title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: In 1994, Exercise "Cooperation from the Sea" was conducted, in and around Vladivostok, with the U.S. III Marine Expeditionary Force, to foster a closer relationship between the Russian Naval Infantry and the United States Marine Corps. U.S. Marines and Russian naval infantrymen conducted their first exercise on U.S. soil the following year, in Hawaii. "Cooperation From the Sea 1995" was a maritime disaster relief exercise, which included cross training and personnel exchanges, and culminated in a combined U.S. and Russian amphibious landing. The purpose of the exercise was to improve interoperability, cooperation and understanding between U.S. and Russian personnel.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: In 1998, the 22nd Motor Rifle Division, Far East Military District, at Petropavlovsk-Kamchatka, was transferred to the Pacific Fleet. In 2000 the division became the 40th Independent Motor Rifle Brigade, and on 1 September 2007 the 40th Naval Infantry Brigade (40 отд. Краснодарско-Харбинская дважды Краснознаменная бригада морской пехоты). In 2013, the regiment became, again, the 40th Naval Infantry Brigade.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: From 2000 onwards, the Caspian Flotilla included a new naval infantry brigade, the 77th, based at Kaspiysk. The headquarters and two battalions of the brigade were scheduled to be established by August 1, 2000. It was reported by "Agenstvo Voyenniykh Novostyei" (AVN) in June 2000 that the new brigade, which may have inherited the lineage of the 77th Motor Rifle Division, was to have its troops housed in Kaspiysk and Astrakhan, along with as many as 195 combat vehicles and two hovercraft sent to it from Chukotka and the Northern Fleet, respectively. The brigade was also reported to have had helicopters assigned to it.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: In early September 2015, it was estimated that approximately 800 Russian Naval Infantrymen had taken up positions all along western Syria with the majority of them being stationed in the mountainous city of Slunfeh in east Latakia – the remaining personnel had been moved to the Homs (Wadi Al-Nasara) and Tartous (Masyaf and Safita) Governorates in preparation for the Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: On the night of 19 to 20 September 2015, Russian Naval Infantry engaged in a fight with militants of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) near the city of Latakia. The militants tried to mount an attack on the airbase there, however, they were ambushed by the Naval Infantry. As a result of the clash, three militants were killed, two were captured, and the rest retreated.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: Before dawn of 24 September 2015, Russian Naval Infantry went into battle for the first time since their deployment to Syria, Debka file's military and intelligence sources reveal. The 810th Guards Naval Infantry Brigade fought with Syrian Army and Hezbollah special forces in an attack on ISIL forces at the Kweiris air base, east of Aleppo.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: In November 2015, a Russian Naval Infantryman was killed during an operation to rescue the crew of a Russian Sukhoi Su-24M bomber aircraft that was shot down by the Turkish Air Force near the Syria–Turkey border.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: In March 2016, the 61st Naval Infantry Brigade conducted operations in which it aided the Syrian Army's liberation of the Syrian city of Palmyra. The 61st also participated in the storming of the city. Sources consider it one of the best trained and most combat experienced units of the Russian forces.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: In mid-May 2016, Russian Naval Infantry helped Syrian forces recapture the initiative in east Homs, while also recovering several points near the Al-Sha’ar Gas Fields and T-4 Military Airport.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: In September 2016, it was reported that Russian Naval Infantry were conducting operations on Aleppo's Castillo Highway.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The 61st Naval Infantry Brigade (Russia) participated in the Russo-Ukrainian War in the Luhansk Oblast.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: On 24 February 2022, Russian Naval Infantry started an amphibious assault on the Sea of Azov coast and besieged the city of Mariupol. Ropucha-class landing ship and Ivan Gren-class landing ship capable of landing tanks have reportedly been deployed in the region.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: By 9 November 2022, the 155th Guards Naval Infantry and 40th Naval Infantry Brigade participated in an attack on the Ukrainian military garrison in Pavlivka. Members of the unit claimed to have taken roughly 300 casualties, with many of these complaints shared with notable Russian media figures and the unit's garrison. The members went further stating the attacks took place due to their commander's desire to earn bonuses and distinction through awards. On 15 November 2022, a commander of the Russian-proxy Donetsk People's Republic indicated that lower-level commanders within the 155th Guards Naval Infantry disregarded orders in the attack on Pavlivka.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: In December the New York Times did an investigation into the deployment of the 155th Guards Naval Infantry to Pavlivka. Recruits were forced "lacked sufficient food, maps, critical medical supplies, or walkie-talkies, and they were forced to use 1970s-era Kalashnikov rifles — with some members having to resort to using Wikipedia to locate instructions for using certain weapons". There is also a shortage of ammunition, one soldier said "This isn't war. It's the destruction of the Russian people by their own commanders." Many used their Russian cellphones to call home which allowed Ukraine to track the unit and attack it. Many soldiers were volunteers but had "little experience" regarding the use of firearms.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The largest naval infantry units are brigades or regiments. A Naval Infantry Regiment consists of roughly 2,000 personnel and is equipped with the PT-76 and BRDM-2, consists of 1 Tank Battalion and 3 naval infantry battalions, one motorised with BTR-60-series amphibious vehicles. brigades are somewhat larger. Although, sizes vary depending on mission and specializations.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: Naval Infantry Battalions comprise the backbone of the naval infantry fighting force. The battalion is made up of three naval infantry companies, a mortar platoon, an antitank platoon, and supporting supply and maintenance, medical, and communications units. In all, the battalion numbers about 400 men. This unit, reinforced, constitutes the basic amphibious attack force in the assault landing-the battalion assault force (BAF).


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: At least one infantry battalion of each regiment or brigade is parachute trained, while all of the remaining infantry battalions are trained to be able to carry out air assault missions.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: Russian Naval Infantry had been gradually phasing out PT-76 amphibious tanks, and starting to receive a number of T-80s and upgraded BMP-2Ms. A full-strength Naval Infantry Brigade may have up to 80 tanks. The Russian Naval Infantry has 50 T-72B, 150 T-72B3, 30 T-72B3 mod. 2016, 50 T-80BV and 50 T-80BVM as of 2021. The APCs used by the Naval Infantry are either wheeled BTR-80s (in Assault Landing Battalions) or tracked MT-LBs (in Marine Battalions). Naval Infantry units are receiving BMP-3 IFVs; about 40 were delivered in 2021. BMP-3s may equip one company per Marine battalion.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: According to a Defense Ministry statement published by RIA Novosti in November 2009, "All units of Russia's naval infantry will be fully equipped with advanced weaponry by 2015." Included in this upgrade would be T-90 tanks, BMP-3 IFVs, 2S31 120mm mortar/artillery tracks, wheeled BTR-82A armored personnel carriers, air defense equipment and small arms. All Naval Infantry units were equipped with Ratnik infantry combat gear and all Northern Fleet naval infantry units were equipped with BTR-82A APCs as of November 2016.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: Naval Infantry and Navy units also receive new-technology binoculars. As of 2017 the Naval Infantry had started to receive a modernized version of Strelets reconnaissance, control and communications system and completed receiving D-10 parachutes. All Pacific Fleet and Caspian Flotilla naval infantry units were equipped with BTR-82A APCs as of September 2019. 40 BTR-82A were delivered for the Black Sea Fleet in early 2021. The Pacific Fleet Marines were armed with "Sectant" small robotic reconnaissance systems in late 2021.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: In late February 2014, at least one Black Sea Fleet assigned unit (at company level) was apparently using "Tigr" armored cars near Sevastopol during the 2014 Crimean crisis. During the crisis in March 2014 imagery emerged of some Naval Infantry personnel carrying what appeared to be the OTs-14-1A-04 7.62×39mm assault rifle with an under-barrel GP-30 40mm grenade launcher, a bullpup design normally associated with Russian Airborne Troops, as well as Combat Engineering and Spetsnaz units. The marine corps of the Caspian Flotilla received modernized 5.45-mm Kalashnikov assault rifles, AK-74M with an "Obves" modernization kit in 2021. The newest anti-landing mine PDM-MD passed state tests in 2019-2020.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: The Alligator tank landing ship and more modern Ropucha-class landing ship is a typical amphibious assault ship. Propelled by diesel engines, this ship is relatively small, displacing about 4,500 tons. In 1978, the Soviets launched a new amphibious ship, the "Ivan Rogov". The advent of the Ivan Rogov was taken in the West as an indication that the Soviet Navy was planning to strengthen the power projection mission of Naval Infantry.


title: Russian Naval Infantry

text: Twice the size of earlier ships, it can launch amphibious vehicles from its open bow doors. It also carries helicopters. Among the various small assault landing vehicles to launch from the bow are hovercraft, such as the "Aist", which can carry the naval infantry ashore at speeds of fifty knots.


title: French Lick, Indiana

text: French Lick is a town in French Lick Township, Orange County, Indiana. The population was 1,807 at the time of the 2010 census. In November 2006, the French Lick Resort Casino, the state's tenth casino in the modern legalized era, opened, drawing national attention to the small town. However, it is best known as the hometown of basketball legend Larry Bird.


title: French Lick, Indiana

text: French Lick was originally a French trading post built near a spring and salt lick. A fortified ranger post was established near the springs in 1811. On Johnson's 1837 map of Indiana, the community was known as Salt Spring. The town was founded in 1857. French Lick's post office has been in operation since 1847.


title: French Lick, Indiana

text: The sulfur springs were commercially exploited for medical benefits starting in 1840. By the later half of the 19th century, French Lick was famous in the United States as a spa town. In the early 20th century it also featured casinos attracting celebrities such as boxer Joe Louis, composer Irving Berlin and gangster Al Capone.


title: French Lick, Indiana

text: Because of wartime travel restrictions, the Chicago Cubs and Chicago White Sox held spring training in French Lick from 1943 to 1944; in 1945 the Cubs stayed in town while the White Sox moved to Terre Haute, utilizing Memorial Stadium. In order to conserve rail transport during World War II, 1943 spring training was limited to an area east of the Mississippi River and north of the Ohio River.


