title: Head covering for Jewish women

text: The Yiddish word "Shpitzel" is related to the grammatical diminutive of the high-German word "Spitze" which can either mean "point" or "lace"; the latter translation is most likely the right one in the context of this article.


title: Head covering for Jewish women

text: The term "shpitzel" may also be used to refer to the ends of a loaf of bread in some dialects. In this case, the above-mentioned translation "Spitze" = (end)point/peak is applicable, with its High German grammatical diminutive "Spitzchen".


title: Head covering for Jewish women

text: Sheitel (, m.sg.; , m.pl. or , m.pl.) is a wig or half-wig. The related term in Hebrew is () or "pei'ah nochrit" (). The Sheitel started to be used by some Jewish women as a headcovering in the 18th century, though its use has been opposed by traditional rabbis.


title: Head covering for Jewish women

text: Traditional sheitels are secured by elastic caps, and are often designed with heavy bangs to obscure the hairline of their wearers. More modern lace-front wigs with realistic hairlines or real hair are growing in popularity.


title: Head covering for Jewish women

text: Some modern Orthodox women cover their hair with wigs. A style of half wig known as a "fall" has become increasingly common in some segments of Modern and Haredi Orthodox communities. It is worn with either a hat or a headband.


title: Head covering for Jewish women

text: The practice of covering hair with wigs is debated among halakhic authorities. Many authorities, including Rabbi Moshe Feinstein, permitted it, and the Lubavitcher Rebbe actively encouraged it, while many other authorities, especially Sephardi rabbis, forbid it. Some Hasidic groups encourage sheitels, while others avoid them. In many Hasidic groups, sheitels are avoided, as they can give the impression that the wearer's head is uncovered. In other Hasidic groups, women wear some type of covering over the sheitel to avoid this misconception, for example a scarf or a hat. Married Sephardi and National Religious women do not wear wigs, because their rabbis believe that wigs are insufficiently modest, and that other head coverings, such as a scarf (), a snood, a beret, or a hat, are more suitable. In stark contrast, the Chabad rebbe, Menachem Mendel Schneerson, encouraged all married Jewish women to wear sheitels, though in Torat Menachem, he writes that in fact, "if she can cover her hair with a scarf, it is definitely good if she would do so, but in reality, we know that this doesn't happen."


title: Head covering for Jewish women

text: In 2004, controversy arose over natural hair sheitels procured from India when Rabbi Elyashiv announced a prohibition on the use of Indian hair in Jewish wigs. It was discovered that the hair used for the production of these wigs was taken from a Hindu temple where pilgrims travelled to undergo the ritual of tonsure (head shaving). According to Jewish law, one cannot derive benefit from anything used in practices considered to be idolatry. Today, many wigs used by Jewish women come with a (kosher certification), indicating that they are not made with hair originating from rituals deemed to be idolatrous. Kosher certification also implies that the sheitels are recognizable as wigs, no longer than the top vertebra of the spinal cord, and appear neat and modest.


title: UCI World Tour

text: The UCI WorldTour (2009–2010: "UCI World Ranking") is the premier men's elite road cycling tour, sitting above the UCI ProSeries and various regional UCI Continental Circuits. It refers to both the tour of 38 events and, until 2019, an annual ranking system based upon performances in these. The World Ranking was launched in 2009, and merged fully with its predecessor the UCI ProTour in 2011. UCI WorldTeams must compete at all events that were part of the tour prior to the 2017 expansion.


title: UCI World Tour

text: Until the end of 2004, the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) maintained both the UCI Road World Rankings, which awarded results for all its sanctioned races, and the UCI Road World Cup, which was awarded on the basis of performance in ten selected one-day events. Both were replaced from the 2005 season by the UCI ProTour and UCI Continental Circuits. However, disputes between the UCI and ASO, the organisers of the Tour de France and other classics, and eventually with the organisers of the Tours of Italy and Spain, meant that by 2008 the ProTour was devalued as a ranking method, as only one of the Monument events, and three other classics, remained under the auspices of the UCI. As a result, the UCI World Ranking was introduced, merging performances from both the ProTour and other prestigious events.


title: UCI World Tour

text: At the start of 2011, the ProTour and World Ranking were fully merged again. The ranking system was re-branded as the 'World Tour', whilst 'ProTeam' was retained as a registration category for professional teams. All ProTeams gain automatic entry to World Tour events.


title: UCI World Tour

text: Despite finishing second in the team rankings in 2012, were initially refused a place in the top tier for 2013. After appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport, they were reinstated in February 2013, having already missed the 2013 Tour Down Under. Although the UCI had earlier asserted that the reinstatement of Katusha would result in demotion of another team, they eventually announced that there would be 19 ProTour teams for that one season. In 2015, there are only 17 teams, as there was no applicant for the 18th slot.


title: UCI World Tour

text: For the 2017 season the UCI added 10 new events to the calendar, bringing the total number of events to 38. The new events are: Tour of California, Tour of Qatar, Abu Dhabi Tour, Tour of Turkey, Dwars door Vlaanderen, Omloop Het Nieuwsblad, Cadel Evans Great Ocean Road Race, London–Surrey Classic, Eschborn-Frankfurt City Loop and Strade Bianche.


title: UCI World Tour

text: In 2019, the Three Days of De Panne (a one day race, although its name retains a description of its former format) was added to the tour, and the Abu Dhabi Tour, having merged with the 2.HC ranked Dubai Tour, was rebranded as the UAE Tour. The World Tour ceased to be a ranking series, replaced in this regard by the UCI World Ranking.


