title: Water heating

text: Residential combustion water heaters manufactured since 2003 in the United States have been redesigned to resist ignition of flammable vapors and incorporate a thermal cutoff switch, per ANSI Z21.10.1. The first feature attempts to prevent vapors from flammable liquids and gases in the vicinity of the heater from being ignited and thus causing a house fire or explosion. The second feature prevents tank overheating due to unusual combustion conditions. These safety requirements were made in response to homeowners storing, or spilling, gasoline or other flammable liquids near their water heaters and causing fires. Since most of the new designs incorporate some type of flame arrestor screen, they require monitoring to make sure they do not become clogged with lint or dust, reducing the availability of air for combustion. If the flame arrestor becomes clogged, the thermal cutoff may act to shut down the heater.


title: Water heating

text: A "wetback stove" (NZ), "wetback heater" (NZ), or "back boiler" (UK), is a simple household secondary water heater using incidental heat. It typically consists of a hot water pipe running behind a fireplace or stove (rather than hot water storage), and has no facility to limit the heating. Modern wetbacks may run the pipe in a more sophisticated design to assist heat-exchange. These designs are being forced out by government efficiency regulations that do not count the energy used to heat water as 'efficiently' used.


title: Water heating

text: Another type of water heater developed in Europe predated the storage model. In London, England, in 1868, a painter named Benjamin Waddy Maughan invented the first instantaneous domestic water heater that did not use solid fuel. Named the "geyser" after an Icelandic gushing hot spring, Maughan's invention made cold water at the top flow through pipes that were heated by hot gases from a burner at the bottom. Hot water then flowed into a sink or tub. The invention was somewhat dangerous because there was no flue to remove heated gases from the bathroom. A water heater is still sometimes called a "geyser" in the UK.


title: Water heating

text: Maughn's invention influenced the work of a Norwegian mechanical engineer named Edwin Ruud. The first automatic, storage tank-type gas water heater was invented around 1889 by Ruud after he immigrated to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (US). The Ruud Manufacturing Company, still in existence today, made many advancements in tank-type and tankless water heater design and operation.


title: Water heating

text: Water typically enters residences in the US at about , depending on latitude and season. Hot water temperatures of are usual for dish-washing, laundry and showering, which requires that the heater raise the water temperature about if the hot water is mixed with cold water at the point of use. The Uniform Plumbing Code reference shower flow rate is per minute. Sink and dishwasher usages range from per minute.


title: Water heating

text: Natural gas is often measured by volume or heat content. Common units of measurement by volume are cubic metre or cubic feet at standard conditions or by heat content in kilowatt hours, British thermal units (BTU) or therm, which is equal to 100,000 BTU. A BTU is the energy required to raise one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit. A US gallon of water weighs . To raise of water from to at 90% efficiency requires . A heater, as might exist in a tankless heater, would take about 15 minutes to do this. At $1 per therm, the cost of the gas would be about 40 cents. In comparison, a typical tank electric water heater has a heating element, which at 100% efficient results in a heating time of about 2.34 hours. At $0.16/kWh the electricity would cost $1.68.


title: Water heating

text: Energy efficiencies of water heaters in residential use can vary greatly, particularly depending on manufacturer and model. However, electric heaters tend to be slightly more efficient (not counting power station losses) with recovery efficiency (how efficiently energy transfers to the water) reaching about 98%. Gas-fired heaters have maximum recovery efficiencies of only about 8294% (the remaining heat is lost with the flue gasses). Overall energy factors can be as low as 80% for electric and 50% for gas systems. Natural gas and propane tank water heaters with energy factors of 62% or greater, as well as electric tank water heaters with energy factors of 93% or greater, are considered high-efficiency units. Energy Star-qualified natural gas and propane tank water heaters (as of September 2010) have energy factors of 67% or higher, which is usually achieved using an intermittent pilot together with an automatic flue damper, baffle blowers, or power venting. Direct electric resistance tank water heaters are not included in the Energy Star program, however, the Energy Star program does include electric heat pump units with energy factors of 200% or higher. Tankless gas water heaters (as of 2015) must have an energy factor of 90% or higher for Energy Star qualification. Since electricity production in thermal plants has efficiency levels ranging from only 15% to slightly over 55% (combined cycle gas turbine), with around 40% typical for thermal power stations, direct resistance electric water heating may be the least energy efficient option. However, use of a heat pump can make electric water heaters much more energy efficient and lead to a decrease in carbon dioxide emissions, even more so if a low carbon source of electricity is used. Using district heating utilizing waste heat from electricity generation and other industries to heat residences and hot water gives an increased overall efficiency, removing the need for burning fossil fuel or using high energy value electricity to produce heat in the individual home.


title: Water heating

text: Unfortunately, it takes a great deal of energy to heat water, as one may experience when waiting to boil a gallon of water on a stove. For this reason, tankless on-demand water heaters require a powerful energy source. A standard 120-V, 15-ampere rated wall electric outlet, by comparison, only sources enough power to warm a disappointingly small amount of water: about per minute at temperature elevation.


title: Water heating

text: The energy used by an electric water heater can be reduced by as much as 18% through optimal schedule and temperature control that is based on knowledge of the usage pattern.


title: Water heating

text: On April 16, 2015, as part of the National Appliance Energy Conservation Act (NAECA), new minimum standards for efficiency of residential water heaters set by the United States Department of Energy went into effect. All new gas storage tank water heaters with capacities smaller than sold in the United States in 2015 or later shall have an energy factor of at least 60% (for 50-US-gallon units, higher for smaller units), increased from the pre-2015 minimum standard of 58% energy factor for 50-US-gallon gas units. Electric storage tank water heaters with capacities less than 55 US gallons sold in the United States shall have an energy factor of at least 95%, increased from the pre-2015 minimum standard of 90% for 50-US-gallon electric units.


title: Water heating

text: Under the 2015 standard, for the first time, storage water heaters with capacities of 55 US gallons or larger now face stricter efficiency requirements than those of 50 US gallons or less. Under the pre-2015 standard, a gas storage water heater with a nominal input of or less was able to have an energy factor as low as 53%, while under the 2015 standard, the minimum energy factor for a 75-US-gallon gas storage tank water heater is now 74%, which can only be achieved by using condensing technology. Storage water heaters with a nominal input of or greater are not currently affected by these requirements, since energy factor is not defined for such units. An electric storage tank water heater was able to have a minimum energy factor of 86% under the pre-2015 standard, while under the 2015 standard, the minimum energy factor for an 80-gallon electric storage tank water heater is now 197%, which is only possible with heat pump technology. This rating measures efficiency at the point of use. Depending on how electricity is generated, overall efficiency may be much lower. For example, in a traditional coal plant, only about 30–35% of the energy in the coal ends up as electricity on the other end of the generator. Losses on the electrical grid (including line losses and voltage transformation losses) reduce electrical efficiency further. According to data from the Energy Information Administration, transmission and distribution losses in 2005 consumed 6.1% of net generation. In contrast, 90% of natural gas’s energy value is


title: Water heating

text: delivered to the consumer. (In neither case is the energy expended exploring, developing and extracting coal or natural gas resources included in the quoted efficiency numbers.) Gas tankless water heaters shall have an energy factor of 82% or greater under the 2015 standards, which corresponds to the pre-2015 Energy Star standard.


title: Water heating

text: In 2022 the Department of Energy proposed rules that would take effect in 2026 and would effectively eliminate inefficient non-condensing gas water heaters in commercial buildings. Non-condensing models waste heat, while condensing models capture and used otherwise lost energy. The change will reduce emissions by 38 million tons of carbon dioxide over 30 years and reduce buildings' energy costs.


title: Water heating

text: Water heaters potentially can explode and cause significant damage, injury, or death if certain safety devices are not installed. A safety device called a temperature and pressure relief (T&P or TPR) valve, is normally fitted on the top of the water heater to dump water if the temperature or pressure becomes too high. Most plumbing codes require that a discharge pipe be connected to the valve to direct the flow of discharged hot water to a drain, typically a nearby floor drain, or outside the living space. Some building codes allow the discharge pipe to terminate in the garage.


title: Water heating

text: If a gas or propane fired water heater is installed in a garage or basement, many plumbing codes require that it be elevated at least above the floor to reduce the potential for fire or explosion due to spillage or leakage of combustible liquids in the garage. Furthermore, certain local codes mandate that tank-type heaters in new and retrofit installations must be secured to an adjacent wall by a strap or anchor to prevent tipping over and breaking the water and gas pipes in the event of an earthquake.


title: Water heating

text: For older houses where the water heater is part of the space heating boiler, and plumbing codes allow, some plumbers install an automatic gas shutoff (such as the "Watts 210") in addition to a TPR valve. When the device senses that the temperature reaches , it shuts off the gas supply and prevents further heating. In addition, an expansion tank or exterior pressure relief valve must be installed to prevent pressure buildup in the plumbing from rupturing pipes, valves, or the water heater.


title: Water heating

text: Scalding is a serious concern with any water heater. Human skin burns quickly at high temperature, in less than 5 seconds at , but much slower at — it takes a full minute for a second degree burn. Older people and children often receive serious scalds due to disabilities or slow reaction times. In the United States and elsewhere it is common practice to put a "tempering valve" (Thermostatic mixing valve) on the outlet of the water heater. The result of "automatically" mixing hot and cold water via a tempering valve is referred to as "tempered water".


title: Water heating

text: A tempering valve mixes enough cold water with the hot water from the heater to keep the outgoing water temperature fixed at a more moderate temperature, often set to . Without a tempering valve, reduction of the water heater's setpoint temperature is the most direct way to reduce scalding. However, for sanitation, hot water is needed at a temperature that can cause scalding. This may be accomplished by using a supplemental heater in an appliance that requires hotter water.


title: Water heating

text: Most residential dishwashing machines, for example, include an internal electric heating element for increasing the water temperature above that provided by a domestic water heater.