title: French Lick, Indiana

text: The French Lick Resort Casino was the focal point of most of the entertainment; the hotel remained open well after the casinos were closed down and the heyday of the town was well past. The resort closed for renovation in 2005 and re-opened in 2006.


title: French Lick, Indiana

text: Pluto Water, a best-selling laxative of the first half of the 20th century, was bottled here. It was also home to a large bottling facility, which ceased operations in the mid-20th century.


title: French Lick, Indiana

text: Franklin D. Roosevelt announced his intention to run for president at a National Governors' Convention held at the French Lick Springs Hotel.


title: French Lick, Indiana

text: The town is famous as the hometown of NBA great Larry Bird. Bird started for French Lick/West Baden's high school team, Springs Valley High School, where he left as the school's all-time scoring leader. In his later basketball career, one of Bird's nicknames was "the Hick from French Lick". French Lick is also the hometown of former Sacramento Kings head coach and TV color commentator Jerry Reynolds.


title: French Lick, Indiana

text: In 2015, the Pete Dye Course at French Lick Resort played host to the KitchenAid Senior PGA Championship.


title: French Lick, Indiana

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 1,807 people, 764 households, and 439 families living in the town. The population density was . There were 924 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 88.8% White, 5.8% African American, 0.3% Native American, 1.2% Asian, 0.9% from other races, and 2.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.1% of the population.


title: French Lick, Indiana

text: There were 764 households, of which 30.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.6% were married couples living together, 15.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 42.5% were non-families. 36.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.93.


title: French Lick, Indiana

text: The median age in the town was 39.2 years. 24% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.6% were from 25 to 44; 25.4% were from 45 to 64; and 18.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 46.9% male and 53.1% female.


title: French Lick, Indiana

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 1,941 people, 849 households, and 513 families living in the town. The population density was . There were 948 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 94.18% White, 3.66% African American, 0.26% Native American, 0.41% Asian, 0.26% from other races, and 1.24% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.46% of the population.


title: French Lick, Indiana

text: There were 849 households, out of which 25.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.6% were married couples living together, 12.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.5% were non-families. 35.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.81.


title: French Lick, Indiana

text: In the town, the population was spread out, with 22.0% under the age of 18, 8.6% from 18 to 24, 26.0% from 25 to 44, 22.9% from 45 to 64, and 20.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.6 males.


title: French Lick, Indiana

text: The median income for a household in the town was $27,197, and the median income for a family was $36,583. Males had a median income of $26,046 versus $17,346 for females. The per capita income for the town was $15,113. About 11.8% of families and 18.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 33.7% of those under age 18 and 17.8% of those age 65 or over.


title: Jessica Krug

text: Jessica Anne Krug (born ) is an American historian, author, and activist who taught at George Washington University (GWU) from 2012 to 2020, eventually becoming a tenured associate professor of history. Her publications include "Fugitive Modernities: Kisama and the Politics of Freedom", which was a finalist for the Frederick Douglass Prize and the Harriet Tubman Prize. Krug received media scrutiny in September 2020 following her admission that she had misrepresented her race and ethnicity during her career. Shortly after her misrepresentations were revealed, Krug resigned her position at GWU.


title: Jessica Krug

text: Jessica Anne Krug— who pronounces her surname "Cruz" ( or , or in General American) — was raised in a Jewish family in Overland Park, Kansas, in the Kansas City metropolitan area. She graduated from the elite Barstow School, a co-ed private college prep school in south Kansas City. She later attended the University of Kansas without claiming to be a person of color before transferring to Portland State University, where she earned a bachelor's degree. In 2012, Krug earned a Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin–Madison, "one of the nation's most prestigious African-history programs".


title: Jessica Krug

text: Krug has stated that she suffers from unaddressed mental health issues, and that she began to pass as a light-skinned person of color as a juvenile to escape from trauma and emotional difficulties.


title: Jessica Krug

text: Krug taught university classes in the Washington D.C. area, and lived in East Harlem in New York City. Krug began teaching history at George Washington University (GWU) in 2012. She gained tenure in 2018. As of 2020, she was an associate professor. Krug has authored articles and a book relating to African American history and Latin America. She has published essays in "Essence" and at the race-exploring website RaceBaitR. Krug received financial support from the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture that led to the publication of her book "Fugitive Modernities". In 2009, she was awarded a $45,000 Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad Fellowship.


title: Jessica Krug

text: Krug is the author of "Fugitive Modernities: Kisama and the Politics of Freedom," a book about the Quiçama people in Angola and within diaspora, especially in Brazil. The book was a finalist for the Frederick Douglass Prize and the Harriet Tubman Prize. In "Fugitive Modernities", Krug engages in a "rigorous examination of identity formation" of Kisama, a mountainous region in Angola that became a destination for those fleeing the slave trade in the late 16th century. Krug's book was the first history of the Kisama region. She argued that "Kisama allows us to imagine a more humane and less brutalized form of interpersonal relationship in which the structures erected by states to constrain us are overcome in favor of shared liberation."


title: Jessica Krug

text: Krug has made various misrepresentations concerning her race and ethnicity. She has said that she is half Algerian-American and half German-American. She has also said that she is a Bronx-bred Afro-"boricua" (Afro–Puerto Rican) and has used the name "Jess La Bombalera". A junior scholar noticed that Krug's stated race/ethnicity had changed from part-Algerian–part-German to Afro–Puerto Rican. Word of this discrepancy reached Professor Yomaira C. Figueroa-Vásquez of Michigan State University, who, upon researching the matter, discovered that Krug came from the Kansas City area and had Jewish parents.


title: Jessica Krug

text: In a September 3, 2020 blog post, Krug said: "I have eschewed my lived experience as a white Jewish child in suburban Kansas City under various assumed identities within a Blackness that I had no right to claim: first North African Blackness, then US rooted Blackness, then Caribbean rooted Bronx Blackness." Krug's disclosure drew international media attention. Her September 3 blog post went viral. By the close of that day, "a now-infamous video of Krug calling herself 'Jess La Bombalera' and speaking in a D-list imitation Bronx accent was all over the internet".


title: Jessica Krug

text: Hari Ziyad, the editor of RaceBaitr, said Krug had only come forward with the revelation of her racial deceptions because they had been discovered and were about to be made public against her wishes. Similarly, Figueroa-Vásquez asserted that pending public revelations of Krug's true racial identity prompted her confession. Figueroa, believing that Krug "took up some of the very few — very few — resources and spaces that there are available to Black and Latino scholars and use those to her advantage," called for "a form of restitution for the things that she [Krug] took. It's egregious." Figueroa and Hunter College's Yarimar Bonilla called Krug's various cultural appropriations a form of minstrelsy. Figueroa also noted that Krug had falsely claimed that her parents had been drug addicts and her mother a sex worker; Figueroa described Krug's actions as "preying on the white imagination, [pulling] from some of the worst stereotypes that there are about black people and Puerto Rican people, and using that as a cloak for her identity". Describing Krug as a "minstrel act", Illinois State University's Touré F. Reed asserted that Krug did not appropriate legitimate black culture but rather its "racist caricature".


title: Jessica Krug

text: Duke University Press, the publisher of Krug's "Fugitive Modernities", said that all proceeds from her book will be donated to a fund that will assist Black and Latinx scholars.


title: Jessica Krug

text: Following Krug's disclosure of her misrepresentation, George Washington University's history department asked her to resign her tenured professorship, stating: "With her conduct, Dr. Krug has raised questions about the veracity of her own research and teaching". GWU cancelled her classes after the scandal. Krug had told her colleagues at GWU that she was Afro-Latina, and that she had been raised in the Bronx by a Puerto Rican mother who was abusive and addicted to drugs. In her classes, she occasionally used Spanglish and spoke of her Puerto Rican heritage. On September 9, 2020, GWU confirmed that Krug had resigned from the university.


title: Christian Mortensen

text: Thomas Peter Thorvald Kristian Ferdinand Mortensen (August 16, 1882 – April 25, 1998), known as Christian Mortensen, was a Danish supercentenarian, who resided in California, United States. When he died, his age of 115 years and 252 days was the longest verified male lifespan at the time, until Jiroemon Kimura surpassed him in 2012.


title: Christian Mortensen

text: Mortensen was baptized in on December 26, 1882. Besides his baptismal record, other records include the 1890 and 1901 census enumerations in Denmark, and church confirmation in 1896.


title: Christian Mortensen

text: Christian Mortensen was born the son of a tailor in the village of Skårup, near the city of Skanderborg, Denmark, on August 16, 1882. He began work as a tailor's apprentice in Skanderborg at age 16, in 1898, and later took work as a farmhand.


title: Christian Mortensen

text: Mortensen emigrated to Ellis Island in the New York Bay area, the United States in 1903, then aged about 20 or 21 years old. He traveled while working as a tailor, but settled in Chicago, where he had relatives. Mortensen worked various trades, including as a milkman for Borden Dairy Company, as a restaurateur, and as a factory worker for the Continental Can Company.


title: Christian Mortensen

text: In 1950, Mortensen retired near Galveston Bay, Texas. Then, 28 years later at the age of 96, he moved to a retirement home in San Rafael, California. Mortensen claimed he rode his bicycle to the Aldersly Retirement Community, telling the staff that he was there to stay. Mortensen lived at Aldersly for almost 20 years until his death in 1998.


title: Christian Mortensen

text: Mortensen was visited by American scientist James Vaupel and other longevity researchers on the occasion of his 113th birthday. He was particularly pleased with a box of Danish cigars that the researchers had brought him. Mortensen enjoyed an occasional cigar and insisted that smoking in moderation was not unhealthy. Mortensen preferred a vegetarian diet. He also drank boiled water. Mortensen was legally blind towards the end of his life and spent much of his time in a wheelchair listening to the radio. Toward the end of his life, his memory of distant events was good, but he could not remember recent events and increasingly needed assistance from staff.