title: UCI World Tour

text: In 2009 and 2010, only riders for ProTour teams and Professional Continental teams could earn points. When a national squad, that is not a UCI registered team, participated in a race, its members were not eligible to receive points. In 2011, a rule change meant that only riders on ProTeam squads were eligible for points.


title: UCI World Tour

text: From 2012 to 2015, the team time trial at the UCI Road World Championships contributed points to the team classification only.


title: Monologue

text: In theatre, a monologue (from , from μόνος "mónos", "alone, solitary" and λόγος "lógos", "speech") is a speech presented by a single character, most often to express their thoughts aloud, though sometimes also to directly address another character or the audience. Monologues are common across the range of dramatic media (plays, films, etc.), as well as in non-dramatic media such as poetry. Monologues share much in common with several other literary devices including soliloquies, apostrophes, and asides. There are, however, distinctions between each of these devices.


title: Monologue

text: Monologues are similar to poems, epiphanies, and others, in that, they involve one 'voice' speaking but there are differences between them. For example, a soliloquy involves a character relating their thoughts and feelings to themself and to the audience without addressing any of the other characters. A monologue is the thoughts of a person spoken out loud. Monologues are also distinct from apostrophes, in which the speaker or writer addresses an imaginary person, inanimate object, or idea. Asides differ from each of these not only in length (asides are shorter) but also in that asides are not heard by other characters even in situations where they logically should be (e.g. two characters engaging in a dialogue interrupted by one of them delivering an aside).


title: Monologue

text: In ancient Greek theatre, the origin of western drama, the conventional three actor rule was preceded by a two-actor rule, which was itself preceded by a convention in which only a single actor would appear on stage, along with the chorus. The origin of the monologue as a dramatic device, therefore, is not rooted in dialogue. It is, instead, the other way around; dialogue evolved from the monologue.


title: Monologue

text: Ancient Roman theatre featured monologues extensively, more commonly than either Ancient Greek theatre or modern theatre. One of the key purposes of these monologues was to indicate the passage of significant amounts of time (that would be tedious to actually play out in real time) within scenes. This type of monologue is referred to as a linking monologue. Other monologue types included "entrance monologues" and exit monologues. In each of these cases a primary function is indicating the passage of time.


title: Monologue

text: From Renaissance theatre onward, monologues generally focused on characters using the extended speech to pursue their dramatic need. Postmodern theatre, on the other hand, often embraces the performative aspects of the monologue, even to the point of challenging the boundary between character portrayal (e.g. acting) and autobiographical speeches.


title: Monologue

text: Interior monologues involve a character externalizing their thoughts so that the audience can witness experiences that would otherwise be mostly internal. In contrast, a dramatic monologue involves one character speaking to another character. Monologues can also be divided along the lines of active and narrative monologues. In an active monologue a character is using their speech to achieve a clear goal. Narrative monologues simply involve a character telling a story and can often be identified by the fact that they are in the past tense.


title: Monologue

text: Actors in theatre, and sometimes in film and television, may be asked to deliver monologues in auditions. Audition monologues demonstrate an actor's ability to prepare a piece and deliver a performance. These pieces are usually limited to two minutes or less and are often paired with a contrasting monologue: comic and dramatic; classical and contemporary. The choice of monologues for an audition often depends on the play or role.


title: Junker (Prussia)

text: The Junkers ( ; ) were members of the landed nobility in Prussia. They owned great estates that were maintained and worked by peasants with few rights. These estates often lay in the countryside outside of major cities or towns. They were an important factor in Prussia and, after 1871, in German military, political and diplomatic leadership. The most famous Junker was Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Bismarck held power in Germany from 1871 to 1890 as Chancellor of the German Empire. He was removed from power by Kaiser Wilhelm II.


title: Junker (Prussia)

text: Many Junkers lived in the eastern provinces that were annexed by either Poland or the Soviet Union after World War II. Junkers fled or were expelled alongside other German-speaking population by the incoming Polish and Soviet administrations, and their lands were confiscated. In western and southern Germany, the land was often owned by small independent farmers or a mixture of small farmers and estate owners, and this system was often contrasted with the dominance of the large estate owners of the east. Before World War II, the dividing line was often drawn at the river Elbe which was also roughly the western boundary of Slavic settlement by the Wends in the so called Germania Slavica prior to "Ostsiedlung". The term for the junker dominated East was thus "Ostelbien" or East Elbia. They played a big role in repressing the liberal movement in Germany.


title: Junker (Prussia)

text: "Junker" is derived from Middle High German "Juncherre", meaning "young nobleman" or otherwise "young lord" (derivation of "jung" and "Herr"), and originally was the title of members of the higher "edelfrei" (immediate) nobility without or before the accolade. It evolved to a general denotation of a young or lesser noble, often poor and politically insignificant, understood as "country squire" (cf. Martin Luther's disguise as "Junker Jörg" at the Wartburg; he would later mock King Henry VIII of England as "Juncker Heintz"). As part of the nobility, many Junker families only had prepositions such as "von" or "zu" before their family names without further ranks. The abbreviation of the title is Jkr., most often placed before the given name and titles, for example: Jkr. Heinrich von Hohenberg. The female equivalent "Junkfrau" (Jkfr.) was used only sporadically. In some cases, the honorific Jkr. was also used for "Freiherren" (Barons) and "Grafen" (Counts).