title: Water heating

text: Two conflicting safety issues affect water heater temperature—the risk of scalding from excessively hot water greater than , and the risk of incubating bacteria colonies, particularly "Legionella", in water that is not hot enough to kill them. Both risks are potentially life-threatening and are balanced by setting the water heater's thermostat to . The European Guidelines for Control and Prevention of Travel Associated Legionnaires’ Disease recommend that hot water should be stored at and distributed so that a temperature of at least and preferably is achieved within one minute at points of use.


title: Water heating

text: If there is a dishwasher without a booster heater, it may require a water temperature within a range of for optimum cleaning, but tempering valves set to no more than can be applied to faucets to avoid scalding. Tank temperatures above may produce limescale deposits, which could later harbor bacteria, in the water tank. Higher temperatures may also increase etching of glassware in the dishwasher.


title: Water heating

text: Tank thermostats are not a reliable guide to the internal temperature of the tank. Gas-fired water tanks may have no temperature calibration shown. An electric thermostat shows the temperature at the elevation of the thermostat, but water lower in the tank can be considerably cooler. An outlet thermometer is a better indication of water temperature.


title: Water heating

text: In the renewable energy industry (solar and heat pumps, in particular) the conflict between daily thermal Legionella control and high temperatures, which may drop system performance, is subject to heated debate. In a paper seeking a green exemption from normal Legionellosis safety standards, Europe's top CEN solar thermal technical committee TC 312 asserts that a 50% fall in performance would occur if solar water heating systems were heated to the base daily. However some solar simulator analysis work using Polysun 5 suggests that an 11% energy penalty is a more likely figure. Whatever the context, both energy efficiency and scalding safety requirements push in the direction of considerably lower water temperatures than the legionella pasteurization temperature of around .


title: Water heating

text: Legionella pneumophila has been detected at the point of use downstream from horizontally-mounted electric water heaters with volumes of 150 Liters.


title: Water heating

text: However, legionella can be safely and easily controlled with good design and engineering protocols. For instance raising the temperature of water heaters once a day or even once every few days to at the coldest part of the water heater for 30 minutes effectively controls legionella. In all cases and in particular energy efficient applications, Legionnaires' disease is more often than not the result of engineering design issues that do not take into consideration the impact of stratification or low flow.


title: Water heating

text: It is also possible to control Legionella risks by chemical treatment of the water. This technique allows lower water temperatures to be maintained in the pipework without the associated Legionella risk. The benefit of lower pipe temperatures is that the heat loss rate is reduced and thus the energy consumption is reduced.


title: Clifton James

text: George Clifton James (May 29, 1920 – April 15, 2017) was an American actor known for roles as a prison floorwalker in "Cool Hand Luke" (1967), Sheriff J.W. Pepper alongside Roger Moore in the James Bond films "Live and Let Die" (1973) and "The Man with the Golden Gun" (1974), the sheriff in "Silver Streak" (1976), a Texas tycoon in "The Bad News Bears in Breaking Training" (1977), and the owner of the scandalous 1919 Chicago White Sox baseball team in "Eight Men Out" (1988).


title: Clifton James

text: James was born in Spokane, Washington, the son of Grace (née Dean), a teacher, and Harry James, a journalist. He grew up in Oregon in the Gladstone area of Clackamas County.


title: Clifton James

text: James was a decorated World War II United States Army veteran. He served as an infantry platoon sergeant with Co. "A" 163rd Infantry, 41st Division. He served forty-two months in the South Pacific from January 1942 until August 1945. His decorations include the Silver Star, Bronze Star, and two Purple Hearts.


title: Clifton James

text: James became well known for playing the comic-relief role of Louisiana Sheriff J.W. Pepper in the James Bond films "Live and Let Die" (1973) and "The Man With The Golden Gun" (1974). He played very similar characters in both "Silver Streak" (1976) and "Superman II" (1980). Years earlier he portrayed a serious character in "The Reivers" (1969), opposite Steve McQueen, playing a mean, corrupt country sheriff. Two years earlier he had portrayed a hard-nosed Southern prison floor-walker in "Cool Hand Luke" (1967). In "Juggernaut" (1974) he portrayed one of the first passengers aboard a luxury liner to realize there was a serious problem with the ship.


title: Clifton James

text: James portrayed the district attorney who prosecuted Al Capone in the film "The Untouchables" (1987). He played a Navy master-at-arms in "The Last Detail" (1973), starring Jack Nicholson, and Chicago White Sox baseball team owner Charles Comiskey in the true story "Eight Men Out" (1988), a drama about the corrupt 1919 Chicago White Sox.


title: Clifton James

text: Despite being born in the Northwest and spending much of his life in New York (where he was an Actors Studio member of long standing), James was cast as a Southerner in many of his screen roles, such as his appearances in the James Bond films, and as powerful Houston lawyer Striker Bellman in the daytime soap opera "Texas" from 1981 to 1982.


title: Clifton James

text: In 1966, he guest-starred as Tenner Jackson, a successful poker player later killed for his winnings in the episode “The Wrong Man” (alongside Carroll O’Connor) on the TV Western "Gunsmoke" (S12E7).


title: Clifton James

text: James again portrayed a Southern character when he played Sheriff Lester Crabb, a temporary one-off replacement for regular Sheriff Rosco P. Coltrane (James Best) in the second-season "Dukes of Hazzard" episode "Treasure of Hazzard" (1980). He appeared on 13 episodes of the sitcom "Lewis & Clark" in 1981–1982. Other television credits include the 1976 private-eye drama "City of Angels" and the miniseries "Captains and the Kings" (1976). He appeared in two episodes of "The A-Team": as murderous prison warden Beale in the first-season episode "Pros and Cons" (1983) and as corrupt Sheriff Jake Dawson in the second season's "The White Ballot" (1983). In 1996, he played the role of Red Kilgreen on "All My Children". James appeared in the 1979 pilot episode of "Hart to Hart" playing the part of a highway cop. James also played the train passenger Wilkes on the "Gunsmoke" episode "Snow Train" (1970).


title: Clifton James

text: His other film roles include those of a wealthy Montana land baron whose cattle are being rustled in "Rancho Deluxe" (1975) and as the source who tips off a newspaperman to a potentially explosive story in "The Bonfire of the Vanities" (1990). James was featured a number of times by writer-director John Sayles, including "Eight Men Out" (1988), "Lone Star" (1996) and "Sunshine State" (2002).


title: Clifton James

text: James' last known film appearance was in "Raising Flagg" (2006), although he had been cast in a starring role to appear in the feature film "Old Soldiers", playing a true-to-life elderly veteran of World War II. Production on that film was halted in 2016.


title: Clifton James

text: James married twice: to Donna Lea Beach from 1948 to 1950, with whom he had one child, and to Laurie Harper, from 1951 until her death in 2015, with whom he had five children. He resided in Gladstone, Oregon, and died from complications of diabetes on April 15, 2017, aged 96.


title: STS-1

text: STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, "Columbia", launched on April 12, 1981,and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. "Columbia" carried a crew of two—mission commander John W. Young and pilot Robert L. Crippen. It was the first American crewed space flight since the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) in 1975. STS-1 was also the maiden test flight of a new American spacecraft to carry a crew, though it was preceded by atmospheric testing (ALT) of the orbiter and ground testing of the Space Shuttle system.


title: STS-1

text: The launch occurred on the 20th anniversary of Vostok 1, the first human spaceflight, performed by Yuri Gagarin for the USSR. This was a coincidence rather than a celebration of the anniversary; a technical problem had prevented STS-1 from launching two days earlier, as was planned.


title: STS-1

text: Commander John Young and pilot Robert Crippen were selected as the STS-1 crew in early 1978. Young stated that as the Chief of the Astronaut Office he recommended himself to command the mission. Young, with four previous missions, was the most experienced astronaut in NASA at the time and was also the only member of NASA Astronaut Group 2 still in service. He flew twice on the Project Gemini and twice on the Apollo program, walked on the Moon in 1972 as the Commander of Apollo 16, and became Chief of the Astronaut Office in 1974. Crippen, part of NASA Astronaut Group 7 after the cancellation of the Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL), was a rookie and would become the first of his astronaut group to fly in space. Prior to his selection on STS-1, Crippen participated in the Skylab Medical Experiment Altitude Test (SMEAT) and also served as a capsule communicator (capcom) for all three Skylab missions and the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP).


title: STS-1

text: "Columbia" carried Extravehicular Mobility Units (EMU) for both Young and Crippen in the event of an emergency spacewalk. If such an event occurred, Crippen would go outside the orbiter, with Young standing by in case Crippen required assistance.


title: STS-1

text: During the original planning stages for the early Space Shuttle missions, NASA management under the Carter Administration felt a need to undertake initial tests of the system prior to the first orbital flight. To that end, Vice President Walter F. Mondale as chairman of the National Space Council suggested a suborbital flight landing at the emergency landing site at Dakar, Senegal. NASA further suggested that STS-1, instead of being an orbital flight, be used to test the Return To Launch Site (RTLS) abort scenario. This involved an abort being called in the first few moments after launch, and using its main engines, once the SRBs had been jettisoned, to power it back to the launch site. This scenario, while potentially necessary in the event of an early abort being called, was seen as being extremely dangerous. Young overruled both proposals, and STS-1 went ahead as the first orbital mission. The NASA managers were swayed by Young questioning the need for the test, and the weight of his opinion was especially strong as he was someone who not only had been to the Moon twice, but had walked on it. He would fly the Space Shuttle again on the STS-9 mission, a ten-day flight in 1983.


title: STS-1

text: The first launch of the Space Shuttle occurred on April 12, 1981, exactly 20years after the first manned space flight, when the orbiter "Columbia" lifted off from Pad A, Launch Complex 39, at the Kennedy Space Center. The launch took place at 12:00:04UTC. A launch attempt two days earlier was scrubbed because "Columbia"s four primary general purpose IBM System/4 Pi computers (GPCs) failed to provide correct timing to the backup flight system (BFS) when the GPCs were scheduled to transition from vehicle checkout to flight configuration mode.


