout his life: by 1790, two flour mills in Kilmainham, known as the Hibernian Mills, were constructed and fully operational. The transition from ale to porter drastically increased his brewery's output as well: In 1796, the St. James's Gate brewery was producing 198,000 pints per month. By the time of his death, this number was up to 724,000 monthly pints.


title: Arthur Guinness

text: Guinness died on 23 January 1803 at the family estate of Beaumont of unknown causes. Upon his death, his funeral bier, which was adorned with the family crest of the Magennises, carried his remains from the house to the parish church of Oughter Ard in County Kildare, and he was buried beside his mother. The funeral was presided over by his son Hosea. The inscription on his gravestone reads, "In the adjoining Vault are deposited the mortal remains of Arthur Guinness late of James's Gate in the city and of Beaumont in the County of Dublin Esquire who departed his life on the 23rd of January 1803 aged 78 years". His obituary in the "Dublin Evening Post" read, "The worthy and the good will regret him because his life has been useful and benevolent and virtuous."


title: Arthur Guinness

text: Upon his death, Guinness's estate was valued at £23,000. In his will, Guinness left Beaumont and his investment properties to Hosea, while the younger Arthur had already inherited his brewery. Benjamin and William were given £1,500 apiece, while Elizabeth received £1,000. As Guinness's other daughters were unmarried at the time of his death, they each received £2,000 to cover a dowry. Finally, his widow was afforded Guinness's Gardiner Street house, carriage, and a fixed income of £200 annually.


title: Arthur Guinness

text: Guinness beer remains popular worldwide, having generated £12.2 billion in net sales for the 2018 fiscal year. In 1997, Guinness PLC merged with Grand Metropolitan to form the beverage conglomerate Diageo. In addition to producing beer, part of the St. James's Gate brewery has been renovated into the Guinness Storehouse, a heritage centre and tourist attraction which opened in 2000. In May 2008, Diageo announced that it would close the Guinness breweries in Kilkenny and Dundalk, as well as half of the St. James's Gate brewery, but that it would retain the Storehouse and would renovate the remainder of the Dublin brewery. In 2009, for the 250th anniversary of Guinness beer, the company established the Arthur Guinness Fund, which awards funds and mentoring to businesses invested in social reform.


title: Arthur Guinness

text: Diageo declared 24 September 2009 "Arthur's Day", meant to be a worldwide celebration of Guinness's life and legacy. As part of the celebrations, An Post released a commemorative postage stamp for the brewer, as they had also done in 1959 for the brewery's 200th anniversary. Diageo promoted annual Arthur's Days for five years before cancelling the celebrations in 2014. Shortly after the festival was cancelled, the Kildare tourism department announced "Arthur's Way", a heritage trail connecting several locations in Dublin that were important to Guinness, including Celbridge, Leixlip, and Oughter Ard. The year prior, tangentially to Arthur's Day, a statue of Guinness was erected in Celbridge.


title: Porcellian Club

text: The Porcellian Club is an all-male final club at Harvard University, sometimes called the Porc or the P.C. The year of founding is usually given as 1791, when a group began meeting under the name "the Argonauts", or as 1794, the year of the roast pig dinner at which the club, known first as "the Pig Club" was formally founded. The club's motto, "Dum vivimus vivamus" (while we live, let us live) is Epicurean. The club emblem is the pig and some members sport golden pigs on watch-chains or neckties bearing pig's-head emblems.


title: Porcellian Club

text: The Porcellian is the iconic "hotsy-totsy final club", often bracketed with Yale's Skull and Bones, Princeton's Ivy Club, Penn's Friars, Dartmouth's Sphinx Club, Cambridge's Pitt Club, and Oxford's The Gridiron Club. A history of Harvard calls the Porcellian "the most final of them all."


title: Porcellian Club

text: The Porcellian clubhouse is located at 1324 Massachusetts Avenue above the store of clothier J. August. The building was designed by the architect and club member William York Peters. Its entrance faces the Harvard freshman dormitories and the entrance to Harvard Yard called the Porcellian, or McKean, Gate. The gate was donated by the club in 1901 and features a limestone carving of a boar's head. Access to the clubhouse is strictly limited to members, but non-members are allowed in the first floor room known as the Bicycle Room. Wives of members are allowed on the couple's wedding day and during the member's 25th reunion. Theodore Roosevelt was noted to have brought his first wife, Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt, to eat lunch at the Club while they were undergraduates.


title: Porcellian Club

text: Despite the exclusivity and mystique, some, like "National Review" columnist/editor, Ronald Reagan speechwriter and Dartmouth emeritus professor of English Jeffrey Hart, have noted the club's modest physical and metaphorical character. Hart (who had never actually been inside the club) wrote:


title: Porcellian Club

text: A portrait of George Washington Lewis, titled "The Steward (Lewis of the Porcellian)" by Joseph DeCamp, hangs in the clubhouse. An obituary in "Time" on April 1, 1929, notes:


title: Porcellian Club

text: George Washington Lewis, of Cambridge, Massachusetts, for over 45 years the esteemed Negro steward of the Porcellian Club at Harvard College; in Cambridge, Massachusetts Ancient and most esoteric of Harvard clubs is Porcellian, founded in 1791.* An oil portrait of Steward Lewis hangs in the clubhouse. Steward Lewis had ten Porcellian pallbearers.


title: Porcellian Club

text: The interior of the then-new clubhouse was described in an 1891 article in the "Cambridge Chronicle":


title: Porcellian Club

text: The enlargement of the club's library, and the fact of its growing postgraduate or honorary membership roll, compelled it from time to time to enlarge its accommodations. Finally, in 1881, it determined to tear down the old house where it had so long met, on Harvard street and build a new structure its site. The new structure is of brick, handsomely trimmed in stone, and rises to the height of four stories, with about seventy or eighty feet of frontage on Harvard street. Two large stores claim a part of the ground floor, but they do not encroach on the broad and handsome entrance to the club's apartments.


title: Porcellian Club

text: The three upper floors are used exclusively by the club. The first of them contains a large hall which opens both into the front and rear reception rooms and parlors, which, in turn, communicate. From each of these rooms a door leads to the library, which extends through from the front to the rear. On the second floor, in addition to a room over the library, there is a billiard hall in the front and a breakfast room in the rear with the kitchen over the main hall of the floor beneath. Nearly the whole of the top floor is taken up by a large banquet hall, vaulted by handsome rafters.


title: Porcellian Club

text: US President Theodore Roosevelt and other members of the extended Roosevelt family belonged to the Porcellian, but the club did not invite his distant cousin, Harvard sophomore Franklin D. Roosevelt (later a US President), to join. FDR joined the Fly Club instead, along with his roommate, and eventually three of his sons. According to relative Sheffield Cowles, however, FDR, in his late thirties, declared, perhaps hyperbolically, that not being "punched" by the Porc was "the greatest disappointment in his life". Additionally, the young Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr. received no invitation to join the Porc; a biographer writes that "For years later, Joe Kennedy remembered the day he didn't make the Porcellian Club, the most desired in his mind, realizing that none of the Catholics he knew at Harvard had been selected".


title: Porcellian Club

text: A notice of Harvard would be as incomplete without a reference to the Porcellian Club as a notice of Oxford or Cambridge would be in which the Union Debating Society held no place. This and the Hasty Pudding Club, an organization for performing amateur theatricals, are the two lions of Harvard. The Porcellian Club is hardly a place of resort for those who cultivate the intellect at the expense of the body. The list of active members is small, owing in part to the largeness of the annual subscription. The great desire of every student is to become a member of it…the doings of the club are shrouded in secrecy…All that can be said by a stranger who has been privileged to step behind the scenes is that the mysteries are rites which can be practised without much labor and yield a pleasure which is fraught with no unpleasant consequences.


title: Porcellian Club

text: A telling indication of the position of the Porcellian in the Boston establishment is given by a historian of Boston's Trinity Church, Porcellian member H. H. Richardson's architectural masterpiece. In speculating as to why Richardson was chosen, he writes, "The thirty-four-year-old possessed one great advantage over the other candidates: as a popular Harvard undergraduate he had been a member of several clubs, including the prestigious Porcellian; thus he needed no introduction to the rector, Phillips Brooks, or five of the eleven-man building committee—they were all fellow Porcellian members".


title: Porcellian Club

text: A biography of Norman Mailer says that when he was at Harvard, "It would have been unthinkable... for a Jew to be invited to join one of the so-called final clubs like Porcellian, A.D. Club, Fly, or Spee". A history of Harvard notes the decline in Boston Brahmin influence at Harvard during the last quarter of the 1900s, and says "a third of [the presidents of the Final Clubs] were Jewish by 1986 and one was black. The Porcellian... took an occasional Jew and in 1983 (to the horror of some elders) admitted an African-American—who had gone to St. Paul's".


title: Porcellian Club

text: More recent information on the membership of the Porcellian Club may be found in a 1994 "Harvard Crimson" article by Joseph Mathews. He writes, "Prep school background, region and legacy status do not appear to be the sole determinants of membership they may once have been, but... they remain factors".


title: Porcellian Club

text: As of 2016, the club only admitted male members and defended "the value of single gender institutions for men and women as a supplement and option to coeducational institutions".


title: Porcellian Club

text: In 1901 a gate to Harvard Yard, directly opposite the clubhouse, was erected. According to a notice published in "The Harvard Crimson" on March 20, 1909:


title: Porcellian Club

text: A gate is to be erected at the entrance to the Yard between Wadsworth House and Boylston Hall. It is to be erected by members of the Porcellian Club in memory of Joseph McKean 1794, S.T.D., LL.D. Boylston Professor of Rhetoric, Oratory and Elocution, and also the founder of the Porcellian Club.


title: Porcellian Club

text: The gate prominently features the club's symbol, a boar's head, directly above the central arch and is a famous Harvard landmark.


title: Porcellian Club

text: The Pork had as members James Russell Lowell, the two famed Oliver Wendell Holmeses (the author of "Autocrat of the Breakfast Table" and the Supreme Court Justice), Owen Wister, Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, President Theodore Roosevelt (the Franklin Roosevelts go Fly Club). Among its living members are Massachusetts' Governor Leverett Saltonstall, Congressman Hamilton Fish, Yachtsman Harold Stirling Vanderbilt, Poloist Thomas Hitchcock Jr., U. S. Ambassador to Italy William Phillips, Journalist Joseph Alsop, Richard Whitney, now of Sing Sing Prison, of whom all good Porkies prefer not to speak. The Pork is very much a family affair. Upon its roster, generation after generation, appear the same proud Boston names—Adams, Ames, Amory, Cabot, Gushing, etc.


