title: Edict of Nantes

text: The Edict remained unaltered in effect, registered by the parliaments as "fundamental and irrevocable law", with the exception of the "brevets," which had been granted for a period of eight years, and were renewed by Henry in 1606 and in 1611 by Marie de Médecis, who confirmed the Edict within a week of the assassination of Henry, stilling Protestant fears of another St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. The subsidies had been reduced by degrees, as Henry gained more control of the nation. By the peace of Montpellier in 1622, concluding a Huguenot revolt in Languedoc, the fortified Protestant towns were reduced to two, La Rochelle and Montauban. The "brevets" were entirely withdrawn in 1629, by Louis XIII, following the Siege of La Rochelle, in which Cardinal Richelieu blockaded the city for fourteen months.


title: Edict of Nantes

text: During the remainder of Louis XIII's reign, and especially during the minority of Louis XIV, the implementation of the Edict varied year by year, voiced in declarations and orders, and in case decisions in the Council, fluctuating according to the tides of domestic politics and the relations of France with powers abroad.


title: Edict of Nantes

text: In October 1685, Louis XIV, the grandson of Henry IV, renounced the Edict and declared Protestantism illegal with the Edict of Fontainebleau. This act, commonly called the "'revocation of the Edict of Nantes",' had very damaging results for France. While the wars of religion did not re-ignite, intense persecution of Protestants took place. All Protestant ministers were given two weeks to leave the country unless they converted to Catholicism and all other Protestants were prohibited from leaving the country. In spite of the prohibition, the renewed persecution - including many examples of torture - caused as many as 400,000 to flee France at risk of their lives. Most moved to Great Britain, Prussia, the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, South Africa and the new French colonies and the Thirteen Colonies in North America. Some even moved to Denmark, where the city of Fredericia, laid waste after the Swedish conquest in 1656, needed new settlers and a specific clause in the city ordinance allowed other than Lutheran-Protestants to live in the city. This exodus deprived France of many of its most skilled and industrious individuals, some of whom thenceforward aided France's rivals in the Netherlands and in England. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes also further damaged the perception of Louis XIV abroad, making the Protestant nations bordering France even more hostile to his regime. Upon the revocation of the edict, Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg issued the Edict of Potsdam, which encouraged Protestants to come to Brandenburg-Prussia.


title: Edict of Nantes

text: Freedom to worship and civil rights for non-Catholics in France were not restored until the signing of the Edict of Versailles, also known as the Edict of Tolerance, by Louis XVI 102 years later, on 7 November 1787. This edict was enacted by parlement two months later, less than two years before the end of the Ancien Régime and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789 would fully eliminate religious discrimination in France.


title: Edict of Nantes

text: These are the principal and most salient provisions of the edict as promulgated in Nantes, Brittany, probably on 30 April 1598:


title: Edict of Nantes

text: <poem>Henri, by the grace of God king of France and of Navarre, to all to whom these presents come, greeting:


title: Edict of Nantes

text: Among the infinite benefits which it has pleased God to heap upon us, the most signal and precious is his granting us the strength and ability to withstand the fearful disorders and troubles which prevailed on our advent in this kingdom. The realm was so torn by innumerable factions and sects that the most legitimate of all the parties was fewest in numbers. God has given us strength to stand out against this storm; we have finally surmounted the waves and made our port of safety,—peace for our state. For which his be the glory all in all, and ours a free recognition of his grace in making use of our instrumentality in the good work... We implore and await from the Divine Goodness the same protection and favor which he has ever granted to this kingdom from the beginning...


title: Edict of Nantes

text: We have, by this perpetual and irrevocable edict, established and proclaimed and do establish and proclaim:


title: Edict of Nantes

text: I. First, that the recollection of everything done by one party or the other between March, 1585, and our accession to the crown, and during all the preceding period of troubles, remain obliterated and forgotten, as if no such things had ever happened...


title: Edict of Nantes

text: III. We ordain that the Catholic Apostolic and Roman religion shall be restored and reëstablished in all places and localities of this our kingdom and countries subject to our sway, where the exercise of the same has been interrupted, in order that it may be peaceably and freely exercised, without any trouble or hindrance; forbidding very expressly all persons, of whatsoever estate, quality, or condition, from troubling, molesting, or disturbing ecclesiastics in the celebration of divine service, in the enjoyment or collection of tithes, fruits, or revenues of their benefices, and all other rights and dues belonging to them; and that all those who during the troubles have taken possession of churches, houses, goods or revenues, belonging to the said ecclesiastics, shall surrender to them entire possession and peaceable enjoyment of such rights, liberties, and sureties as they had before they were deprived of them...


title: Edict of Nantes

text: VI. And in order to leave no occasion for troubles or differences between our subjects, we have permitted, and herewith permit, those of the said religion called Reformed to live and abide in all the cities and places of this our kingdom and countries of our sway, without being annoyed, molested, or compelled to do anything in the matter of religion contrary to their consciences, ... upon condition that they comport themselves in other respects according to that which is contained in this our present edict.


title: Edict of Nantes

text: VII. It is permitted to all lords, gentlemen, and other persons making profession of the said religion called Reformed, holding the right of high justice [or a certain feudal tenure], to exercise the said religion in their houses...


title: Edict of Nantes

text: IX. We also permit those of the said religion to make and continue the exercise of the same in all villages and places of our dominion where it was established by them and publicly enjoyed several and divers times in the year 1597, up to the end of the month of August, notwithstanding all decrees and judgments to the contrary...


title: Edict of Nantes

text: XIII. We very expressly forbid to all those of the said religion its exercise, either in respect to ministry, regulation, discipline, or the public instruction of children, or otherwise, in this our kingdom and lands of our dominion, otherwise than in the places permitted and granted by the present edict.


title: Edict of Nantes

text: XIV. It is forbidden as well to perform any function of the said religion in our court or retinue, or in our lands and territories beyond the mountains, or in our city of Paris, or within five leagues of the said city...


title: Edict of Nantes

text: XVIII. We also forbid all our subjects, of whatever quality and condition, from carrying off by force or persuasion, against the will of their parents, the children of the said religion, in order to cause them to be baptized or confirmed in the Catholic Apostolic and Roman Church; and the same is forbidden to those of the said religion called Reformed, upon penalty of being punished with especial severity...


title: Edict of Nantes

text: XXI. Books concerning the said religion called Reformed may not be printed and publicly sold, except in cities and places where the public exercise of the said religion is permitted.


title: Edict of Nantes

text: XXII. We ordain that there shall be no difference or distinction made in respect to the said religion, in receiving pupils to be instructed in universities, colleges, and schools; nor in receiving the sick and poor into hospitals, retreats, and public charities.</poem>


title: Edict of Nantes

text: The source followed by most modern historians is the Huguenot refugee Élie Benoist's "Histoire de l'édit de Nantes", 3 vols. (Delft, 1693–95). E.G. Léonard devotes a chapter to the Edict of Nantes in his "Histoire général du protestantisme", 2 vols. (Paris) 1961:II:312–89.


title: Wade in the Water

text: "Wade in the Water" (Roud 5439) is an African American jubilee song, a spiritual—in reference to a genre of music "created and first sung by African Americans in slavery." The lyrics to "Wade in the Water" were first co-published in 1901 in "New Jubilee Songs as Sung by the Fisk Jubilee Singers" by Frederick J. Work and his brother, John Wesley Work Jr., an educator at the historically black college in Nashville, Tennessee, Fisk University. Work Jr. (1871–1925)—who is also known as John Work II—spent thirty years collecting, promoting, and reviving the songcraft of the original Fisk Jubilee Singers, which included being a member and director of the Fisk Jubilee Quartet. The Sunset Four Jubilee Singers made the first commercial recording of "Wade in the Water" in 1925—released by Paramount Records. W. E. B. Du Bois called this genre of songs the Sorrow Songs. "Wade in the Water" is associated with songs of the Underground Railroad.


title: Wade in the Water

text: John Wesley Work Jr. (1871–1925)—also known as John Work II—spent three decades at the historically black college in Nashville, Tennessee, Fisk University, collecting and promulgating the "jubilee songcraft" of the original Fisk Jubilee Singers—an African-American "a cappella" Fisk University student chorus (1871–1878), known for introducing a wider audience to spirituals. In 1901, Work II co-published "New Jubilee Songs as Sung by the Fisk Jubilee Singers" with his brother, Frederick J. Work, which included "Wade in the Water." Trademarks of the John Work II's Fisk singers included the "closing ritard that showcases the beauty and blending of the voices", the "solo call and unison response, overlapping layers, and spine-tingling falsetto humming."


title: Wade in the Water

text: Ella Sheppard, one of the original Fisk Jubilee Singers—who also composed and arranged music—explained how slave songs were not part of the Singers' repertoire at first because they, "were sacred to our parents, who used them in their religious worship and shouted over them." Shephard said that, "It was only after many months that gradually our hearts were opened to the influence of these friends and we began to appreciate the wonderful beauty and power of our songs." Frederick Douglass described slave songs as telling a "tale which was then altogether beyond my feeble comprehension; they were tones, loud, long and deep, breathing the prayer and complaint of souls boiling over with the bitterest anguish. Every tone was a testimony against slavery, and a prayer to God for deliverance from chains… Those songs still follow me, to deepen my hatred of slavery, and quicken my sympathies for my brethren in bonds." In his seminal 1903 book, "The Souls of Black Folk", W. E. B. Du Bois dedicated a chapter to what he called the "Sorrow Songs"—describing them as African America's "greatest gift" and the "singular spiritual heritage of the nation."


title: Wade in the Water

text: The original Fisk Jubilee Singers had toured to raise funds for the university, with its first tour taking place on what is now called Jubilee Day—October 6, 1871. The first audiences were small, local, and skeptical, but by 1872, they performed at Boston's World Peace Festival and at the White House, and in 1873 they toured Europe. In 1878 the original Fisk Jubilee Singers had disbanded, but in 1890 their legacy was revived when Ella Sheppard Moore returned to Fisk and began to coach new jubilee vocalists, including Work II. In 1899, Fisk University president E. M. Cravath put out a call for a mixed (male and female) jubilee singers ensemble that would tour on behalf of the university. The full mixed choir became too expensive to tour, and was replaced by John Work II's male quartet. The quartet received "widespread acclaim" and eventually made a series of best-selling recordings for Victor in December 1909, February 1911, for Edison in December 1911, for Columbia is October 1915 and February 1916, and Starr in 1916.