title: Junker (Prussia)

text: A good number of poorer Junkers took up careers as soldiers ("Fahnenjunker"), mercenaries, and officials ("Hofjunker", "Kammerjunker") at the court of territorial princes. These families were mostly part of the German medieval "Uradel" and had carried on the colonization and Christianization of the northeastern European territories during the "Ostsiedlung". Over the centuries, they had become influential commanders and landowners, especially in the lands east of the Elbe River in the Kingdom of Prussia.


title: Junker (Prussia)

text: As landed aristocrats, the Junkers owned most of the arable land in Prussia. Being the bulwark of the ruling House of Hohenzollern, the Junkers controlled the Prussian Army, leading in political influence and social status, and owning immense estates worked by tenants. These were located especially in the north-eastern half of Germany (i.e. the Prussian provinces of Brandenburg, Pomerania, Silesia, West Prussia, East Prussia and Posen). This was in contrast to the predominantly Catholic southern states such as the Kingdom of Bavaria or the Grand Duchy of Baden, where land was owned by small farms, or the mixed agriculture of the western states like the Grand Duchy of Hesse or even the Prussian Rhine and Westphalian provinces.


title: Junker (Prussia)

text: Junkers formed a tightly knit elite. Their challenge was how to retain their dominance in an emerging modern state with a growing middle and working class.


title: Junker (Prussia)

text: The Junkers held a virtual monopoly on all agriculture in the part of the German Reich lying east of the River Elbe. Since the Junker estates were necessarily inherited by the eldest son alone, younger sons, all well educated and with a sense of noble ancestry, turned to the civil and military services, and dominated all higher civil offices, as well as the officer corps. Around 1900 they modernized their farming operations to increase productivity. They sold off less productive land, invested more heavily in new breeds of cattle and pigs, used new fertilizers, increased grain production, and improved productivity per worker. Their political influence achieved the imposition of high tariffs that reduced competition from American grain and meat.


title: Junker (Prussia)

text: During World War I, Irish nationalist MP Tom Kettle compared the Anglo-Irish landlord class to the Prussian Junkers, saying, "England goes to fight for liberty in Europe and for junkerdom in Ireland."


title: Junker (Prussia)

text: Their political influence extended from the German Empire of 1871–1918 through the Weimar Republic of 1919–1933. It was said that "if Prussia ruled Germany, the Junkers ruled Prussia, and through it the Empire itself". A policy known as "Osthilfe" ("Help for the East") granted Junkers 500,000,000 marks in subsidies to help pay for certain debts and to improve equipment. Junkers continued to demand and receive more and more subsidies, which gave them more money in their pockets, thus resulting in political power. Junkers exploited a monopoly on corn by storing it to drive up the price. As more money was profited, they were able to control political offices. Junkers were able to force people to continue paying more money for their product, while keeping who they wanted in office. Through the controlling of politics behind a veil, Junkers were able to influence politicians to create a law that prohibited collecting of debts from agrarians, thus pocketing even more money and strengthening their power.


title: Junker (Prussia)

text: Supporting monarchism and military traditions, Junkers were seen as reactionary, anti-democratic, and protectionist by liberals and Socialists, as they had sided with the conservative monarchist forces during the Revolution of 1848. Their political interests were served by the German Conservative Party in the Reichstag and the extraparliamentary Agriculturists' League ("Bund der Landwirte"). This political class held tremendous power over industrial classes and government alike, especially through the Prussian three-class franchise. When the German chancellor Leo von Caprivi in the 1890s reduced the protective duties on imports of grain, these landed magnates demanded and obtained his dismissal; and in 1902, they brought about a restoration of such duties on foodstuffs as would keep the prices of their own products at a high level.


title: Junker (Prussia)

text: "Junker" acquired its current and often pejorative sense during the 19th-century disputes over the domestic policies of the German Empire. The term was used by sociologists such as Max Weber and was even adopted by members of the landed class themselves. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck was a noted Junker, though his family hailed from the Altmark region west of the Elbe. After World War I many Prussian agriculturists gathered in the national conservative German National People's Party (DNVP), the term was also applied to Reich President Paul von Hindenburg, lord at Neudeck in West Prussia, and to the "camarilla" around him urging the appointment of Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany, personified by men like Hindenburg's son Oskar and his West Prussian "neighbour" Elard von Oldenburg-Januschau, who played a vital role in the Eastern Aid (Osthilfe) scandal of 1932/33.


title: Junker (Prussia)

text: Many World War II field marshals were also members of the Junkers, most notably Gerd von Rundstedt, Fedor von Bock and Erich von Manstein. Many Junkers used forced laborers from Poland and the Soviet Union. Landowners like Helmuth James Graf von Moltke and the members of the Kreisau Circle were part of the resistance to Nazi Germany rule. As World War II turned against Nazi Germany, several senior Junkers in the Wehrmacht participated in Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg's assassination attempt of 20 July 1944. Fifty-eight were executed when the plot failed, among them Erwin von Witzleben and Heinrich Graf von Lehndorff-Steinort, or committed suicide like Henning von Tresckow. During the advance of the Red Army in the closing months of the war and subsequently, most Junkers had to flee from the eastern territories that were turned over to the re-established Republic of Poland with the implementation of the Oder–Neisse line according to the Potsdam Agreement.