title: Porcellian Club

text: According to a note to the obituary of the Club Steward on Monday, April 1, 1929, in "Time" magazine:


title: Porcellian Club

text: The Porcellian roster includes Theodore Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt Jr., Poet Oliver Wendell Holmes, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Nicholas Longworth, Poet James Russell Lowell, Richard Henry (Two Years Before the Mast) Dana, Novelist Owen Wister, John Jay Chapman. The club's favorite brew is a mixture of beer and gin.


title: Gentleman (character)

text: The Gentleman (Gustav Fiers) is a fictional supervillain and an enemy of the Marvel Comics superhero Spider-Man. The character first appeared in a trilogy of "Spider-Man" novels written by Adam-Troy Castro before appearing within the comic books themselves. The Gentleman made his film debut in 2012 in "The Amazing Spider-Man", portrayed by actor Michael Massee, who reprised the role in the film's 2014 sequel "The Amazing Spider-Man 2".


title: Gentleman (character)

text: The Gentleman was introduced in Adam-Troy Castro's novel, "". His brother, Karl Fiers, murdered Spider-Man's parents. The Gentleman appears in the novels "Spider-Man: Revenge of the Sinister Six", and "Spider-Man: Secret of the Sinister Six", in which he was killed off.


title: Gentleman (character)

text: The character made his debut in the Marvel Comics continuity in "Civil War II: Kingpin" #4, published in October 2016 as part of the "Civil War II" event.


title: Gentleman (character)

text: Born Gustav Fiers, the man who would become known as the Gentleman went on to develop a lethal reputation in the criminal underworld, known for conducting elaborate plans to increase his own wealth, involved behind the scenes in various significant events in global history. He possessed a strong disdain for the rest of humanity, considering the majority of the human race common wastes of space incapable of having any real impact on anyone or anything else save for providing raw materials or cannon fodder for the 'superior breed' such as himself, although he wouldn't allow this to affect business deals due to the potential barriers against useful profit- enjoying visiting the poorer parts of the world so that he could see evidence of this belief. Despite his disdain for humanity, he could still form friendships with others, learning over time that he genuinely cared for his younger brother and developing a strong respect for the Red Skull, providing him with various information and resources during the Second World War even if he didn't share the Skull's prejudices and moral beliefs.


title: Gentleman (character)

text: In the 1930s, Fiers had a series of confrontations with Doctor George Williams of the US Treasury, with Williams playing a key role in a crucial defeat of one of Fiers' plans. In response, Fiers not only arranged for Williams' wife to be killed by a bomb on their wedding night, but even sent Williams a congratulatory telegram timed to arrive just after the bomb went off. As a result, Williams spent the next sixty years hunting Fiers, becoming the most renowned expert on the criminal.


title: Gentleman (character)

text: At some point in his career, he nearly killed the Canadian operative known as Logan, but Logan was saved by the actions of Richard and Mary Parker, who had been working as double agents in Fiers' organization. When Fiers learned that the Parkers were now employed by Albert Malik, the second Red Skull, he put aside his usual disdain for Malik – who he acknowledged as a pretender to the title and regarded as operating out of his league – to warn him about the Parkers, requesting in return only that he spare the Parkers' son Peter so that he could be more of a challenge later in life.


title: Gentleman (character)

text: As Peter Parker grew up, Fiers' agents learned about the accident that allowed Peter to become Spider-Man, but although amused at this turn of events, he kept Peter's identity to himself, even killing the investigators who had brought him this information. During this time, Fiers acquired a ward in the form of a young woman known as Pity, the daughter of unspecified old enemies of his who possessed enhanced strength, speed, and a form of psionically-induced darkness, whom he brutally forced to serve him through a twisted form of brainwashing whereby she would hate him and yet be incapable of defying him. He also formed a working relationship with Peter's first adversary, the Chameleon, although the Chameleon was unaware of Fiers' interest in Spider-Man. As superhumans became more common, Fiers adopted the code name of 'the Gentleman' to better fit in with this new world. However, when Fiers learned that Peter's actions had resulted in the death of his brother – who was acting as the Skull's assassin The Finisher – he vowed to devise a plan that would thoroughly devastate Peter Parker's life and overshadow all his old victories.


title: Gentleman (character)

text: Eventually arriving in New York, Fiers arranged for the Chameleon to recruit Spider-Man's enemies Doctor Octopus, Electro, Mysterio and the Vulture to form a new incarnation of the Sinister Six (with Pity as the sixth member of the team). As the first part of Fiers' plan, he arranged for the various members of the Six to mount a 'Day of Terror', with four of them taking hostages at various points around the city while Electro and Pity stole an initially-unidentified tank from a secret storage facility (concealing Electro's absence by having Mysterio pose as Electro). This culminated in a battle in the "Daily Bugle" that ended with Fiers revealing his role in events to Spider-Man, as well as his role in the Parkers' deaths and some details of Pity's background, but Spider-Man was unable to capture the Gentleman at this time.


title: Gentleman (character)

text: While Spider-Man and the strategic action group S.A.F.E. made contact with George Williams to conduct more research into the Gentleman, Fiers began to buy up various works of art from around the world, also planting a bomb in the Parker household while Peter was absent. After another raid by the Six ended with them stealing a powerful electro-magnetic generator, S.A.F.E. realized that the Gentleman intended to use Electro to trigger the generator and create an electro-magnetic pulse in downtown Manhattan that would have erased all computer records- Spider-Man noting that the need for Electro to power the generator was Fiers' public reason for using the Six instead of more manageable mercenaries, although his private reason was his vendetta against Peter Parker- with Fiers subsequently releasing the contents of the stolen tank from his private plane; a special catalyst that would essentially destroy all ink it came in contact with, erasing all paper records as well as electronic ones. The resulting loss of information would trigger a worldwide financial collapse, as gang warfare became the only way to survive amid the chaos and destruction caused by the detonation of the generator. Fiers had spent so much time buying works of art as he wanted to ensure that he would have material wealth available to him after the dollars he had used to pay the Six became virtually worthless.


title: Gentleman (character)

text: Unfortunately for Fiers, as he prepared to depart New York as the Six arranged to set off the generator (all unaware of the Catalyst), he was taken by surprise by the Chameleon, who had posed as his driver to learn where Fiers was storing his newly-acquired treasures and then shot him after reaching the plane; Fiers had always been able to see through the Chameleon's disguises in the past, but was left speculating that the Chameleon had been planning such a coup for years and simply "allowed" Fiers to 'recognise' him so that he could strike at the most profitable moment. Although the Chameleon-as-Fiers was then confronted by Doctor Octopus – who had deduced that Fiers had an ulterior motive beyond detonating the generator and resented his subordinate position in this current incarnation of the Six – the two villains were caught by Spider-Man and Pity; Electro, Mysterio and the Vulture had all been defeated before they could set off the generator, and Spider-Man had convinced Pity to help him find the Gentleman by pointing out the danger of Octavius's absence given his obvious vendetta against his subordinate position in the current iteration of the Sinister Six (everyone was so focused on Octavius that they failed to register the Chameleon's absence from the fight until they were already on the plane).


title: Gentleman (character)

text: While Spider-Man and Pity boarded the plane, S.A.F.E. found the Gentleman dying of his wounds in the airport. In a final confrontation with his enemy, Williams mocked the Gentleman's focus on wealth now that he had lost his entire fortune through paying the Six and buying his treasures. When Fiers grimly protested that he could not die penniless, Williams mockingly tossed a penny into a corner of the hangar, noting that Fiers might manage to reach it before the bloodloss took him to Hell. Dying of his wounds with nobody to claim his body, Fiers was laid to rest in an unmarked pauper's grave, while the plane carrying most of his new treasures crashed into the sea during the fight between Spider-Man, Pity, the Chameleon and Doc Ock. Spider-Man and the Chameleon were recovered from the crash, but Octavius merely went missing for a few months after he fell out during the fight, and Pity dropped off the radar, while the bomb that Fiers had planted in the Parker house was found and disabled by Wolverine (who had learned about the Gentleman's return to action but decided that protecting Peter was more important than trying to join an already-efficient team to ensure his own revenge).


title: Gentleman (character)

text: The Gentleman was revealed to have survived when he resurfaced during "Civil War II" as an associate of the Kingpin, marking the character's first appearance in a Marvel comic book. After S.H.I.E.L.D. announces that Fisk was killed by the Punisher, the Gentleman and Jigsaw argue over what their next course of action should be, and like the rest of the Kingpin's allies they agree to follow Fisk's protege Janus.


title: Gentleman (character)

text: The Gentleman has no superhuman abilities. The character uses wealth and skill at planning to pose a threat as a villain.


title: Gentleman (character)

text: The Gentleman's bodyguard, Pity, has the psionic ability to create and control synthetic darkness that no light can breach; she could generate an equivalent burst of light that inspired positive emotions in those who saw it, but Fiers had apparently trained her not to use that light as he felt that it was of no use to him. Pity also has enhanced speed, strength, and reflexes sufficient to engage Spider-Man in battle.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: Manufacture Jaeger-LeCoultre SA, or simply Jaeger-LeCoultre (), is a Swiss luxury watch and clock manufacturer founded by Antoine LeCoultre in 1833 and is based in Le Sentier, Switzerland. Since 2000, the company has been a fully owned subsidiary of the Swiss luxury group Richemont.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: Jaeger-LeCoultre is regarded as a top-tier Richemont brand. It has hundreds of inventions, patents, and more than one thousand movements to its name, including the world's smallest movement, one of the world's most complicated wristwatches (Grande Complication), and a timepiece of near-perpetual movement (the "Atmos clock").