title: Wade in the Water

text: In the year that Work died, 1925, the first commercial recording of the song—performed by the Sunset Four Jubilee Singers—was released by Paramount Records.


title: Wade in the Water

text: In his 1925 book, Crisis, W. E. B. Du Bois mentioned "Wade in the Water" as performed by the Norfolk Jubilee Quartet. DuBois wrote that "You'll never tire of the melodious rich blended voices of the Norfolk Jubilee Quartet, Sunset Four, and Harrod's Jubilee Singers."


title: Wade in the Water

text: There have been a number of subsequent publications with variations on the lyrics. In James W. Johnson's 1926 "The book of American Negro spirituals", the song is entitled, "God's A-gwineter Trouble De Water" and the first line is "Wade in de water, children."


title: Wade in the Water

text: A 1956 version from Kentucky and Tennessee begins with "Oh see that man dressed in white", according to the Roud Folk Song Index. According to Olivia and Jack Solomon's 1991 "Honey in the Rock" a 1930s version from Sumter County, Alabama, gives the title as "God Gonna Trouble the Water" and the first line as, "I'm er wading, I'm er wading in the water, chillun."


title: Wade in the Water

text: In Alan Lomax and Peggy Seeger's 1960 "Folk Songs of North America",the first line of the song is "'Member one thing an' it's certainly sho.'"


title: Wade in the Water

text: Others include Marie Boette's 1971"Singa Hipsy Doodle: And Other Folk Songs of West Virginia", Fred and Irwin Silber's 1973 "Folksinger's Wordbook", Patrick Ward Gainer's 1975 anthology "Folk Songs from the West Virginia Hills" which has been republished in 2017, Hazel Arnett's 1975 "I hear America singing!: great folk songs from the revolution to rock", the 1992 " Slave Songs of the Georgia Sea Islands" under the title "Wade in nuh Watuh Childun", and Gwendolin Warren's 1998 "Every Time I Feel The Spirit".


title: Wade in the Water

text: Fisk University was founded by the American Missionary Association. Many of the songs in the original Fisk Jubilee Singers songbooks dealt with themes from both the Old and New Testament. According to a 2002 article written by Dave Watermulder, J. Amber Hudlin, and Ellie Kaufman at George Washington University, the song reflects the Israelites' escape out of Egypt as found in Exodus.


title: Wade in the Water

text: According to a 2007 anthology by California State University in Fresno, the singer "warns of the coming signs of the end" but says the "victory of Heaven over Hell" is assured, and "looks forward to future freedom."


title: Wade in the Water

text: According the "PBS Newshour"—while it "has not been proven, it is believed"—that "Wade in the Water" was one of the songs associated with the Underground Railroad—a network of secret routes and safe houses used by slaves in the United States to find freedom.


title: Wade in the Water

text: It is believed that Harriet Tubman, who made thirteen trips to the South and helped free more than 70 people, used this song to warn slaves to get off the trail and into the water to prevent dogs—used by the slavers—from finding them.


title: Wade in the Water

text: In 1993, Arthur C. Jones—a University of Denver Professor in the Musicology, Ethnomusicology and Theory Department, published the first edition of this book, "Wade in the water: the wisdom of the spirituals". Jones established "The Spirituals Project" in 1998 at the university's Lamont School of Music, to preserve and revitalize the "music and teachings of the sacred folk songs called spirituals"—"created and first sung by African Americans in slavery." Jones referenced "Wade in the water" in describing how Harriet Tubman and others improvised on "already existing spirituals", employing them "clandestinely in the multilayered struggle for freedom."


title: Wade in the Water

text: In 2002, Maryland Public Television in collaboration with the Maryland Historical Society and Maryland State Archives, produced "Pathways to Freedom: Maryland and the Underground Railroad" as a teaching guide, which included a section on how songs that many slaves knew had "secret meanings" that they could be "used to signal many things." They cited the example of Harriet Tubman using "Wade in the Water" to "tell escaping slaves to get off the trail and into the water to make sure the dogs slavecatchers used couldn’t sniff out their trail. People walking through water did not leave a scent trail that dogs could follow." Certain songs were believed to have contained explicit instructions to fugitive slaves on how to avoid capture and the route to take to successfully make their way to freedom.


title: Wade in the Water

text: The song was included in the 1968 compilation, "Freedom is a constant struggle: songs of the freedom movement".


title: Wade in the Water

text: Parmount produced a commercial recording of the song by Sunset Four Jubilee Singers in 1925, another by the Lincoln Four Quartette in 1928, a third by Birmingham Jubilee Quartet in 1930, and a fourth by the Famous Blue Jay Singers of Birmingham in 1932. In 1929, the Empire Jubilee Quartet recorded the song with Victor. Fannie Lou Hamer, and Timothy Hays and Group also produced well-known versions of the song according to the University of Tennessee's Library of Music.


title: Wade in the Water

text: In 1960, the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater performed their signature ballet "Revelations", in which "Take me to the Water" was partially set to the spiritual "Wade in the Water" .


title: Wade in the Water

text: The Staple Singers performed their version of song that became a part of the civil rights movement in the US.


title: Wade in the Water

text: Bob Dylan's Minnesota Hotel Tape (December 22, 1961) performance of the song, likely based on the Staples Singers' rendition, was released as part of the historic 1969 Great White Wonder bootleg.


title: Wade in the Water

text: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cKjkUPzui7A Folk singer Judy Henske (1937-4/27/2022) sings it in the 1963 film "Hootenanny Hoot" (https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0057153/)


title: Wade in the Water

text: In 1966, Ramsey Lewis Trio's rendition of "Wade in the Water" was a popular instrumental hit, reaching #19 on the Hot 100. In Canada, it reached #32.


title: Wade in the Water

text: In 1967 Herb Alpert and the Tijuana Brass and Billy Preston published their instrumental versions of the song.


title: Wade in the Water

text: In a 1996 album "Steal Away" by Charlie Haden and Hank Jones, which was reviewed by the "New Yorker", Whitney Balliett as the best of the CDs at that time, Balliett said that—while, most of the numbers were "played straight but with the harmonic and rhythmic inflections that separate jazz from the rest of music"—on "Wade in the Water", however, Jones improvise[d] delicately."


title: Wade in the Water

text: The Fisk Jubilee Singers performed at the Apollo Theater in New York—a well-known venue for African-American musicians—to a group of high school students in 2000. Normally the choir, use "few blues inflections or modern gospel melismas", but when they "did allow some in "Wade in the Water," there was applause."


title: Wade in the Water

text: "Wade in the Water, Children" is a 2008 American documentary film directed and produced by Elizabeth Wood and Gabriel Nussbaum. It was filmed by a group of 8th grade students at the first school to reopen in New Orleans in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. The film offers a look into life as a child in the ruined city. The film was praised as "scalding stuff" by "Newsday", and won the audience award at the New Orleans International Human Rights Film Festival.


title: Wade in the Water

text: The version by Golden Gate Quartet appears on the 2009 compilation album "Bad Seeds – Nick Cave: Roots & Collaborations".


title: Wade in the Water

text: On May 3, 2019, the Fisk Jubilee Singers sang "Wade In the Water" in a live performance at the Grand Ole Opry House in Nashville, Tennessee during the Barbershop Harmony Society Midwinter Convention.


title: Wade in the Water

text: In 2019 Tazewell Thompson presented an cappella musical entitled, "Jubilee", that is a tribute to the Fisk Jubilee Singers. The song "Wade in the Water" underscores a scene against the backdrop of a ship returning to America.


title: Wade in the Water

text: "Stand Up" is a song from the 2019 motion picture Harriet, that references the song in the line "I'm wading through muddy waters." That line could also be a reference to Muddy Waters, one of the most famous blues singers.


title: Wade in the Water

text: In February 2020, the "Trouble the Water" album was released—a full-length album of civil-rights themed music which included "Wade in the Water" performed by Baltimore composer/performer Woody Lissauer, who was at Ground zero during the 2015 Baltimore protests.


title: Citrus × sinensis

text: Citrus" × "sinensis (sometimes written Citrus sinensis), also known as the sweet oranges, is a commonly cultivated family of oranges that includes blood oranges and navel oranges.


title: Citrus × sinensis

text: The orange fruit is an important agricultural product, used for both the juicy fruit pulp and the aromatic peel (rind). Orange blossoms (the flowers) are used in several different ways, as are the leaves and wood of the tree.


title: Citrus × sinensis

text: Giant swallowtail caterpillars ("Papilio cresphontes)" cause serious damage to this crop, especially to young trees.


title: Linwood Boomer

text: Linwood Boomer (born October 9, 1955) is a Canadian-American television producer, writer, and former actor. He is known for playing the role of Adam Kendall on the drama "Little House on the Prairie", and for creating the Fox sitcom "Malcolm in the Middle".


title: Linwood Boomer

text: Boomer was born into a lower-middle class family in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, the third of four sons. He was enrolled in a gifted program at school. His mother is named Eileen. He was the middle child in his household. Boomer made a show based on his life story called "Malcolm in the Middle", which ran on FOX from January 2000 to May 2006.


title: Linwood Boomer

text: Boomer began his career as an actor. After playing Adam Kendall on "Little House on the Prairie", Boomer began focusing his talents on the behind-the-scenes aspects of television.


title: Linwood Boomer

text: Boomer's writing and executive producing credits include "Night Court", "Flying Blind", "The Boys Are Back", "Townies", "3rd Rock from the Sun" and "God, the Devil and Bob". He also created and executive produced the pilots "Family Business", "Nice Try", and the U.S. version of "Red Dwarf", and served as an executive producer under James L. Brooks for the pilot of "Big". He also owns his own production company Satin City.


title: Linwood Boomer

text: Boomer negotiated with CBS on a pilot order for a project that reunited him with Gail Berman, the exec who shepherded "Malcolm" during her tenure at Regency TV and as programming chief at Fox. Boomer wrote the script and exec produced along with Berman and Lloyd Braun for their "BermanBraun" shingle and Universal Media Studios, where BermanBraun is based. Dubbed "The Karenskys", the multi-camera comedy would revolve around a daughter's return to the fold of her large, eccentric, ethnic family after her husband takes a job in her hometown. It was directed by Pamela Fryman and starred Annie Potts, Desi Lydic, Jack Thompson, Mather Zickel, Sasha Alexander, Tinsley Grimes, & Todd Stashwick.