title: Junker (Prussia)

text: After World War II, during the communist "Bodenreform" (land reform) of September 1945 in the Soviet Occupation Zone, later East Germany, all private property exceeding an area of was expropriated, and then predominantly allocated to 'New Farmers' on condition that they continued farming them. As most of these large estates, especially in Brandenburg and Western Pomerania, had belonged to Junkers, the Socialist Unity Party of Germany promoted their plans with East German President Wilhelm Pieck's slogan "Junkerland in Bauernhand!" ("Junker land into farmer's hand!"). The former owners were accused of war crimes and involvement in the Nazi regime by the Soviet Military Administration and the SED, with many of them being arrested, brutally beaten and interned in NKVD special camps ("Speziallager"), while their property was plundered and the manor houses demolished. Some were executed. Many women were raped. From 1952 these individual farms were pressured by a variety of means to join together as collectives and incorporated into "Landwirtschaftliche Produktionsgenossenschaften" ("agricultural production comradeships", LPG) or nationalised as "Volkseigene Güter" ("publicly owned estates", VEG).


title: Junker (Prussia)

text: After German reunification, some Junkers tried to regain their former estates through civil lawsuits, but the German courts have upheld the land reforms and rebuffed claims to full compensation, confirming the legal validity of the terms within the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany (Two Plus Four Agreement) (and incorporated into the Basic Law of the Federal Republic), by which expropriations of land under Soviet occupation were irreversible. The last decisive case was the unsuccessful lawsuit of Prince Ernst August of Hanover in September 2006, when the Federal Administrative Court decided that the prince had no right to compensation for the disseized estates of the House of Hanover around Blankenburg Castle in Saxony-Anhalt. Other families, however, have quietly purchased or leased back their ancestral homes from the current owners (often the German federal government in its role as trustee). A petition for official rehabilitation of the ousted landowners was rejected by the German Bundestag in 2008.


title: A Gentleman

text: A Gentleman: Sundar, Susheel, Risky is a 2017 Indian Hindi-language action film written and directed by Raj & DK. The film stars Sidharth Malhotra in a dual role with Jacqueline Fernandez and Suniel Shetty. Upon release, it was a critical and commercial failure.


title: A Gentleman

text: 2017: Gaurav Kapoor works at a software firm, based in suburban Miami, who plans to marry his girl friend Kavya, but she prefers a man who is more adventurous and risk-loving. Gaurav tries to ask Kavya on a date and also meets her parents, who consider Gaurav as a potential groom for Kavya. Meanwhile, Gaurav is ordered by his boss to visit Mumbai to close a business deal. It is revealed that Gaurav is actually Rishi Purohit.


title: A Gentleman

text: 2012: Rishi Purohit is a clandestine spy, working for a spy organization named "Unit X" headed of boss by Colonel Vijay Kumar Saxena. Rishi and his team attempt to extract intelligence from the Chinese Embassy in Bangkok. While escaping, Yakub-a teammate- shoots down an innocent civilian, which enrages Rishi. Rishi returns to Mumbai, where he talks to his superior Col. Vijay about retiring from the world of espionage.


title: A Gentleman

text: Col. Vijay asks him to perform one last job for him, and this involves spying on a minister who Colonel. Vijay claims to be corrupt and ruthless and dreaded and cheap and rubbish man and wants to copy data from his cellphone into a hard drive which is wanted by Col. Vijay. Rishi does save contents into the hard drive, but Col. Vijay, having decided that Rishi is useless, instructs Yakub through a text message to kill him. Rishi senses the suspicion, and fights off Yakub and the other spies.


title: A Gentleman

text: Yakub manages to shoot Rishi, destroying the hard drive, but Rishi escapes and meets the real Gaurav Kapoor. Gaurav, who works in a cyber firm in Miami, has important data about the minister's connections. When Gaurav is murdered by Yakub on account of being a liability, Rishi decides to adopt Gaurav's identity to successfully escape from Yakub after his last mission.


title: A Gentleman

text: 2017: After being unintentionally recorded in a viral video and recognised by the members of Unit X, Gaurav/Rishi is soon attacked by Koko, an associate of Unit X's local contact Jignesh. He is forced to abduct and hide Koko in his car, which is noticed by his friend Dixit, who tries to help him and unintentionally kills Koko in the struggle. Yakub and other Unit X agents track Gaurav/Rishi down, and confront him, where he finally confesses, as Rishi, that he needed a life.


title: A Gentleman

text: Gaurav/Rishi is knocked down unconscious, and soon finds himself handcuffed with Kavya who had stopped by his house. Gaurav/Rishi uses his skills to escape with Kavya from the trouble, and ends up confessing to her that he is a retired covert operations specialist. Kavya berates Gaurav/Rishi, but later forgives him. Later that night, the two find themselves under fire after Unit X agents, headed by Yakub, raid the motel they are hiding in. Gaurav/Rishi hatches a quick scheme to retrieve the data, since the hard drive is damaged, and convinces Yakub to work with him on their final mission.


title: A Gentleman

text: Gaurav/Rishi executes the heist with success, but security guards notices and begin chasing Gaurav/Rishi. Yakub aborts the operation and abandons him. They meet at Gaurav/Rishi's house, where Rishi kills most of Yakub's henchmen with the help of Kavya. However, Gaurav/Rishi spares Yakub and two of his thugs and orders him to leave his house. Driving away in Gaurav/Rishi's car, Yakub realises that the hard drive Rishi gave is blank, and the car's trunk contains Koko's corpse.