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: The earliest records of the LeCoultre family in Switzerland date from the 16th century, when Pierre LeCoultre (circa 1530 – circa 1600), a French Huguenot, fled to Geneva from Lizy-sur-Ourcq, France to escape religious persecution. In 1558, he obtained the status of “inhabitant” but left the following year to acquire a plot of land in the Vallée de Joux. Over time, a small community formed and in 1612, Pierre LeCoultre's son built a church there, marking the founding of the village of Le Sentier where the company's Manufacture is still based today.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: In 1833, following his invention of a machine to cut watch pinions from steel, Antoine LeCoultre (1803-1881) founded a small watchmaking workshop in Le Sentier, where he honed his horological skills to create high-quality timepieces. In 1844, he invented the world's most precise measuring instrument at the time, the Millionomètre, and in 1847 he created a keyless system to rewind and set watches. Four years later, he was awarded a gold medal for his work on timepiece precision and Mechanization at the first Universal Exhibition in London.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: In 1866, at a time when watchmaking skills were divided up among hundreds of small workshops, Antoine and his son, Elie LeCoultre (1842-1917), established the Vallée de Joux's first full-fledged manufacture, "LeCoultre & Cie"., pooling their employees’ expertise under one roof. Under this set-up, they developed in 1870 the first partially mechanised production processes for complicated movements.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: By the same year, the Manufacture employed 500 people and was known as the “Grande Maison of the Vallée de Joux”, and by 1900, it had created over 350 different calibres, of which 128 were equipped with chronograph functions and 99 with repeater mechanisms. From 1902 and for the next 30 years, LeCoultre & Cie. produced most of the movement blanks for Patek Philippe of Geneva.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: In 1903, Paris-based watchmaker to the French Navy, Edmond Jaeger, challenged Swiss manufacturers to develop and produce the ultra-thin movements that he had invented. Jacques-David LeCoultre, Antoine's grandson who was responsible for production at LeCoultre & Cie., accepted the challenge, giving rise to a collection of ultra-thin pocket watches, including the thinnest in the world in 1907, equipped with the LeCoultre Calibre 145.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: The same year, French jeweller Cartier, one of Jaeger's clients, signed a contract with the Parisian watchmaker under which all Jaeger movements for a period of fifteen years would be exclusive to Cartier. The movements were produced by LeCoultre. Edmond Jaeger also acquired the patent for the atmospherically driven clock "Atmos" from its inventor Jean-Léon Reutter and licensed it to LeCoultre from 1936 for France, and in 1937 for Switzerland.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: The collaboration between Jaeger and LeCoultre led to the company being officially renamed "Jaeger-LeCoultre" in 1937. Before that, LeCoultre of Switzerland and Jaeger of France also formed a company in England, "Ed. Jaeger (London) Limited", in 1921 to make instruments for prestige car manufacturers. In 1927 Jaeger LeCoultre sold 75 per cent of the company to S Smith & Sons and in 1937 the company name was changed to British Jaeger Instruments Limited. The 1930 Bentley Speed Six also features gauges made by Jaeger and a clock by S. Smith & Sons.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: Due to the Smoot Hawley Tariff Act, from 1932 to approximately 1985 watches were cased in locally produced cases in North America and sold under the name "LeCoultre" by the company "Vacheron-LeCoultre", a subsidiary of Longines-Wittnauer, with slightly different case designs.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: After 1985, Jaeger-LeCoultre was adopted uniformly worldwide. According to factory records, the last movement to be used in an American LeCoultre watch was shipped out of Le Sentier in 1976.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: Some collectors and misinformed dealers have made the erroneous claim that American "LeCoultre" is not associated with Jaeger-LeCoultre Switzerland. The confusion stems from the 1950s, when the North American distributor of LeCoultre watches was the Longines-Wittnauer Group, which also was responsible for the distribution of Vacheron Constantin timepieces. Collectors have confused this distribution channel with the manufacture of the watches. According to Jaeger-LeCoultre enthusiast Zaf Basha, the "Galaxy", an upmarket mysterious dial diamond watch, is a collaboration between Vacheron & Constantin and LeCoultre for the American market. It features “LeCoultre” on the front and “Vacheron & Constantin — LeCoultre” stamped on the case. Watches for ladies also bore "LeCoultre" on the front.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: Since Jaeger-LeCoultre's founding, the company has produced over 1,242 different calibres, registered approximately 400 patents and created hundreds of inventions.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: In December 2018, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) released an official report giving environmental ratings for 15 major watch manufacturers and jewelers in Switzerland. Jaeger-LeCoultre, along with 3 other manufacturers including Vacheron Constantin and Cartier, was given an average environmental rating as "Upper Midfield", suggesting that the manufacturer has taken first actions addressing the impact of its manufacturing activities on the environment and climate change.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: In jewelry and watchmaking industry, there are general concerns over the lack of transparency in manufacturing activities and the sourcing of precious raw materials such as gold, which is a major cause of environmental issues such as pollution, soil degradation and deforestation. The situation is especially serious in the developing countries which are top producers of gold, including China, Russia and South Africa. It is estimated that the watch and jewelry sector uses over 50% of world's annual gold production (over 2,000 tons), but in most cases the watch companies are not able to or are unwilling to demonstrate where their raw materials come from and if the material suppliers use eco-friendly sourcing technologies.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: Its name inspired by the Latin “I turn around”, the Reverso was created in 1931 as a watch capable of surviving the hard knocks of a polo game: The origin of the watch creation is rooted in the early 1930s when a group of Polo players asked César de Trey, a watch dealer, to create a timepiece that could withstand the rigours of their sport. César de Trey followed up on the request with a letter to his colleague and watch manufacturer, Jacques-David LeCoultre. René-Alfred Chauvot, was a French engineer with LeCoultre, and was engaged to develop this new watchcase. Mr. Chauvot designed a reversible case that could protect the fragile dial and glass of the watch. The final design, that is still in use today, allows for the case to be swivelled in its carrier to protect the watch glass. The design is considered a classic of Art Deco.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: In 1925, the LeCoultre Calibre 7BF Duoplan was created in an effort to bring together miniaturisation and precision. The fashion of the period was for small wristwatches, however small calibres often suffered from a loss of reliability. Created by Henri Rodanet, the technical director of Etablissements Ed. Jaeger, the Duoplan was built on two levels – hence its name – enabling it to maintain a large-size balance.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: The Duoplan was also one of the first gem-set steel watches and, in 1929, its glass was replaced with sapphire crystal, a first in watchmaking. The Duoplan was insured by Lloyd's of London with a special after-sales service, and a damaged movement could be replaced in a few minutes, leading London-based store owner Tyme to display in its shop window: “You won’t have time to finish your cigarette before your watch is repaired”.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: The Duoplan led to the creation in 1929 of the world's still-smallest mechanical movement, the Calibre 101, whose 74 original parts (98 today) weighed a total of approximately one gram. The second family of watches equipped with the Calibre 101, Joaillerie 101 Étrier appeared in the 1930s. In 1953, Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom wore a Jaeger-LeCoultre Calibre 101 wristwatch for her coronation.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: The Atmos Clock is a timepiece of near-perpetual movement needing no human intervention and almost no energy. Invented by Swiss engineer Jean-Léon Reutter in 1928 in Neuchâtel, the Atmos clock has been the Swiss government's official gift for important guests since 1950. Patented in 1928, the first version – known today as the Atmos 1 – was marketed by La Compagnie Générale de Radiologie (CGR) in 1930.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: It derives energy from small temperature and atmospheric pressure changes in the environment, and can run for years without human intervention. Wound by a capsule filled with a mixture of temperature-sensitive gases, a 1 °C fluctuation is enough to store sufficient energy to supply the clock with two days' autonomy. Its balance, suspended from a steel-alloy wire thinner than a hair, performs two vibrations per minute; its gearing requires no lubricant. The Atmos' gearing is known for its accuracy: the moon-phase model, for example, accumulates a one-day discrepancy only once every 3,821 years.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: The patents were subsequently purchased by Jaeger-LeCoultre in France 1936 and in Switzerland in 1937. The company then spent ten years perfecting the clock before beginning to manufacture it in its current technological form in 1946. In 1988, the Kohler and Rekow design agency created a two-piece limited edition showcase for the clock and, in 2003, the Manufacture released the Atmos Mystérieuse, driven by the Jaeger-LeCoultre Calibre 583 and comprising 1,460 parts.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: In 1951, the Manufacture released the Futurematic, the world's first 100% automatic watch, the calibre 497, Calibre 497 debuted with the Jaeger-LeCoultre Futurematic and was much more advanced than the earlier JLC 476 and JLC 481. It features a larger balance for improved accuracy and hacking seconds. One unique feature is a lock that holds the swinging weight in place when the mainspring is fully wound. It also features a special 6 hour power reserve, allowing the watch to immediately function when it is put on, rather than requiring it to be wound first.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: The Calibre 497 featured a power reserve indicator along with small seconds located at the unusual position of 3:00. There is no crown on either side of the case. The crown to set the time is on the rear of the case.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: Calibre 817 was used in the Jaeger-LeCoultre Futurematic and was a modification of the existing Calibre 497. Like that movement, it has a power reserve indicator at 9:00 and small seconds 3:00, but in Cal. 817 and Cal. 837 these are tiny round windows rather than being full subdials. Calibre 827 returned to the full subdial format,