title: Linwood Boomer

text: Although Boomer has created, produced and acted in many television series, he is best known for creating the Fox sitcom "Malcolm in the Middle", which was based on his life story. The pilot episode of the series premiered on January 9, 2000 and was watched by 22.5 million viewers, while the second episode, "Red Dress" (premiered on January 16, 2000), was watched by 26 million viewers. Boomer wrote two episodes, starting with the pilot episode and then "Francis Escapes" and directed five episodes -- "Opera," "Stilts," "Reese vs. Stevie," "Bride of Ida," and the series finale, "Graduation." Boomer received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series for the pilot episode. The series completed its six-year run on May 14, 2006, after seven seasons and 151 episodes.


title: AmerisourceBergen

text: AmerisourceBergen Corporation is an American drug wholesale company that was formed by the merger of Bergen Brunswig and AmeriSource in 2001. They provide drug distribution and consulting related to medical business operations and patient services. They also distribute a line of brand name and generic pharmaceuticals, over-the-counter (OTC) health care products and home health care supplies and equipment to health care providers throughout the United States, including acute care hospitals and health systems, independent and chain retail pharmacies, mail-order facilities, physicians, clinics and other alternate site facilities, as well as nursing and assisted living centers. They also provide pharmaceuticals and pharmacy services to long-term care, workers' compensation and specialty drug patients.


title: AmerisourceBergen

text: AmerisourceBergen handles about 20% of all of the pharmaceuticals sold and distributed throughout the United States and ranked 10th on the Fortune 500 list for 2020 with over $179 billion in annual revenue. In 2012, the firm was the largest by revenue based in Pennsylvania.


title: AmerisourceBergen

text: AmerisourceBergen was formed in 2001 following the merger of AmeriSource Health Corporation and Bergen Brunswig Corporation. David Yost was CEO of Amerisource prior to the merger and remained in the position after the companies merged.


title: AmerisourceBergen

text: AmerisourceBergen has 26 pharmaceutical distribution centers in the US, nine distribution centers in Canada, four specialty distribution centers in the US, and over 1 million square feet of packaging production capacity in the US and the UK. With the addition of World Courier, the largest specialty courier company in the world, over 150 company-owned offices around the globe were added to the company.


title: AmerisourceBergen

text: AmerisourceBergen operates its pharmaceutical distribution business under four primary units: AmerisourceBergen Drug Corporation (ABDC), AmerisourceBergen Specialty Group (ABSG), AmerisourceBergen Consulting Services (ABCS) and World Courier. In March 2016 Walgreens Boots Alliance Inc. announced it would exercise an option to purchase 22.7 million shares of AmerisourceBergen stock and thereby control 15% of the company.


title: AmerisourceBergen

text: Good Neighbor Pharmacy is an American retailers' cooperative network of more than 3,400 independently owned and operated pharmacies. It has a business affiliation with AmerisourceBergen, which sponsors the network and owns the name "Good Neighbor Pharmacy." Good Neighbor Pharmacy is the sponsor for "Thought Spot" the annual trade show held in Las Vegas.


title: AmerisourceBergen

text: In June 2020, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) announced an unusual agreement for the distribution of remdesivir, the first coronavirus drug. HHS agreed to manufacturer Gilead's wholesale acquisition price, while HHS would continue to work together with state governments and AmerisourceBergen to allocate shipments of remdesivir vials to American hospitals through the end of September 2020, and in exchange, during that time-frame American patients would be allocated over 90% of Gilead's projected remdesivir output of more than 500,000 treatment courses.


title: AmerisourceBergen

text: For the fiscal year 2019, AmerisourceBergen reported earnings of US$1.11 billion, with an annual revenue of US$179.58 billion. AmerisourceBergen's shares traded at over $88 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$19.2 billion in September 2019.


title: AmerisourceBergen

text: AmerisourceBergen is among several distributors that have been sued by West Virginian governments for contributing to the Opioid epidemic, by shipping inordinate amounts of pain medication into the state.


title: AmerisourceBergen

text: In December 2019, Michigan became the first state to sue AmerisourceBergen and three other opioid distributors as drug dealers for their role in the state's opioid crisis. The lawsuit is filed under the Michigan Drug Dealer Liability Act. AmerisourceBergen was among four companies who, because of their role in the addiction crisis, agreed to pay $260 million to two Ohio counties.


title: AmerisourceBergen

text: In May 2020, Oklahoma Attorney General Mike Hunter sued AmerisourceBergen in Bryan County District Court, Oklahoma. The lawsuit alleged that the company's actions helped fuel Oklahoma's opioid crisis. The suit was filed along with lawsuits against Cardinal Health and McKesson, and the three lawsuits allege that the three companies provided "enough opioids to Bryan County that every adult resident there could have had 144 hydrocodone tablets."


title: AmerisourceBergen

text: AmerisourceBergen is among several distributors that have been sued by West Virginian governments for contributing to the opioid epidemic, by shipping inordinate amounts of pain medication into the state.


title: AmerisourceBergen

text: In January 2022, AmerisourceBergen, McKesson, Cardinal Health, and Johnson & Johnson agreed to pay $26 billion to settle with all but five of the states suing them. Had the states gone to court, the companies could have faced up to $95 billion in penalties.


title: AmerisourceBergen

text: On October 1 2018, Amerisourcebergen agreed to pay $625M to resolve allegations that it had illegally repackaged and distributed oncology-supportive injectable drugs.


title: AmerisourceBergen

text: In October 2018, AmerisourceBergen agreed to pay $625 million to settle civil fraud allegations resulting from its repackaging and sale of adulterated drugs and unapproved new drugs, double billing and providing kickbacks to physicians. AmerisourceBergen's stock price reportedly plummeted after they were among other drug distributors who offered $10 billion to settle their portion of the national opioids lawsuit. States countered with $45 billion.


title: D3: The Mighty Ducks

text: D3: The Mighty Ducks (also known as The Mighty Ducks 3) is a 1996 American sports comedy-drama film directed by Robert Lieberman. It is the third and final installment in "The Mighty Ducks" trilogy and was produced by Walt Disney Pictures and distributed by Buena Vista Pictures Distribution.


title: D3: The Mighty Ducks

text: , youth ice-hockey team The Mighty Ducks and their captain Charlie Conway are awarded the junior varsity hockey scholarships to Eden Hall Academy, a prestigious Minneapolis-area prep school that Coach Bombay attended. Charlie struggles with his transition from childhood to adolescence; he thinks he was abandoned by Bombay when the latter informs him that he intends to take a job with the Junior Goodwill Games, which would leave him unable to coach the Ducks; one of the Ducks' enforcers, Dean Portman, also decided not to attend the school after hearing about Bombay's leaving and Jesse Hall also does not attend. Bombay informs Charlie prior to the start of classes that the team will be in good hands under the coaching of former NHL player Ted Orion.


title: D3: The Mighty Ducks

text: The Ducks' start at the school begins inauspiciously; while the newer Ducks respectfully sit in at the headmaster's speech, the original teammates crash the ceremony on stage. The team then experiences many early struggles: playing in Coach Orion's new "two-way hockey" defensive style, Orion abandoning several Duck traditions and some of their youthful in-game 'trick' plays, losing Adam Banks who qualifies for Varsity, and off-ice conflicts with the Varsity team. The Ducks' struggles continue, culminating in a tie in their first game after having a huge lead. Eventually, when Coach Orion restricts the old Ducks uniform after an unsanctioned early morning match with the Varsity team to settle their differences, where Orion sternly declares "The Ducks are dead.", Charlie decides to leave the team to return to public schools and seek a hockey career. Fulton follows, but considers quitting hockey much to Charlie's dismay. Sometime later, he ultimately returns to the team without Charlie.


title: D3: The Mighty Ducks

text: Angry at Bombay's departure and at Orion's highly disciplined coaching style, Charlie's acting out alienates him from his mother, Hans (Gordon's old mentor and friend of the Ducks), and even his friends. Hans suddenly dies, and Bombay comes to Charlie's house the day after the funeral and takes him back to Eden Hall. He tells Charlie that Orion's career with the Minnesota North Stars ended when the team moved to Dallas and he stayed to care for his paraplegic daughter. Bombay tells Charlie the background story on how he first came to coach the Ducks and says he told Orion that Charlie was the heart and soul of the team, and it was his hope that both Orion and Charlie would learn something from each other. Bombay also admits telling Orion that Charlie was the real "Minnesota Miracle" man. Emotionally touched by his words, finding new resolve, and feeling guilt-ridden over how he acted against Orion, Charlie agrees to rejoin the team.


title: D3: The Mighty Ducks

text: Arriving at the team bus for the next game, Charlie tells Orion he wants to play "two-way hockey". Surprised but pleased, Coach Orion welcomes him back. Before they depart, Dean Buckley, the school's headmaster, informs the team that its board of trustees wants to revoke the Ducks' scholarships and offers Orion a chance to start anew with a team of his choice. Satisfied with the team, Orion balks at the news, threatening resignation. At a board meeting the following day, Bombay, who was an experienced lawyer before coaching the Ducks, acts as the Ducks' attorney and fights successfully for their case, threatening the board with an injunction and promising to win the resulting lawsuit if the board expels the Ducks, and the board reinstates the Duck's scholarships with much reluctance due to Bombay putting them in a no-win situation. The Varsity are furious that the Ducks won't be expelled, but agree to a wager with the Ducks regarding the JV-Varsity match: If the Warriors win, the Ducks are expelled, but if the Ducks win, the team name will be changed to the "Mighty Ducks".


title: D3: The Mighty Ducks

text: Prior to the annual JV–Varsity game, Orion brings back the Duck jerseys, giving the team a renewed vigor. Throughout the game, the Varsity dominates on offense. However, the Ducks play good defense and manage to keep the game scoreless after two periods. During the second intermission, Dean Portman returns to the team (having finally accepted his scholarship), adding a needed spark. Late in the game, the Ducks get two penalties and must play 5 vs 3. During the time-out, Orion reinstates Charlie as captain and tells him to go for the win if the opportunity presents itself. With seconds left in the game, Charlie gets a breakaway and beats all the defensemen and goalie; he passes the puck back to Goldberg, now a defenseman, who scores into a wide-open net as time expires, securing a 1–0 victory for the Ducks.


title: D3: The Mighty Ducks

text: Following the victory, Charlie embraces Orion and spots Bombay who has attended the game, and they both look across the rink to a newly-presented Eden Hall banner with the Ducks' logo, as the Varsity lost the wager, leaving them to depart the ice in humiliated defeat. Bombay then departs the game amid a sea of cheering fans, with a smile.