title: Christian Mortensen

text: On his 115th birthday, Mortensen gave his advice for a long life: "Friends, a good cigar, drinking lots of good water, no alcohol, staying positive and lots of singing will keep you alive for a long time".


title: Forza Motorsport 7

text: Forza Motorsport 7 is a 2017 racing video game developed by Turn 10 Studios and published by Microsoft Studios, serving as the tenth installment in the "Forza" series. It was released on Windows 10 and the Xbox One family of consoles on October 3, 2017, with early access to players who pre-ordered the game's Ultimate and Deluxe editions.


title: Forza Motorsport 7

text: "Forza Motorsport 7" is a racing video game featuring over 700 carsincluding new "Forza Edition" cars, most of which have been brought over from "Forza Horizon 3" and more than 200 different configurations to race on across 32 locations at launch, including all from "Forza Motorsport 6"; a fictional street circuit in Dubai is one of the new circuits and several tracks returning from "Forza Motorsport 4" including Maple Valley Raceway, Mugello Circuit and Suzuka Circuit. Two features that are new to the "Motorsport" title include dynamic weather (previously seen in "Horizon" titles) and customisable drivers.


title: Forza Motorsport 7

text: "Forza Motorsport 7" was developed by Turn 10 Studios alongside the Xbox One X console, with Turn 10 providing the Xbox hardware team with feedback. In mid-January 2017, the Xbox hardware team supplied Turn 10 with a prototype Xbox One X system. Turn 10 was able to get their ForzaTech demo running on the system within two days after receiving the prototype console. The game runs at 4K resolution and 60 frames per second, while running at 1080p at similar frame rate on the base Xbox One models.


title: Forza Motorsport 7

text: The game does not feature any Toyota and Lexus production road vehicles due to licensing issues between the manufacturer and most non-Japanese video game developers that started in 2017. Only the company's selected race and pre customized vehicles, including the Camry's NASCAR configurations, Eagle MkIII, the Arctic Trucks Hilux AT38, Toyota T100 SR5 Trophy Trucks and the Subaru BRZ are featured, then Land Cruiser Prado AT37 Arctic Trucks featured via DLC. However, Volkswagen returns after being absent in "Horizon 3", with some cars being brought over from "Horizon 2" and "Motorsport 6", as well as some new inclusions.


title: Forza Motorsport 7

text: "Forza Motorsport 7" was announced at Microsoft's press conference during E3 2017 on June 11. The 2018 Porsche 911 GT2 RS was revealed alongside the game as part of a six-year licensing deal between Microsoft and car manufacturer Porsche. The game launched simultaneously on Windows 10 and Xbox One, and is slated to be available at launch for the Xbox One X. However, the OneDrive music support will be announced 'at a later date'. The first monthly car pack called the "Samsung QLED TV Forza Motorsport 7 Car Pack", was released on November 7, 2017. That DLC includes one more Toyota vehicle, the Arctic Trucks Land Cruiser.


title: Forza Motorsport 7

text: The game was delisted from purchase and Xbox Game Pass on September 15, 2021 due to expiring licenses.


title: Forza Motorsport 7

text: "Forza Motorsport 7" received "generally favorable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. In "Game Informer"s Reader's Choice Best of 2017 Awards, the game took the lead for "Best Racing Game", while it tied in third place with "Slime Rancher" for "Best Microsoft Game". It won the award for "Best Racing Game" in IGN's Best of 2017 Awards, whereas its other nominations were for "Best Xbox One Game" and "Best Graphics".


title: Forza Motorsport 7

text: "Slightly above average or simply inoffensive. Fans of the genre should enjoy it a bit, but a fair few will be left unfulfilled," was Peter Glagowski's conclusion on "Destructoid" with a score of 7/10. 7.5/10 was Ray Carsillo's score on "Electronic Gaming Monthly"; he said, ""Forza Motorsport 7" is a really great racing game—it’s just a shame that changes to the game’s currency system undermine a fair amount of what it does right. It’s made racing feel more like a grind than in years past and no amount of new tracks or cars will change that." Justin Towell from GamesRadar gave the game a score of 5 out of 5 stars saying that ""Forza Motorsport 7" addresses every issue of its predecessor, turns the visual flair up to 11 and handles like a dream. An essential purchase."


title: Forza Motorsport 7

text: Luke Reilly said on IGN ""Forza Motorsport 7" is Turn 10's finest love letter to speed and style this generation", and awarded it a score of 9.2/10. James Davenport's 82/100 score on "PC Gamer" stated, "Light performance problems and a poor loot box system can't quite distract from "Forza Motorsport 7"s accommodating difficulty, stunning beauty, and lavish racing options." Colin Campbell's score of 8.5/10 on "Polygon" said that "This is a game for everyone who loves racing. It offers every helping hand to those who want to just throw themselves around bends, while allowing die-hards to tinker with their rides, and really feel like they are there."


title: Papal tiara

text: The papal tiara is a crown that was worn by popes of the Catholic Church from as early as the 8th century to the mid-20th. It was last used by Pope Paul VI in 1963 and only at the beginning of his reign.


title: Papal tiara

text: The name "tiara" refers to the entire headpiece, including the various crowns, circlets, and diadems that have adorned it through the ages, while the three-tiered form that it took in the 14th century is also called the triregnum, triple tiara, or triple crown.


title: Papal tiara

text: From 1143 to 1963, the papal tiara was solemnly placed on the pope's head during a papal coronation. The surviving papal tiaras are all in the triple form, the oldest from 1572.


title: Papal tiara

text: A representation of the triregnum combined with two crossed keys of Saint Peter continues to be used as a symbol of the papacy and appears on papal documents, buildings, and insignia.


title: Papal tiara

text: The papal tiara originated from a conical Phrygian cap or frigium. Shaped like a candle-extinguisher, the papal tiara and the episcopal mitre were identical in their early forms.


title: Papal tiara

text: Names used for the papal tiara in the 8th and 9th centuries include "camelaucum", "pileus", "phrygium" and "pileum phrygium".


title: Papal tiara

text: A circlet of linen or cloth of gold at the base of the tiara developed into a metal crown, which by about 1300 became two crowns. The first of these appeared at the base of the traditional white papal headgear in the 9th century. When the popes assumed temporal power in the Papal States, the base crown became decorated with jewels to resemble the crowns of princes. Innocent III is represented with an early tiara in a fresco at Sacro Speco and on a mosaic from Old Saint Peter's, now in the Museo di Roma. A similar tiara, conical and with only one crown, is seen worn by pope Clement IV in frescoes from the 13th century in Pernes-les-Fontaines, France.


title: Papal tiara

text: The second crown is said to have been added by Pope Boniface VIII as signifying both his spiritual and temporal power, since he declared that God had set him over kings and kingdoms. Boniface VIII's tiara is represented with two crowns in his statues and tomb by Arnolfo di Cambio. The addition of a third crown is attributed to Pope Benedict XI (1303–1304) or Pope Clement V (1305–1314), and one such tiara was listed in an inventory of the papal treasury in 1316 (see "Tiara of Saint Sylvester", below). The first years of the 16th century saw the addition of a small orb and cross to top the tiara.


title: Papal tiara

text: The third crown was added to the papal tiara during the Avignon Papacy (1309–1378), giving rise to the form called the triregnum.


title: Papal tiara

text: After Pope Clement V at Avignon, various versions of the three-crown tiara have been worn by popes also in Rome down to Pope Paul VI, who was crowned with one in 1963.


title: Papal tiara

text: Lord Twining wrote of a tiara of Pope Boniface VIII that became known as the Tiara of Saint Sylvester:


title: Papal tiara

text: Twining also notes the various allegorical meanings attributed to the three crowns of the papal tiara, but concludes that "it seems more likely that the symbolism is suggested by the idea that took shape in the 13th and 14th centuries that the Emperor was crowned with three crowns—the silver crown of Germany at Aix-la-Chapelle, the iron crown of Lombardy at Milan or Monza and the golden imperial crown at Rome and therefore the Pope, too, should wear three crowns."


title: Papal tiara

text: Like a bishop's mitre, a papal tiara has attached to it two lappets, a pair of streamers or pendants that in Latin are called "caudae" or "infulae". These are usually attached at the rear of the tiara, again as on a bishop's mitre, although the mosaic of Pope Clement VIII wearing a triregnum shows them placed forward of the ears. All extant tiaras have them placed at the rear.


title: Papal tiara

text: The 1911 "Catholic Encyclopedia" describes the lappets on a bishop's mitre as trimmed on the ends with red fringe.


title: Papal tiara

text: Pope Paul VI was crowned with a tiara at the papal coronation. As happened sometimes with previous popes, a new tiara was used, donated by the city of Milan, where he was archbishop before his election. It was not covered in jewels and precious gems, and was sharply cone-shaped. It was also distinctly heavier than the Palatine Tiara previously in use. Near the end of the third session of the Second Vatican Council in 1964, Paul VI descended the steps of the papal throne in St. Peter's Basilica and ascended to the altar, on which he laid the tiara as a sign of the renunciation of human glory and power in keeping with the renewed spirit of the council. It was announced that the tiara would be sold and the money obtained would be given to charity. The tiara was purchased by Catholics in the United States and is now kept in the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in Washington, D.C. It is on permanent display in Memorial Hall along with the stole that Pope John XXIII wore at the opening of the Second Vatican Council.


title: Papal tiara

text: Paul VI's abandonment of use of one of the most striking symbols of the papacy was highly controversial with many Traditionalist Catholics, some of whom continue to campaign for its reinstatement. Certain fringe voices went so far as to brand Paul VI an antipope, arguing that no valid pope would surrender the papal tiara.


title: Papal tiara

text: His immediate successor, Pope John Paul I, decided against a coronation, replacing it with an "inauguration". It was officialized in 1996 within the apostolic constitution "Universi Domici Gregis" after which Benedict XVI and Pope Francis didn't have a coronation rite with the Papal Tiara. After John Paul I's sudden death, Pope John Paul II told the congregation at his inauguration: "This is not the time to return to a ceremony and an object considered, wrongly, to be a symbol of the temporal power of the Popes."