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: Calibres 817, 827, and 837 were produced from 1956 through 1958, with just 3,500 movements made. About 3,000 of Cal. 817, 1,000 of Cal. 827, and just 500 of Cal. 837 were made.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: It has been said that the whole project for the Futurematic almost made the company bankrupt, as they never fully recovered their investment from sales of the Futurematic series of watches.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: In 1950, the Manufacture released the Memovox (portmanteau of "memoria" and "vox", “voice of memory”), a year after the model "cricket" was released by "Vulcain". Its striking mechanism could be used as an alarm for waking up, appointments, timetables, etc. The first models were hand wound and equipped with the Jaeger-LeCoultre Calibre 489.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: In 1956, a Memovox featuring the Jaeger-LeCoultre Calibre 815 became the first self-winding alarm watch in history, while shortly thereafter the company marked its 125th anniversary by releasing the Memovox Worldtime. In 1959, the Memovox Deep Sea was equipped with a specific alarm to remind divers to begin their ascension, and in 1965, the Memovox Polaris was released with a patented triple case back to optimise the transmission of sound under water.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: The latter model would go on to inspire the current Master Compressor and AMVOX lines. It was reproduced in 2008 under the name Memovox Tribute to Polaris.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: In honour of the International Geophysical Year in 1958, Jaeger-LeCoultre created a watch protected against magnetic fields, water and shocks. The Geophysic chronometer was proposed by long-time employee Jules-César Savary as a watch intended for scientific bases in Antarctica. The watch was fitted with the Jaeger-LeCoultre Calibre 478BWS and featured seventeen jewels, a Breguet overcoil, a regulating spring on the balance-cock, a shock-absorber and a Glucydur balance. The year of its release, the Geophysic was offered to William R. Anderson, the captain of the Nautilus, the first American nuclear submarine to travel between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans via the North Pole.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: JLC produces some complicated watches (Grand complication), e.g. the Master Gyrotourbillon 1 with a spherical Tourbillon. The Duomètre Sphérotourbillon is equipped with a tourbillon adjustable to the nearest second; the Reverso Répétition Minutes à Rideau is equipped with a minute-repeater shutter as a third face covering one of its two dials; the Master Grande Tradition Grande Complication is equipped with a flying tourbillon that follows the rhythm of celestial phenomena and indicates sidereal time, and a minute repeater comprising cathedral gongs; the Hybris Mechanica à Grande Sonnerie is equipped with gongs capable of playing the entire Big Ben chime; the Reverso Gyrotourbillon 2 is equipped with a spherical tourbillon principle, a reversible case and a cylindrical balance; the Master Compressor Extreme LAB is oil-free; the Gyrotourbillon 1 is equipped with a tourbillon evolving in three dimensions to compensate for the effects of gravity in all positions.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: Since 1931, Jaeger-LeCoultre has held close ties with the equestrian sports community and counts the Polo Club de Veytay as one of its partners.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: In 2004, Jaeger-LeCoultre teamed with Aston Martin to launch the Aston Martin Jaeger-LeCoultre gentleman's watch - the AMVOX1. The design of the timepiece was inspired by a 70-year historical link between the two companies. The dashboard of the 1930s, 1.5-litre Aston Martin LM – a regular class winner in international motorsport – contained instruments created by Jaeger-LeCoultre.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: In October 2011, the Responsible Jewellery Council announced that Jaeger-LeCoultre had obtained certification for its commitment to human rights and for meeting the ethical, social and environmental standards established by the RJC's Member Certification system.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: In 2012, in partnership with the Italian luxury leathergoods brand Valextra, Jaeger-LeCoultre began offering a two-tone version of its ladies’ Reverso watch.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: Jaeger-LeCoultre and the "International Herald Tribune" have joined forces with UNESCO's World Heritage Centre in support of the World Heritage Marine Programme. The partnership provides funding and media exposure for one of the World Heritage Committee's priority programmes, leading to the listing of new marine sites and protection measures for the 46 sites already listed. Each year, the programme as well as the sites are featured in print and online news articles by the International Herald Tribune, thus offering increased visibility to the partnership.


title: Jaeger-LeCoultre

text: In addition, the company partners with the Venice Film Festival to present the Jaeger-LeCoultre Glory to the Filmmaker Award.


title: The Story of Adidon

text: "The Story of Adidon" is a diss track by American rapper Pusha T aimed at Canadian rapper Drake, released on May 29, 2018. It reuses the instrumental track from Jay-Z's "The Story of O.J.", which was produced by No I.D. and sampled "Four Women" by Nina Simone. The diss track received significant media attention, while Drake received criticism.


title: The Story of Adidon

text: On May 25, 2018, Pusha T released his third studio album, "Daytona". The album's last track, "Infrared," addressed allegations regarding Drake and ghostwriting. Drake responded by releasing the diss track "Duppy Freestyle" a few hours later. The song garnered significant media attention, as well as a response from Pusha T on Twitter. Pusha T responded to the track by releasing "The Story of Adidon" four days later.


title: The Story of Adidon

text: In the diss track, Pusha T raps over the instrumental of Jay-Z's 2017 song "The Story of O.J." from his 13th studio album "". Pusha T alleges that the rumor that Drake had a child named Adonis with French model and former porn star Sophie Brussaux is true, calling Drake a "deadbeat" who is "hiding a child." Pusha T also attacks Drake's alleged insecurities regarding his own race, and mocks OVO Sound record producer 40 for looking frail, which may be due to having multiple sclerosis. The track received high praise for being vicious and harsh, as well as for revealing Drake had a secret child that he was hiding from the public eye. After a month of speculation, Drake finally confirmed he had a son with Brussaux, in lyrics from his fifth studio album "Scorpion".


title: The Story of Adidon

text: The track was titled "The Story of Adidon" after Drake's rumored upcoming Adidas line, which would have publicly revealed Adonis to the world and used him heavily in promotion and advertising. Adidon is a portmanteau of Adidas and Adonis.


title: The Story of Adidon

text: The cover features a 2007 photograph taken by David Leyes of Drake in blackface. Though Drake has never responded to the diss track, he has commented on the cover, saying "the photos represented how African Americans were once wrongfully portrayed in entertainment" and how these frustrations had not changed since.


title: The Story of Adidon

text: Upon release, "Pitchfork" deemed "The Story of Adidon" as Best New Track and later listed the track as the 31st best song of 2018.


title: The Story of Adidon

text: "The Story of Adidon" was named song of the year by "Noisey". "Complex" listed it fifth in its songs of the year list, and praised the first verse as the best rap verse of 2018. The "Tampa Bay Times" ranked "The Story of Adidon" at number 10 on their "50 Best Songs of 2018" list.


title: James Beck

text: Stanley James Carroll Beck (21 February 1929 – 6 August 1973) was an English actor who played the role of Private Walker, a cockney spiv, in the BBC sitcom "Dad's Army" from the show's beginning in 1968 until his sudden death in 1973.


title: James Beck

text: Beck was born on 21 February 1929 in Islington, North London, and attended Popham Road Primary School. His childhood was hard, with his father frequently unemployed and his mother making artificial flowers to provide a small income.


title: James Beck

text: After attending Saint Martin's School of Art and doing his national service as a physical training instructor in the British Army, Beck became an actor. Prior to his broadcast roles he spent several seasons with the Unicorn Players based in Paignton, Devon.


title: James Beck

text: His early broadcast roles included Charlie Bell in an episode of "Dr Finlay's Casebook" (Series 1 episode 4, "Conduct Unbecoming", 1962), and Shylock in "The Merchant of Venice" in 1963, for which he gained positive reviews. He concentrated on television and was cast as a policeman in a 1965 episode of "Coronation Street" in a storyline concerning the collapse of a house and in a 1967 episode in a storyline concerning a train crash. He also appeared, uncredited, as a policeman in "Gideon's Way" (1965), and was often seen in TV drama, with one-off roles in series such as "The Troubleshooters" (1965, 1967, 1970) and the BBC's "Sherlock Holmes" with Peter Cushing in the lead ("The Blue Carbuncle", 1968).


title: James Beck

text: In 1968, he was offered the role of Private Walker in "Dad's Army", originally written by Jimmy Perry for himself. Perry approved of the casting of Beck: "He had the right mix of cheekiness and charm. He gave the role a bit of oomph." While successful in the role, Beck yearned for the challenge of other roles.


title: James Beck

text: Always in demand, he continued to work on TV programmes including "A Family at War" (1970) and "Romany Jones" (1972–73), in which he played the lead character of Bert Jones. He also recorded a pilot for an uncommissioned series called "Bunclarke With an E" (1973), which was to be based on scripts originally written for "Hancock's Half Hour" and in which Arthur Lowe was also to appear.


title: James Beck

text: By 1973, Beck had recorded five series of "Dad's Army" and was working on the sixth, besides working on the radio series of the show. Location filming for series six was completed when Beck suddenly fell ill while opening a school fête in aid of Guide Dogs for the Blind. He returned home and within an hour was taken to Queen Mary's Hospital, Roehampton suffering from pancreatitis. He died three weeks later, due to a combination of heart failure, renal failure and pancreatitis, aged 44, and was cremated at Putney Vale Cemetery, where a tree was planted in his memory, with a marker bearing his name.


title: James Beck

text: The last time Beck's "Dad's Army" co-stars saw him alive was on Friday 13 July 1973 at the Playhouse Theatre in London where he recorded two radio episodes of "Dad's Army" (which ran alongside the TV series). The following afternoon Beck suddenly became ill.


title: James Beck

text: His death was a great shock to his fellow cast members, as well as to Jimmy Perry and David Croft. Perry has said that heavy drinking was common in show business at the time, and that he paid little attention to Beck's habit until "I saw Jimmy’s legs and they were purple. It was the last episode he appeared in before he died."


title: James Beck

text: In the sixth series, during the episode "Things that Go Bump in the Night", Walker is present only in the location scenes in the second half of the episode, as these were filmed weeks earlier than the studio scenes. In one of the videotaped sequences filmed after Beck's death, the platoon is aboard Corporal Jones's van when Captain Mainwaring tells Sergeant Wilson to "take Private Walker's name". Wilson writes the name "Walker" in the condensation on the window.


title: James Beck

text: In the following episode, "The Recruit" (the series 6 finale), Mainwaring reads a note written by Walker apologising for his absence, as he has gone "up the Smoke" (to London) to conduct one of his deals. This was the last time the character was mentioned. In the radio adaptations of "Dad's Army", Graham Stark stood in until Larry Martyn portrayed Walker in subsequent shows. John Bardon played Walker in the stage production in 1976.


title: Mughal dynasty

text: (; "Khāndān-e-Āl-e-Bābur"), also known as the Gurkanis (; "Gūrkāniyān"), who ruled the Mughal Empire from to 1857.


title: Mughal dynasty

text: The Mughals originated as a Central Asian branch of the Timurid dynasty, supplemented with extra Borjigin (the clan which ruled the Mongol Empire and its successor states) bloodlines. The dynasty's founder, Babur (born 1483), was a direct descendant of the Asian conqueror Timur (1336–1405) on his father's side and of Mongol emperor Genghis Khan (died 1227) on his mother's side, and Babur's ancestors had other affiliations with Genghisids through marriage and common ancestry. The term "Mughal" is itself a derivative form of "Mongol" in the Arabic and Persian languages: it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Mughal dynasty.


title: Mughal dynasty

text: During much of the Empire's history, the emperor functioned as the absolute head of state, head of government and head of the military, while during its declining era much of the power shifted to the office of the Grand Vizier and the empire became divided into many regional kingdoms and princely states. However, even in the declining era, the Mughal Emperor continued to be the highest manifestation of sovereignty on the Indian subcontinent. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Rajput, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgements of the Emperor as the sovereign of South Asia. The British East India Company deposed the imperial family and abolished the empire on 21 September 1857 during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The UK declared the establishment of the British Raj the following year.


title: Mughal dynasty

text: The British tried and convicted the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II (), and exiled him (1858) to Rangoon in British-controlled Burma (present-day Myanmar).