title: A Gentleman

text: Dixit, working with Gaurav/Rishi, crashes into their car in a side collision, and police arriving on the scene discover the body. Yakub and his thugs are killed by the cops. Col. Vijay visits Gaurav/Rishi's house to confront him, but is killed in an explosion planned by Gaurav/Rishi. This neutralises Unit X, and Gaurav/Rishi and Kavya soon leave the city with new identities of Hemant and Pooja Khanna. Dixit buys machine guns from a local gun store in Miami before putting on a hoodie and walking away.


title: A Gentleman

text: Siddharth Anand has stated that the movie was originally developed and envisioned to be a sequel to the 2014 film "Bang Bang!" However, the movie was later redeveloped to be a standalone, which was also confirmed in a later interview.


title: A Gentleman

text: Filming began in mid-2016 under the working title "Reloaded". In September 2016, it was reported that the international shooting schedule of "A Gentleman: Sundar, Susheel, Risky" had been canceled. Later it was revealed by a close source that "...there will be another long schedule in December but the location is yet to be finalised. It could be in Europe."


title: A Gentleman

text: The music of the film is composed by Sachin–Jigar while the lyrics have been penned by Vayu and Priya Saraiya. Its first song, "Disco Disco", sung by Benny Dayal and Shirley Setia, was released on 17 July 2017. The second song released, "Bandook Meri Laila", sung by Ash King and Jigar Saraiya and rapped by Raftaar and Sidharth Malhotra, was released on 24 July 2017. The song marks Malhotra's singing debut and was the most popular song on the album. The third song, "Baat Ban Jaye", sung by Siddharth Basrur and Priya Saraiya, was released on 5 August 2017. The fourth song was a romantic one, "Laagi Na Choote", and was another chartbuster. It was released on 13 August 2017. The last song, "Chandralekha", sung by Vishal Dadlani and Jonita Gandhi, was released on 24 August 2017. The soundtrack of five songs was released on 24 August 2017 by T-Series.


title: A Gentleman

text: "Times of India" rated the film 3.5 stars out of 5 and concluded, "The film would have been a perfect entertainer had it held its cards closer to its chest. However, it still has plenty bang for your buck."


title: A Gentleman

text: "Hindustan Times" gave the film 3 out of 5, saying, "A Gentleman is not a flawless film... but Raj and DK have managed to narrate the plain and full-of-cliches story in their own quirky style and their dialogues and the screenplay make it fun to watch."


title: A Gentleman

text: The movie released on 24 August in Dubai, UAE. Dollz in Dubai gave it 3.5 out of 5 stars calling it a masala entertainer and wrote "It's a big step for Siddharth Malhotra who manages to carry the film and commands the screen with his presence. Yes, he's good looking but he pulls off the action sequences really well."


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: The Pontiac Tempest is an automobile that was produced by Pontiac from 1960 to 1970, and again from 1987 to 1991.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: The Tempest was introduced as an entry-level compact in October 1960 at the Paris Auto Show for the 1961 model year. An innovative design, it shared the new unibody Y platform, GM's first, with the Buick Special/Skylark and Oldsmobile F-85/Cutlass, and featured the "Trophy-4" four-cylinder engine with a flexible drive shaft to a two-speed rear-mounted transaxle automatic transmission.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: The line offered the optional LeMans trim upgrade, beginning with a few 1961 LeMans coupes and adding a performance aspect in 1962. By 1964 the Tempest, Tempest Custom and Lemans are separate trim packages on the updated GM A-body platform, and the GTO was a performance option upgrade to the LeMans for 1964 and 1965. The GTO was offered as a separate model line beginning in 1966.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: In Canada, Pontiac also marketed a rebadged version of the compact L-body Chevrolet Corsica under the name "Tempest" from 1987 to 1991. The name "tempest" is from Old French tempeste (French tempête), from Latin tempestas (“storm”), from tempus (“time, weather”).


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: The Tempest was a decision by the Pontiac division to enter the compact car market following the success of the Chevrolet Corvair.. The division wanted to produce a clone of the Corvair, but instead GM gave Pontiac the lead to develop a new car in an interdivisional program coded named "X-100." John Z. DeLorean, Pontiac's chief engineer and general manager, went to work on a car that would meld components GM already produced. His objective was for the new model to be more than just an ordinary compact car. The Tempest was "Motor Trend" magazine's 1961 Car of the Year. "Road & Track" praised the Tempest as "exceptionally roomy" and "one of the very best utility cars since the Ford Model A." In hindsight, DeLorean admitted that the Tempest was "less than successful," adding, "there was no mechanical problem, but the car rattled so loudly that it sounded like it was carrying half-a-trunkful of rolling rocks."