title: Papal tiara

text: Paul VI's 1975 Apostolic Constitution "Romano Pontifici Eligendo" on the manner of electing the Pope, still envisaged that his successors would be crowned. Pope John Paul II, in his 1996 Apostolic Constitution "Universi Dominici gregis", removed all mention of a papal coronation, replacing it with a reference to an "inauguration". The use of Papal Tiara in solemn ceremonies was left by Paul VI.


title: Papal tiara

text: Though not currently worn as part of papal regalia, the papal tiara still appears on the coats of arms of the Holy See and the flag of Vatican City. Later in his reign John Paul II approved depictions of his arms without the tiara, as with the mosaic floor piece towards the entrance of St Peter's Basilica, where an ordinary mitre takes the place of the tiara. Otherwise, until the reign of Benedict XVI the tiara was also the ornament surmounting a Pope's personal coat of arms, as a tasseled hat (under which a 1969 Instruction of the Holy See forbade the placing of a mitre, a second hat) surmounted those of other prelates. Pope Benedict XVI's personal coat of arms replaced the tiara with a mitre containing three levels reminiscent of the three tiers on the papal tiara. The mitre was retained on Pope Francis' personal coat of arms.


title: Papal tiara

text: In 2005, Pope Benedict XVI promulgated the document "Ordo Rituum pro Ministerii Petrini initio Romae Episcopi" that confirmed the choice of Pope John Paul II to refuse the tiara and the incoronation rite.


title: Papal tiara

text: In May 2011, also Pope Benedict XVI received a special tiara by Dieter Filippi, a German chief executive officer of a telecommunication company who had commissionated the gift to an artisan laboratory located in Sofia.


title: Papal tiara

text: Each year, a small papal tiara is placed on the head of the famous bronze statue of Saint Peter in St. Peter's Basilica from the vigil of the Feast of the Cathedra of Saint Peter on 22 February until the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul on 29 June. This custom was not observed in 2006, but was reintroduced in 2007.


title: Papal tiara

text: Although often referred to as "the" Papal Tiara, historically there have been many, and twenty-two remain in existence. Many of the earlier papal tiaras (most notably the tiaras of Pope Julius II and that attributed to Pope Saint Silvester) were destroyed, dismantled or seized by invaders (most notably by Berthier's army in 1798), or by popes themselves; Pope Clement VII had all the tiaras and papal regalia melted down in 1527 to raise the 400,000 ducats ransom demanded by the occupying army of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Over twenty silver tiaras exist, of which the earliest, the sole survivor of 1798, was made for Pope Gregory XIII in the 16th century. On 21 March 1800 as Rome was in the hands of the French, Pius VII was crowned in exile, in Venice, with a papier-mâché tiara, for which ladies of Venice gave up their jewels.


title: Papal tiara

text: Many tiaras were donated to the papacy by world leaders or heads of states, including Queen Isabella II of Spain, William I (German Emperor), Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria and Napoleon I of France. The tiara provided by the last was made from elements of former papal tiaras destroyed after the capture of Rome, and was given to Pius VII as a 'wedding gift' to mark Napoleon's own marriage to Empress Josephine on the eve of his imperial coronation. Others were a gift to a newly elected pope from the See which they had held before their election, or on the occasion of the jubilee of their ordination or election.


title: Papal tiara

text: In some instances, various cities sought to outdo each other in the beauty, value and size of the tiaras they provided to popes from their region. Examples include tiaras given to Popes John XXIII and Paul VI, the former by John's home region, the latter by Paul's previous archiepiscopal see of Milan on their election to the papacy.


title: Papal tiara

text: Popes were not restricted to a particular tiara: for example, photographs on this page show Pope John XXIII, on different occasions, wearing the tiara presented to him in 1959, Pope Pius IX's 1877 tiara, and Pope Pius XI's 1922 tiara.


title: Papal tiara

text: Pope Paul VI, whose bullet-shaped tiara is one of the most unusual in design, was the last pope to wear a papal tiara (though any of his successors could, if they wished, revive the custom). Most surviving tiaras are on display in the Vatican, though some were sold off or donated to Catholic bodies. Some of the more popular or historic tiaras, such as the 1871 Belgian tiara, the 1877 tiara and the 1903 golden tiara, have been sent around the world as part of a display of historic Vatican items. Pope Paul VI's "Milan tiara" was donated to and is on display in the crypt church of the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in Washington, D.C., United States of America.


title: Papal tiara

text: Most of the surviving (three-crown) papal tiaras have the shape of a circular beehive, with its central core made of silver. Some were sharply conical, others bulbous. Except for that of Pope Paul VI, all were heavily bejewelled. The three crowns are marked by golden decorations, sometimes in the form of crosses, sometimes in the shape of leaves. Most are surmounted by a cross set above a monde (globe), representing the universal sovereignty of Christ.


title: Papal tiara

text: Each tiara had attached to the back two lappets; highly decorated strips of cloth embroidered with golden thread, bearing the coat of arms or another symbol of the pope to whom the tiara had been given.


title: Papal tiara

text: There are two rather unusual tiaras: the papier-mâché tiara made when Pope Pius VII was elected and crowned in exile, and the one made for Pope Paul VI in 1963, which is somewhat bullet-shaped, contains few jewels and, instead of being adorned by three coronets, is marked with three parallel circles and has a double-tiered crown at its base.


title: Papal tiara

text: The tiara given to Pope Pius IX in 1877 by the Vatican's Palatine Honor Guard in honour of his Jubilee (see photograph below) is strikingly similar in design to the earlier tiara of Gregory XVI. It remained a particularly popular crown, worn by, among others, Pope Pius XI, Pope Pius XII and Pope John XXIII. Pope Pius XI's 1922 crown, in contrast was much less decorated and much more conical in shape. "(See image below of this tiara worn by Pope John XXIII.)"


title: Papal tiara

text: Except for the papier-mâché tiara, the lightest tiara was that made for Pope John XXIII in 1959. It weighed just over 0.9 kg (2 lb), as did the 1922 tiara of Pope Pius XI. In contrast, the bullet-shaped tiara of Pope Paul VI weighed 4.5 kg (10 lb). The heaviest papal tiara in the papal collection is the 1804 tiara donated by Napoleon I to celebrate both his marriage to Josephine and his coronation as French emperor. It weighs 8.2 kg (18.1 lb). However it was never worn, as its width was made, some suspected deliberately, too small for Pope Pius VII to wear.


title: Papal tiara

text: A number of popes deliberately had new tiaras made because they found those in the collection either too small, too heavy, or both. Rather than use the papier-mâché tiara, Pope Gregory XVI had a new lightweight tiara made in the 1840s. In the 1870s, Pope Pius IX, then in his eighties, found the other tiaras too heavy to wear and that of his predecessor, Pope Gregory, too small, so he had a lightweight tiara made also. In 1908 Pope Pius X had another lightweight tiara made as he found that the normal tiaras in use were too heavy, while the lightweight ones did not fit comfortably.


title: Papal tiara

text: New methods of manufacture in the 20th century enabled the creation of lighter normal tiaras, producing the 900 g (2 lb) tiaras of Pius XI and John XXIII. That, combined with the existence of a range of lightweight tiaras from earlier popes, meant that no pope since Pius X in 1908 needed to make his own special lightweight tiara.


title: Papal tiara

text: There is no certainty about what the three crowns of the Triple Tiara symbolise, as is evident from the multitude of interpretations that have been and still are proposed. Some link it to the threefold authority of the "Supreme Pontiff: Universal Pastor (top), Universal Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction (middle) and Temporal Power (bottom)". Others interpret the three tiers as meaning "father of princes and kings, ruler of the world, vicar of Christ". The words that were used when popes were crowned were: "Accipe tiaram tribus coronis ornatam, et scias te esse patrem principum et regum, rectorem orbis in terra vicarium Salvatoris nostri Jesu Christi, cui est honor et gloria in saecula saeculorum" ("Receive the tiara adorned with three crowns and know that thou art father of princes and kings, ruler of the world, vicar on earth of our Saviour Jesus Christ, to whom is honour and glory for ever and ever").


title: Papal tiara

text: Yet others have associated it with the threefold office of Christ, who is Priest, Prophet and King, or "teacher, lawmaker and judge". Another traditional interpretation was that the three crowns refer to the "Church Militant on earth", the "Church Suffering after death and before heaven", and the "Church Triumphant in eternal reward". Yet another interpretation suggested by Archbishop Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo, who designed Pope Benedict XVI's tiara-less coat of arms, was "order, jurisdiction and magisterium", while a further theory links the three tiers to the "celestial, human and terrestrial worlds," which the pope is supposed to symbolically link. Lord Twining suggested that just as the Holy Roman Emperors were crowned three times as king of Germany, king of Italy and Roman emperor, so the popes, to stress the equality of their spiritual authority to the temporal authority of the emperor, chose to be crowned with a tiara bearing three crowns.


title: Papal tiara

text: The papal tiara was never worn for liturgical celebrations, such as Mass. At such functions the Pope, like other bishops, wore a mitre. However, a tiara was worn during the solemn entrance and departure processions, and one or more could be placed on the altar during the elaborately ceremonial Pontifical High Mass.


title: Papal tiara

text: The tiara was thus worn in formal ceremonial processions, and on other occasions when the pope was carried on the "sedia gestatoria", a portable throne whose use was ended by Pope John Paul II immediately after his election in October 1978. His short-lived predecessor, John Paul I, also chose initially not to use it, but relented when informed that without it the people could not see him. The papal tiara was also worn when a pope gave his traditional Christmas and Easter "Urbi et Orbi" blessing ("to the City and the World") from the balcony of St Peter's – the only religious ceremony at which the tiara was worn.


title: Papal tiara

text: The most famous occasion when the triple tiara was used was the papal coronation, a six-hour ceremony, when the new pope was carried in state on the "sedia gestatoria" (portable throne), with attendants fanning the pontiff with ostrich-feathered "flabella" to the location of the coronation. Traditionally, coronations took place in St Peter's Basilica.