title: Mughal dynasty

text: The Mughal empire is conventionally said to have been founded in 1526 by Babur, a Timurid prince from Ferghana which today is in Uzbekistan. After losing his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur first established himself in Kabul and ultimately moved towards the Indian subcontinent. Mughal rule was interrupted for 16 years by the Sur Emperors during Humayun's reign. The Mughal imperial structure was founded by Akbar the Great around the 1580s which lasted until the 1740s, until shortly after the Battle of Karnal. During the reigns of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, the dynasty reached its zenith in terms of geographical extent, economy, military and cultural influence.


title: Mughal dynasty

text: Around 1700, the dynasty was ruling the wealthiest empire in the world, with also the largest military on earth. Mughals had approximately 24 percent share of world's economy and a military of one million soldiers. At that time the Mughals ruled almost the whole of the South Asia with 160 million subjects, 23 percent of world's population. The Dynasty's power rapidly dwindled during 18th century with internal dynastic conflicts, incompatible monarchs, foreign invasions from Persians and Afghans, as well as revolts from Marathas, Sikh, Rajputs and regional Nawabs. The power of the last emperor was limited only to the Walled city of Delhi.


title: Mughal dynasty

text: Many of the Mughals had significant Indian Rajput and Persian ancestry through marriage alliances as they were born to Rajput and Persian princesses. Mughals played a great role in the flourishing of Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb (Indo-Islamic civilization). Mughals were also great patrons of art, culture, literature and architecture. Mughal painting, architecture, culture, clothing, cuisine and Urdu language; all were flourished during Mughal era. Mughals were not only guardians of art and culture but they also took interest in these fields personally. Emperor Babur, Aurangzeb and Shah Alam II were great calligraphers, Jahangir was a great painter, Shah Jahan was a great architect while Bahadur Shah II was a great poet of Urdu.


title: Mughal dynasty

text: The Mughal dynasty operated under several basic premises: that the Emperor governed the empire's entire territory with complete sovereignty, that only one person at a time could be the Emperor, and that every male member of the dynasty was hypothetically eligible to become Emperor, even though an heir-apparent was appointed several times in dynastic history. The certain processes through which imperial princes rose to the Peacock Throne, however, were very specific to the Mughal Empire. To go into greater detail about these processes, the history of succession between Emperors can be divided into two eras: Era of Imperial successions (1526–1713) and Era of Regent successions (1713–1857).


title: Mughal dynasty

text: The Mughal Emperors practiced polygamy. Besides their wives, they also had several concubines in their harem, who produced children. This makes it difficult to identify all the offspring of each emperor.


title: Mughal dynasty

text: A man in India named Habeebuddin Tucy claims to be a descendant of Bahadur Shah II, but his claim is not universally believed.


title: Mughal dynasty

text: Another woman named Sultana Begum who lives in the slums of Kolkata has claimed that her late husband, Mirza Mohammad Bedar Bakht was the great-grandson of Bahadur Shah II.


title: Mughal dynasty

text: Ziauddin Tucy is a sixth generation descendant of the last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar and today struggles to make ends meet. Living in a rented house, he still believes that the government will release properties of the erstwhile Mughals to the legal heirs. He also demands restoration of a Rs. 100 scholarship for Mughal descendants, that was discontinued by the government a while back. He wants that amount be raised to Rs 8,000. and that the government should grant the economically depressed Mughal descendants the money for their upliftment. Tucy has two unemployed sons and is currently living on pension.


title: Tracey Adams

text: Tracey Adams, is an American former pornographic film actress who has also appeared in mainstream films. She is an AVN Hall of Fame founding inductee.


title: Tracey Adams

text: Adams moved to the west coast in the early 80s to pursue a career in entertainment. She worked in various jobs such as a commercial diver in San Diego. Later she began nude modeling before entering porn. By 1991, Adams began appearing less in American porn and usually was cast in mature roles. Adams also worked in European porn, becoming a celebrity there and appeared on billboards and guest starred on Italian soap operas.


title: Tracey Adams

text: In addition to her adult appearances, Adams has also appeared in mainstream movies, such as the comedy movies "Wimps" (1986) and "Student Affairs" (1987), the thriller "Enrapture" (1989), and the movie "Killer" (1990), credited as Deborah Blaisdell. She also appeared in the French TV movie "La femme en noir" (1988).


title: Tracey Adams

text: Adams testified in April 1987 in San Fernando Municipal Court in a case of two men charged with felony pandering in the production of sex videotapes. Adams and five other performers, among them Stacey Donovan and Steve Drake, testified that they were paid to go to a Sand Canyon home on June 18, 1986, and perform sex acts before cameras. Adams said she was paid to perform but not paid to have sex. The performers were hired by Cinderella Distributors, run by Charles Brickman and Thomas Ingalls. Adams and the other performers testified that Ingalls was the cameraman during the shooting session, and that they were paid in cash after the session. They said their daily pay ranged from $300 for Drake to $1,000 for Donovan. The felony pandering charges were later dropped against Brickman, who pleaded no contest and agreed to testify against Ingalls. He had faced a sentence of between 3 and 13 years in prison.


title: Tracey Adams

text: Although she is free-thinking, Adams is anything but the free-spirited sexual athlete her fans like to imagine. She worries about crime and overpopulation and drinks two vodkas medicinally each night to help her sleep. She sponsors two poverty-stricken children in foreign countries. Her rented bungalow in West Los Angeles might be the home of any anxious, PBS-watching, middle-level executive except for the catalog of her sex tapes hidden behind a wood plank on an upper shelf in a back room.


title: Maheswari

text: Maheswari is an Indian former actress, who appeared predominantly in Telugu and Tamil language films. She was one of the leading actresses in Telugu and Tamil films from 1994 to 2000. She appeared alongside major South Indian stars like Jagapati Babu, J. D. Chakravarthy, Ravi Teja, Ajith Kumar, Vikram, Prabhu, Arjun Sarja, Prabhu Deva, and Shiva Rajkumar. She is best known for her performances in "Pelli" (1997), "Gulabi" (1995), "Karuththamma" (1994), and "Ullaasam" (1997).


title: Maheswari

text: Maheswari was born into a Telugu speaking family to Mohan Reddy and Suryakala. She has a brother Avishek Karthik who is also an actor. Late veteran actress Sridevi was her maternal aunt.


title: Maheswari

text: Maheshwari married an engineer named Jayakrishna in 2008. Their marriage was an arranged one. Her husband is a Telugu man originally from Guntur, and is based in Hyderabad. He is the owner and the managing director of a payment software company in Hyderabad.


title: Maheswari

text: Maheswari started her film career at the age of 17 in year 1994 through the Tamil film, Karuththamma directed by Bharathiraja and the movie was successful at box office and the song 'Thenmerku Paruva Kaatru' made her famous among Tamil audience. She became popular in Telugu with her second Telugu film named Gulabi in 1995. She played the lead role of Pooja opposite with actor J. D. Chakravarthy. After that she got many offers in movies. Maheswari's first Kannada film was the 1995, Annavra Makkalu. She did her first horror film, Deyyam in 1996 under the production and direction of Ram Gopal Varma. She acted as Mahi, the sister of Sindhu who bought a new estranged house near the graveyard. In this film, she was partnered again with actor, J. D. Chakravarthy and also in 1996 Telugu crime film, Mrugam. In 1997, she starred in Kodi Ramakrishna film, Pelli (film) along with Vadde Naveen. She also did the Telugu films, Priyaragalu, Jabilamma Pelli and Nesam. She was also in the lead role in the multi-award-winning film, Nee Kosam in 1999. Her role as the wealthy Sasirekha gave Maheswari the Nandi Award for Best Actress. She also got her fame in the Tamil film, Ullasam in 1997. Maheswari did few more Tamil and Telugu films including the Maa Balaji, a remake of the Malayalam comedy film, Punjabi House. Maheswari made an elegant performance and succeeded as a heroine for almost 10 years in Telugu and Tamil industry.


title: Maheswari

text: After appearing in Tirumala Tirupati Venkatesa, she quit the film industry at the peak of her career in 2000. She married Jayakrishna a software engineer at Tirupati in 2008.


title: Maheswari

text: She has since appeared in television for serials after her marriage. In 2010, Maheswari appeared in the serial, Soundaravalli. Then, she featured in the comedy serial, My Name is Manga Tayaru (Telugu) and My Name Is Mangamma (Tamil) in 2012 on Zee TV which was a super hit among households. She has also featured in the serial Adhey Kangal in 2014 which aired on Jaya TV.


title: Maheswari

text: She is currently pursuing an alternate career as a fashion designer and recently opened a store and launched her new label ‘Mahe Ayyapan’ in Hyderabad inaugurated by her aunt Sridevi.


title: December's Children (And Everybody's)

text: December's Children (And Everybody's) is the fifth American studio album by the English rock band the Rolling Stones, released on 4 December 1965. Compiled from disparate sources across the band's recording career up to that point, including the UK version of "Out of Our Heads", it features their then-recent transatlantic hit single "Get Off of My Cloud", as well as their own remake of Marianne Faithfull's Jagger/Richards-penned hit "As Tears Go By", which was released as the album's second single in the US.


title: December's Children (And Everybody's)

text: It is the last of the group's early albums to feature numerous cover songs; writers Mick Jagger and Keith Richards wrote only half of the songs themselves. There had been no sessions to record the album; most of the songs were drawn from the sessions for the UK edition of "Out of Our Heads" in September 1965 in Los Angeles. Many of the tracks had appeared earlier in the UK versions of Rolling Stones albums, but had been left off their American counterparts. Other tracks were unreleased tracks that had been recorded during other recording sessions, or had been singles-only releases. Joining core members Mick Jagger (vocals), Brian Jones (guitars), Keith Richards (guitars), Bill Wyman (bass), and Charlie Watts (drums) was former Stones member Ian Stewart on piano. As with most of their early albums, it was produced by band manager Andrew Loog Oldham.


title: December's Children (And Everybody's)

text: The title of the album came from the band's manager, Andrew Loog Oldham (who facetiously credits it to "Lou Folk-Rock Adler" in his liner notes on the back cover). According to Jagger, it was Oldham's idea of hip, Beat poetry. The front cover photo of the band, by Gered Mankowitz, had previously been used for the UK edition of "Out of Our Heads".