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: It shared sheet metal with the Oldsmobile F-85, the first-generation Tempest had several features that differentiated it from the other compact GM cars. The engine was a 195 cubic inch (3.2 L) straight-4 marketed as the "Trophy 4," derived from the right cylinder bank of Pontiac's 389 cubic inch "Trophy 8" V8 engine. The Tempest featured a drivetrain with a rear-mounted transaxle that was coupled to a torque shaft arcing in a downward bow within a curved, longitudinal tunnel. Use of the torque shaft was the result of being forced to use the Corvair floorpan which, being a rear engine platform, had no drive shaft. To combine flexibility with strength in the proper proportion, the shaft was forged of SAE 8660 steel (high nickel, chrome and molybdenum alloying percentages) for torsion bar specifications. For automatic cars, the shaft was in diameter and long, while the manual-box shaft was by . This joined the forward engine and the rear transaxle (therefore no transmission hump) into a single unit, helping to reduce vibration. The design, known as "rope drive," had only been seen previously on General Motors' 1951 Le Sabre concept car.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: The combination of a rear-mounted transaxle and front-mounted engine very nearly gave the car an ideal 50/50 front/rear weight distribution. This, along with a four-wheel independent suspension, helped make the Tempest a nimble-handling car for the era. The front engine/rear transaxle design also eliminated the driveshaft/transmission tunnel in the front of the passenger compartment, while lowering the driveshaft tunnel in the rear compared with a conventional front engine/front transmission layout.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: The Trophy 4 four-cylinder engine was promoted for its economy, but Pontiac also saved money on its assembly: Because it was based on the right cylinder bank of the Pontiac 389 V8 engine, both engines could be built on the same assembly line. There were three versions of the Trophy 4: An economy version with a relatively low 8.6:1 compression ratio and a single-barrel carburetor; a hotter version with a 10.25:1 compression ratio and a single-barrel carburetor; and the most powerful Trophy 4 engine, which had a 10.25:1 compression ratio and a four-barrel carburetor. While both Trophy 4 engines (low and high compression) equipped with single-barrel carburetors produced , the high-compression, four-barrel Trophy 4 engine produced at 4,800 RPM and of torque at 2,800 RPM (all ratings are SAE Gross). The three Trophy 4 engine versions offered fuel economy ratings ranging from 18-22 MPG. Popular Mechanics reported fuel economy of 21.3 MPG at 60 MPH.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: The Trophy 4 engine was generally reliable, but could be harsh when it was out of tune, due to its inherent lack of secondary balance and absence of balancer shafts.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: The Tempest was offered with quite a few options such as air conditioning, transistor radios, windshield washers, a parking brake warning light, padded safety dash, child-proof door locks, and dealer-installed seat belts, as such restraints were not yet Federally required at the Tempest's introduction.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: Another departure from the other Y-body cars was the Tempest's brake drum, which used five studs on the same bolt circle ("five-on-four-and-a-half") and wheels - a configuration unique among General Motors cars. Both Buick and Oldsmobile had standardized their Y-body cars on an odd brake drum with four lug studs on a -diameter circle (a "four-on-four-and-a-half" bolt pattern), with wheels. This arrangement was also not used by other General Motors cars at the time.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: Along with the Trophy 4 engine line another optional engine for the Tempest in 1961 and 1962 was the innovative aluminum Buick-built 215 cubic inch (3.5 L) V8. It is estimated that just 3,662 Tempests were ordered with the 215 engine, or about 1% of production. This engine produced, in its various incarnations, from despite weighing just installed.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: The engine blocks used for 215-V8 engines installed in Tempest models were distinct from 215-V8 engine blocks used in other models because, in addition to Buick factory markings, they were also hand-stamped at the Pontiac plant with the Vehicle Identification Numbers of the individual vehicles that they were installed in. Thus, in 1961, all Pontiac 215 engine blocks begin with "161P"; for 1962 the stamping began with "162P". Further code numbers indicated the car's transmission (manual or automatic).