title: STS-1

text: Not only was this the first launch of the Space Shuttle, but it marked the first time that solid-fuel rockets were used for a NASA crewed launch (although previous systems had used solid-fuel motors for their escape towers or retro rockets). STS-1 was also the first U.S. crewed space vehicle launched without an uncrewed powered test flight. The STS-1 orbiter, "Columbia", also holds the record for the amount of time spent in the Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF) before launch – 610 days, the time needed for the replacement of many of its heat shield tiles.


title: STS-1

text: The NASA mission objective for the maiden flight was to accomplish a safe ascent into orbit and return to Earth for a safe landing of Orbiter and crew. The only payload carried on the mission was a Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, which contained sensors and measuring devices to record the orbiter's performance and the stresses that occurred during launch, ascent, orbital flight, descent and landing. All 113 flight test objectives were accomplished, and the orbiter's spaceworthiness was verified.


title: STS-1

text: During the final T−9minute holding period, Launch Director George Page read a message of good wishes to the crew from President Ronald Reagan, ending with, "John, we can't do more from the launch team than say, we wish you an awful lot of luck. We are with you one thousand percent and we are awful proud to have been a part of it. Good luck gentlemen."


title: STS-1

text: Ignition of the three RS-25 main engines was sensed as a sharp increase in noise. The stack rocked "downwards" (towards the crew's feet), then back up to the vertical, at which point both Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) ignited. Crippen likened lift-off to a "steam catapult shot" (such as when an aircraft is launched from an aircraft carrier). The stack's combined northwards translation and climb above the launch tower's lightning rod were readily apparent to Young. After clearing the tower the stack began a right roll (until the +Z axis or vertical fin pointed) to a launch azimuth of 067° True (in order to achieve an orbital inclination of 40.30°), and pitched to a "heads down" attitude (to reduce loading on the wings ). Simultaneously control was passed from the launch team in Florida to Flight Director Neil Hutchinson's Silver team in Flight Control Room 1 (FCR 1) in Texas with astronaut Dan Brandenstein as their CAPCOM.


title: STS-1

text: "Columbia"'s main engines were throttled down to 65% thrust to transit the region of Max Q, the point during ascent when the shuttle undergoes maximum aerodynamic stress. This occurred 56 seconds into the flight at Mach1.06. The wind corrected value was (predicted , limit ). The two SRBs performed better than expected causing a lofted trajectory, and were jettisoned after burnout at 2 minutes and 12 seconds (at altitude, higher than planned). After 8 minutes and 34 seconds Mission Elapsed Time (MET), the main engines were shut down (MECO, at altitude ) and the external tank was jettisoned 18 seconds later to eventually break up and impact in the Indian Ocean. Two twin-engined Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) engine burns of 86 seconds duration initiated at 10 minutes and 34 seconds MET and 75 seconds duration at 44 minutes 2 seconds MET inserted "Columbia" into a orbit. This subtle deviation from the original plan of circular went largely unnoticed. In fact, it adjusted the spacecraft's orbital period to take account of the April 10, 1981, scrub, so that attempts could still be made to use KH-11 reconnaissance satellites to image "Columbia" on orbit. Overall Young commented that there was a lot less vibration and noise during launch than they had expected. However, the sensations accompanying the first firing of the large Reaction Control System (RCS) jets surprised the crew. Crippen commented "it's like a big cannon just fired ... you don't like them the first time you hear them". Young reported that "the entire cabin vibrates ... it felt like the nose was being bent".


title: STS-1

text: Once on-orbit both crew members safed their ejection seats and unstrapped. The next critical event was payload bay door opening. This was essential to allow heat rejection from "Columbia"s systems via the doors' space radiators. Failure to open these by the end of the second orbit would have resulted in a return to Earth at the end of the fifth orbit, before the limited capacity of the flash evaporator cooling system was exceeded. As they opened the doors the crew noticed that they had sustained damage to thermal protection system (TPS) tiles on the OMS pods. This was televised to the ground. Shortly afterwards Young, then Crippen doffed their emergency ejection suits.


title: STS-1

text: The majority of the crew's approximately 53hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests. Despite the scheduling impact of efforts to image "Columbia"s TPS by utilising external assets, these were all accomplished. They included: Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic RCS testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and photography. The OMS-3 and OMS-4 burns at 006:20:46 and 007:05:32 MET respectively raised this orbit to (compared to a planned circular). These two firings were single engined utilising the crossfeed system. The crew reported a cold first night on board despite acceptable temperature indications. They found the second night comfortable after settings were adjusted.


title: STS-1

text: During the second day of the mission, the astronauts received a phone call from Vice President George H. W. Bush. President Ronald Reagan had originally intended to visit the Mission Control Center during the mission, but at the time was still recovering from an assassination attempt which had taken place two weeks before the launch (Reagan had only returned home to the White House the day prior to the launch).


title: STS-1

text: The crew awoke from their second sleep period earlier than planned. Preparations for return to Earth began with breakfast. Stowing of cabin items, flight control system checkout, data processing system reconfigurations, and then ejection suit donning followed. In Houston, the Crimson team headed by their Flight Director Don Puddy came on duty in FCR1 for the mission's final shift. His CAPCOM was astronaut Joseph P. Allen with Frederick Hauck assisting. Payload bay door closing was a critical milestone to ensure vehicle structural and thermal integrity for re-entry. If power closing had failed, Crippen was trained to conduct a one-man extravehicular activity (EVA) to manually winch them closed. With cabin switch positions verified, the crew strapped into their ejection seats. Meanwhile, Johnson Space Center (JSC) pilots Charlie Hayes and Ted Mendenhall were airborne over California's Edwards Air Force Base area in a Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA) performing a final check of landing weather conditions.


title: STS-1

text: Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) 2 and 3 were started (to provide flight control hydraulic pressure). The 160-second twin-engine OMS de-orbit burn took place during the 36th orbit over the southern Indian Ocean and changed the orbital parameters from to . This ensured atmospheric capture of the spacecraft close enough to the planned landing site to have sufficient energy for a controlled glide landing, but not so close that energy would have to be dissipated at a rate exceeding its structural capability. Young then slowly pitched "Columbia" up to the wings level nose high entry attitude. Both crew members armed their ejection seats during this pitch around. Nearly half an hour later APU 1 was started as planned. Shortly afterwards, "Columbia" entered an approximately 21-minute long communications blackout. This was due to a combination of ionisation (16 minutes) and lack of ground station coverage between Guam and Buckhorn Tracking Station at Dryden Flight Research Facility. Entry Interface (EI) was reached over the eastern Pacific Ocean from the landing site at a speed of around . EI is merely an arbitrarily defined geodetic altitude of employed by NASA for the purposes of trajectory computations and mission planning. Above this altitude, the spacecraft is considered to be outside the "sensable atmosphere".


title: STS-1

text: Most of this first orbiter entry was flown automatically. An initial angle of attack of 40° had to be maintained until through the most severe aerodynamic heating after which it was gradually reduced. At about altitude a light pink air glow caused by entry heating became visible, and both crew members lowered their visors. "Columbia" had to maneuver "cross range" of its orbital ground track to reach the planned landing site during the entry. Consequently, a roll into a right bank was flown when the air density had increased sufficiently to raise dynamic pressure to (with speed still in excess of Mach 24 and approximately altitude). Automatic roll reversals to control energy dissipation rate and cross range steering were performed at around Mach 18.5 and Mach 9.8. The crew clearly observed the coast of California as "Columbia" crossed it near Big Sur at Mach 7 and . Both the Mach 4.8 and Mach 2.8 roll reversals were automatically initiated and manually completed by John Young. The last RCS jet firing took place at an altitude of — lower than desired (due to a predicted risk of combustion chamber explosion).


title: STS-1

text: Young again took manual control for the remainder of the flight as they went subsonic approaching the Heading Alignment Circle (HAC). A wide left turn was flown to line up with lake bed runway23, whilst T-38 "Chase1", crewed by astronauts Jon McBride and "Pinky" Nelson joined formation. Main gear touch down occurred on runway23 at Edwards Air Force Base, at equivalent airspeed, slightly slower and around further down the runway than planned. This was the result of a combination of better than predicted Orbiter lift-to-drag ratios and tail wind. Touch down time was 18:21UTC on April 14, 1981. As they rolled to a stop, Young remarked over the radio, "This is the world's greatest all electric flying machine. I'll tell you that. That was super!"


title: STS-1

text: "Columbia" was returned to Kennedy Space Center from California on April 28, 1981, atop the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft. The 36-orbit, flight lasted 2days, 6hours, 20minutes and 53seconds.


title: STS-1

text: STS-1 was the first orbital test flight of what NASA claims was, at the time, the most complex flying machine ever built. Roughly 70 anomalies were observed during and after the flight, owing to the many components and systems that could not otherwise be adequately tested. These included:


title: STS-1

text: Despite these problems, the STS-1 mission was completed successfully, and in most respects "Columbia" performed optimally. After some modifications to the Shuttle and to the launch and reentry procedures, "Columbia" flew the next four Shuttle missions.


title: STS-1

text: The artwork for the official mission insignia was designed by artist Robert McCall. It is a symbolic representation of the Space Shuttle. The image does not depict the black wing roots present on the actual Shuttle.


title: STS-1

text: The ultimate launch date of STS-1 fell on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's Vostok 1, the first spaceflight to carry a human crew. In 2001, Yuri's Night was established to celebrate both events. In a tribute to the 25th anniversary of the first flight of Space Shuttle, Firing Room 1 in the Launch Control Center at Kennedy Space Center – which launched STS-1 – was renamed the Young-Crippen Firing Room. NASA described the mission as "the boldest test flight in history".