title: Papal tiara

text: Pope Paul VI opted for a significantly shorter ceremony. As with all other modern coronations, the ceremony itself was only symbolic, as the person involved became Pope and Bishop of Rome the moment he accepted his canonical election in the papal conclave. The two subsequent popes (John Paul I and John Paul II) abandoned the monarchial coronation, opting instead for a coronation-less investiture. In 2005, Pope Benedict XVI took a step further and removed the tiara from his papal coat of arms, replacing it with a mitre.


title: Papal tiara

text: Only one other Catholic see uses the triple tiara in its coat of arms: the Patriarchate of Lisbon. The title of Patriarch of Lisbon was created in 1716 and has been held by the archbishop of Lisbon since 1740. The coat of arms of the Holy See combines the tiara with the crossed keys of St. Peter, while that of the Lisbon Patriarchate combines it with a processional cross and a pastoral staff. Also the Archbishop of Benevento uses the tiara in its coat of arms.


title: Papal tiara

text: The 16th-century Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent commissioned Venetian craftsmen to make a 4-tiered tiara modeled on the papal design, to demonstrate that his power and authority as Caliph exceeded that of the Pope. This was a most atypical piece of headgear for an Ottoman sultan, which he probably never normally wore, but which he placed beside him when receiving visitors, especially ambassadors. It was crowned with an enormous feather.


title: Papal tiara

text: Conversely, the papal coronation ceremony, in which the Pope was fanned with flabella (long fans of ostrich feathers) and carried on the "sedia gestatoria" (portable throne), was based on the Byzantine imperial ceremonies witnessed in medieval Constantinople.


title: Papal tiara

text: Medieval tarot cards included a card showing a woman wearing a papal tiara and known as the "Popess or Papess" or the "High Priestess". The meaning and symbolism of the card is uncertain. The crowned woman has variously been identified as Pope Joan (a woman who according to a medieval and later Protestant legend had disguised herself as a man and been elected pope; some cards also show a child, and the Pope Joan legend pictured her as found out when she gave birth during a papal procession), as Mary, Mother of God, or even as Cybele, Isis, or Venus. Cards with a woman wearing a papal tiara, produced during the Protestant Reformation, and apparent images of "Pope Joan" and her child, have been seen as a Protestant attempt to ridicule the office of the papacy and the Roman Catholic faith. However, the papal tiara disappeared from later depictions of the "Popess" and showed her wearing more standard medieval female headgear.


title: Papal tiara

text: All tarot cards also contain a representation of the pope, known as "The Hierophant", in some cases crowned with a papal tiara. For instance, the Rider–Waite tarot deck, currently the widest-circulated deck in existence, depicts "The Hierophant" or pope as wearing a papal tiara and carrying a papal cross.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: NJ/NY Gotham FC is a professional women's soccer team based in Harrison, New Jersey. Founded in 2006 as Jersey Sky Blue, the team was known as Sky Blue FC from 2008 until 2020. A founding member of the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) in 2013, Sky Blue FC also played in the Women's Professional Soccer (WPS) from 2009 to 2011.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Following the growth of women's soccer in the United States in the 1990s, the first attempt at a fully professional women's league, the Women's United Soccer Association (WUSA), was founded in 2000. However, after playing just three seasons the WUSA folded in 2003. Almost immediately following the folding of the WUSA, attempts were made to relaunch the league, although each of these initially came to naught. Finally, in December 2006, an agreement was reached to establish a new professional women's league, consisting of teams from Chicago, St. Louis, Dallas, Los Angeles, and Washington, D.C., as well as an undetermined sixth city located somewhere in the Western United States. Originally planned to begin play in 2008, the launch of this new league, dubbed Women's Professional Soccer (WPS), was subsequently pushed back to 2009. Boston and the New York/New Jersey metropolitan area were also selected to host clubs to participate in the inaugural WPS season.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Sky Blue FC was originally founded in 2006 as Jersey Sky Blue, playing in the USL W-League in 2007, a semi-professional league that served as part of the second division of women's soccer in the United States. Future Governor of New Jersey Phil Murphy and his wife Tammy Murphy were co-founders of the team, alongside businessman Steven H. Temares and Thomas Hofstetter. The Murphys would later claim that their motivation in founding the club was as an example to their daughter, in order to prove that there was a viable pathway for women in the United States to play professional soccer. By September 2007, the club had been selected to fulfill the New York/New Jersey slot in Women's Professional Soccer and rebranded as Sky Blue FC. Following this move, the Jersey Sky Blue name initially remained in use for a feeder team in the W-League, although it later rebranded as the Hudson Valley Quickstrike Lady Blues. Co-founder Thomas Hofstetter, who served as president of Sky Blue FC until 2013, also served as chairman of the feeder team until their folding in 2010. As of 2018, Phil Murphy was a majority shareholder of the team.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Sky Blue FC named Ian Sawyers as its first head coach and general manager on March 5, 2008. However, it was not until September 9, 2008 that the New York/New Jersey outfit was officially unveiled under the name Sky Blue FC. One week later, the US Women's National Team allocation took place with Heather O'Reilly, Natasha Kai, and Christie Pearce allocated to Sky Blue FC.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: On September 24, the 2008 WPS International Draft was held. Sky Blue FC drafted Australian National Team forward Sarah Walsh in the first round, Brazilian National Team members Rosana and Ester in the second and third rounds respectively, finished with Canadian National Team midfielder Kelly Parker in the fourth round. In addition to these picks, Sky Blue FC also named Australian National Team midfielder Collette McCallum and England National Team defender Anita Asante as post-draft discovery players on September 26, 2008 and October 2, 2008 respectively, and were awarded their WPS playing rights.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: To further assign player rights, on October 6 the 2008 WPS General Draft took place. Sky Blue FC drafted Cori Alexander, Keeley Dowling, Kacey White, and Jenny Hammond. Ian Sawyers closed out 2008 by choosing Kelly Lindsey to be his assistant coach on December 3.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: The new year brought new players. On January 16, the 2009 WPS Draft was held. Sky Blue FC drafted Yael Averbuch, Meghan Schnur, Karen Bardsley, Christie Shaner, Julianne Sitch, Jen Buczkowski, Zhang Ouying, Mary Therese McDonnell, Mele French, and Fanta Cooper.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Sky Blue FC kicked off its inaugural season on April 5, 2009 dropping a 2–0 decision to Los Angeles Sol at TD Bank Ballpark in Bridgewater Township, New Jersey. It played its next game at the venue before moving permanently to Yurcak Field on the campus of Rutgers University.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: The team stuttered to one win and two draws in their first six games, scoring only 3 goals in the process, before head coach and general manager Ian Sawyers was suspended indefinitely by the team for disagreements on May 23, 2009. He was eventually relieved of his duties as head coach and general manager on May 28, 2009. In his absence, Kelly Lindsey stepped in as the interim and slowly started to turn around Sky Blue FC's on-field fortunes. She was eventually permanently installed as head coach on June 19, 2009 by then General Manager Gerry Marrone.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Lindsey's time at the helm was short-lived as she abruptly resigned from her position on July 30, 2009. She had won five games and drawn three others in her twelve total matches before Christie Pearce was named the second interim of the year and third head coach overall by Marrone. Her position also included playing on the field and was the first player/manager in WPS history. Rampone lead Sky Blue FC into 4th position and secured the final playoff spot for the 2009 playoffs. Sky Blue FC upended both Washington Freedom and Saint Louis Athletica to make the championship game against Los Angeles Sol. A 16th minute Heather O'Reilly strike earned Sky Blue FC the championship on August 22, 2009, beating the Sol on their own home field of The Home Depot Center in Carson, California.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Sky Blue's victory was seen as an upset, and later described as "an all-time underdog story." Sky Blue were later invited to the White House, where President Barack Obama hailed their success in the inaugural WPS season.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: With two additional teams, Atlanta Beat and Philadelphia Independence, joining the league for 2010, Sky Blue FC were destined to lose players from their championship-winning side. On September 15, the 2009 WPS Expansion Draft was held with Jen Buczkowski moving to Philadelphia and Noelle Keselica headed to Atlanta.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Sky Blue FC announced on September 29, 2009 that former Finnish National Team player Pauliina Miettinen would be head coach of the team for the 2010 season after completing her coaching duties with PK-35 Vantaa.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Sky Blue FC started its title defense on April 11, 2010 when it hosted the Chicago Red Stars at Yurcak Field. The team wasted little time in gaining its first goal on the young season, with forward Tasha Kai scoring on a fourth-minute strike to lead her team to an eventual 1–0 victory. Sky Blue FC found itself having some trouble tallying goals as the season progressed and held a 5–6–3 record when head coach Pauliina Miettinen was relieved of her duties. Immediately replacing her was assistant coach Rick Stainton, who led the team to a 2–4–4 record the rest of the way. After settling for three draws to conclude its sophomore campaign, Sky Blue FC finished the year in fifth place in the regular season standings and just missed the postseason.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: The 2011 season marked the first at the helm by decorated women's soccer coach Jim Gabarra, who had spent the past decade with the Washington Freedom. Prior to the start of the regular season, Sky Blue FC headed to Turkey for the preseason, playing to the finals of the Alanya International Women's Tournament of Champions, where it fell to team partner LdB FC Malmö, 1–0. Also participating in the tournament were Russian side FK Energiya and Danish club Fortuna Hjørring (who Sky Blue FC defeated in a penalty shootout in the semifinals).


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Sky Blue FC kicked off the WPS regular season on April 10, 2011 at Yurcak Field, playing the Philadelphia Independence to a 2–2 draw. The team then hit the road for three games, suffering three consecutive defeats, before returning home for a pair of wins. After two more draws and another victory, Sky Blue FC found itself amid the longest unbeaten streak in franchise history (five matches). The team kicked off that streak on May 21, 2011 with a 3–0 win over the Atlanta Beat, its then-largest margin of victory.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: The club went 1–2 in its next three games before entering the final four matches of the regular season. After suffering defeats in each of those games, Sky Blue FC came up just short of the playoffs after finishing even with the Boston Breakers for the final postseason spot (Boston took the season tiebreaker).