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: In 1961, the transmission choices were a three-speed column-shifted manual with a non-synchronized first gear, or a two-speed automatic transaxle controlled by a small lever to the right of the ignition switch on the instrument panel. Called "TempesTorque" in company literature but unmarked on the unit itself until 1963, it was similar in concept to the Chevrolet Powerglide automatic transmission used on the Chevrolet Corvair, though few parts overlapped. For 1962, a floor-mounted, fully synchronized four-speed manual transmission became available.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: At its introduction, the Tempest was only available as a four-door pillared sedan and as a station wagon that, like other Pontiac station wagons of the time, had the name "Safari" added to it. A pair of two-door coupes (one of which was named LeMans) were added at the end of 1961, both in the 1961 body style.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: For the 1962 model year there were four Tempest models available: a sedan, a coupe, a station wagon, and a convertible. Customers wanting something fancier could opt for the LeMans trim package upgrade, which featured front bucket seats. Tempest LeMans models were available with either the coupe or the convertible; there was no LeMans sedan or station wagon. And although Oldsmobile and Buick offered pillarless hardtops on the Cutlass and Skylark respectively, Pontiac did not offer a pillarless hardtop LeMans model.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: In 1963, the LeMans became a separate series; its sales were nearly 50 percent of combined Tempest and Le Mans production. 1963 models, referred to as "senior compacts", were slightly larger and heavier than the 1961 and 1962 models had been. These new models featured a redesigned transaxle that improved handling, as well as a high-performance option that was much more powerful than the rarely-ordered 215-V8. This new V8 option for 1963 was Pontiac's 326 cubic inch (5.3 L) V8, an engine with the same external dimensions as the venerable "Trophy 8" 389, but different internal components designed to produce more torque. A new version of the automatic transmission (now officially stamped "TempesTorque" on the case) was redesigned to handle the new V8's additional torque. The four-speed manual transmission had not been redesigned, and very few V8-equipped Tempest models were built with this transmission. The three-speed manual transmission remained available for all engines.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: The high-compression 326 V8 engine's output was and of torque (SAE Gross). The actual displacement was 336 cubic inches, but according to lore, since General Motors management edict declared that no GM compact was allowed to have an engine that was larger than the Chevrolet Corvette 327 V8, the advertised displacement for the Tempest V8 was 326 cubic inches. However, for 1964, the engine's displacement was adjusted so that it actually was 326 cubic inches, making the 1963 "326 V8" a single-year engine.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: The cast-iron V8 engine increased the Tempest's weight by over the weight of a Tempest equipped with a Trophy 4 engine; front/rear weight distribution changed somewhat to 54/46. Performance with a 326-powered Tempest was strong enough that "Car Life" magazine wrote "No one will wonder why they didn't use the 389." Fuel economy with the 326 could be as high as 19 mpg. The V8 option proved popular: 52 percent of the 131,490 Tempests and LeMans models sold in the 1963 model year were ordered with it.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: Perhaps the most famous of all Tempests were the 12 1963 "Super Duty" cars built to compete in the NHRA Factory Experimental class. These were assembled at the Pontiac plant in Michigan over Christmas 1962 with the knowledge of an impending General Motors ban on factory racing. Among those who successfully raced them was Wild Bill Shrewsberry, who turned low 12-second quarter-mile runs in the 1963 NHRA Winter Nationals driving for Mickey Thompson. Shrewsberry still owns his car, and it is still equipped with Pontiac's "Powershift" transaxle as retrofitted later in the 1963 season. Developed specifically for the Super Duty model, this was essentially two Chevrolet Powerglide automatics in a single four-speed unit, allowing clutchless shifting in much the same manner as modern drag racing transmissions do.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: On October 31, 2008, one of the rarest factory race cars, the missing Stan Antlocer Super Duty Tempest Le Mans Coupe was auctioned on eBay. The seller started the auction at $500 being unaware of the car's true value. Eventually, the car was sold for $226,521.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: In 1964, the Tempest was redesigned as a more-conventional vehicle and enlarged from a compact to an intermediate-sized car with a wheelbase and an overall length of . The unibody, curved driveshaft and transaxle were gone, replaced by a traditional front engine, front transmission, body-on-frame, and solid rear axle design used by all of GM's other cars but the Corvette and Corvair. Together with its sister cars (the Oldsmobile F-85/Cutlass and Buick Special/Skylark), the Tempest/Le Mans moved to the new A platform shared with the new Chevrolet Chevelle, and all three cars received updates and modifications standardizing them throughout—including the wheels—by GM edict. The cars were, in ascending order, base Tempest, Tempest Custom, and Le Mans.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: Replacing the previous "Trophy 4" inline four-cylinder engine as standard equipment was a new Pontiac straight six with one-barrel carburetor and . This six was basically a smaller bore (3.75") version of the Chevrolet straight-6, offered as a Pontiac exclusive. This is one of the earliest "Corporate Engine" arrangements General Motors utilized.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: Optional engines included two versions of the Pontiac V8 introduced the previous year: a two-barrel regular fuel option; or the 326 HO engine with four-barrel carburetor and 10.5:1 compression ratio which required premium fuel. Transmissions included a standard three-speed manual with column shift, four-speed manual with floor-mounted Hurst shifter or a two-speed automatic; the latter was a version of Buick's Super Turbine 300.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: The popularity of the high-performance 326/336 V8 in the Tempest-based LeMans package the year before prompted Pontiac to give the option a special, sporty name: the GTO, after the Italian abbreviation "Gran Turismo Omologato" used to designate specially equipped street cars homologated for racing (though the opposite, producing a mandated minimum of street-legal race cars to meet the homologation requirement, is the norm). Available with Pontiac's largest V8, the , and equipped with a four-barrel carburetor (producing or the soon to become iconic 3 x 2 barrel Tri-Power set-up, the GTO proved to be the defining muscle car of the 1960s. Unlike other 1964 Tempests, the GTO was available as a pillarless hardtop coupe.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: Unsurprisingly, the success of the GTO prompted Oldsmobile to rush out its own high-performance option package for the F-85/Cutlass called the 442, and the next year for Buick to release a high-performance version of the Skylark called the Skylark Gran Sport, or GS. Both cars would enjoy success and join Chevrolet's Chevelle SS in GM's effort to capitalize on the exploding muscle car era.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: Engine offerings for the 1965 Tempest were the same as 1964, except the 326 HO was uprated to and the GTO 389's uprated to and via higher rise intake manifolds. Styling changes included a new split grille with vertical headlights similar to the larger Pontiacs, revised taillights and a more slanted rear deck. A two-door hardtop coupe was added to the Tempest Custom line, while the Le Mans got a four-door sedan with a plush interior done in Preston Cloth trim similar to the full-sized Bonneville Brougham.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: A major facelift was made on the 1966 Tempest that included more rounded bodylines with a Coke-bottle effect similar to the full-sized Pontiacs. New four-door pillarless hardtop sedans were added to the Tempest Custom line. Under the hood, the Chevy-derived 215 six was replaced by a new Pontiac overhead cam six, the only such engine found in an American production car at that time. This was also the first American-built engine to use a belt to time the camshaft to the crankshaft rather than a chain. The base OHC had a one-barrel carburetor and was rated at , designed for economy buyers. Optionally available as part of the Sprint option package on two-doors was a four-barrel, high-compression version of the OHC six, marketed as an alternative to higher-priced European sport sedans, which had similar OHC engines. For those wanting V8 power, the 326 and 326 HO options continued with horsepower ratings of 250 and , respectively, and GTO engines stayed the same.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: Only minor changes were made to the 1967 Tempest, Custom and Le Mans models. The GTO 389 V8 was replaced by a new 400 cu in V8. The Rochester four-barrel carburetor replaced both the standard GTO Carter AFB four-barrel and the Tri-Power carburetor option. The Turbo Hydromatic TH-400 replaced the previous Buick Super Turbine two speed automatic. The 326 cu in V8's remained unchanged. The four-barrel OHC six was uprated to . Front disc brakes were a new option along with a stereo 8-track tape player and hood-mounted tachometer. All 1967 Pontiacs got GM's safety package, mandated by Federal law, which included a dual-circuit braking system, energy absorbing steering column, wheel, and interior, shoulder belt anchors, four-way hazard flashers, and a new directional signal control that could be "flicked" for lane changes.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: A completely restyled Tempest was introduced for 1968 with streamlined Coke bottle styling, concealed windshield wipers, and a return to horizontal headlights. Two-door models rode on a wheelbase and four-door models on . The 230 cu in overhead cam sixes were enlarged to 250 cu in, with horsepower ratings unchanged while the 326 V8 was replaced by a new V8 with horsepower ratings of 250 with two-barrel or 320 with four-barrel carb. The same lineup of models including the base Tempest, Tempest Custom and Le Mans continued as in previous years.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: Other than elimination of vent windows on hardtop coupes, styling only received minor revisions for 1969, when the Tempest Custom was renamed the Custom S for this one year. However, model offerings were the same as 1968. A new three-speed Turbo Hydra-matic 350 automatic transmission was introduced and available with all engines as an alternative to the older two-speed. Engine offerings were the same as before except for the 350 HO V8 engine gaining five-horsepower to 325. A new locking steering column with relocated ignition switch was introduced and front seat headrests became standard equipment. A new GTO option became available, The Judge. Featuring special decals, two Ram Air versions of Pontiac's 400 engine, and a rear spoiler, The Judge was originally conceived as a barebones muscle car based on the Tempest to compete with the new sub-$3,000 Plymouth Roadrunner. Plans for the new model were terminated, and Pontiac division head John DeLorean opted to create a GTO variant instead.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: Minor styling revisions, that included a new front grille treatment, highlighted the 1970 Tempest, which was the final year for the nameplate. Initially, the line was down to just two- and four-door sedans but expanded at mid-year with the introduction of the low-priced T-37 hardtop coupe, billed as GM's lowest-priced hardtop coupe. The Custom S became the Le Mans this year and the previous Le Mans series was renamed the Le Mans Sport. The Pontiac-built OHC six-cylinder engine was replaced by a Chevy-built 250 in³ inline six while the 350 V8 was down to a two-barrel version. New engine offerings included 400 in³ V8s rated at with two-barrel carburetor and 8.6:1 compression ratio or 330 with four-barrel and 10.25:1 compression.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: The Tempest nameplate was phased out after the 1970 model year. For 1971, it was replaced by a new T-37 series that included each of the three bodystyles offered on the 1970 Tempest and T-37. After this year, the T-37 was dropped. In 1972 all Pontiac intermediates took the Le Mans nameplate except the GTO.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: The Pontiac Tempest Custom S was a one-year only Pontiac nameplate offered during the 1969 model year car as a replacement for the "Tempest Custom" trim level in the Division's line-up. Originally to be called the "Pontiac TC", it was slotted between the Tempest and LeMans in price and features.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: The Custom S was available in six different body designs: two-door convertible, hardtop coupe, sports coupe, a 4-door sedan, a 4-door hardtop, and a station wagon. The sports coupe can be differentiated from the hardtop by the presence of a vent window in the front door. Interior and exterior appointments fell between the Tempest and the LeMans and GTO.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: The Custom S came standard with Pontiac's unique overhead camshaft OHC-6 engine. Also available was a TQ OHC inline 6-cylinder with the "Sprint" package, a overhead valve pushrod V8 , and a version of the same engine with higher compression and a 4-barrel carburetor.