title: STS-1

text: STS-1 and STS-2 were the only two shuttle flights to have the External Tank painted white. To reduce the Shuttle's overall weight, all flights from STS-3 onward used an unpainted tank. The use of an unpainted tank provided a weight saving of approximately , and gave the External Tank the distinctive orange color which later became associated with the Space Shuttle.


title: STS-1

text: The song "Countdown" by Rush, from the 1982 album "Signals", was written about STS-1 and the inaugural flight of "Columbia". The song was "dedicated with thanks to astronauts Young and Crippen and all the people of NASA for their inspiration and cooperation".


title: STS-1

text: The footage of the launch was commonly played on MTV throughout the 1980s and 1990s, and was the first thing shown on the channel, along with footage of Neil Armstrong on the Moon and the launch of Apollo 11.


title: STS-1

text: IMAX cameras filmed the launch, landing, and mission control during the flight, for a documentary film entitled "Hail Columbia", which debuted in 1982 and later became available on DVD. The title of the film comes from the pre-1930s unofficial American national anthem, "Hail, Columbia".


title: STS-1

text: The beginning of the song "Hello Earth", on Kate Bush's 1985 "Hounds of Love" album, contains a short clip of dialogue between "Columbia" and Mission Control, during the last few minutes of its descent, beginning with "Columbia now at nine times the speed of sound..."


title: STS-1

text: In 2006, "Collateral Damage," the 12th episode of the ninth season of the long-running Canadian-American military science fiction television show "Stargate SG-1", a childhood flashback shows that the character Lieutenant Colonel Cameron Mitchell witnessed the launch with his father live on television at the age of ten, one of the events that led to him becoming a United States Air Force pilot.


title: STS-1

text: NASA began a tradition of playing music to astronauts during the Project Gemini, and first used music to wake up a flight crew during Apollo 15. A special musical track is chosen for each day in space, often by the astronauts' families, to have a special meaning to an individual member of the crew, or in reference to the day's planned activities.


title: STS-1

text: An accident occurred on March 19, 1981, that led to the deaths of three people. During a countdown test for STS-1, a pure nitrogen atmosphere was introduced in the aft engine compartment of "Space Shuttle Columbia" to reduce the danger of an explosion from the many other potentially dangerous gases on board the orbiter. At the conclusion of the test, pad workers were given clearance to return to work on the orbiter, even though the nitrogen had not yet been purged due to a recent procedural change. Three technicians, John Bjornstad, Forrest Cole, and Nick Mullon, entered the compartment without air packs, unaware of the danger since nitrogen gas is odorless and colorless, and lost consciousnesses due to lack of oxygen. Several minutes later, another worker saw them and tried to help, but passed out himself. The fourth did not alert anyone, but was himself seen by two other people. Of those two, one alerted a security guard and another went to help the unconscious group. The security guard entered the compartment with an air pack and removed the five men from the compartment.


title: STS-1

text: Security procedures delayed ambulances from arriving on the scene by several minutes. Bjornstad died at the scene; Cole died on April 1 without ever regaining consciousness, and Mullon suffered permanent brain damage and died on April 11, 1995, from complications of his injuries. These were the first launchpad deaths at Cape Canaveral since the Apollo 1 fire, which killed three astronauts during preparations for the manned moon landing missions.


title: STS-1

text: The incident did not delay the launch of STS-1 less than a month later, but pilot Robert Crippen gave an on-orbit tribute to Bjornstad and Cole. A three-month inquiry determined a combination of a recent change in safety procedures and a miscommunication during the operations were the cause of the accident. A report called "LC-39A Mishap Investigation Board Final Report" was released with the findings. The names of John Bjornstad, Forrest Cole and Nicholas Mullon are engraved on a monument at the US Space Walk of Fame in Florida.


title: Spirit Riding Free

text: Spirit Riding Free is a computer-animated series, produced by DreamWorks Animation Television and distributed by Netflix, based on the 2002 Oscar-nominated traditionally animated film, "", and the first series in the "Spirit" franchise. The series was first released on Netflix on May 5, 2017.


title: Spirit Riding Free

text: Set in the small frontier town of Miradero, a 12-year-old girl named Fortuna "Lucky" Esperanza Navarro Prescott, who had recently relocated from the city, encounters a wild kiger mustang named Spirit Jr., the son of Spirit and Rain from the 2002 movie "." When Lucky is on the train travelling to Miradero. The horse is caught by wranglers and brought to Miradero to be “broken in”. Lucky immediately bonds with the stallion and frees him from his pen. Lucky also makes friends with Prudence "Pru" Granger and Abigail Stone. Pru owns a talented and proud palomino horse called Chica Linda, and Abigail owns a friendly and goofy pinto horse called Boomerang. The three girls call themselves the PALs and go on many adventures with their horses.


title: Spirit Riding Free

text: The voice director for the first three episodes was Ginny McSwain. Katie McWane took over as voice director after that.


title: Spirit Riding Free

text: A number of webisodes have been released exclusively (except for "Unstoppable Music Video") on the DreamWorks Spirit YouTube-channel during the course of the series.


title: Spirit Riding Free

text: "Spirit Riding Free: Season 1–4", containing all of the episodes from seasons 1–4, was released on DVD on June 5, 2018 by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment. On September 24, 2019, Universal released "Spirit Riding Free: Season 5–8", containing all of the episodes from seasons 5–8 on DVD. The series is also scheduled for DVD releases in the UK, France, Italy, and Germany. "Spirit Riding Free: Spirit Of Christmas was released on DVD on November 11, 2021."


title: Spirit Riding Free

text: On October 7, 2019, DreamWorks Animation announced that a feature film based on the series was in development scheduled for a theatrical release on May 14, 2021. It was produced by DreamWorks Animation and released by Universal Pictures. The film was directed by Elaine Bogan and co-directed by Ennio Torresan Jr. in their feature directorial debuts, and written by the developer of the series, Aury Wallington, and produced by Karen Foster. The film was produced on a lower budget and made by a different animation studio outside of DreamWorks, similar to "". On November 10, 2020, the film's title was announced as "Spirit Untamed", with a new release date of June 4, 2021.


title: Spirit Riding Free

text: On February 9, 2022, DreamWorks has announced a new series "Spirit & Friends" inspired by the characters from "Spirit Riding Free", which taking place in setting of "Spirit Untamed" and was released on YouTube on February 12.


title: Spirit Riding Free

text: On December 4, 2019, Dreamworks Animation released a game for Android and iOS based around the series entitled "Spirit Trick Challenge".


title: Spirit Riding Free

text: The series was received positively. Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media described the series as "sweet," arguing that the series treads lightly on "factual strife between new settlers and the indigenous population," and said the series "raises issues, such as migration and assimilation" while saying that Lucky was a heroine who showed "courage, selflessness, and a tireless sense of adventure." Ashby further argued that the series has stories that are "humorous and heartwarming" and themes which reflect the "changing atmosphere of the 19th century American West." Dave Trumbore of Collider, said that the series is less about social commentary and more about a girl, her horse, and "real, complicated friendships and life lessons learned in a refreshingly sincere manner." Trumbore added that the series tames the message from the 2002 film, noted that in the early seasons of the series mainly focus on the "class divide," offering a sense of adventure rather than social commentary, and noted that while the animation is uneven, it is "an adventurous, kid-friendly series."


title: Spirit Riding Free

text: Ashby of Common Sense Media called the "Riding Academy" seasons of the series "geared toward tweens" and praised the series for having a "diverse group of characters," female characters who are self-confident, and characters "coping with challenges of growing up." Ashby noted these seasons show "healthy self-awareness and emotional maturity for tween viewers," argued that unlike the "Spirit Riding Free" seasons doesn't "touch on themes of the historical time." Armaan Babu of "Meaww" called the series "one of the most wholesome and inspiring shows on Netflix," arguing that while it is aimed at one young girls, it is written well enough to connect with those of all ages, with the protagonists growing "into mature and responsible young adults." Babu also noted that part 2 of the series dealt with heavier topics than part 1, and praised the series for being filled with characters who are "constantly, and genuinely supportive of each other."


title: Spirit Riding Free

text: Mandie Caroll of Common Sense Media called the two "Pony Tales" seasons "fun" and noted that while the series does not substantially confront "the actual history of westward settlement," it does focus on cheating, conflicts within friendships, and doing what's right. She also said that while these collections are a bit disorganized, the seasons have the same storytelling and visual quality of the original series.


title: Spirit Riding Free

text: Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media reviewed the "Spirit Riding Free: Spirit of Christmas" special, calling it a "so-so holiday horse tale warms with timely themes." While criticizing the film for "relegating the animals to mere afterthoughts" she said that the special is emotionally-laden and emphasizes themes perfect for a focus on Christmas. John Serba of "Decider" concurred, saying that he didn't understand the positive message trying to be sent, he thought it may have a "positive message for its target demographic."


title: Spirit Riding Free

text: Emily Ashby reviewed the "Spirit Riding Free: Ride Along Adventure" special for Common Sense Media, describing it as "lengthy story tangents" that result in a "laborious interactive story." She criticized the special for becoming an "exercise in guessing which choice might lead to the exit most quickly," but noted that involves much "realistic" peril for the young protagonists.


title: Japan Standard Time

text: , or , is the standard time zone in Japan, 9 hours ahead of UTC (). Japan does not observe daylight saving time, though its introduction has been debated on several occasions. During World War II, the time zone was often referred to as Tokyo Standard Time.


title: Japan Standard Time

text: Japan Standard Time is equivalent to Korean Standard Time, Pyongyang Time (North Korea), Eastern Indonesia Standard Time, East-Timorese Standard Time and Yakutsk Time (Russia).