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: After the WPS announced the suspension of the 2012 season, Sky Blue FC announced a partnership with the New Jersey Wildcats of the W-League, which included sharing coaching staff.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: In November 2012, it was announced that Sky Blue FC would be one of eight teams in a new women's professional soccer league sponsored by the United States Soccer Federation, the Canadian Soccer Association and the Mexican Football Federation. The league, known as the National Women's Soccer League, began play in spring 2013.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: For the 2013 season, Sky Blue were allocated seven players from North American federations, including Kelley O'Hara, Jillian Loyden, Christie Rampone, and Sophie Schmidt. On May 19, the club recorded their third consecutive victory and their fifth overall, marking the club's best-ever start to a season. On June 1, 2013, the team extended their run of consecutive victories to five with a 5–1 win over the Boston Breakers at Yurcak Field. In so doing, Sky Blue became the first team to score five goals in a single match in the nascent National Women's Soccer League. The team's form later slumped in the second half of the regular season, though Sky Blue ultimately finished in 4th place, earning a spot in the playoffs for the first time since 2009. Sky Blue were later eliminated in the first round of the playoffs, suffering a 2–0 defeat to the Western New York Flash.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: The following season, Sky Blue failed to win any of their opening four matches. After defeating the Boston Breakers on May 3, Sky Blue again went on a winless streak until June 25, when they secured a 2–1 victory over the Portland Thorns. The 2014 season ended with a five-game win streak, though this proved insufficient to overcome earlier poor form and Sky Blue finished the season in 6th place, failing to qualify for the playoffs.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: The 2015 season was similarly marred by poor form. After winning their opening match of the season, Sky Blue went on a winless streak until July 11. The game marked the debut for Australian international Sam Kerr, who scored the winning goal. Sky Blue ultimately finished the season in 8th place, having won only five games out of 20, and once more failing to qualify for the playoffs.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Following the 2015 season, head coach Jim Gabarra reached an agreement with Sky Blue to be released from his contract, having agreed terms to join the Washington Spirit. Gabarra's assistant, Christy Holly, was later named his successor for the 2016 season.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Sky Blue FC opened its 2016 season at Seattle Reign in thrilling fashion on Sunday, April 17, 2016, winning 2–1 and handing two-time defending NWSL Shield winner its first-ever home loss at Memorial Stadium. The Reign were unbeaten at Memorial Stadium over the previous two seasons Sky Blue FC started six players who had never logged a single NWSL minute before that night. By the end of the season they had racked up with 26 points in 7th place. Playing twenty games this season, they ended up with seven wins, eight losses, and five draws. They scored 24 goals and had 30 against them. Sky Blue midfielder Raquel Rodríguez was named 2016 NWSL Rookie of the Year.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: After beginning with a 1–1 draw against Seattle Reign, the 2017 season got off to an uneven start. Sky Blue recorded alternating wins and losses in their next four games. Over the opening 18 matches of the season, Sky Blue recorded only two draws, compared to 7 wins and 9 defeats. Despite these results, Sky Blue were in 3rd place as late as July 15. Ultimately, in 2017, Sky Blue had its most successful season since 2014. They finished in sixth place, but were in playoff contention until mid September. Despite these successes, head coach Christy Holly unexpectedly stepped down as coach on August 16, 2017.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Holly's departure was followed by veteran defender Christie Pearce announcing she would miss the remainder of the season due to injury on August 18. Following Holly's abrupt departure, assistant manager Dave Hodgson was appointed interim head coach.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: On August 19, 2017 Sky Blue overcame a 3–0 deficit, to defeat the Seattle Reign 5–4. In that game Sam Kerr became the first player in NWSL history to score 4 goals in one game. Kerr enjoyed a breakout season in 2017, she broke the single season goal scoring record by scoring 17 goals and won the golden boot. Kerr was also awarded the 2017 NWSL MVP award.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Denise Reddy was appointed as the new head coach on November 15, 2017. Sky Blue began the off-season by trading several of their key players. They dealt Taylor Lytle and USWNT defender Kelley O'Hara to the Utah Royals on December 29, 2017. Then at the 2018 NWSL College Draft they traded Nikki Stanton and 2017 NWSL MVP Sam Kerr to the Chicago Red Stars. Sky Blue received forward Katie Johnson and defender Rebekah Stott from the Seattle Reign in exchange for the rights to forward Caitlin Foord. They also added two-time FIFA Player of the year Carli Lloyd in the trade for Sam Kerr.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: The results of the field were not good for Sky Blue as they finished in last place with a record of 1–17–6. They broke the NWSL record for the longest winless streak (23 games) as they didn't earn a victory until the final game of the season.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: During this time, the club was plagued with reports of poor off-field conditions. The training facilities lacked running water, working toilets, and showers, leading players to take post-game ice baths in garbage cans. The team reneged on its promise to provide housing for some players, and those who were accommodated found the conditions unacceptable. Players had to cover broken windows with cardboard, and some were placed with host families who expected them to babysit. Players also accused the club of also trying to cut travel costs at their expense. Players were forced into early check-outs at hotels, sometimes hours before they had to leave for a game. Between the poor training conditions and ownership they saw as distant, players started referring to Sky Blue as "a semi-pro team".


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: These off-field issues, coupled with Sky Blue's poor results, led to the club being described as "falling apart, on the field and off".


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: The 2018 season did include promising rookie seasons from Imani Dorsey and Savannah McCaskill. Dorsey scored 4 goals in 13 games and McCaskill had 3 goals and 3 assists. Both players were voted as finalists for the 2018 NWSL Rookie of the year. Dorsey won the award, becoming the second Sky Blue player to win the award after Raquel Rodríguez won it in 2016.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Following the disappointments of the preceding two seasons, the 2019 season got off to a poor start. Before the season even began, Hailie Mace and Julia Ashley declined to sign for the club despite being drafted, citing the team's mismanagement. Sky Blue then failed to win any of their opening nine matches, drawing two and losing seven. Head coach Denise Reddy was subsequently relieved of her duties. At the time of her dismissal, Reddy had won only one of thirty-three matches in charge of the club. Goalkeeping coach Hugo Macedo was named interim head coach following Reddy's dismissal. In his first game in charge, Macedo guided Sky Blue to a 2–1 win over the Chicago Red Stars, their first victory in an away game since September 2017. Under Macedo, Sky Blue amassed a 4–2–4 record. However, on September 4, Macedo returned to his previous role of goalkeeping coach and was replaced as interim head coach by Freya Coombe. Under Coombe, Sky Blue went on to win only one of their final five games of the season. Having had three head coaches in a single season for the second time, Sky Blue finished the 2019 season with a record of 5 wins, 5 draws, and 14 defeats. This saw them finish 8th in the table, ahead of only the Orlando Pride, and failing to qualify for the playoffs for the sixth consecutive season.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Off the field, in February co-owner and First Lady of New Jersey Tammy Murphy announced she would be taking an "active role" in the club. In the same statement, Murphy announced that the club had taken steps to improve player housing, as well as relocating its administrative offices, and expanding the size of the club's staff. Murphy also committed to improving Sky Blue's training facilities. Longtime president and General Manager Tony Novo resigned in April, with reports alleging that Novo was forced out of the club. Alyse LaHue, formerly General Manager of the Chicago Red Stars, was named interim GM following Novo's resignation. LaHue was later made permanent General Manager on September 3.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: In November 2019, Sky Blue announced that they had reached an agreement with Major League Soccer club the New York Red Bulls to play their home matches for the following season at Red Bull Arena. In December, Freya Coombe's appointment as head coach was made permanent.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Following their previous announcement of a groundshare arrangement, in February 2020 Sky Blue announced that they had agreed a deal to share training facilities with the New York Red Bulls. That same month, Ed Nalbandian joined the club as minority owner and was appointed Vice Chair. Heading into the 2020 season, Sky Blue's off field developments over the preceding year were perceived as having turned around the club's culture. The club also took steps to overhaul their roster, bringing in thirteen new players, such as Mallory Pugh, McCall Zerboni, and Margaret Purce, for what was described as a "new-look Sky Blue." These changes led to a belief that the club "was set to make leaps and bounds" and would "compete for playoff spots in due time." The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic halted the new season's momentum before it could even begin, however. On March 12, the team's originally scheduled preseason was cancelled. The start date of the 2020 NWSL season was also pushed back before being cancelled altogether and replaced by the 2020 NWSL Challenge Cup.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Veteran defender Caprice Dydasco, new arrival Pugh, and star midfielder Carli Lloyd were ruled out of the Challenge Cup through injury. Midfielder Madison Tiernan also picked up an injury shortly before the start of the tournament. These absences, coupled with the extensive changes that had been made to the club in a short space of time, led to Sky Blue entering the Challenge Cup as "the true underdog". The truncated season was seen as pushing back the club's growth, while at the same time the tournament was perceived as "more of a development opportunity." Heading into the tournament, the team were perceived as least likely to reach the final.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Following a 0–0 draw with the OL Reign in their opening game of the tournament and a 1–0 defeat to Utah Royals, Sky Blue recorded a 2–0 win over the Houston Dash, which saw them rise to 2nd in the table. A subsequent 2–0 defeat to the North Carolina Courage saw them slump to 7th, and Sky Blue were pitted against 2nd place Washington Spirit in the quarter-final. The Spirit were perceived as the favorite for the match, though Sky Blue ultimately advanced after winning 4–3 on penalties. In the semi-final, Sky Blue were pitted against the Chicago Red Stars, who had finished as runners-up in the 2019 NWSL Championship. After conceding three goals in the opening 60 minutes, Sky Blue rallied courtesy of a late goal from Evelyne Viens and an effort by Purce which forced an own goal by Julie Ertz. However, Sky Blue were unable to overcome the deficit and the club were eliminated in a 3–2 defeat. Despite these results, goalkeeper Kailen Sheridan was named the best goalkeeper of the tournament by the media, being awarded the Golden Glove. The Philadelphia Inquirer also wrote that Sky Blue's performance in the tournament "shows big potential for the future," and that "if general manager Alyse LaHue can keep her team's spine together, Sky Blue will enter 2021 with real potential to end its playoff drought."