title: D3: The Mighty Ducks

text: Paul Kariya, captain of the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim (now Anaheim Ducks) when the film was released, makes a cameo appearance during the second intermission of the Ducks/Varsity Warriors game.


title: D3: The Mighty Ducks

text: Brandon Adams, who played Jesse Hall, is the only actor from the previous films to not reprise his role as a Duck, after appearing in the first two films of the trilogy. It's assumed his character moved away.


title: D3: The Mighty Ducks

text: The third movie originally was going to be darker in tone and the main antagonists were originally going to be Bulgarians.


title: D3: The Mighty Ducks

text: The character of Jesse Hall, played by Brandon Adams in the first two films and a fan favorite, was in the original script for this movie. His role was severely diminished with minimal lines and screen time compared to the first two films. Parts of the movie were filmed at Carleton College in Northfield, Minnesota.


title: D3: The Mighty Ducks

text: The movie debuted at No.4 in the box office and ended up grossing $22,936,273 in the US. It is the lowest-grossing film of the trilogy.


title: D3: The Mighty Ducks

text: Like its predecessor, the film received negative reviews, and holds a 20% 'rotten' rating based on 15 reviews with an average rating of 3.8/10 on review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes. John Anderson of the "Los Angeles Times" called the film "a self-reverential salute to Ducks" while also saying that the film was "lazier" than its predecessors. Steve Hedgpeth of the Newark Star Ledger wrote, 'Somebody put this stupid Disney franchise in Deep-Freeze'. Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun Times" wrote that ""D3: The Mighty Ducks" is a truly dreadful film, a lifeless, massive, childish exercise in failed comedy". Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" called it "dull, stupid, brainless, and dim-witted".


title: D3: The Mighty Ducks

text: The film was released on VHS on January 21, 1997, on DVD on September 2, 2002 and was also released on Blu-ray disc as a Disney Movie Club exclusive on May 23, 2017. It was also released on the Disney+ streaming platform on September 4, 2020.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: Muangthong United Football Club () is a Thai professional football club based in Muang Thong Thani, Nonthaburi province. The club plays in the Thai League 1. Muangthong United has participated in the Thai Premier League since 2009 after having won the Thai Division 1 League title in 2008.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: Muangthong United were for a period one of the richest football clubs in Thailand. The club is also known as "The Kirins" or "The Twin Qilins".


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: The club was founded in 1989. The first name registered with Football Association of Thailand was "Norgjorg Pittayanusorn School Football Team". The club was founded by Worawi Makudi, the club race from Ngor Royal Cup which is the smallest cup. Even in Thailand Football League Division 1 season 2002–2003, The club was renamed to "FC Norgjorg Black Pearl" by the former politician Veera Musikapong to make the team, but the team had just one season and was unsuccessful so he stopped by leaving the team and the club still remained in the League Division. The next season of the Thailand League Division 1 in 2003–2004 the team was renamed once again as a group that has been done the team as FC Globlex Norgjorg by Somsak Chenchaowanich who signed as the new team manager. That year, the team performed poorly. Finally, it must be relegated to play in Ngor Royal Cup in season 2004–2005 by returning to its original name but it was not as successful as it should.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: The Football Association wants to raise the level of league competition in Thailand so they established Thailand Division 2 League with a team led by Kho Royal Cup and Khor Royal Cup are mixed together to compete in the league this season which Norgjorg Pittayanusorn Football Club eligible entrants. In 2007 Siam Sport Syndicate by Rawi Lohtong the president of Siam Sport Syndicate bought the club and changed the name to Muangthong United F.C. and moved to a new ground at Muang Thong Thani called Thunderdome Stadium. The club's first success was winning the first place in the 2007 Season of the Thailand Division 2 League. From here, they were promoted to the Thai Division 1 League. The team was then promoted to the Thai League 1 in the 2009 season so everyone praised Muangthong United in that season as "3 Years 3 Champs".


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: The club was promoted to play in the Thai Premier League in 2009, after it won the title for the Division one. In the 2009 season, the club had many new and notable players in the country. Despite a successful start to the season, they pledged in April 2009 with Attaphol Buspakom a new coach. For the summer break, the association is, as expected by all experts, among the top five of the table and plays for the championship.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: One factor contributing to the club's success is its close relationship with Belgian club Lierse, and the acquisition of Thai star player Teeratep Winothai and Ronnachai Rangsiyo, the striker from PEA FC. Together with Teerasil Dangda, the club now has some of the most talented strikers in the country in its ranks.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: In 2010, Attaphol Buspakom was sacked following a string of unsuccessful results, and was replaced by Belgian René Desaeyere, who managed Muangthong for two seasons. Under his leadership, Muangthong qualified for the 2010 AFC Champions League. They beat SHB Đà Nẵng from Vietnam 0–3 but lost out to Singapore Armed Forces on penalties after the game ended in a 1–1 draw. They were eligible to play for the 2010 AFC Cup. They reached the semi-final round but lost to Al-Ittihad from Syria 2–1. In the 2010 Thai Premier League, they lost just three games out of 30, with seven draws, good enough to capture the league title for the second time. Dagno Siaka was the club's top scorer for in 2010 with 15 goals.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: At the start of the 2011 season Muangthong United signed former Liverpool player Robbie Fowler to a one-year contract. Muangthong United participated in the 2011 AFC Champions League play-off rounds. They played Sriwijaya but lost on penalties after the game ended in a 2–2 draw. They were also eligible to play for the 2011 AFC Cup, coming first in the group stage of the tournament. In their first match of the round of 16 they beat Al Ahed from Lebanon 4–0 but went on to lose to Kuwait SC in the quarter-finals round 1–0. After their tournament exit Henrique Calisto, the club's manager, was sacked and Fowler took over as player/coach of Muangthong United.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: In 2011 Thai Premier League Muangthong United finished the season in third place in Thai league. For the 2010–11 season and Teerasil Dangda is top score for club in 2011 season by 13 goals.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: After Fowler's contract expired, Muangthong United signed a contract with Serbia coach Slaviša Jokanović. During the pre-season, Muangthong United signed on many famous players such as Mario Gjurovski, Ri Kwang-Chon, Adnan Barakat, Mongkol Namnuad, and the young player that crowned as best younger of Thailand etc.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: In 2012 season, the club did not play in the AFC Champions League or AFC Cup. Therefore, it tried to do the best in 2012 Thai League Cup, but they lost to TOT 3–4 and 2012 Thai FA Cup they lost to Army United 3–2, but they can win the 2012 Thai Premier League is a third of the club and Muangthong United became the first team in Thai Premier League to go the season unbeaten in the current 34-game format. In 2012,


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: Muangthong engaged an unbeaten run which lasted the whole season, and Teerasil also scored four goals in a single match, an 8–1 routing over BBCU on 18 October. Ten days later he scored in a 2–2 draw against BEC Tero, a goal which granted the title, took his tally to 24 goals and broke the previous record of Ronnachai Sayomchai in 1998 (23 goals).


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: After his impressive goal tally in the season, Teerasil was invited by La Liga sides Atlético Madrid and Getafe for a trial, but as the former was a Muangthong partner, he headed to Atlético Madrid in January 2013; he also attracted interest of Trabzonspor in June.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: In 2016, Not having won any trophies for three seasons in a row, the club started a campaign called "The Dream Team" and signed many famous national team players such as Peerapat Notchaiya, Theerathon Bunmathan, Adisak Kraisorn, Tanaboon Kesarat, Chanathip Songkrasin, Tristan Do, Adison Promrak, and international players such as Xisco. They also brought in Totchtawan Sripan, ones of Thai football legends, as the new head coach. All this resulted in Muangthong United winning the double, as they became champions of the Thai League 1 and League Cup.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: In 2017, After finishing champions in the 2016 Thai League season, The Kirins secured direct qualification into the 2017 AFC Champions League. In the group stages, for Home games Muangthong beat Kashima Antlers, 2–1 and beat Ulsan Hyundai, 1-0 and beat Brisbane Roar, 3–0. The club finish runners-up in Group E. For their home and final leg of the Champions League Round of 16 – a home and away series against Japanese side Kawasaki Frontale. Having lose the first leg, 1–3 in Thailand and Frontale defeat Muangthong United, 4–1 in the second leg.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: The Kirins Academy has a clear aim of providing a place to pursue and achieve success through a first class coaching environment for all the young players registered in its system to produce players that will play and succeed in the first team at Muangthong United. In the beginning the club use the youth development service from JMG Academy that sign an agreement with Muangthong United and Robert Procureur who was the Director of JMG Thailand on 2007 to 2011, the academy created most of the talent player such as Suriya Singmui, Phitiwat Sukjitthammakul, Weerawut Kayem, Picha Autra, Suphanan Bureerat continue to 2011 the club started an own youth development program due to AFC club licensing standard that tries to develop young player from 12 to 18 years old so that they created MTU Academy, from this development, the club has produced many players for the national team since Thitipan Puangchan, Korrawit Tasa, Poramet Arjvirai, Patcharapol Intanee.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: Muangthong United play their home games in the SCG Stadium, originally designed for about 5,000 spectators. The stadium, unlike most stadiums in Thailand, has no running track. Due to the success of the club and the increasing number of spectators, the stadium was built with steel tube stands with 15,000 seats during the 2008 season. After the end of the 2009 season a plan to expand the stadium was conceived. As the stadium was only originally designed for a capacity of approximately 15,000 spectators, the expansion increased the capacity to 25,000. It is also one of the few stadiums in Thailand to have VIP areas.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: The club managed to develop a very large fan base in a short time. At away games, the fans are represented very numerous mot. Games against Chonburi and Bangkok Glass are among the highlights of the season. This 2009 new attendance records for the league could be set up in the season. For the games against Chonburi and Bangkok Glass, there was even a first time ticket sales. This should slow down the expected rush for tickets. For football in Thailand, this was a novelty. The core of fans of Muangthong consists of the Ultra Muangthong. They were also the first who brought the Ultra movement in Thailand's stages. Large banners, flags and double holder characterize the Fans, as well as a "pre-Inger" with megaphones.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: The environment of the organization is considered to be extremely professional. The newcomer to the Thai Premier League is the previous top Chonburi in terms of marketing and merchandise while in nothing and is even there to overtake him. The owner of the club, the Siam Sports Syndicate, this is one of the largest media companies in the sport of Thailand. Thus, the company was the sponsor of the Thai FA Cup in 2009 and also has the rights to the live broadcasts of the Thai Premier League.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: Muangthong United has rivalries with Buriram United, Port, Chonburi, against whom they contest the Thailand Clasico, and TOT SC, against whom they contest the Chaeng Watthana derby.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: The rivalry with Port is rooted in Kor Royal Cup stampede when Port was forfeited due to crowd riots in 2009. In 2014 Muangthong United fans and Port fans were riot with armed rebellion at Udon Ratthaya Expressway in Pak Kret Expressway area so that police and military were come out to fix the problem . In 2016 the fans of these 2 team were making riot it again in the same area this event makes Football Association of Thailand must introduce measures for something to solve this problem.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: The rivalry with Buriram United arises from the numerous times the two teams, as well as Buriram United is represent as rustic people and Muangthong United is represent as urban people, In the samesides these two team was represent two different politics party sides in Thailand that sent their member to elect for presidents of Football Association of Thailand, have battled for the Thai League 1 title this fixture has become known as one of the finest Thai League match-ups in history.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: Thunderdome Stadium is a football stadium located in Nonthaburi, Thailand, and is the home of Thai League 1's side, Muangthong United. Thunderdome Stadium was the first operate football stadium in Thailand, while PAT Stadium and TOT Stadium Chaeng Watthana constructed without operate including there are others older stadiums, they're all considered as multi-purpose stadiums.