title: Japan Standard Time

text: Before the Meiji era (1868–1912), each local region had its own time zone in which noon was when the sun was exactly at its culmination. As modern transportation methods, such as trains, were adopted, this practice became a source of confusion. For example, there is a difference of about 5 degrees longitude between Tokyo and Osaka and because of this, a train that departed from Tokyo would arrive at Osaka 20 minutes behind the time in Tokyo. In 1886, Ordinance 51 was issued in response to this problem, which stated:


title: Japan Standard Time

text: According to this, the was set 9 hours ahead of GMT (UTC had not been established yet). In the ordinance, the first clause mentions GMT, the second defines east longitude and west longitude and the third says the standard time zone would be in effect from 1888. The city of Akashi in Hyōgo Prefecture is located exactly on 135 degrees east longitude and subsequently became known as "Toki no machi" (Town of Time).


title: Japan Standard Time

text: With the annexation of Taiwan in 1895, Ordinance 167 (pictured on the right) was issued to rename the previous Standard Time to and establish a new at 120° longitude as the time zone for the Japanese Miyako and Yaeyama Islands, as well as Taiwan and its Penghu Islands. While Korea came under Japanese rule in 1910, Korea Standard Time of GMT+08:30 continued to be used until 1912, when it was changed to Central Standard Time.


title: Japan Standard Time

text: Western Standard Time, which was used in Taiwan and some parts of Okinawa, was abolished by Ordinance 529 in 1937 and replaced by Central Standard Time in those areas. Territories occupied by Japan during World War II, including Singapore and Malaya, adopted Japan Standard Time for the duration of their occupation, but reverted after Japan's surrender.


title: Japan Standard Time

text: Between 1948 and 1951 occupied Japan observed daylight saving time (DST) from the first Saturday in May at 24:00 to the second Saturday in September at 24:00 (with the exception of 1949, when the spring forward transition was the first Saturday in April at 24:00). More recently there have been efforts to restore daylight saving time in Japan but these have not succeeded.


title: Japan Standard Time

text: In May 2013, former Tokyo governor Naoki Inose proposed permanently moving the country’s time zone ahead by 2 hours to better align global markets and make Japan’s stock market to be the first to open in the world at any given time.


title: Japan Standard Time

text: From 1948 to 1952, Japan observed daylight saving time (DST) between May and September every year. The United States imposed this policy as part of the Allied occupation of Japan. In 1952, three weeks before the occupation ended, the Japanese government, which had been granted increased powers, abolished daylight saving time, and the Allied occupation authorities did not interfere. Since then, DST has never been officially implemented nationwide in Japan.


title: Japan Standard Time

text: Starting in the late 1990s, a movement to reinstate DST in Japan gained some popularity, aiming at saving energy and increasing recreational time. The Hokkaido region is particularly in favour of this movement because daylight starts as early as 03:30 (in standard time) there in summer due to its high latitude and its location near the eastern edge of the time zone, with much of the region's solar time actually closer to UTC+10:00. Because of this, the sun sets shortly after 19:00 in much of the eastern part of the country (in Tokyo, the latest sunset of the entire year is 19:01, from 26 June to 1 July, despite being at 35°41'N latitude). Since 2000, a few local governments and commerce departments have promoted unmandated hour-earlier work schedule experiments during the summer without officially resetting clocks.


title: Japan Standard Time

text: The Council on Economic and Fiscal Policy of the Cabinet Office is expected to propose that the Japanese government begin studying DST in an attempt to help combat global warming. Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe made a significant effort to introduce daylight saving time, but was ultimately unsuccessful. However, it is not clear that DST would conserve energy in Japan. A 2007 simulation estimated that introducing DST to Japan would increase energy use in Osaka residences by 0.13%, with a 0.02% saving due to lighting more than outweighed by a 0.15% increase due to cooling costs; the simulation did not examine non-residential buildings.


title: Kash Doll

text: Arkeisha Antoinette Knight, known professionally as Kash Doll, is an American rapper from Detroit, Michigan. Signed to Republic Records, she is best known for her singles "For Everybody" (2017) and "Ice Me Out" (2018), the latter of which became the lead single from her debut album "Stacked" (2019). Kash Doll has collaborated with artists including Meek Mill, Big Sean, Iggy Azalea, and K. Michelle.


title: Kash Doll

text: Kash Doll was born and raised in Detroit, Michigan. The oldest of six siblings, she began working at a young age to help her single mother support their family. She had the desire to rap at an early age and started freestyling and writing lyrics as a young girl.


title: Kash Doll

text: She attended Henry Ford College for business management but left after a year. To support the financial needs of her family, Kash became a strip club dancer. While working as a dancer, Kash would rap and eventually started earning money from patrons at the nightclub without having to dance. It was reported that one night she made $26,000.


title: Kash Doll

text: Early in her career, Kash Doll performed in local clubs, schools and charity events in the Detroit area. Kash Doll later signed a deal with a local recording company in Detroit which later fell through. She then began using social media to build a following by releasing short videos of herself rapping. Drake used Instagram to invite her to open a show for him on his Summer Sixteen tour stop in Detroit.


title: Kash Doll

text: Kash Doll remixed Tinashe's single "2 On" in 2015. She then released a video for a single called "Run Me My Money", which went viral in 2015. That same year she released her mixtape, "Keisha vs Kash Doll". In December 2017, Kash Doll appeared on Big Sean and Metro Boomin's single "So Good". After being released from her previous deal, on July 16, 2018, she released an EP called "The Vault" on streaming platforms. One music video from the EP, "For Everybody", received over 10 million views on YouTube.


title: Kash Doll

text: She released a mixtape called "Brat Mail" on her birthday in 2018. It was dedicated to her fans, who she refers to as "bratz". In August 2018, Kash Doll signed a record deal with Republic Records. She then released her first single as a part of that deal, "Ice Me Out". Kash Doll released a single called "Hustla" in April 2019, which highlights her experiences from working at strip clubs. She stated that she is trying to awareness for and advocate on behalf of the women in that industry. On June 7, 2019, Kash Doll released a new single titled "Kitten" that features American rapper Lil Wayne. Kash Doll featured on Australian rapper Iggy Azalea's single "Fuck It Up" from Azalea's 2019 studio album, "In My Defense". Kash Doll was also an opening performer for Meek Mill's 2019 The Motivation Tour.


title: Kash Doll

text: She made her TV debut as herself in 2 episodes of "Empire" in 2020. She has a recurring role as Monique in Starz series "BMF" as of 2021.