title: December's Children (And Everybody's)

text: "December's Children (And Everybody's)" reached in the US, where it was certified "gold". Bassist Bill Wyman quotes Jagger in 1968 calling the record "[not] an album, it's just a collection of songs." Accordingly, it is only briefly detailed in Wyman's otherwise exhaustive book "Rolling with the Stones". The group's second US , "Get Off of My Cloud", was the highest-charting single on the album, also a major chart topper in the band's native UK and several other markets.


title: December's Children (And Everybody's)

text: In August 2002, the album was reissued in a new remastered CD and SACD digipak by ABKCO Records. "Look What You've Done" remains the album's only cut issued in true stereo.


title: December's Children (And Everybody's)

text: Most of the songs were recorded 5–6 September 1965 at the RCA Records studio in Hollywood, California, except:


title: Giacomo Agostini

text: Giacomo Agostini (; born 16 June 1942) is an Italian multi-time world champion Grand Prix motorcycle road racer. Nicknamed Ago, he amassed 122 Grand Prix wins and 15 World Championship titles. Of these, 68 wins and 8 titles came in the 500 cc class, the rest in the 350 cc class. For these achievements obtained over the course of a career spanning 17 years, the AMA described him as "...perhaps the greatest Grand Prix rider of all time". In 2000, Agostini was inducted into the MotoGP Hall of Fame as a MotoGP Legend, while in 2010, he was named an FIM Legend for his motorcycling achievements. He considers himself a "dubious" Roman Catholic.


title: Giacomo Agostini

text: Agostini was born in Brescia, Lombardy. His family was from Lovere, where his father was employed in the local town council. The oldest of four brothers, Agostini initially had to steal away to compete, first in hill climb events and then in road racing, as his father did not approve of his son's motorcycle racing career and did everything he could to persuade him not to race.


title: Giacomo Agostini

text: Eventually his father came to terms with his racing and Agostini won the 1963 Italian 175cc championship aboard a Morini. He got his break when Morini factory rider Tarquinio Provini left the team to ride for Benelli. Count Alfonso Morini hired the young Agostini to ride for him. In 1964, Agostini would win the Italian 350cc title and proved his ability by finishing fourth in the Italian Grand Prix at Monza.


title: Giacomo Agostini

text: These results caught the eye of Count Domenico Agusta, who signed Agostini to ride for his MV Agusta squad as Mike Hailwood's teammate. Agostini then fought a season-long battle with Honda's Jim Redman for the 1965 350cc world championship. He seemed to have the title won when he led the final round in Japan at Suzuka when his bike failed him, handing the title to Redman.


title: Giacomo Agostini

text: At the end of the 1965 season, Hailwood left to join Honda as he had tired of working for the difficult Count Agusta. With Agostini now the top MV Agusta rider, he responded by winning the 500cc title seven years in succession for the Italian factory. He would also win the 350cc title seven times in succession and won 10 Isle of Man TTs. At the time, the Isle of Man TT and the Ulster Grand Prixs were regularly won by Anglophonic (mostly British) riders; in addition to Agostini's successes at the TT he also won 7 Ulster Grand Prix races- he was the only non-British rider to achieve the same kind of success in these British motorcycle races- which were 2 of the most difficult motorcycle races in the world at the time. In 1967 he battled Hailwood in one of the most dramatic seasons in Grand Prix history. Each rider had 5 victories before the championship was decided in Agostini's favor at the last race of the season.


title: Giacomo Agostini

text: Agostini dropped a bombshell on the Grand Prix world when he announced he would never again race at the Isle of Man TT, after the death of his close friend, Gilberto Parlotti during the 1972 TT. He considered the 37 mile circuit unsafe for world championship competition. At the time, the TT was the most prestigious race on the motorcycling calendar. Other top riders joined his boycott of the event and by 1977, the event was struck from the Grand Prix schedule.


title: Giacomo Agostini

text: Agostini surprised the racing world when he announced that he would leave MV Agusta to ride for Yamaha in 1974 season. On his first outing for the Japanese factory, he won the prestigious Daytona 200, the premiere American motorcycle race. He went on to claim the 1974 350cc World Championship but injuries and mechanical problems kept him from winning the 500cc crown. He rebounded and won the 1975 500cc title, marking the first time a two-stroke machine won the premier class.


title: Giacomo Agostini

text: The 1975 championship would also be the last world title for the 33-year-old Italian. In 1976, he rode both Yamaha and MV bikes in the 500cc class, yet raced only once in the 350cc to win in Assen. For the challenging Nürburgring, he chose the 500cc MV Agusta and took it to victory, winning the last Grand Prix for both himself, the marque and the last for four-stroke engines in the 500cc class.


title: Giacomo Agostini

text: He retired from motorcycle competition after finishing 6th in the 1977 season in which he also raced in 750cc endurance races for Yamaha.


title: Giacomo Agostini

text: Like Jean-Pierre Beltoise, John Surtees and Mike Hailwood before him, Agostini raced in Formula One cars. He competed in non-championship Formula One races in 1978. He competed in the European Formula 2 series in a Chevron B42-BMW and British Aurora Formula 1 with his own team and a Williams FW06. He ended his auto racing career in 1980.


title: Giacomo Agostini

text: In 1982, Agostini returned to motorcycle racing as the Marlboro Yamaha team manager. In this role he won three 500cc titles with Eddie Lawson and managed many successful riders including Graeme Crosby and Kenny Roberts. Under his management riders won the 1982 Daytona Formula 1 (Crosby), 1983 and 1984 Daytona Formula 1 (Roberts) and 1986 Daytona Superbike championships (Lawson).


title: Giacomo Agostini

text: Between 1986 and 1990 he also managed the Marlboro Yamaha 250cc team with riders like Luca Cadalora, Martin Wimmer and Àlex Crivillé.


title: Giacomo Agostini

text: Since 1992, he served as the Cagiva factory racing team manager until 1994, when Cagiva withdrew from the world championship.


title: Giacomo Agostini

text: Agostini's last season as team manager was 1995 when he managed a 250cc Honda team with Doriano Romboni as rider.


title: The Immaculate Room

text: The Immaculate Room is a 2022 American psychological thriller film written and directed by Mukunda Michael Dewil. The film stars Emile Hirsch, Kate Bosworth, Ashley Greene Khoury, and M. Emmet Walsh.


title: The Immaculate Room

text: The film had its world premiere at the Mammoth Film Festival on February 3, 2022. On February 18, Screen Media Films acquired the film's distribution rights.


title: Wenyen Gabriel

text: Wenyen Gabriel (born March 26, 1997) is a South Sudanese-American professional basketball player for the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Kentucky Wildcats, after being a 5-star prospect in 2016, ranked as high as #14 on ESPN's Top 100. Gabriel has also played in the NBA for the Sacramento Kings, Portland Trail Blazers, New Orleans Pelicans, Brooklyn Nets, and Los Angeles Clippers.


title: Wenyen Gabriel

text: Gabriel attended Wilbraham & Monson Academy in Wilbraham, Massachusetts since 2014. Prior to that, he played at Trinity High School in Manchester, New Hampshire for three years. As a senior in 2015-16, he averaged 22.0 points per game, 14.0 rebounds per game, 7.0 blocks per game and 6.3 assists per game. In October 2015, he announced his decision to enroll at the University of Kentucky. Maryland, Duke, UConn and Providence were other schools on his shortlist. He played 19:17 minutes in the 2016 Nike Hoop Summit, scoring two points, grabbing four rebounds and dishing out two assists. He also played in the 2016 Jordan Brand Classic. Gabriel was rated as a five-star recruit and ranked #14 in the Class of 2016 by ESPN.


title: Wenyen Gabriel

text: He made his debut for the Kentucky Wildcats in an exhibition game on October 31, 2016 against Clarion University, tallying nine points, two rebounds and one assist in 17 minutes coming off the bench. As a freshman, he played in 38 games, including 23 starts, averaging 4.6 points and 4.8 rebounds in 17.8 minutes. During his sophomore year, Gabriel became more of a key figure for Kentucky's success that season, tallying 6.8 points and 5.4 rebounds in 37 games. He led Kentucky with 40 blocked shots.


title: Wenyen Gabriel

text: Gabriel declared for the 2018 NBA draft, but went undrafted. He joined the Sacramento Kings for the 2018 NBA Summer League. On July 31, 2018, he signed a two-way contract with the Kings. However, he did not appear in a game during that season.


title: Wenyen Gabriel

text: Just prior to the start of the 2019–20 season, the Kings converted Gabriel’s contract to a standard deal. He had a double-double of 16 points and 16 rebounds for the Stockton Kings on December 20, 2019, in a win over the Delaware Blue Coats. On January 11, 2020, Gabriel had 37 points, 11 rebounds and three assists for Stockton in its 163–143 win over the Iowa Wolves.


title: Wenyen Gabriel

text: On January 20, 2020, Gabriel was traded to the Portland Trail Blazers along with Trevor Ariza and Caleb Swanigan in exchange for Kent Bazemore, Anthony Tolliver and two future second round picks. He made his debut for the Trail Blazers on January 31, going 0-for-3 from the field with one rebound, one assist and a block in 13 minutes as the Blazers defeated the Los Angeles Lakers 127–119.


title: Wenyen Gabriel

text: On November 30, 2020, Gabriel signed with the New Orleans Pelicans. He was waived just prior to the start of the 2021–22 season.


title: Wenyen Gabriel

text: In October 2021, Gabriel joined the Wisconsin Herd as an affiliate player. In 12 games he averaged 13.8 points on 47.5 percent shooting from the field and 38.7 percent shooting from 3-point range, 8.6 rebounds, 1.0 assists, 1.1 steals and 2.0 blocks in 25.8 minutes per contest.


title: Wenyen Gabriel

text: On December 31, 2021, Gabriel signed a 10-day contract with the Los Angeles Clippers. He signed a second 10-day contract with the Clippers on January 11, 2022.


title: Wenyen Gabriel

text: Following the expiration of his second 10-day contract, Gabriel was re-acquired by the Wisconsin Herd on January 21.


title: Wenyen Gabriel

text: On January 29, 2022, Gabriel signed a 10-day contract with the New Orleans Pelicans. He did not play in a game for the Pelicans before his deal expired. On February 8, he was reacquired by the Herd.


title: Wenyen Gabriel

text: On March 1, 2022, Gabriel signed a two-way contract with the Los Angeles Lakers. On April 8, 2022, the Los Angeles Lakers converted Gabriel's two-way contract into a standard contract for the rest of the season.