title: Muangthong United F.C.

text: The stadium used to be able to hold as much as 20,000 spectators but the number reduced after renovation by filling in chairs to make the stadium all seated with a capacity of 15,000 people.


title: Qumran

text: Qumran (; "") is an archaeological site in the West Bank managed by Israel's Qumran National Park. It is located on a dry marl plateau about from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, near the Israeli settlement and kibbutz of Kalya.


title: Qumran

text: The Hellenistic period settlement was constructed during the reign of Hasmonean leader John Hyrcanus () or somewhat later. Qumran was inhabited by a Jewish community of the late Second Temple period, which most scholars identify with the mystic sect of the Essenes; however, other groups were also suggested. It was occupied most of the time until and was destroyed by the Romans during the First Jewish-Roman War, possibly as late as 73 CE. It was later used by Jewish rebels during the Bar Kokhba Revolt. Today, the Qumran site is best known as the settlement nearest to the Qumran Caves where the Dead Sea Scrolls were hidden, caves in the sheer desert cliffs and beneath, in the marl terrace. The principal excavations at Qumran were conducted by Roland de Vaux in the 1950s, and several later digs have been carried out.


title: Qumran

text: Since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947–1956, extensive excavations have taken place in Qumran. Nearly 900 scrolls were discovered. Most were written on parchment and some on papyrus. Cisterns, Jewish ritual baths, and cemeteries have been found, along with a dining or assembly room and debris from an upper story alleged by some to have been a scriptorium as well as pottery kilns and a tower.


title: Qumran

text: Many scholars believe the location was home to a Jewish sect, probably the Essenes. But, according to Lawrence Schiffman, the rules of the community, its heavy stress on priesthood and the Zadokite legacy, and other details indicate a Sadducean-oriented sect either distinct from or one of the various Essene groupings. Others propose non-sectarian interpretations, some of these starting with the notion that it was a Hasmonean fort that was later transformed into a villa for a wealthy family, or a production center, perhaps a pottery factory or something similar.


title: Qumran

text: A large cemetery was discovered to the east of the site. While most of the graves contain the remains of males, some females were also discovered, though some burials may be from medieval times. Only a small portion of the graves were excavated, as excavating cemeteries is forbidden under Jewish law. Over a thousand bodies are buried at Qumran cemetery. One theory is that bodies were those of generations of sectarians, while another is that they were brought to Qumran because burial was easier there than in rockier surrounding areas.


title: Qumran

text: The scrolls were found in a series of eleven caves around the settlement, some accessible only through the settlement. Some scholars have claimed that the caves were the permanent libraries of the sect, due to the presence of the remains of a shelving system. Other scholars believe that some caves also served as domestic shelters for those living in the area. Many of the texts found in the caves appear to represent widely accepted Jewish beliefs and practices, while other texts appear to speak of divergent, unique, or minority interpretations and practices. Some scholars believe that some of these texts describe the beliefs of the inhabitants of Qumran, who may have been Essenes, or the asylum for supporters of the traditional priestly family of the Zadokites against the Hasmonean priest/kings. A literary epistle published in the 1990s expresses reasons for creating a community, some of which resemble Sadducean arguments in the Talmud. Most of the scrolls seem to have been hidden in the caves during the turmoil of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), although some of them may have been deposited earlier.


title: Qumran

text: The site of Khirbet Qumran had been known to European explorers since the 19th century. The initial attention of the early explorers was focused on the cemetery, beginning with de Saulcy in 1851. In fact, the first excavations at Qumran (prior to the development of modern methodology) were of burials in the cemetery, conducted by Henry Poole in 1855 followed by Charles Clermont-Ganneau in 1873.


title: Qumran

text: Albert Isaacs, British counsel James Finn, and photographer James Graham visited Qumran in December 1856. Isaacs stated regarding Qumran's tower, "It can hardly be doubted that this formed a tower or stronghold of some kind. The situation is commanding, and well adapted for defensive operations." Finn later suggested Qumran was "some ancient fort with a cistern".


title: Qumran

text: The British scholar Ernest William Gurney Masterman visited Qumran on several occasions between 1900 and 1901. After observing the positioning of Qumran atop a plateau overlooking the ‘Ein Feshkha Springs, he concluded the ruins "may have very well been once a small fortress". Masterman also questioned why a small fort would require a graveyard of over one thousand tombs.


title: Qumran

text: Gustaf Dalman visited Qumran in 1914, and explicitly identified Qumran as a "burg", or fort. Archaeologist Michael Avi-Yonah agreed with Dalman's identification of Qumran as a fort and published a map that identified the remains at Qumran as part of a string of fortresses along the southeastern Judean border.


title: Qumran

text: Full-scale work at the site began after Roland de Vaux and Gerald Lankester Harding in 1949 excavated what became known as Cave 1, the first scroll-bearing cave. A cursory surface survey that year produced nothing of interest, but continued interest in the scrolls led to a more substantial analysis of the ruins at Qumran in 1951. This analysis yielded traces of pottery closely related to that found in Cave 1. This discovery led to intensive excavations at the site over a period of six seasons (1951–1956) under the direction of De Vaux. The most-prized find at Qumran up to this time were three small juglets containing over five-hundred silver coins, which were found in a room on the west side of the monastery. They consisted of tetradrachmae that had been minted in Tyre at various times in the first-century BCE.


title: Qumran

text: The Iron Age remains at the site, which were modest but included a LMLK seal, led de Vaux to identify Qumran as the City of Salt listed in Josh 15:62. The site, however, may be identified with Secacah, which is referenced in the same area as the City of Salt in the Book of Joshua 15:61. Secacah is mentioned in the Copper Scroll, and the water works of Secacah that are described in this source are consistent with those of Qumran. The excavations revealed that after the Iron Age, Qumran was principally in use from the Hasmonean times until some time after the destruction of the temple by Titus in 70 CE. De Vaux divided this use into three periods:


title: Qumran

text: The site that de Vaux uncovered divides into two main sections: a "main building", a squarish structure of two stories featuring a central courtyard and a defensive tower on its north-western corner; and a "secondary building" to the west. The excavation revealed a complex water system that had supplied water to several stepped cisterns, some quite large, located in various parts of the site. Two of these cisterns were within the walls of the main building.


title: Qumran

text: Both the buildings and the water system evince signs of consistent evolution throughout the life of the settlement. with frequent additions, extensions and improvements. The water channel was raised to carry water to newer cisterns farther away and a dam was placed in the upper section of Wadi Qumran to secure more water, which was brought to the site by an aqueduct. Rooms were added, floors were raised, pottery ovens relocated and locations were repurposed.


title: Qumran

text: De Vaux found three inkwells at Qumran (Loci 30 (2) and 31) and over the following years more inkwells have come to light with a Qumran origin. Jan Gunneweg identified a fourth (locus 129). S. Steckoll found a fifth (reportedly near the scriptorium). Magen and Peleg found a sixth inkwell. Without counting the Ein Feshkha inkwell or others with debated provenance, that number is more inkwells than found at any other site of the Second Temple Period, a significant indication of writing at Qumran.


title: Qumran

text: De Vaux interpreted his findings at Qumran based (at least in part) upon information in the Dead Sea Scrolls—which continued to be discovered in the nearby caves throughout his excavations. De Vaux concluded that the remains at Qumran were left by a sectarian religious community. Using his excavations as well as textual sources, including the Dead Sea Scrolls and the historical accounts recorded by Pliny the Elder, Philo, and Flavius Josephus, De Vaux's conclusion was that the inhabitants of the site were a sect of highly ritualistic Jews called the Essenes, a conclusion that has come to be known as the "Qumran–Essene hypothesis". This hypothesis suggests that the original residents of the settlement were the Essenes, and that they established the site in the desert for religious purposes.


title: Qumran

text: He interpreted the room above locus 30 as a "scriptorium" because he discovered inkwells there. A plastered bench was also discovered in the remains of an upper story. De Vaux concluded that this was the area where the Essenes could have written some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. De Vaux also interpreted locus 77 as a "refectory", or a community dining hall, based on the discovery of numerous sets of bowls in the nearby "pantry" of locus 89. Additionally, de Vaux interpreted many of the numerous stepped cisterns as "miqva’ot", or Jewish ritual baths, due to their similarity to several stepped and partitioned ritual baths near the Jerusalem Temple Mount.


title: Qumran

text: Regarding the scrolls De Vaux cautiously stated that "manuscripts were copied in the "scriptorium" of Qumran... We may also suppose... that certain works were composed at Khirbet Qumran. But beyond this we cannot go." He believed that the Essenes later hid the scrolls in the nearby caves when they felt their safety was in danger.