title: Kash Doll

text: In September 2021, Kash Doll announced on Instagram that she was expecting her first child with Detroit rapper, Tracy T. She gave birth to their son on January 6, 2022.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: The Warriors is a 2005 beat 'em up video game based on the 1979 film of the same name (itself based on Sol Yurick's 1965 novel), developed by Rockstar Toronto and published by Rockstar Games. It was released in October 2005 for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox, and February 2007 for the PlayStation Portable; the PSP port was developed by Rockstar Leeds. The game was also ported to the PlayStation 3 in May 2013 and PlayStation 4 in July 2016, via the PlayStation Network. Set in gritty 1970s New York City, the story follows the eponymous street gang, who are framed for the murder of a respected gang leader and must return to their home turf in Coney Island while being hunted by rival gangs and the police. The game expands on the film's plot, with the first half covering events that took place three months before the events of the film.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: The gameplay revolves around large scale brawling in 3D environments interspersed with other activities such as chase sequences. The game features songs from the film's soundtrack; however, as of 2016, some of them have been removed from the PS3 and PS4 versions, including "I Love Livin' in the City" and "In the City", due to licensing restrictions. Several cast members from the film returned to voice their characters in the game. Following its release, "The Warriors" received very positive reviews.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: "The Warriors" is an action-adventure survival game with a heavy focus on melee combat (specifically brawling). Other minor gameplay elements are mixed into the experience, such as the ability to use spray paint to mark turf or insult people. The game features multiple playable characters, including the Warriors' Warchief (leader) Cleon, lieutenant Swan, heavy muscles Ajax and Snow, Cleon and Swan's friends Vermin and Cowboy, the scout Fox, Harlem native Cochise, and graffiti artist Rembrandt. The player can control only one character per mission, while the others are computer-controlled. Cleon, Swan, Ajax, and Rembrandt are the most heavily featured characters. Most missions revolve around the Warriors attacking rival gangs' territory, though there are five bonus "flashback" missions that explain how certain members joined the gang; all gangs, save for the Destroyers, are taken from the film, even though they were only mentioned or briefly featured in the film itself, such as the Electric Eliminators, the Panzers and the Van Cortlandt Rangers. An arcade game called "Armies of the Night" is unlocked after the main storyline of the game is completed. The playable characters are Swan and Ajax.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: The Warriors' headquarters serves as a hub. From inside, the player can train (10 ranks of physical fitness such as, sit-ups, press ups, chin ups, and heavy bag, that increase stamina), talk to fellow gang members, play through rumble mode and other bonus material, walk outside to Coney Island for extra missions, or begin the next level of the story proper. The player is presented with mission objectives such as beating up a certain number of enemy gang members or stealing a certain amount of items, with more complex and creative tasks like winning a graffiti competition in SoHo, stealing goods to plant on crooked cops and rival gang members, and wild chases away from baseball bat wielding members of the Baseball Furies. Fighting takes the form of gang rumble style action with the player being assisted by other Warriors at the same time (a minimum of 1 and a maximum of 8). Combos are performed with 2-3 button chains for weak attacks, strong attacks, holds and throws. Grab attacks can be used for the playable character to perform their own unique power attack that will quickly decrease the enemy's health. The game sees the Warriors fight their way through the ranks, building a heavy rep and getting their colors out in force, until they get an invite to a meeting of all of the gangs of New York City, which is where the events of the film (and the last few missions of the game) begin.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: The game progresses linearly from one mission event to the next, usually presented as a cutscene. Combat in "The Warriors" occurs in real-time and involves pressing buttons to initiate attacks by the on-screen character. By pausing the game, the player can find combat techniques―2-3 combos, wall smash, grab and throws, charges, body cross attack, snap attacks, weapon attacks, and counter-attacks. The player can look at the character's stats. This menu is manipulated by using the right analog stick, while movement is controlled in the 3D environment using the joystick, and camera controls are managed using the up arrow on the digital pad and the analog joystick, allowing the player to navigate the menu while avoiding or approaching enemies. In addition, players can choose to mug people, receiving money, flash, and spray graffiti. Each level contains items the player can collect or steal, such as car radios and jewelry. Completing these actions earn the player points, which count towards unlocking soldiers, arenas and game modes for Rumble Mode, the game's free-for-all multiplayer mode.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: The playable character has a bar below their feet to determine their health level, reducing whenever the character takes damage, although it can be replenished by using flash. The circular grey bar inside the health bar represents the player's grappling stamina, draining upon grabbing or mounting an opponent. The top-left hand side represents the character rage meter, which, when filled, allows the player to pull off a variety of combos and styles. In rage, the player will become temporarily invincible, using finishing moves and inflicting serious damage on the opponent. The player's allies, if they are knocked out, the player can use flash to replenish their health. However, if the playable character loses all of their health, the mission ends and the player will be prompted to resume from the checkpoint or restart the mission from the beginning. Defeating enemies will cause items to fall from their bodies; flash to restore health; spray to spray over enemy gang territories; and money which can be used to purchase items from dealers.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: The player can choose to help other people in Coney Island. In return for helping these people, the Warriors will learn abilities, such as defeating policemen to receive cuffs to subdue and arrest anybody, cuff-keys that will allow the player to free Warriors with keys instead of breaking cuffs, escape from cuffs themselves with cuff-keys, increase flash capacity, and earn brass knuckles and steel-toed boots to inflict more damage to the enemy. The player can choose to have the Warriors exercise in the headquarters to increase stamina.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: During "The Warriors", there are a collection of levels, referred to as missions, which the player must progress through. Eighteen can be accessed, along with six more bonus missions, known as "Flashbacks", which show how the Warriors were formed, and how each member of the Warriors came to join the gang, and to unlock an arcade machine that will allow you to play "Armies of the Night". The setting in the game for the Warriors is their home territory, Coney Island. Throughout the game, the player travels to other areas of New York City visiting other gangs' territories in the process. Completing the missions/game allows the player to replay levels, to improve on the player's score, and unlock new characters, and a game mode called Fury Mode where the Baseball Furies are controlled.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: The design and casting of the characters was faithful to what was seen in "The Warriors". Each character is portrayed as their respective role from the film ― Cyrus, the Riffs leader, inhabits Gramercy Park. Luther, the Rogues leader, is based out of his hearse, The Baseball Furies' territory is Riverside Park, The Lizzies' their apartment, with other smaller gangs based around the city. When starting a mission, the Warriors will occasionally stay at their home turf or travel to another place via train to use as a starting point.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: Missions and events normally begin at the Coney Island headquarters, which is mostly used as a launching point throughout the game. The player can travel to places across New York City, including Tremont where the Warriors encounters the Orphans, a low-class gang, and Riverside Park which is run by the Baseball Furies, a well-respected gang. The main players travel from one turf to another across New York, to let the public radio station know there is a new gang in town. This sometimes results in the Warriors brawling with the rival gangs. The Warriors' hangout features mini-games such as a weight section and a punching bag, and a machine resembling a pinball table that gives access to the "Rumble Mode" which upon completion of missions, unlocks special stages where the player can fight all of the gangs in New York City.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: The primary protagonist is Cleon, the Warriors leader in the first half of the game until after the meeting. Cleon's role was to increase the Warriors reputation and rid Coney Island of the Destroyers. The major protagonist is Swan, the second-in-command throughout most of the game, covering the film itself. Swan's role was to bring the Warriors back to Coney Island from the meeting where they were set up as the murderers of Cyrus. The other Warriors feature an important role with each Warrior having a role, like the heavy muscle Ajax and Snow, Vermin is the bread man, which means he is the one who carries the money, Cowboy keeps track of The Warriors inventory, although this is only mentioned in the film. Fox is the scout who goes ahead of The Warriors, warning them if trouble is ahead, Harlem native Cochise is the watchman who watches their back when walking in a group, Snow is the radio man, which is also only established in the film. and Rembrandt is The Warriors' graffiti artist.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: Mercy serves as Swan's love interest in the second half of "The Warriors". The primary antagonist is Luther, the Rogues leader, responsible for Cyrus' murder and framing the Warriors for the crime. During battles and encounters with enemies, other Warrior members will assist the player in various situations.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: Other areas contain other gangs of New York City, which the player must defeat in a battle. On one occasion, gang members tend to be scouts that appear in orange dots on the radar in different areas and spaces. Upon being spotted by the gang member, the scout will call for backup, and the orange circles up the radar ― the player can then choose either to attack or stealth kill the scout. Policemen will appear as blue dots on the radar; if the player commits a crime, the blue circles up the radar, the blue dots will flash and the crime that is committed will appear on the middle screen, prompting the officers to chase and attempt to handcuff the player― the player can also assault the officers or sneak into a hide area if no-one can see the player at the time. Civilians in local places will rat the player out to a gang member or the police when committing a crime that disturbs their inhabitants.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: Throughout the Warriors endeavours, they will be aided by Flash, Spray, and Knife dealers, to help them out ― Flash dealers are there to supply the player with flash, a street drug that restores health, which costs 20 dollars, Spray dealers supply the player with spray paint, which costs 5 dollars, while Knife Dealers supply the player with knives, which cost 50 dollars. However, some of the dealers tend to defraud the player and make a run for it, but the player can chase them down to recover their money. However, if the player chooses to attack the dealers, they will either retaliate or run, though they will respawn. In "Rumble Mode", playable characters can also be other gangs that have been unlocked in the game, to compete against other gangs in a match of one's choosing.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: The game, like the film, follows the Warriors, a Coney Island-based street gang led by Cleon. Three months prior to the events of the film, the Warriors dispose their long time rivals, the Destroyers, after defeating their leader Virgil, who is a former friend of Cleon. Their reputation increases over time as they humiliate a low-ranking gang, the Orphans; kill the Hi-Hats' leader, Chatterbox; spray paint trains; and ally themselves with the Saracens, whom they help set up their rivals, the Jones Street Boys, and a group of corrupt NYPD officers.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: The game eventually catches up to the events of the film, when Cyrus, leader of the Gramercy Riffs, the most powerful gang in New York City, calls a meeting with all gangs in Van Cortlandt Park to propose a permanent citywide truce that would allow the gangs to control the city. Everyone opens to Cyrus' idea except Luther, leader of the Rogues, who shoots Cyrus dead, just as the police raid the meeting. In the ensuing chaos, Luther frames Cleon for the murder, resulting in the Riffs seemingly beating him to death. Swan, the Warriors' "warchief", assumes leadership of the gang as they try to make their way home, unaware they have been framed for Cyrus' murder, while the Riffs call a hit on them through a radio DJ.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: The Turnbull AC fail to kill the Warriors as they board a train en route to Coney Island, only for the train to be stopped by a fire on the tracks at Tremont. While continuing their journey on foot, the Warriors encounter the Orphans, still mad at being humiliated by them. Swan calls a truce with the Orphans' leader, Sully, and the Warriors are allowed to walk through the Orphans territory unharmed. However, Sully's partner Mercy mocks him, causing him to change his mind and order his men to attack the gang. During the fight, the Warriors use a molotov cocktail, blowing up Sully's car; impressed, Mercy joins the Warriors. The gang arrives on the 96th Street and Broadway in Manhattan, where they are chased by the police and separated. Three Warriors - Rembrandnt, Vermin, and Cochise - escape via train and Marcy runs away on foot, while Fox, wrestling with a police officer, falls onto the tracks and is fatally hit by a passing train.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: Swan and the remaining Warriors - Snow, Ajax, and Cowboy - are chased into Riverside Park by the Baseball Furies, where they defeat them. Afterward, Ajax notices a lone woman in the park and leaves the group to stay with her despite Swan's objections. When Ajax becomes sexually aggressive, the woman, revealed to be an undercover police officer, handcuffs him to the bench and arrests him. Arriving at Union Square, Rembrandt, Vermin, and Cochise are seduced by an all-female gang, the Lizzies, and invited into their warehouse, but escape when it's revealed to be a trap. In the process, they learn everyone believes they murdered Cyrus. Meanwhile, Swan returns to 96th Street station and finds Mercy. The pair travel to Union Square on foot while forming a close bond and being stalked by the Punks, whom they eventually defeat upon reuniting with the other Warriors. Meanwhile, a gang member informs the Riffs that Luther framed the Warriors for killing Cyrus.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: The Warriors finally arrive at Coney Island, only to find the Rogues waiting for them. Luther admits to murdering Cyrus for no particular reason, and challenges Swan to a one-on-one fight, before pulling out a gun. Swan dodges his shot and throws a switchblade at his hand, disarming him. The Riffs then arrive to deal with the Rogues, and acknowledge the Warriors' courage before they leave. The radio DJ announces the hit on the Warriors has been called off and salutes them with a song―"In The City". The game ends with the Warriors walking down the beach, finally safe and home.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: Rockstar Games began working on "The Warriors" in 2002. The PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions of the game were developed by Rockstar Toronto, who were previously known as Rockstar Canada. Promotion of the game was aided by its appearance at E3 2005. The game was later ported to the PlayStation Portable platform, and developed by Rockstar Leeds. This was first announced in October 2006, and Rockstar Leeds worked with original developers Rockstar Toronto in order to make the port easier. A spokesperson had said "We have worked closely with Rockstar Toronto to maintain the extremely high standards they've set for this game," said Gordon Hall, President of Rockstar Leeds. "The PSP system allows us to deliver the experience in an entirely different way, while staying very faithful to the original source material and maintaining the high standards we set for ourselves as a developer."