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Following the conclusion of the Challenge Cup, the NWSL announced the continuation of the season with the NWSL Fall Series. Per the rules of the series, Sky Blue were drawn into a three-team regional pod with the Washington Spirit and Chicago Red Stars. Sky Blue opened the Fall Series with a 2–1 victory over the Washington Spirit at Segra Field on September 5, though this was followed by a heavy 4–1 defeat to the Chicago Red Stars. Sky Blue then suffered a 1–0 defeat to the Washington Spirit in their first home game of the season, before closing out the Fall Series with a 3–1 victory at home over Chicago. These results ultimately saw Sky Blue finish the Fall Series in fourth place, just one point behind the third-placed Washington Spirit.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: In April 2021, Sky Blue officially changed its name to Gotham FC, "Gotham" being a nickname for New York City. Carli Lloyd announced her retirement from professional soccer on August 16, 2021, indicating the current NJ/NY Gotham season would be her last season. In September 2021, former Sky Blue player Nadia Nadim accused management of forging her signature on a contract extension so they could trade her to the Portland Thorns in early 2016.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Lloyd joined the ownership group on April 27, 2022. On May 4, 2022, NBA player Kevin Durant and investor Rich Kleiman announced their minority investment into Gotham FC via their investment company Thirty Five Ventures. On July 29, 2022, WNBA player Sue Bird joined Gotham FC's ownership group as a minority owner, consultant, and advisor. On August 10, 2022, Gotham FC announced the addition of former New York Giants quarterback Eli Manning and Giants chief commercial officer Pete Guelli to its ownership group as minority owners. The investments raised the club's valuation to an estimated $40 million.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: On August 11, 2022, Gotham FC fired head coach Scott Parkinson following a start to the 2021 season and announced an immediate search for a new coach to be hired for the 2023 season.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: The club's visual identity has changed multiple times throughout its history. During their tenure in Women's Professional Soccer, Sky Blue FC's home colors were orange and their away colors were sky blue. Beginning with the 2013 season and the launch of the National Women's Soccer League, the club's home colors changed to midnight blue, while their away colors changed to a white shirt with midnight blue shorts. In 2015, the club's colors reverted to sky blue and orange, but with sky blue for their home jersey and orange for their away jersey. The following season, the club's home colors returned to midnight blue, while their away colors returned to sky blue. This pattern again emerged in following seasons, as the club's home jersey was sky blue in 2017 and 2018, but returned to midnight blue in 2019. The 2020 season marked yet another change, as the club's home colors became primarily black with sky blue accents. While their home and away strips as Sky Blue FC lacked a consistent visual identity, throughout this era the club's crest remained a blue, white, and orange shield emblazoned with the club's name. The addition of a blue star above the shield was to represent the club's victory in the 2009 Women's Professional Soccer championship.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Following the club's rebrand from Sky Blue FC to NJ/NY Gotham FC, a new crest and color scheme was announced. The club's new crest, a shield adorned by the crown of the Statue of Liberty, was designed by Matthew Wolff, who had previously designed for several MLS clubs as well as other professional clubs around the world. According to a club statement, the crown represents the club's ambitions to become an international club. The lettering on the crest contains a hybrid letter Y and letter J, reflecting the club's name, location, and fanbase. The new kit is similarly representative. The blue sash running diagonally across the kit harkens back to the team's roots as Sky Blue FC. The sash also symbolizes the Hudson River, a visual representation of the "/" in NJ/NY, as it flows between New Jersey and New York. Following the rebrand, the official colors of Gotham FC are "Sky Blue", "Gotham Black", and "Cloud White", representing the club's original name, its current name, and the name of the supporters group.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Cloud 9 is the official supporters group of Gotham FC. They stand in the supporters' section for home games (Section 101 of Red Bull Arena, behind the right-side goal), and travel to road games, singing songs and chants throughout the game. During the team's tenure at Yurcak Field, Cloud 9 stood and supported from Section 9 during home games.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Only competitive matches are counted. Wins, losses, and draws are results at the final whistle; the results of penalty shootouts are not counted.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: "Statistics from competitive matches (regular season, playoffs, and domestic cup) only." "Current players in bold".


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Starting in April 2017, Sky Blue FC games were streamed exclusively by Go90 for American audiences and via the NWSL website for international viewers. For the 2017 season, the team was featured in the nationally televised Lifetime "NWSL Game of the Week" broadcasts on May 13, May 20, July 1, and August 12, 2017.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: Previous seasons' matches were streamed live on YouTube, available around the world. The announcers were Corey Cohen on play-by-play and Dan Lauletta on color commentary with Evan Davis hosting the halftime show and NJ Discover handling production.


title: NJ/NY Gotham FC

text: On March 11, 2020, the NWSL announced that it has entered into a three-year media agreement with CBS Sports and the video game-oriented streaming service Twitch.


title: Identity management

text: Identity management (IdM), also known as identity and access management (IAM or IdAM), is a framework of policies and technologies to ensure that the right users (that are part of the ecosystem connected to or within an enterprise) have the appropriate access to technology resources. IdM systems fall under the overarching umbrellas of IT security and data management. Identity and access management systems not only identify, authenticate, and control access for individuals who will be utilizing IT resources but also the hardware and applications employees need to access.


title: Identity management

text: IdM addresses the need to ensure appropriate access to resources across increasingly heterogeneous technology environments and to meet increasingly rigorous compliance requirements.


title: Identity management

text: The terms "identity management" (IdM) and "identity and access management" are used interchangeably in the area of identity access management.


title: Identity management

text: Identity-management systems, products, applications and platforms manage identifying and ancillary data about entities that include individuals, computer-related hardware, and software applications.


title: Identity management

text: IdM covers issues such as how users gain an identity, the roles, and sometimes the permissions that identity grants, the protection of that identity, and the technologies supporting that protection (e.g., network protocols, digital certificates, passwords, etc.).


title: Identity management

text: Identity management (ID management) – or identity and access management (IAM) – is the organizational and technical processes for first registering and authorizing access rights in the configuration phase, and then in the operation phase for identifying, authenticating and controlling individuals or groups of people to have access to applications, systems or networks based on previously authorized access rights. Identity management (IdM) is the task of controlling information about users on computers. Such information includes information that authenticates the identity of a user, and information that describes data and actions they are authorized to access and/or perform. It also includes the management of descriptive information about the user and how and by whom that information can be accessed and modified. In addition to users, managed entities typically include hardware and network resources and even applications. The diagram below shows the relationship between the configuration and operation phases of IAM, as well as the distinction between identity management and access management.


title: Identity management

text: Digital identity is an entity's online presence, encompassing personal identifying information (PII) and ancillary information. See OECD and NIST guidelines on protecting PII. It can be interpreted as the codification of identity names and attributes of a physical instance in a way that facilitates processing.


title: Identity management

text: In the real-world context of engineering online systems, identity management can involve five basic functions:


title: Identity management

text: A general model of identity can be constructed from a small set of axioms, for example that all identities in a given namespace are unique, or that such identities bear a specific relationship to corresponding entities in the real world. Such an axiomatic model expresses "pure identity" in the sense that the model is not constrained by a specific application context.


title: Identity management

text: In general, an entity (real or virtual) can have multiple identities and each identity can encompass multiple attributes, some of which are unique within a given name space. The diagram below illustrates the conceptual relationship between identities and entities, as well as between identities and their attributes.


title: Identity management

text: In most theoretical and all practical models of digital identity, a given identity object consists of a finite set of properties (attribute values). These properties record information about the object, either for purposes external to the model or to operate the model, for example in classification and retrieval. A "pure identity" model is strictly not concerned with the external semantics of these properties.


title: Identity management

text: The most common departure from "pure identity" in practice occurs with properties intended to assure some aspect of identity, for example a digital signature or software token which the model may use internally to verify some aspect of the identity in satisfaction of an external purpose. To the extent that the model expresses such semantics internally, it is not a pure model.


title: Identity management

text: Contrast this situation with properties that might be externally used for purposes of information security such as managing access or entitlement, but which are simply stored, maintained and retrieved, without special treatment by the model. The absence of external semantics within the model qualifies it as a "pure identity" model.


title: Identity management

text: Identity management can thus be defined as a set of operations on a given identity model, or more generally, as a set of capabilities with reference to it.


title: Identity management

text: In practice, identity management often expands to express how model content is to be provisioned and reconciled among multiple identity models.


title: Identity management

text: User access enables users to assume a specific digital identity across applications, which enables access controls to be assigned and evaluated against this identity. The use of a single identity for a given user across multiple systems eases tasks for administrators and users. It simplifies access monitoring and verification and allows the organizations to minimize excessive privileges granted to one user. User access can be tracked from initiation to termination of user access.


title: Identity management

text: When organizations deploy an identity management process or system, their motivation is normally not primarily to manage a set of identities, but rather to grant appropriate access rights to those entities via their identities. In other words, access management is normally the motivation for identity management and the two sets of processes are consequently closely related.


title: Identity management

text: Organizations continue to add services for both internal users and by customers. Many such services require identity management to properly provide these services. Increasingly, identity management has been partitioned from application functions so that a single identity can serve many or even all of an organization's activities.


title: Identity management

text: For internal use identity management is evolving to control access to all digital assets, including devices, network equipment, servers, portals, content, applications and/or products.


title: Identity management

text: Services often require access to extensive information about a user, including address books, preferences, entitlements and contact information. Since much of this information is subject to privacy and/or confidentiality requirements, controlling access to it is vital.