title: Qumran

text: Roland de Vaux died in 1971 without having provided a full report on the excavations at Qumran. In 1986 the École Biblique appointed the Belgian archaeologist Robert Donceel to the task of publishing the final results of de Vaux's excavations. Preliminary findings were presented at a conference in New York in 1992, but a final report never eventuated. According to Pauline Donceel-Voûte the final report was impossible to write, because many artifacts had been lost or corrupted (in particular, according to the Donceels, some of the coins excavated by Roland de Vaux from Qumran had been lost.) To fill the gap, the École had a synthesis of de Vaux's field notes published in 1994. This volume included several hundred photographs, 48 pages of measurement, and summary descriptions of the field diaries. An English translation of the field notes synthesis was published in 2003. Two later books, devoted to the interpretation of the excavations of de Vaux, were published by Jean-Baptiste Humbert in 2003 and 2016. However, not all of de Vaux's archaeological findings from Qumran (which are stored in the Rockefeller Museum) have yet been published; some are still inaccessible to scholars and the public.


title: Qumran

text: Although de Vaux's excavations of Qumran were quite exhaustive, and thereby the most important source of information on the settlement, there have been several excavations since de Vaux finished his work. As de Vaux left little of the settlement unexcavated, later archaeologists have often turned elsewhere to continue research, including dump sites from de Vaux's excavations. During the 1960s, according to Catherine Murphy, there were some unpublished excavations at Qumran by John Allegro and by Solomon Steckoll. Steckoll also carried out work in the cemetery, excavating twelve tombs. In 1967 restoration work was performed at Qumran by R.W. Dajjani of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan.


title: Qumran

text: In 1984 and 1985 Joseph Patrich and Yigael Yadin carried out a systematic survey of the caves and pathways around Qumran. Between 1985 and 1991 Patrich excavated five caves, including Caves 3Q and 11Q. One of Patrich's conclusions was that the caves "did not serve as habitations for the members of the Dead Sea Sect, but rather as stores and hiding places".


title: Qumran

text: From mid-November 1993 to January 1994 the Israel Antiquities Authority carried out works in the Qumran compound and nearby installations as part of "Operation Scroll" under the direction of Amir Drori and Yitzhak Magen. In the winter of 1995–1996 and later seasons Magen Broshi and Hanan Eshel carried out further excavations in the caves north of Qumran; they also dug in the cemetery and in marl terrace caves. In 1996 James Strange and others dug at Qumran using remote sensing equipment. From 1996 to 1999 and later Yitzhak Magen and Yuval Peleg carried out excavations at Qumran under the auspices of the National Parks Authority. Randall Price and Oren Gutfield dug on the Qumran plateau, seasons in 2002, 2004 and 2005 (and plan a 2010 season).


title: Qumran

text: Most of the small finds from the de Vaux excavations were taken back to Jerusalem to be used in later excavation reports for Qumran, but the death of Roland de Vaux brought a halt to the reports and the small finds were left to gather dust on shelves in museum backrooms. In the late 1980s, archaeologist Robert Donceel worked on the de Vaux materials in a new effort towards publishing excavation reports. He found artifacts he believed did not fit the religious settlement model, including "sophisticated glass and stoneware". In 1992 Pauline Donceel-Voute put forward the Roman villa model in an attempt to explain these artifacts. In 2002 archaeologists Minna and Kenneth Lönnqvist published their archaeological and spatial studies at Qumran bringing another view to the settlement interpretations including the astronomical orientations of some structures at Qumran. A recent final publication of the French excavations by Jean-Baptist Humbert outlining evidence of a decorated frieze, opus sectile, fine columns etc., indicates a phase of a wealthier occupation, "une grande maison", at Qumran.


title: Qumran

text: The range of pottery, glass and high quantity of coins found at Qumran do not sit well in the context of a sectarian settlement according to the Donceels. These materials point to trade connections in the area, and provide evidence that Qumran may not have been in a vacuum in the Graeco-Roman period. Rachel Bar-Nathan has argued from similarities between pottery finds at Qumran and at the Hasmonean and Herodian palaces of Jericho that Qumran should be seen as part of the Jordan valley context, rather than as an isolated site. While the cylindrical "scroll jars" from Qumran were once thought unique, she cites a proposed similar find at Jericho, shows a related form existed at Masada, and reports that such jars have been found at Qalandiya. Bar-Nathan states from the Jericho palace data that, "It is possible to trace the typological development of this group of jars", i.e., the cylindrical jars. Jodi Magness, citing Bar-Nathan's M.A. thesis on the Jericho pottery data, refers to cylindrical jars at Jericho, saying "[a]t Jericho, most of these jars .. come from an industrial area dating to the time of Herod". Jan Gunneweg observed that the supposed single partial parallel at Jericho – "a partly preserved rim and neck with a vertical loop handle" – is in fact not a "scroll" jar. Another one was reported found in Jordan in a later burial near Abila but no photos or drawings were published and the jar has not been relocated, showing de Vaux sought parallels. Taking into account subtypes of pottery, true cylindrical "scroll" jars are not common outside Qumran. They are, however, clearly not unique to Qumran. Bar-Nathan noted the jar's "rarity in the Second Temple period". Of some of the proposed parallel Masada jars, Bar-Nathan wrote "It seems that this group of storage jars was brought (or pillaged?) from the area of Qumran and probably also from the Plain of Jericho."


title: Qumran

text: Many scholars have viewed the several large stepped cisterns at Qumran as ritual baths. This supports the religious settlement model. There are difficulties in understanding all these cisterns as baths, however. Qumran's water arrived perhaps twice a year from rainwater runoff. Water was one of Qumran's most valued commodities, and water management is an integral part of the site, as seen with the numerous cisterns and channels. If the large cisterns were ritual baths, the water would sit getting dirtier through ritual bathing throughout the year and was extremely infrequently replenished by the run off. The current state of analysis of the cisterns is still unresolved, but Katharina Galor suggests a mixed usage of the stepped cisterns as both ritual baths and water storage. According to the Israeli archaeologists Magen and Peleg, the clay found in the cisterns was used for pottery factory facilities.


title: Qumran

text: Coins from Qumran are one of the most important groups of primary evidence from the ancient site. Much of what has been written on the chronology, the occupational periods and the history of Qumran is based on the preliminary report and lecture by the original excavator, Roland de Vaux in 1961, which was translated in 1973. A tentative list of the Qumran bronze coins along with Roland de Vaux's field diary from the excavations was published in 1994 in French, in German in 1996 and in English in 2003. The first reconstruction of the Qumran bronze coinage, including a complete coin catalogue with up-dated and cross-referenced coin identifications, was done by Kenneth Lönnqvist and Minna Lönnqvist in 2005. Also in 1955, three very important silver coin hoards were found at Qumran. The first lot of the Qumran silver coins was published by Marcia Sharabani in 1980. The last two hoards located in Amman, Jordan, were published by Kenneth Lönnqvist in 2007.


title: Qumran

text: De Vaux's excavations uncovered about 1250 coins (569 silver and 681 bronze coins) altogether from Qumran, though today some Qumran coins have been lost, some lots mixed-up, and records less accurate than ideal.


title: Qumran

text: There are a surprisingly high number of coins from the site. This means that the site was highly monetized in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, i.e. that the occupants of Qumran were not a community of poor and isolated people. That the flow of cash at Qumran may have been large in the 1st century CE is hardly surprising given the archaeological evidence of trade at Qumran in luxury goods such as glass, which is specifically dated to this period.


title: Qumran

text: The coin profile of Qumran shows that there do not appear to have been any major changes in the role of coins and money in the economic system at Qumran during any of the occupational periods from ca. 150 BCE. to 73 CE. Worth noting here is that the amount of coins found at Qumran suggests according to numismatic principles of loss and survival of ancient coins that millions of bronze coins must have circulated at Qumran.


title: Qumran

text: The bronze coins identified from Qumran, some dating to the second and third years of the Jewish War, indicate that the site was still in use in 68 CE and only destroyed after 70, perhaps as late as 73. The coins from Qumran of this period end with a peculiar series of bronze coins minted in 72/73 at Ascalon, which sent auxiliary troops to assist the Roman army in the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73).


title: Qumran

text: In 73 the Romans stormed the mountain fortress of Masada, which also was located on the western bank of the Dead Sea. It is more than likely that Qumran was destroyed this same time, as the coin finds from Qumran end with the same peculiar bronze coins minted at Ascalon.


title: Qumran

text: According to the publications prior to 2007, the most recent silver coin in the Qumran hoard(s) is a tetradrachm of Tyre from the year 9/8 BCE.


title: Qumran

text: The publication of the bulk of the silver coins by K. A. K. Lönnqvist, and his regional analysis, resulted, in 2007, in a new interpretations as to the importance, chronology and significance of the coins. According to Lönnqvist, the newly dated coins in the silver coin hoards give an earliest possible burial date for the coin hoards to 52/3–66 CE, based on an interpretation of a countermark. However, the archaeological and numismatic nature of the silver coin hoard burials may suggest that the coin hoards may have been buried in the early 3rd century. The final coin was minted in Rome between 206 and 210, during the reign of the emperor Caracalla.


title: Qumran

text: The new suggestion made is that the silver coin hoards from Qumran may be connected to Roman military campaigns in the region, as these are widely attested in the early 3rd century CE. It is also quite possible that the silver was part of Roman army payments made to troops in a local garrison.


title: Qumran

text: According to Lönnqvist, the technical evidence of the recording and documenting of the Qumran silver coin hoards in 2006–2007 showed that the coins came from lots, groups or batches of coins that originated in a few or one single large payment. This payment may have come from a mint, bank or an authority like the treasury of the Roman army. The new evidence refutes the possibility that the silver coins could have been collected from single individuals, for instance, as tax payments, or that Qumran could have been a regional ‘tax house’.


title: Qumran

text: The new 2007 analysis of the silver coinage contradicts the findings of de Vaux, Seyrig, and Spijkerman as well as the findings of Robert Donceel. Donceel was surprised to find in the Amman museum unrecorded coins, notably denarius coins of Trajan, that he claimed were intrusive. The original Amman Museum records of the Qumran coin hoards and the museum bags where the coins were kept do not support the hypothesis that the 2nd- and 3rd-century Roman coins are intrusive in relation to the Tyrian silver.


title: Qumran

text: Furthermore, the new countermark that went unrecorded is apparently from 52/53 CE and the Greek letters in it do not support a date of 9/8 BCE, as the other countermarks. This means archaeologically and numismatically that at least one, but probably two minimum, of the three hoards post-date de Vaux's suggestion of a burial date after 9/8 BCE.


title: Qumran

text: The unusual and intensive die-linkage of the Qumran silver hoards suggest that the three hoards were buried at the same time, and this would mean at the earliest in 52/53 CE.