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: "The Warriors" then began to look a lot like several of Rockstar's other projects such as "", "Manhunt", and "Red Dead Revolver". The look and presentation are definitely familiar, despite coming from different production houses, each developer shares their toolsets and proprietary technologies with each other on a consistent basis A combination of the company's biggest hits like "State of Emergency and Manhunt", "The Warriors" successfully mixed multi-character co-op brawling with stealth action. Just as was the case on PlayStation 2, if there is anything that positively sticks out regarding how "The Warriors" plays, it's the surprising depth of its characters. All nine playable fighters, while similar, have their own unique selection of moves and strengths and offer slightly different takes on the same concept. Due to the PlayStation Portable being a handheld platform, differences to gameplay came about as a result of the port, such as the control configuration receiving a drastic change.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: During the review, a spokesman had stated "the audio, on the other hand, is on the other side of the scale". Many of the original actors from the film have returned to voice their characters—at least, most of the ones that are "still alive". Michael Beck, James Remar, and Dorsey Wright once again were praised in their excellent performances (despite sounding quite a bit older than the 20-something characters they play), and the remaining voice cast delivers, too. The spokesman further explains "it helps that the dialogue is well written, but there's hardly a bad voice actor in the bunch; the one weird thing about the voice work, though, is that a lot of it is made up of lines directly from the film." Some claim, however, that Rockstar may have been better off sometimes lifting audio from the original film. Some felt, alongside this, that while the audio being similar throughout the game is a benefit, it could be argued that the lines from the movie were better delivered. However, this did not have much of an effect, as many agree that the game's audio is well made. As the spokesperson further explained he said: "To begin with the voice acting for all characters in the game is very, very good. From all the main characters to plain NPCs, each and everyone is done amazingly. On the subject of sound effects in the game it's also very good. Every little thing makes a sound and does it well."


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: "The Warriors" features voice actors for both the 1979 film and the game versions. The film and game version cast Michael Beck as Swan, the protagonist of "The Warriors". Other notable voice actors included returning actors, James Remar as Ajax, Deborah Van Valkenburgh as Mercy, Dorsey Wright as Cleon, Thomas G. Waites as Fox, and David Harris as Cochise. A special effort was made to preserve the official voice actors of characters from "The Warriors" movie used in the game itself.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: While the movie version featured David Patrick Kelly as Luther, Roger Hill as Cyrus, and Marcelino Sánchez as Rembrandt, the game version featured Oliver Wyman as Luther, Andy Senor as Rembrandt, Joe Lo Truglio as Vermin, Michael Potts as Cyrus, and Kurt Bauccio as Cowboy. Supporting characters were voiced by voice actors including Darryl McDaniels and Jordan Gelber.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: Upon its release, "The Warriors" received critical acclaim from critics. Many praised the game for its deep combat and control, stating that the game helped breathe life into the brawler genre. The game was also praised for its unique seedy underbelly style, along with its story and music. Critics praised the audio as it "really shines above all else", with a replicated soundtrack and absolutely superb voice acting by many of the original actors who starred in the film. Rockstar Toronto has gained the most media coverage for its development of "The Warriors", which overall received positive reviews, and made about $37 million worldwide. "Like the best of Rockstar’s games, 'The Warriors' immerses you in a world that feels at once authentic and highly stylized, and it might just be the best game adaptation of a film ever in terms of capturing the mood of the original movie." "1UP.com" admitted: "As fanservice, The Warriors is a treat for anyone who loves the movie, and as a beat-em-up, it outclasses recent efforts from competitors. Yet as a complete package, it's somewhat inconsistent. But with bonus missions, multiplayer rumbles, and a very fun 2-player co-op mode...we can most definitely dig it". "The Warriors" received a score of 7.4 for the design, the story received 8.5, while the gameplay received 7.9.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: "Game Informer" praised the feel and style of the game, stating: ""The Warriors" immerses you in a world that feels at once authentic and highly stylized, and it might just be the best game adaptation of a film ever in terms of capturing the mood of the original movie. Fans will notice that all of the iconic scenes of the film are recreated almost shot for shot. In addition, Rockstar Toronto has gone to the trouble of creating a completely new storyline that shows players how the Warriors came together, and the events leading up to the start of the film." The reviewer went on to applaud the developers, saying they: "Tried to stretch the conventional formula for what's considered a 'brawler'. Unlike most of the genre, where you walk down single-path alleyways, "The Warriors", taking cues from other popular Rockstar titles, creates the illusion that you're in a real, living city.


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: "Although, sizewise, the levels are much closer to "Manhunt" than "Grand Theft Auto", there are areas to explore both on the ground and vertically, hidden items, amazing unlockables, and numerous side missions. They've also tried to expand the gameplay to incorporate more than just fisticuffs. You can engage in all sorts of petty crime, including muggings, stealing car stereos, lockpicking, and tagging graffiti. Throw in a little more variety in the form of some cool chase and stealth sequences, and you've got something more than a typical brawler."


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: As "Game Informer" further explained, they stated: "The fighting engine itself is fairly deep, allowing you to pull off some very brutal moves with a modicum of button presses (including some cool co-op maneuvers). You’ll definitely feel cool kicking ass as a Warrior, whether hand-to-hand or with any of the numerous weapons. However, I found the feel of the combat to be sluggish and chaotic at times, especially when fighting large numbers of enemies. He recommended that "turning on the option that makes it stay in split-screen, but even that is hampered by your very narrow field of vision." Critics enjoyed the graffiti writing, which is done through an "ingenious mechanic". He stated "Although it’s certainly not a masterpiece, The Warriors gets by on style, flair, variety, and simple fun. The gameplay – while still enjoyable – isn’t nearly as polished as it could be, the story and the appeal of the world that The Warriors recreates will be enough to pull you through to the end."


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: In 2006, Roger Hill, who also played Cyrus in the movie, filed a lawsuit of USD$250,000 ($ when adjusted for inflation) against Take-Two for using his voice and depiction in the game without his permission. He claimed that it would not have been difficult for Take-Two to pay, since the game made $37 million ($ when adjusted for inflation).


title: The Warriors (video game)

text: A spiritual sequel was planned by Rockstar, which was to be unrelated to "The Warriors". The game was to be titled "We Are The Mods" and was to be set in 1960s England during the mods and rockers brawls. However, later in 2009, an arcade game was released entitled "", which is a beat 'em up scroller video game created by CXTM and released on Xbox Live Arcade. In 2009, Dabel Brothers Productions began a five issue comic book adaption of the film. Following that was a four issue mini series entitled "The Warriors: Jail Break", which takes place several months after the film's events.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: In the United States, evangelicalism is a movement among Protestant Christians who believe in the necessity of being born again, emphasize the importance of evangelism, and affirm traditional Protestant teachings on the authority as well as the historicity of the Bible. Comprising nearly a quarter of the US population, evangelicals are a diverse group drawn from a variety of denominational backgrounds, including Baptist, Mennonite, Methodist, Pentecostal, Plymouth Brethren, Quaker, Reformed and nondenominational churches.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: Evangelicalism has played an important role in shaping American religion and culture. The First Great Awakening of the 18th century marked the rise of evangelical religion in colonial America. As the revival spread throughout the Thirteen Colonies, evangelicalism united Americans around a common faith. The Second Great Awakening of the 19th century led to what historian Martin Marty called the "Evangelical Empire", a period in which evangelicals dominated US cultural institutions, including schools and universities. Evangelicals of this era in the northern United States were strong advocates of reform. They were involved in the temperance movement and supported the abolition of slavery, in addition to working toward education and criminal justice reform. In the southern United States, evangelicals split from their northern counterparts on the issue of slavery, establishing new denominations that opposed abolition and defended the practice of racial slavery that the South's expanding cash-crops-for-export agricultural economy was built upon.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: By the end of the 19th century, the old evangelical consensus that had united much of American Protestantism no longer existed. Protestant churches became divided over new intellectual and theological ideas, such as Darwinian evolution and historical criticism of the Bible. Those who embraced these ideas became known as modernists, while those who rejected them became known as fundamentalists. Fundamentalists defended the doctrine of biblical inerrancy and adopted a dispensationalist theological system for interpreting the Bible. As a result of the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy of the 1920s and 1930s, fundamentalists lost control of the Mainline Protestant churches and separated themselves from non-fundamentalist churches and cultural institutions.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: After World War II, a new generation of conservative Protestants rejected the separatist stance of fundamentalism and began calling themselves evangelicals. Popular evangelist Billy Graham was at the forefront of reviving use of the term. During this time period, a number of evangelical institutions were established, including the National Association of Evangelicals, the magazine "Christianity Today", and a number of educational institutions, such as Fuller Theological Seminary. As a reaction to the 1960s counterculture and the U.S. Supreme Court's 1973 Roe v. Wade decision, many white evangelicals became politically active and involved in the Christian right, which became an important voting bloc in the Republican Party. Recently, however, observers such as journalist Frances FitzGerald have noted that since 2005 the influence of the Christian right among evangelicals has been in decline. Though less visible, some evangelicals identify as Progressive evangelicals.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: Many scholars have adopted historian David Bebbington's definition of evangelicalism. According to Bebbington, evangelicalism has four major characteristics. These are "conversionism" (an emphasis on the new birth), "biblicism" (an emphasis on the Bible as the supreme religious authority), "activism" (an emphasis on individual engagement in spreading the gospel), and "crucicentrism" (an emphasis on Christ's sacrifice on the cross as the heart of true religion). However, this definition has been criticized for being so broad as to include all Christians.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: Historian Molly Worthen writes that "History—rather than theology or politics—is the most useful tool for pinning down today’s evangelicals." She finds that evangelicals share common origins in the religious revivals and moral crusades of the 18th and 19th centuries. She writes that "Evangelical catchphrases like 'Bible-believing' and 'born again' are modern translations of the Reformers' slogan "sola scriptura" and Pietists' emphasis on internal spiritual transformation."