title: Wenyen Gabriel

text: Gabriel was born in Khartoum, Sudan, on March 26, 1997. Because his sister – born a year earlier – had died in infancy, Gabriel was given the name "Wenyen", which means "wipe your tears" in his native Dinka language. Two weeks after he was born, Gabriel's mother, Rebecca Gak, moved with him and his three siblings to Cairo, Egypt to escape the violence of the Second Sudanese Civil War. While Gabriel's mother worked to earn enough money to move his father, Makuac, to Cairo, his seven-year-old brother, Komot, became Gabriel's primary care giver. Two years after moving to Egypt, the United Nations granted an appeal to move the refugee family to Manchester, New Hampshire, an American city with a large South Sudanese population.


title: Wenyen Gabriel

text: Gabriel received a US passport in 2015 and represented the USA Basketball Junior National Select Team at the 2016 Nike Hoop Summit. He considers South Sudan his rightful home country.


title: Conjunctiva

text: The conjunctiva is a thin mucous membrane that lines the inside of the eyelids and covers the sclera (the white of the eye). It is composed of non-keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium with goblet cells, stratified columnar epithelium and stratified cuboidal epithelium (depending on the zone). The conjunctiva is highly vascularised, with many microvessels easily accessible for imaging studies.


title: Conjunctiva

text: Blood to the bulbar conjunctiva is primarily derived from the ophthalmic artery. The blood supply to the palpebral conjunctiva (the eyelid) is derived from the external carotid artery. However, the circulations of the bulbar conjunctiva and palpebral conjunctiva are linked, so both bulbar conjunctival and palpebral conjunctival vessels are supplied by both the ophthalmic artery and the external carotid artery, to varying extents.


title: Conjunctiva

text: The conjunctiva consists of unkeratinized, both stratified squamous and stratified columnar epithelium, with interspersed goblet cells. The epithelial layer contains blood vessels, fibrous tissue, and lymphatic channels. Accessory lacrimal glands in the conjunctiva constantly produce the aqueous portion of tears. Additional cells present in the conjunctival epithelium include melanocytes, T and B cell lymphocytes.


title: Conjunctiva

text: The conjunctiva helps lubricate the eye by producing mucus and tears, although a smaller volume of tears than the lacrimal gland.


title: Conjunctiva

text: It also contributes to immune surveillance and helps to prevent the entrance of microbes into the eye.


title: Conjunctiva

text: Disorders of the conjunctiva and cornea are common sources of eye complaints, in particular because the surface of the eye is exposed to various external influences and is especially susceptible to trauma, infections, chemical irritation, allergic reactions, and dryness.


title: Conjunctiva

text: The bulbar conjunctival microvasculature contains arterioles, meta-arterioles, venules, capillaries, and communicating vessels. Vessel morphology varies greatly between subjects and even between regions of the individual eyes. In some subjects, arterioles and venules can be seen to run parallel with each other. Paired arterioles are generally smaller than corresponding venules. The average bulbar conjunctival vessel has been reported to be 15.1 microns, which reflects the high number of small capillaries, which are typically <10 microns in diameter.


title: Conjunctiva

text: The bulbar conjunctival microvasculature is in close proximity to ambient air, thus oxygen diffusion from ambient air strongly influences their blood oxygen saturation. Because of oxygen diffusion, hypoxic bulbar conjunctival vessels will rapidly reoxygenate (in under 10 seconds) when exposed to ambient air (i.e. when the eyelid is open). Closing the eyelid stops this oxygen diffusion by placing a barrier between the bulbar conjunctival microvessels and ambient air.


title: Conjunctiva

text: The bulbar conjunctival microvessels are typically imaged with a high-magnification slit lamp with green filters. With such high-magnification imaging systems, it is possible to see groups of individual red blood cells flowing in vivo. Fundus cameras may also be used for low-magnification wide field-of-view imaging of the bulbar conjunctival microvasculature. Modified fundus cameras have been used to measure conjunctival blood flow and to measure blood oxygen saturation. Fluorescein angiography has been used to study the blood flow of the bulbar conjunctiva and to differentiate the bulbar conjunctival and episcleral microcirculation.


title: Conjunctiva

text: The bulbar conjunctival microvasculature is known to dilate in response to several stimuli and external conditions, including allergens (e.g. pollen), temperature, time-of-day, contact-lens wear, and acute mild hypoxia. Bulbar conjunctival vasodilation has also been shown to correlate changes in emotional state.


title: Conjunctiva

text: Type 2 diabetes is associated with an increase in average bulbar conjunctival vessel diameter and capillary loss. Sickle-cell anemia is associated with altered average vessel diameter.


title: Gettier problem

text: The Gettier problem, in the field of epistemology, is a landmark philosophical problem concerning the understanding of descriptive knowledge. Attributed to American philosopher Edmund Gettier, Gettier-type counterexamples (called "Gettier-cases") challenge the long-held justified true belief (JTB) account of knowledge. The JTB account holds that knowledge is equivalent to justified true belief; if all three conditions (justification, truth, and belief) are met of a given claim, then we have knowledge of that claim. In his 1963 three-page paper titled "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?", Gettier attempts to illustrate by means of two counterexamples that there are cases where individuals can have a justified, true belief regarding a claim but still fail to know it because the reasons for the belief, while justified, turn out to be false. Thus, Gettier claims to have shown that the JTB account is inadequate because it does not account for all of the necessary and sufficient conditions for knowledge.


title: Gettier problem

text: The term "Gettier problem", "Gettier case", or even the adjective "Gettiered", is sometimes used to describe any case in the field of epistemology that purports to repudiate the JTB account of knowledge.


title: Gettier problem

text: Responses to Gettier's paper have been numerous. Some reject Gettier's examples as inadequate justification, while others seek to adjust the JTB account of knowledge and blunt the force of these counterexamples. Gettier problems have even found their way into sociological experiments in which researchers have studied intuitive responses to Gettier cases from people of varying demographics.


title: Gettier problem

text: The question of what constitutes "knowledge" is as old as philosophy itself. Early instances are found in Plato's dialogues, notably "Meno" (97a–98b) and "Theaetetus". Gettier himself was not actually the first to raise the problem named after him; its existence was acknowledged by both Alexius Meinong and Bertrand Russell, the latter of which discussed the problem in his book "Human knowledge: Its scope and limits". In fact, the problem has been known since the Middle Ages, and both Indian philosopher Dharmottara and scholastic logician Peter of Mantua presented examples of it.


title: Gettier problem

text: Dharmottara, in his commentary c. 770 CE on Dharmakirti's "Ascertainment of Knowledge", gives the following two examples:


title: Gettier problem

text: Various theories of knowledge, including some of the proposals that emerged in Western philosophy after Gettier in 1963, were debated by Indo-Tibetan epistemologists before and after Dharmottara. In particular, Gaṅgeśa in the 14th century advanced a detailed causal theory of knowledge.


title: Gettier problem

text: Russell's case, called the stopped clock case, goes as follows: Alice sees a clock that reads two o'clock and believes that the time is two o'clock. It is, in fact, two o'clock. There's a problem, however: unknown to Alice, the clock she's looking at stopped twelve hours ago. Alice thus has an accidentally true, justified belief. Russell provides an answer of his own to the problem. Edmund Gettier's formulation of the problem was important as it coincided with the rise of the sort of philosophical naturalism promoted by W. V. O. Quine and others, and was used as a justification for a shift towards externalist theories of justification. John L. Pollock and Joseph Cruz have stated that the Gettier problem has "fundamentally altered the character of contemporary epistemology" and has become "a central problem of epistemology since it poses a clear barrier to analyzing knowledge".


title: Gettier problem

text: Despite this, Plantinga "does" accept that some philosophers before Gettier have advanced a JTB account of knowledge, specifically C. I. Lewis and A. J. Ayer.


title: Gettier problem

text: The JTB account of knowledge is the claim that knowledge can be conceptually analyzed as justified true belief, which is to say that the "meaning" of sentences such as "Smith knows that it rained today" can be given with the following set of conditions, which are necessary and sufficient for knowledge to obtain:


title: Gettier problem

text: The JTB account was first credited to Plato, though Plato argued against this very account of knowledge in the "Theaetetus" (210a). This account of knowledge is what Gettier subjected to criticism.


title: Gettier problem

text: Gettier's paper used counterexamples (see also thought experiment) to argue that there are cases of beliefs that are both true and justified—therefore satisfying all three conditions for knowledge on the JTB account—but that do not appear to be genuine cases of knowledge. Therefore, Gettier argued, his counterexamples show that the JTB account of knowledge is false, and thus that a different conceptual analysis is needed to correctly track what we mean by "knowledge".


title: Gettier problem

text: Gettier's case is based on two counterexamples to the JTB analysis, both involving a fictional character named Smith. Each relies on two claims. Firstly, that justification is preserved by entailment, and secondly that this applies coherently to Smith's putative "belief". That is, that if Smith is justified in believing P, and Smith realizes that the truth of P entails the truth of Q, then Smith would "also" be justified in believing Q. Gettier calls these counterexamples "Case I" and "Case II":


title: Gettier problem

text: In both of Gettier's actual examples (see also counterfactual conditional), the justified true belief came about, if Smith's purported claims are disputable, as the result of entailment (but see also material conditional) from justified false beliefs that "Jones will get the job" (in case I), and that "Jones owns a Ford" (in case II). This led some early responses to Gettier to conclude that the definition of knowledge could be easily adjusted, so that knowledge was justified true belief that does not depend on false premises. The interesting issue that arises is then of how to know which premises are in reality false or true when deriving a conclusion, because as in the Gettier cases, one sees that premises can be very reasonable to believe and be likely true, but unknown to the believer there are confounding factors and extra information that may have been missed while concluding something. The question that arises is therefore to what extent would one have to be able to go about attempting to "prove" all premises in the argument before solidifying a conclusion.


title: Gettier problem

text: In a 1966 scenario known as "The sheep in the field", Roderick Chisholm asks us to imagine that someone, X, is standing outside a field looking at something that looks like a sheep (although in fact, it is a dog disguised as a sheep). X believes there is a sheep in the field, and in fact, X is right because there is a sheep behind the hill in the middle of the field. Hence, X has a justified true belief that there is a sheep in the field.


title: Gettier problem

text: Another scenario by Brian Skyrms is "The Pyromaniac", in which a struck match lights not for the reasons the pyromaniac imagines but because of some unknown "Q radiation".