title: Qumran

text: According to Lönnqvist, a highly unusual type of coin hoard found at Ain Hanaziv in the Jordan Valley in the early 1960 and reported in the Israel Numismatic Bulletin supports his theory of a third-century CE date for the three silver coin hoards from Qumran. This Ain Hanaziv coin hoard spanned hundreds of years, starting from the Seleucid era and ended with the same kind of coins from the reign of Septimius Severus in 210.


title: Qumran

text: Therefore, according to Lönnqvist, claiming an earlier date for the silver hoards is untenable and contradicts the first complete recording of the Qumran silver hoards made by him in 2007, which includes the first photographic evidence of the coin hoards, and the regional coin evidence from other hoards. It has already been shown that de Vaux's dating system of Qumran and the silver coin hoards was based on what is generally known as a circular argument; the end of the first major settlement period was dated after the assumed date of hiding of the coin hoards, which in turn dated the coin hoards themselves.


title: Qumran

text: Nevertheless, Lönnqvist's theories have been criticized by Farhi and Price. They point to the fact that the identity of the silver coins from Qumran held at the Amman Museum in Jordan is not certain.


title: Qumran

text: One important issue for the understanding of the site of Qumran is a realistic calculation of its population. Using estimates based on the size of the cemetery and average lifespan de Vaux calculated that the inhabitants "would not have numbered many more than 200 members". He noted that "[t]here is a manifest disproportion between the number of tombs and the number of inhabitants for whom there was room in the buildings". This led him to speculate whether the caves were used as lodgings for his estimated 200 inhabitants. J.T. Milik some years earlier provided an estimate of between 150 and 200 as the average population, working on the comparison with the population of the monastery of Mar Saba, which numbered 150 monks in the 9th century and from Josephus' figure of 3,000 Essenes calculating that "at least five per cent lived the strict monastic life". E.M. Laperrousaz went as high as 1,428 inhabitants. Magen Broshi, analyzing the size of L77 (which he calls an assembly hall), estimated that about 120 to 150 people could sit there, to which he added a few dozen candidates to the population, yielding over 170 people.


title: Qumran

text: From 1983 to 1987 Joseph Patrich carried out archaeological surveys around Qumran and its caves. He concluded that the caves were "stores and hiding places". He found no traces of permanent tent dwellings and that any "dwelling quarters should be sought inside the wall of Khirbet Qumran, mainly on the upper floor". Patrich estimated that the population was only 50–70 people. Magen Broshi and Hanan Eshel, revisiting the caves and the territory around Qumran in 1995–1996, later pointed out that Patrich's estimate was far too high for what Qumran could offer, reducing the number to 12–20. They turned back to caves (mainly artificial ones cut into the marl terrace most of which have not survived) and tents (pointing to pottery and nails found along one of the paths near Qumran), and staying with 150–200 inhabitants. While waiting for the publication of Broshi and Eshel's results, Patrich, anticipating them, doubted the possibility that there were once "significantly more habitable caves" cut into the marl, pointing to the lack of paths and suitable terrain. He went on to discount the significance of the nails for tent dwelling without "further substantial evidence and returned to a figure of "a few tens of residents, fifty at most". Jodi Magness accepted Broshi's estimate, adding "This number accords better than lower estimates with the presence of over 1000 dining dishes in the pantry (L86)."


title: Qumran

text: Working from ratios of populations in other ancient settlements, Yizhar Hirschfeld estimated the population of Qumran thus: "If we use the lower value of fifteen people per dunam [1,000 m], it emerges that in the Hasmonean period only about 20 people occupied the site of Qumran. Yitzhak Magen and Yuval Peleg entered the discussion commenting on how one could feed such large numbers of community members: "Were we to accept the claim that the sect lived at Qumran for about 170 years, we would expect to find hundreds of cooking and baking ovens as well as thousands of cooking pots."


title: Qumran

text: The population question is a complex issue, as can be seen by the above considerations. Much hinges on interpretation of two locations at Qumran—the "refectory" and the "pantry". The search for extramural dwelling quarters has failed to provide substantial evidence. Discounting Laperrousaz's apparently excessively high estimate, a number of proposals put the population in and around Qumran at between 20 and 200 people.


title: Qumran

text: There were not many serious challenges to de Vaux's interpretation of the site of Qumran as a settlement of Essenes from the time it was introduced. While the archaeologist E.-M. Laperrousaz, had some quite divergent views, members of de Vaux's team followed approximately the same narrative, with minor deviations, members including J. T. Milik, and F. M. Cross. De Vaux's initial dig co-director, G. Lankester Harding, wrote an article in 1955 where he presented Qumran as, "...a building in which John the Baptist, and probably Christ, studied: Khirbet Qumran". Others outside de Vaux's team proposed other interpretations, people such as Henri del Medico, Solomon Zeitlin, and G. R. Driver, but their analyses received little lasting attention. More recently, Lawrence H. Schiffman has defended the thesis that the Qumran documents indicate a Sadducean sectarian orientation, but while scholars commonly grant that the term "Essenes" probably included a diversity of groups, the sectarian Sadducean hypothesis remains a minority opinion. Simon J. Joseph agrees that the Qumran community was a part of the Essene movement, under the influence of the Enoch traditions, adding that they possessed a stronger focus towards eschatology and messianism.


title: Qumran

text: In 1960 Karl Heinrich Rengstorf proposed that the Dead Sea Scrolls were not the product of the residents of Qumran, but came from the library of the Jerusalem Temple, despite their being discovered near Qumran. (Rengstorf's basic Jerusalem proposal has become increasingly more popular since the materials from de Vaux's excavations of Qumran were brought into the public arena in 1992.)


title: Qumran

text: Jean-Baptiste Humbert, who published de Vaux's field notes, proposes a hybrid solution to the debate surrounding Qumran. He accepts that the site might have been originally established as a villa rustica, but that the site was abandoned and that it was reoccupied by Essenes in the late 1st century BCE. Humbert argues that the site may also have been used a place where sectarian pilgrims—barred from entering Jerusalem—may have celebrated the pilgrimage.


title: Qumran

text: Minna Lönnqvist and Kenneth Lönnqvist brought an approach to the Qumran studies based on contextual archaeology with its spatial studies and interpretation of symbolic language of the archaeological data, positing that text scholars, who had only focused their studies on the scrolls, had removed the Dead Sea Scrolls from their archaeological context.


title: Qumran

text: The Lönnqvists proposed that the orientations of the settlement and graves show they both belonged to an intentional scheme based on a solar calendar. From this, they argued that the settlement and cemetery are connected to the Dead Sea Scrolls and associated with an Essene-type group, which finds the closest parallels in the contemporary Jewish Therapeutic group known to have lived in Egypt.


title: Qumran

text: Robert Cargill argues that the theory suggesting Qumran was established as a Hasmonean fortress is not incompatible with the theory proposing that a group of Jewish sectarians reoccupied the site. Cargill suggests that Qumran was established as a Hasmonean fort (see below, "Qumran as fortress"), abandoned, and later reoccupied by Jewish settlers, who expanded the site in a communal, non-military fashion, and who were responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls.


title: Qumran

text: Some who challenged de Vaux's findings took issue with the practice of using the Dead Sea Scrolls to interpret the archaeological remains at Qumran. They argued that these remains should be interpreted independently, without any influence from the Dead Sea Scrolls. Various reinterpretations have led to various conclusions about the site. These include:


title: Qumran

text: The overlooked early suggestion that Qumran was a fortress was given new life by the analysis of Pessach Bar-Adon. Using de Vaux's Period 1a findings, his own excavations at Ain el-Ghuweir 15 km south of Qumran, and Mazar's level 2 at 'En-Gedi, Bar-Adon argued, "these fortresses [belonged] to John Hyrcanus, who needed a strong, comprehensive defence system commanding vital water sources, agricultural fields, flocks, Jordan River crossings, the plains of Jericho and the caravan routes in the Judean desert. He turned the Qumran-Ain Feshka oasis, like the one at En-Gedi, into crown property and incorporated his tenants into his strategic plans."


title: Qumran

text: Norman Golb took up the notion that the Qumran settlement was established as a fortress and argued—against the prevailing views of the time—that not only was Qumran not established as a sectarian residence, but that there were no sectarians at the site at all. Like Rengstorf he proposed that the Scrolls had been produced in Jerusalem, but unlike Rengstorf, Golb argues that the scrolls came from different libraries throughout Jerusalem and were hidden in the caves by Jews fleeing the Romans during a political uprising.


title: Qumran

text: Robert Donceel and Pauline Donceel-Voûte focused their research on the small finds amongst de Vaux's unpublished materials from Qumran, including, but not limited to, glassware (55 newly catalogued items), stoneware (53 new items), metal wares, and coins. Contrary to the belief that the inhabitants of the site were poor monastics, Donceel and Donceel-Voûte suggest that the residents were actually wealthy traders, with connections to the upper class and wealthy in nearby Jerusalem. They ultimately suggest that Qumran was a "villa rustica", or wealthy manor house that may have been a winter or year-round second home to some wealthy family from Jerusalem. (At the same conference as the Donceel's presentation, J. Magness reported that from what she saw of the pottery in the Rockefeller Museum that "there was very, very little in the way of fine wares". Eric Meyers, next, said "I concur; my visits also corroborate that. I see an affirmative nod from Professor Donceel-Voute." Rachel Bar-Nathan also notes, "[a]t Jericho, there is also a striking lack of luxury ware, with only a few painted shards in the whole repertoire.")


title: Qumran

text: While the villa model has gained little support, the evidence that it tried to deal with has led to further attempts at explanation.


title: Qumran

text: Lena Cansdale and Alan Crown argued for the first time that the settlement was a fortified road station and a port town on the shores of the Dead Sea, meaning that the site was actually a prominent commercial site (or "entrepot") on a major north-south trade route.


title: Qumran

text: Yizhar Hirschfeld accepted that Qumran was originally a Hasmonean fortress. Citing his work at ‘Ein Feshkha as a comparison, he suggested that the site at Qumran ultimately became an agriculturally-based, fortified trading station during the Herodian era.