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: Evangelicals are often defined in opposition to Mainline Protestants. According to sociologist Brian Steensland and colleagues, "Evangelical denominations have typically sought more separation from the broader culture, emphasized missionary activity and individual conversion, and taught strict adherence to particular religious doctrines." Mainline Protestants are described as having "an accommodating stance toward modernity, a proactive view on issues of social and economic justice, and pluralism in their tolerance of varied individual beliefs."


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: Historian George Marsden writes that during the 1950s and 1960s the simplest definition of an evangelical was "anyone who likes Billy Graham". During that period, most people who self-identified with the evangelical movement were affiliated with organizations that had some connection to Graham. It can also be defined narrowly as a movement centered around organizations such as the National Association of Evangelicals and Youth for Christ.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: News media often conflate evangelicalism with "conservative Protestantism" or the Christian right. However, not every conservative Protestant identifies as evangelical, nor are all evangelicals political conservatives.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: Scholars have found it useful to distinguish among different types of evangelicals. One scheme by sociologist James Davison Hunter identifies four major types: the Baptist tradition, the Holiness and Pentecostal tradition, the Anabaptist tradition, and the Confessional tradition (evangelical Anglicans, pietistic Lutherans, and evangelicals within the Reformed churches).


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: Ethicist Max Stackhouse and historians Donald W. Dayton and Timothy P. Weber divide evangelicalism into three main historical groupings. The first, called "Puritan" or "classical" evangelicalism, seeks to preserve the doctrinal heritage of the 16th century Protestant Reformation, especially the Reformed tradition. Classical evangelicals emphasize absolute divine sovereignty, forensic justification, and "literalistic" inerrancy. The second, "pietistic" evangelicalism, originates from the 18th-century pietist movements in Europe and the Great Awakenings in America. Pietistic evangelicals embrace revivalism and a more experiential faith, emphasizing conversion, sanctification, regeneration, and healing. The third, "fundamentalist" evangelicalism, results from the Fundamentalist-Modernist split of the early 20th century. Fundamentalists always emphasize certain "fundamental" beliefs against modernist criticism and often use an apocalyptic, premillennialist interpretation of the Bible. These three categories are more fluid than Hunter's, so an individual could identify with only one or all three.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: John C. Green, a senior fellow at the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, used polling data to separate evangelicals into three broad camps, which he labels as "traditionalist", "centrist" and "modernist":


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: The roots of American evangelicalism lie in the merger of three older Protestant traditions: New England Puritanism, Continental Pietism and Scotch-Irish Presbyterianism. Within their Congregational churches, Puritans promoted experimental or experiential religion, arguing that saving faith required an inward transformation. This led Puritans to demand evidence of a conversion experience (in the form of a conversion narrative) before a convert was admitted to full church membership. In the 1670s and 1680s, Puritan clergy began to promote religious revival in response to a perceived decline in religiosity. The Ulster Scots who immigrated to the American colonies in the 1700s brought with them their own revival tradition, specifically the practice of communion seasons. Pietism was a movement within the Lutheran and Reformed churches in Europe that emphasized a "religion of the heart": the ideal that faith was not simply acceptance of propositional truth but was an emotional "commitment of one's whole being to God" in which one's life became dedicated to self-sacrificial ministry. Pietists promoted the formation of cell groups for Bible study, prayer, and accountability.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: These three traditions were brought together with the First Great Awakening, a series of revivals in Britain and its American Colonies during the 1730s and 1740s. The Awakening began within the Congregational churches of New England. In 1734, Jonathan Edwards' preaching on justification by faith instigated a revival in Northampton, Massachusetts. Earlier Puritan revivals had been brief, local affairs, but the Northampton revival was part of a larger wave of revival that affected the Presbyterian and Dutch Reformed churches in the Middle Colonies as well. There the Reformed minister Theodore Frelinghuysen and Presbyterian minister Gilbert Tennent led revivals.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: The English evangelist George Whitefield was responsible for spreading the revivals through all the colonies. An Anglican priest, Whitefield had studied at Oxford University prior to ordination, and there he befriended John Wesley and his brother Charles, the founders of a pietistic movement within the Church of England called Methodism. Whitefield's dramatic preaching style and ability to simplify doctrine made him a popular preacher in England, and in 1739 he arrived in America preaching up and down the Atlantic coastline. Thousands flocked to open-air meetings to hear him preach, and he became a celebrity throughout the colonies.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: The Great Awakening hit its peak by 1740, but it shaped a new form of Protestantism that emphasized, according to historian Thomas S. Kidd, ""seasons of revival", or "outpourings of the Holy Spirit", and "converted sinners experiencing God's love personally"" [emphasis in original]. Evangelicals believed in the "new birth"—a discernible moment of conversion—and believed that it was normal for a Christian to have assurance of faith. While the Puritans had also believed in the necessity of conversion, they "had held that assurance is rare, late and the fruit of struggle in the experience of believers".


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: Its emphasis on the individual's relationship to God gave evangelicalism an egalitarian streak as well, which was perceived by anti-revivalists as undermining social order. Radical evangelicals ordained uneducated ministers (sometimes nonwhite men) and sometimes allowed nonwhites and women to serve as deacons and elders. They also supported laypeople's right to dissent from their pastors and form new churches.The Awakening split the Congregational and Presbyterian churches over support for the revival movement, between Old and New Lights (see also the Old Side–New Side Controversy). Ultimately, the evangelical New Lights became the larger faction among both Congregationalists and Presbyterians. The New England theology, based on Jonathan Edwards' work, would become the dominant theological outlook within the Congregational churches. In New England, radical New Lights broke away from the established churches and formed Separate Baptist congregations. In the 1740s and 1750s, New Side Presbyterians and Separate Baptists began moving to the Southern colonies and establishing churches. Many traveled along the difficult Great Wagon Road on their way to the Southern colonies. There they challenged the Anglican religious establishment, which was identified with the planter elite. In contrast, evangelicals tended to be neither very rich nor very poor, but hardworking farmers and tradesmen who disapproved of the worldliness of the planter class. In the 1760s, the first Methodist missionaries came to America and focused their ministry in the South as well. By 1776, evangelicals outnumbered Anglicans in the South.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: During and after the American Revolution, the Anglican Church (now known as the Episcopal Church) experienced much disruption and lost its special legal status and privileges. The four largest denominations were now the Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Baptists, and Methodists. In the 1770s and 1780s, the Baptists and Methodists had experienced dramatic growth. In 1770, there were only 150 Baptist and 20 Methodist churches, but in 1790 there were 858 Baptist and 712 Methodist churches. These two evangelical denominations were still most successful in the southern states and along the western frontier. They also appealed to African slaves; on the Delmarva Peninsula, for example, over a third of Methodists were black. In the 1790s, evangelical influence on smaller groups such as Quakers, Lutherans, and the Dutch and German Reformed was still limited. Because of cultural and language barriers, the Dutch and German churches were not a major part of the evangelical revivals in this era.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: In the 19th century, evangelicalism expanded as a result of the Second Great Awakening (1790s–1840s). The revivals influenced all the major Protestant denominations and turned most American Protestants into evangelicals. From the 1790s until the Civil War (1861–1865), evangelicals were the most influential religious leaders in the United States.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: For context, the U.S. population was 2.6 million in 1776. By 1860 it had grown to 31.5 million. Between 1790 and 1840, over four million people (more than the entire population in 1776) had moved west of the Appalachian Mountains.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: There were three major centers of revival in the Second Great Awakening. Revival in the Cumberland River Valley of western frontier states Tennessee and Kentucky started as early as 1800. In New England, a major revival began among Congregationalists by the 1820s, led by Edwardsian preachers such as Timothy Dwight, Lyman Beecher, Nathaniel Taylor, and Asahel Nettleton. In western New York—the so-called "burned-over district" along the Erie Canal—the revival was mainly led by Congregationalists and Presbyterians, but Baptists and Methodists were also involved.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: Unlike the East Coast, where revivals tended to be quieter and more solemn, western revivals tended to be more emotional and dramatic. Presbyterian minister James McGready led the Revival of 1800, also known as the Red River Revival, in southwestern Kentucky's Logan County. It was here that the traditional Scottish communion season began to evolve into the American camp meeting. In northeastern Kentucky's Bourbon County a year later, the Cane Ridge Revival led by Barton Stone lasted a week and drew crowds of 20,000 people from the thinly populated frontier. At Cane Ridge, many converts experienced religious ecstasy and "bodily agitations". Some worshipers caught holy laughter, barked like dogs, experienced convulsions, fell into trances, danced, shouted or were slain in the Spirit. Similar responses had occurred in other revivals, but they were more intense at Cane Ridge. This revival was the origin of the Stone-Campbell Movement, from which the Churches of Christ and Disciples of Christ denominations originate.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: During the Second Great Awakening, the Methodist Episcopal Church was most successful at gaining converts. It enthusiastically adopted camp meetings as a regular part of church life, and devoted resources to evangelizing the western frontier. Itinerant ministers known as circuit riders traveled hundreds of miles each year to preach and serve scattered congregations. The Methodists took a democratic and egalitarian approach to ministry, allowing poor and uneducated young men to become circuit riders. The Baptists also expanded rapidly. Like the Methodists, Baptists also sent out itinerant ministers, often with little education.


title: Evangelicalism in the United States

text: The theology behind the First Great Awakening had been largely Calvinist. Calvinists taught predestination and that God only gives salvation to a small group of the elect and condemns everyone else to hell. The Calvinist doctrine of irresistible grace denied to humans free will or any role in their own salvation. The Second Great Awakening was heavily influenced by Arminianism, a theology that allows for free will and gives humans a greater role in their own conversion. The Methodists were Arminians, and taught that all people could choose salvation. They also taught that Christians could lose their salvation by backsliding or returning to sin.