title: Identity management

text: Identity federation comprises one or more systems that share user access and allow users to log in based on authenticating against one of the systems participating in the federation. This trust between several systems is often known as "Circle of Trust". In this setup, one system acts as the Identity Provider (IdP) and other system(s) acts as Service Provider (SP). When a user needs to access some service controlled by SP, they first authenticate against the IdP. Upon successful authentication, the IdP sends a secure "assertion" to the Service Provider. "SAML assertions, specified using a markup language intended for describing security assertions, can be used by a verifier to make a statement to a relying party about the identity of a claimant. SAML assertions may optionally be digitally signed."


title: Identity management

text: In addition to creation, deletion, modification of user identity data either assisted or self-service, identity management controls ancillary entity data for use by applications, such as contact information or location.


title: Identity management

text: Putting personal information onto computer networks necessarily raises privacy concerns. Absent proper protections, the data may be used to implement a surveillance society.


title: Identity management

text: Social web and online social networking services make heavy use of identity management. Helping users decide how to manage access to their personal information has become an issue of broad concern.


title: Identity management

text: Identity theft happens when thieves gain access to identity information – such as the personal details needed to get access to a bank account.


title: Identity management

text: Research related to the management of identity covers disciplines such as technology, social sciences, humanities and the law.


title: Identity management

text: Within the Seventh Research Framework Programme of the European Union from 2007 to 2013, several new projects related to Identity Management started.


title: Identity management

text: The PICOS Project investigates and develops a state-of-the-art platform for providing trust, privacy and identity management in mobile communities.


title: Identity management

text: PrimeLife develops concepts and technologies to help individuals to protect autonomy and retain control over personal information, irrespective of activities.


title: Identity management

text: SWIFT focuses on extending identity functions and federation to the network while addressing usability and privacy concerns and leverages identity technology as a key to integrate service and transport infrastructures for the benefit of users and the providers.


title: Identity management

text: Less specialized journals publish on the topic and for instance have special issues on Identity such as:


title: Identity management

text: ISO (and more specifically ISO/IEC JTC 1, SC27 IT Security techniques WG5 Identity Access Management and Privacy techniques) is conducting some standardization work for identity management , such as the elaboration of a framework for identity management, including the definition of identity-related terms. The published standards and current work items includes the following:


title: Identity management

text: In each organization there is normally a role or department that is responsible for managing the schema of digital identities of their staff and their own objects, which are represented by object identities or object identifiers (OID).


title: Identity management

text: The organizational policies and processes and procedures related to the oversight of identity management are sometime referred to as "Identity Governance and Administration" (IGA). Commercial software tools exist to help automate and simplify such organisational-level identity management functions. How effectively and appropriately such tools are used falls within scope of broader governance, risk management, and compliance regimes.


title: Identity management

text: Since 2016 Identity and Access Management professionals have their own professional organization, IDPro. In 2018 the committee initiated the publication of An Annotated Bibliography, listing a number of important publications, books, presentations and videos.


title: Identity management

text: An identity-management system refers to an information system, or to a set of technologies that can be used for enterprise or cross-network identity management.


title: Identity management

text: Identity management, otherwise known as identity and access management (IAM) is an identity security framework that works to authenticate and authorize user access to resources such as applications, data, systems, and cloud platforms. It seeks to ensure only the right people are being provisioned to the right tools, and for the right reasons. As our digital ecosystem continues to advance, so does the world of identity management.


title: Identity management

text: "Identity management" and "access and identity management" (or AIM) are terms that are used interchangeably under the title of identity management while identity management itself falls under the umbrella of IT security and information privacy and privacy risk as well as usability and e-inclusion studies.


title: Identity management

text: These technologies can be combined using identity governance, which provides the foundation for automated workflows and processes.


title: Identity management

text: Identity is conceptualized in three different modes, according to an analysis:from the FIDIS Network of Excellence:


title: Identity management

text: In Bertino's and Takahashi's textbook, three categories of identity are defined that are to a degree overlapping with the FIDIS identity concepts:


title: Identity management

text: Identity management systems are concerned with the creation, the administration and the deployment of:


title: Identity management

text: Identity-management systems, products, applications, and platforms are commercial Identity-management solutions implemented for enterprises and organizations.


title: Identity management

text: Technologies, services, and terms related to identity management include Microsoft Windows active directory, service providers, identity providers, Web services, access control, digital identities, password managers, single sign-on, security tokens, security token services (STS), workflows, OpenID, WS-Security, WS-Trust, SAML 2.0, OAuth, and RBAC.


title: Identity management

text: The focus on identity management goes back to the development of directories, such as X.500, where a namespace serves to hold named objects that represent real-life "identified" entities, such as countries, organizations, applications, subscribers or devices. The X.509 ITU-T standard defined certificates carried identity attributes as two directory names: the certificate subject and the certificate issuer. X.509 certificates and PKI systems operate to prove the online "identity" of a subject. Therefore, in IT terms, one can consider identity management as the management of information (as held in a directory) that represents items identified in real life (e.g. users, organizations, devices, services, etc.). The design of such systems requires explicit information and identity engineering tasks.


title: Identity management

text: The evolution of identity management follows the progression of Internet technology closely. In the environment of static web pages and static portals of the early 1990s, corporations investigated the delivery of informative web content such as the "white pages" of employees. Subsequently, as the information changed (due to employee turnover, provisioning and de-provisioning), the ability to perform self-service and help-desk updates more efficiently morphed into what became known as Identity Management .


title: Space-based solar power

text: Space-based solar power (SBSP, SSP) is the concept of collecting solar power in outer space by solar power satellites (SPS) and distributing it to Earth. Its advantages include a higher collection of energy due to the lack of reflection and absorption by the atmosphere, the possibility of no (or very little) night, and a better ability to orient to face the sun. Space-based solar power systems convert sunlight to some other form of energy (such as microwaves) which can be transmitted through the atmosphere to receivers on the Earth's surface. It is attractive to those seeking large-scale solutions to anthropogenic climate change or fossil fuel depletion (such as peak oil).


title: Space-based solar power

text: Various SBSP proposals have been researched since the early 1970s, but none is economically viable with present-day space launch costs. Some technologists speculate that this may change in the distant future with space manufacturing from asteroids or lunar material, or with radical new space launch technologies other than rocketry.


title: Space-based solar power

text: Besides cost, SBSP also introduces several technological hurdles, including the problem of transmitting energy from orbit. Since wires extending from Earth's surface to an orbiting satellite are not feasible with current technology, SBSP designs generally include the wireless power transmission with its concomitant conversion inefficiencies, as well as land use concerns for antenna stations to receive the energy at Earth's surface. The collecting satellite would convert solar energy into electrical energy, powering a microwave transmitter or laser emitter, and transmit this energy to a collector (or microwave rectenna) on Earth's surface. Contrary to appearances in fiction, most designs propose beam energy densities that are not harmful if human beings were to be inadvertently exposed, such as if a transmitting satellite's beam were to wander off-course. But the necessarily vast size of the receiving antennas would still require large blocks of land near the end users. The service life of space-based collectors in the face of long-term exposure to the space environment, including degradation from radiation and micrometeoroid damage, could also become a concern for SBSP.


title: Space-based solar power

text: As of 2020, SBSP is being actively pursued by Japan, China, Russia, India, the United Kingdom and the US.


title: Space-based solar power

text: In 2008, Japan passed its Basic Space Law which established space solar power as a national goal and JAXA has a roadmap to commercial SBSP.


title: Space-based solar power

text: In 2015, the China Academy for Space Technology (CAST) showcased their roadmap at the International Space Development Conference. In February 2019, "Science and Technology Daily" (科技日报, Keji Ribao), the official newspaper of the Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China, reported that construction of a testing base had started in Chongqing's Bishan District. CAST vice-president Li Ming was quoted as saying China expects to be the first nation to build a working space solar power station with practical value. Chinese scientists were reported as planning to launch several small- and medium-sized space power stations between 2021 and 2025. In December 2019, Xinhua News Agency reported that China plans to launch a 200-tonne SBSP station capable of generating megawatts (MW) of electricity to Earth by 2035.


title: Space-based solar power

text: In May 2020, the US Naval Research Laboratory conducted its first test of solar power generation in a satellite. In August 2021, the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) announced that it planned to launch a SBSP test array by 2023, and at the same time revealed that Donald Bren and his wife Brigitte, both Caltech trustees, had been since 2013 funding the institute's Space-based Solar Power Project, donating over $100 million.


title: Space-based solar power

text: In 1941, science fiction writer Isaac Asimov published the science fiction short story "Reason", in which a space station transmits energy collected from the Sun to various planets using microwave beams. The SBSP concept, originally known as satellite solar-power system (SSPS), was first described in November 1968. In 1973 Peter Glaser was granted U.S. patent number 3,781,647 for his method of transmitting power over long distances (e.g. from an SPS to Earth's surface) using microwaves from a very large antenna (up to one square kilometer) on the satellite to a much larger one, now known as a rectenna, on the ground.


title: Space-based solar power

text: Glaser then was a vice president at Arthur D. Little, Inc. NASA signed a contract with ADL to lead four other companies in a broader study in 1974. They found that, while the concept had several major problems – chiefly the expense of putting the required materials in orbit and the lack of experience on projects of this scale in space – it showed enough promise to merit further investigation and research.


title: Space-based solar power

text: Between 1978 and 1986, the Congress authorized the Department of Energy (DoE) and NASA to jointly investigate the concept. They organized the Satellite Power System Concept Development and Evaluation Program. The study remains the most extensive performed to date (budget $50 million). Several reports were published investigating the engineering feasibility of such a project. They include:


title: Space-based solar power

text: The project was not continued with the change in administrations after the 1980 United States elections. The Office of Technology Assessment concluded that "Too little is currently known about the technical, economic, and environmental aspects of SPS to make a sound decision whether to proceed with its development and deployment. In addition, without further research an SPS demonstration or systems-engineering verification program would be a high-risk venture."