title: Qumran

text: Yizhak Magen and Yuval Peleg have focused their 10-year excavation at Qumran upon the vast water system at Qumran. They accept that the site was originally a "forward field fort", but argue that the site was repurposed as a pottery production plant, and that the water system was actually used to bring the clay-laced water into the site for the purpose of pottery production. Y. Magen and Y. Peleg proposed that Qumran was a pottery export site and said clay in pool 71 was used. (Samples of that clay have now been analysed, and they do not match tested Qumran pottery. "This information goes straight against" the Magen Peleg proposal, according to scientists J. Gunneweg and M. Balla. J. Michniewicz responding to previous analyses of Balla and Gunneweg, wrote, "Balla and Gunneweg's conclusions are corroborated neither by information about which elements were taken for statistical interpretation and which determined the division particularly strongly... nor by the reference data or statistical computation".)


title: Qumran

text: Rachel Bar-Nathan rejects the claim that dishware found at Qumran shows any sectarian characteristic, and proposes that such pottery has also been found in varying quantities at Masada, Jericho and other sites in the region.


title: Qumran

text: David Stacey argues that the settlement at Qumran is associated with the estate at Jericho. Due to the scarcity of year-round water at Qumran, he suggests that the site served as a seasonal tannery and pottery production facility.


title: Qumran

text: Recent scientific evidence published by Ira Rabin, Oliver Hahn, Timo Wolff, Admir Masic, and Gisela Weinberg demonstrates that the ink from The Thanksgiving Scroll uses water taken from the Dead Sea and vicinity thereby demonstrating a link between the Dead Sea region and at least some of the scrolls.


title: Qumran

text: Paleographer Ada Yardeni analysed and listed dozens of manuscripts from most of the caves (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, and 11) that she assigns to a single scribe who she refers to as a "Qumran scribe". Yardeni cautions against claims of scribal hands being as many as 500 and claims that the manuscripts are a cross-section of then-current literature from many distant libraries, deposited in a short time.


title: Qumran

text: Gila Kahila Bar-Gal determined that some of the skin used for the Dead Sea scrolls came from the Nubian ibex, whose range did not include Jerusalem, but includes Mount Hermon and the Golan Heights, the Negev highlands and the western shore of the Dead Sea.


title: Qumran

text: Some writers have claimed that Israel has invested heavily in the area to establish the Qumran caves as a site of "uniquely Israeli Jewish heritage".


title: 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup qualification (Europe)

text: The 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup qualification for the FIBA Europe region, began in February 2020 and will conclude in February 2023. The process will determine the twelve teams that will qualify for the 2023 FIBA Basketball World Cup.


text: On 9 December 2019, the World Anti-Doping Agency initially handed Russia a four-year ban from all major sporting events, after RUSADA was found non-compliant for handing over manipulating lab data and lying to investigators. WADA prohibited the use of the Russian flag and anthem at major international sporting events. However, the Russia national team could still enter qualification, as the ban only applied to the final tournament to decide the world champions. Russia appealed the ruling to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS), which ruled in favour of WADA on 17 December 2020, but cut the ban from four to two years. Had Russia qualified, its players would have been able to use its name, flag and anthem at the World Cup, as a result of the nation's two-year ban expiring on 16 December 2022. However, Russia was later expelled from the tournament due to its invasion of Ukraine in February 2022.


text: FIBA Europe was allocated 12 berths at the World Cup. In total, 39 FIBA Europe teams took part in the qualification tournament. The qualification consisted of the following stages:


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: Hans Christian Ørsted ( , ; often rendered Oersted in English; 14 August 17779 March 1851) was a Danish physicist and chemist who discovered that electric currents create magnetic fields, which was the first connection found between electricity and magnetism. Oersted's law and the oersted unit (Oe) are named after him.


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: A leader of the Danish Golden Age, Ørsted was a close friend of Hans Christian Andersen and the brother of politician and jurist Anders Sandøe Ørsted, who served as Prime Minister of Denmark from 1853 to 1854.


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: Ørsted was born in Rudkøbing in 1777. As a young boy he developed an interest in science while working for his father, who owned the local pharmacy. He and his brother Anders received most of their early education through self-study at home, going to Copenhagen in 1793 to take entrance exams for the University of Copenhagen, where both brothers excelled academically. By 1796, Ørsted had been awarded honors for his papers in both aesthetics and physics. He earned his doctorate in 1799 for a dissertation based on the works of Kant entitled "The Architectonics of Natural Metaphysics".


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: In 1800, Alessandro Volta reported his invention of the voltaic pile, which inspired Ørsted to investigate the nature of electricity and to conduct his first electrical experiments. In 1801, Ørsted received a travel scholarship and public grant which enabled him to spend three years traveling across Europe. He toured science headquarters throughout the continent, including in Berlin and Paris.


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: In Germany Ørsted met Johann Wilhelm Ritter, a physicist who believed there was a connection between electricity and magnetism. This idea made sense to Ørsted as he subscribed to Kantian thought regarding the unity of nature. Ørsted's conversations with Ritter drew him into the study of physics. He became a professor at the University of Copenhagen in 1806 and continued research on electric currents and acoustics. Under his guidance the university developed a comprehensive physics and chemistry program and established new laboratories.


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: Ørsted welcomed William Christopher Zeise to his family home in autumn 1806. He granted Zeise a position as his lecturing assistant and took the young chemist under his tutelage. In 1812, Ørsted again visited Germany and France after publishing "Videnskaben om Naturens Almindelige Love" and "Første Indledning til den Almindelige Naturlære" (1811).


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: Ørsted was the first modern thinker to explicitly describe and name the thought experiment. He used the Latin-German term "Gedankenexperiment" circa 1812 and the German term "Gedankenversuch" in 1820.


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: In 1820, Ørsted published his discovery that a compass needle was deflected from magnetic north by a nearby electric current, confirming a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism. The often reported story that Ørsted made this discovery incidentally during a lecture is a myth. He had, in fact, been looking for a connection between electricity and magnetism since 1818, but was quite confused by the results he was obtaining.


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: His initial interpretation was that magnetic effects radiate from all sides of a wire carrying an electric current, as do light and heat. Three months later, he began more intensive investigations and soon thereafter published his findings, showing that an electric current produces a circular magnetic field as it flows through a wire. For his discovery, the Royal Society of London awarded Ørsted the Copley Medal in 1820 and the French Academy granted him 3,000 francs.


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: Ørsted's findings stirred much research into electrodynamics throughout the scientific community, influencing French physicist André-Marie Ampère's developments of a single mathematical formula to represent the magnetic forces between current-carrying conductors. Ørsted's work also represented a major step toward a unified concept of energy.


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: The Ørsted effect brought about a communications revolution due to its application to the electric telegraph. The possibility of such a telegraph was suggested almost immediately by mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace and Ampère presented a paper based on Laplace's idea the same year as Ørsted's discovery. However, it was almost two decades before it became a commercial reality.


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: Ørsted was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1822, a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1829, and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1849.


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: He founded (SNU), a society to disseminate knowledge of the natural sciences, in 1824. He was also the founder of predecessor organizations which eventually became the Danish Meteorological Institute and the Danish Patent and Trademark Office. In 1829, Ørsted founded Den Polytekniske Læreanstalt ('College of Advanced Technology') which was later renamed the Technical University of Denmark (DTU).


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: In 1825, Ørsted made a significant contribution to chemistry by producing aluminium in a near-pure form for the first time. In 1808, Humphry Davy had predicted the existence of the metal which he gave the name of alumium. However his attempts to isolate it using electrolysis processes were unsuccessful. The closest he came was an aluminum-iron alloy. Ørsted was the first to isolate the element via a reduction of aluminium chloride. Although the aluminium alloy he extracted still contained impurities, he is credited with discovery of the metal. His work was developed further by Friedrich Wöhler who obtained aluminium powder on October 22, 1827, and solidified balls of molten aluminium in 1845. Wöhler is credited with the first isolation of the metal in a pure form.


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: The centimetre-gram-second system (CGS) unit of magnetic induction (oersted) is named for his contributions to the field of electromagnetism.


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: The Ørsted Park in Copenhagen was named after Ørsted and his brother in 1879. The streets H.C. Ørsteds Vej in Frederiksberg and H. C. Ørsteds Allé in Galten are also named after him.


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: The buildings that are home to the Department of Chemistry and the Institute for Mathematical Sciences at the University of Copenhagen's North Campus are named the "H.C. Ørsted Institute", after him. A dormitory named H. C. Ørsted Kollegiet is located in Odense.


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: A statue of Hans Christian Ørsted was installed in the Ørsted Park in 1880. A commemorative plaque is located above the gate on the building in Studiestræde where he lived and worked. The 100 danske kroner note issued from 1950 to 1970 carried an engraving of Ørsted.


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: Two medals are awarded in Ørsted's name: the Oersted Medal for notable contributions in the teaching of physics in America, awarded by American Association of Physics Teachers, along with the H. C. Ørsted Medal for Danish scientists, awarded by the Danish "Selskabet for Naturlærens Udbredelse" (Society for the Dissemination of Natural Science), founded by Ørsted.


title: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: Ørsted was a published writer and poet. His poetry series "Luftskibet" ("The Airship") was inspired by the balloon flights of fellow physicist and stage magician Étienne-Gaspard Robert. Shortly before his death, he submitted a collection of articles for publication under the title "Aanden i Naturen" ("The Soul in Nature"). The book presents Ørsted's life philosophy and views on a wide variety of issues.


title: Baha Men

text: The Baha Men are a Bahamian junkanoo band formed in New Providence, Bahamas in 1977. They are best known for their Grammy Award-winning hit song "Who Let the Dogs Out".


title: Baha Men

text: The Baha Men formed in 1977 as High Voltage, initially playing disco and funk. They performed regularly in nightclubs and hotels in the Bahamas and self-released several albums.


title: Baha Men

text: In 1991, one of their tapes found its way to Atlantic Records A&R man Steve Greenberg, who signed the band to the Big Beat subsidiary, at the same time getting the band to change their name to the Baha Men.


title: Baha Men

text: The following year, the Baha Men released their first album, "Junkanoo," which included the local hit "Back to the Island". "Kalik" followed in 1994, including the international hit "Dancing in the Moonlight". The band moved with Greenberg to Polygram for the 1997 album "I Like What I Like" and "Doong Spank", released the following year. The latter sold only 700 copies in the US and the band was dropped by the label.


title: Baha Men

text: Greenberg then started his own label, S-Curve, and signed the band. Original vocalist Nehemiah Hield left in 1999, and was replaced by his nephew Omerit. The band was most popular in the 1990s in Japan, and their 1999 album "2 Zero 0-0" was initially only released in that country.