title: Gettier problem

text: A different perspective on the issue is given by Alvin Goldman in the "fake barns" scenario (crediting Carl Ginet with the example). In this one, a man is driving in the countryside, and sees what looks exactly like a barn. Accordingly, he thinks that he is seeing a barn. In fact, that is what he is doing. But what he does not know is that the neighborhood generally consists of many fake barns — barn facades designed to look exactly like real barns when viewed from the road. Since, if he had been looking at one of them, he would have been unable to tell the difference, his "knowledge" that he was looking at a barn would seem to be poorly founded.


title: Gettier problem

text: The "no false premises" (or "no false lemmas") solution which was proposed early in the discussion has been criticized, as more general Gettier-style problems were then constructed or contrived in which the justified true belief is said to not seem to be the result of a chain of reasoning from a justified false belief. For example:


title: Gettier problem

text: It is argued that it seems as though Luke does not "know" that Mark is in the room, even though it is claimed he has a justified true belief that Mark is in the room, but it is not nearly so clear that the "perceptual belief" that "Mark is in the room" was inferred from any premises at all, let alone any false ones, nor led to significant conclusions on its own; Luke did not seem to be reasoning about anything; "Mark is in the room" seems to have been part of what he "seemed to see".


title: Gettier problem

text: The main idea behind Gettier's examples is that the justification for the belief is flawed or incorrect, but the belief turns out to be true by sheer luck. Linda Zagzebski shows that any analysis of knowledge in terms of true belief and some other element of justification that is independent from truth, will be liable to Gettier cases. She offers a formula for generating Gettier cases:


title: Gettier problem

text: (2) amend the example, making the element of justification strong enough for knowledge, but the belief false by sheer chance;


title: Gettier problem

text: (3) amend the example again, adding another element of chance such that the belief is true, but which leaves the element of justification unchanged;


title: Gettier problem

text: This will generate an example of a belief that is sufficiently justified (on some analysis of knowledge) to be knowledge, which is true, and which is intuitively not an example of knowledge. In other words, Gettier cases can be generated for any analysis of knowledge that involves a justification criterion and a truth criterion, which are highly correlated but have some degree of independence.


title: Gettier problem

text: The Gettier problem is formally a problem in first-order logic, but the introduction by Gettier of terms such as "believes" and "knows" moves the discussion into the field of epistemology. Here, the sound (true) arguments ascribed to Smith then need also to be valid (believed) and convincing (justified) if they are to issue in the real-world discussion about "justified true belief".


title: Gettier problem

text: One response, therefore, is that in none of the above cases was the belief justified because it is impossible to justify anything that is not true. Conversely, the fact that a proposition turns out to be untrue is proof that it was not sufficiently justified in the first place. Under this interpretation, the JTB definition of knowledge survives. This shifts the problem to a definition of justification, rather than knowledge. Another view is that justification and non-justification are not in binary opposition. Instead, justification is a matter of degree, with an idea being more or less justified. This account of justification is supported by mainstream philosophers such as Paul Boghossian and Stephen Hicks. In common sense usage, an idea can not only be more justified or less justified but it can also be partially justified (Smith's boss told him X) and partially unjustified (Smith's boss is a liar). Gettier's cases involve propositions that were true, believed, but which had weak justification. In case 1, the premise that the testimony of Smith's boss is "strong evidence" is rejected. The case itself depends on the boss being either wrong or deceitful (Jones did not get the job) and therefore unreliable. In case 2, Smith again has accepted a questionable idea (Jones owns a Ford) with unspecified justification. Without justification, both cases do not undermine the JTB account of knowledge.


title: Gettier problem

text: Other epistemologists accept Gettier's conclusion. Their responses to the Gettier problem, therefore, consist of trying to find alternative analyses of knowledge. They have struggled to discover and agree upon as a beginning any single notion of truth, or belief, or justifying which is wholly and obviously accepted. Truth, belief, and justifying have not yet been satisfactorily defined, so that JTB (justified true belief) may be defined satisfactorily is still problematical, on account or otherwise of Gettier's examples. Gettier, for many years a professor at the University of Massachusetts Amherst later also was interested in the epistemic logic of Hintikka, a Finnish philosopher at Boston University, who published "Knowledge and Belief" in 1962.


title: Gettier problem

text: The most common direction for this sort of response to take is what might be called a "JTB+G" analysis: that is, an analysis based on finding some "fourth" condition—a "no-Gettier-problem" condition—which, when added to the conditions of justification, truth, and belief, will yield a set of necessary and jointly sufficient conditions.


title: Gettier problem

text: One such response is that of Alvin Goldman (1967), who suggested the addition of a "causal" condition: a subject's belief is justified, for Goldman, only if the truth of a belief has "caused" the subject to have that belief (in the appropriate way); and for a justified true belief to count as knowledge, the subject must "also" be able to "correctly reconstruct" (mentally) that causal chain. Goldman's analysis would rule out Gettier cases in that Smith's beliefs are not caused by the truths of those beliefs; it is merely "accidental" that Smith's beliefs in the Gettier cases happen to be true, or that the prediction made by Smith: "The winner of the job will have 10 coins", on the basis of his putative belief, (see also bundling) came true in this one case. This theory is challenged by the difficulty of giving a principled explanation of how an appropriate causal relationship differs from an inappropriate one (without the circular response of saying that the appropriate sort of causal relationship is the knowledge-producing one); or retreating to a position in which justified true belief is weakly defined as the consensus of learned opinion. The latter would be useful, but not as useful nor desirable as the unchanging definitions of scientific concepts such as momentum. Thus, adopting a causal response to the Gettier problem usually requires one to adopt (as Goldman gladly does) some form of reliabilism about justification. See "Goldman"s Theory of justification.


title: Gettier problem

text: Keith Lehrer and Thomas Paxson (1969) proposed another response, by adding a "defeasibility condition" to the JTB analysis. On their account, knowledge is "undefeated justified true belief" — which is to say that a justified true belief counts as knowledge if and only if it is also the case that there is no further truth that, had the subject known it, would have defeated her present justification for the belief. (Thus, for example, Smith's justification for believing that the person who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket is his justified belief that Jones will get the job, combined with his justified belief that Jones has ten coins in his pocket. But if Smith had known the truth that Jones will "not" get the job, that would have defeated the justification for his belief.)


title: Gettier problem

text: Pragmatism was developed as a philosophical doctrine by C.S.Peirce and William James (1842–1910). In Peirce's view, the truth is nominally defined as a sign's correspondence to its object and pragmatically defined as the ideal final opinion to which sufficient investigation "would" lead sooner or later. James' epistemological model of truth was that which "works" in the way of belief, and a belief was true if in the long run it "worked" for all of us, and guided us expeditiously through our semihospitable world.


title: Gettier problem

text: Consider what effects that might "conceivably" have practical bearings you "conceive" the objects of your "conception" to have. Then, your "conception" of those effects is the whole of your "conception" of the object.


title: Gettier problem

text: From a pragmatic viewpoint of the kind often ascribed to James, defining on a particular occasion whether a particular belief can rightly be said to be both true and justified is seen as no more than an exercise in pedantry, but being able to discern whether that belief led to fruitful outcomes is a fruitful enterprise. Peirce emphasized fallibilism, considered the assertion of absolute certainty a barrier to inquiry, and in 1901 defined truth as follows: "Truth is that concordance of an abstract statement with the ideal limit towards which endless investigation would tend to bring scientific belief, which concordance the abstract statement may possess by virtue of the confession of its inaccuracy and one-sidedness, and this confession is an essential ingredient of truth." In other words, any unqualified assertion is likely to be at least a little wrong or, if right, still right for not entirely the right reasons. Therefore one is more veracious by being Socratic, including recognition of one's own ignorance and knowing one may be proved wrong. This is the case, even though in practical matters one sometimes must act, if one is to act at all, with a decision and complete confidence.


title: Gettier problem

text: The difficulties involved in producing a viable fourth condition have led to claims that attempting to repair the JTB account is a deficient strategy. For example, one might argue that what the Gettier problem shows is not the need for a fourth independent condition in addition to the original three, but rather that the attempt to build up an account of knowledge by conjoining a set of independent conditions was misguided from the outset. Those who have adopted this approach generally argue that epistemological terms like justification, evidence, certainty, etc. should be analyzed in terms of a primitive notion of "knowledge," rather than vice versa. Knowledge is understood as "factive," that is, as embodying a sort of epistemological "tie" between a truth and a belief. The JTB account is then criticized for trying to get and encapsulate the factivity of knowledge "on the cheap", as it were, or via a circular argument, by replacing an irreducible notion of factivity with the conjunction of some of the properties that accompany it (in particular, truth and justification). Of course, the introduction of irreducible primitives into a philosophical theory is always problematical (some would say a sign of desperation), and such anti-reductionist accounts are unlikely to please those who have other reasons to hold fast to the method behind JTB+G accounts.


title: Gettier problem

text: Fred Dretske developed an account of knowledge which he called "conclusive reasons", revived by Robert Nozick as what he called the "subjunctive" or truth-tracking account. Nozick's formulation posits that proposition p is an instance of knowledge when:


title: Gettier problem

text: Nozick's definition is intended to preserve Goldman's intuition that Gettier cases should be ruled out by disacknowledging "accidentally" true justified beliefs, but without risking the potentially onerous consequences of building a causal requirement into the analysis. This tactic though, invites the riposte that Nozick's account merely hides the problem and does not solve it, for it leaves open the question of "why" Smith would not have had his belief if it had been false. The most promising answer seems to be that it is because Smith's belief was "caused" by the truth of what he believes; but that puts us back in the causalist camp.


title: Gettier problem

text: Criticisms and counter examples (notably the "Grandma case") prompted a revision, which resulted in the alteration of (3) and (4) to limit themselves to the same method (i.e. vision):


title: Gettier problem

text: Saul Kripke has pointed out that this view remains problematic and uses a counterexample called the "Fake Barn Country example", which describes a certain locality containing a number of fake barns or facades of barns. In the midst of these fake barns is one real barn, which is painted red. There is one more piece of crucial information for this example: the fake barns cannot be painted red.


title: Gettier problem

text: Jones is driving along the highway, looks up and happens to see the real barn, and so forms the belief


title: Gettier problem

text: Though Jones has gotten lucky, he could have just as easily been deceived and not have known it. Therefore it doesn't fulfill premise 4, for if Jones saw a fake barn he wouldn't have any idea it was a fake barn. So this is not knowledge.