title: Pontiac Tempest

text: Pontiac marketed a rebadged version of the compact L-body Chevrolet Corsica as Tempest, for Canada and Israel only, beginning in model year 1987. Discontinued in 1991, the Tempest was replaced with the Grand Am sedan. The 1987-1991 Pontiac Tempest came in two trim levels, base (equivalent to the U.S. Corsica LT) and LE (equivalent to the U.S. Corsica LTZ) The main differences that separates the Tempest from its L-Body twin are different grille, emblems and taillights (the taillights were later adopted as the U.S. Corsica's taillights). The only other differences were wheel options, DRLs and a metric instrument cluster. This model was also sold briefly in Israel, as there are brochures showing Canadian-spec models from 1990/1991.


title: Alok Kanojia

text: Alok Kanojia, also known as Dr. K. (born October 7, 1982), is an American psychiatrist and co-founder of the mental health coaching company, Healthy Gamer. He streams interviews on Twitch, where he and participants discuss mental health topics.


title: Alok Kanojia

text: Kanojia became addicted to video games during his time at the University of Texas at Austin, leading to missed classes and bad grades. At the age of 21, he moved to India to become a monk. He began studying alternative therapies including yoga, meditation, and Reiki in 2003 with particular attention to the Ayurvedic principle that mental health is inextricably linked to physical health. He got his addiction under control and graduated in 2007 with a biology major. He began a placement at Tufts University School of Medicine in 2010, receiving his medical degree in 2014, following which he started a residency at Harvard Medical School's MGH/McLean Adult Psychiatry Residency Program.


title: Alok Kanojia

text: After graduation, Kanojia discovered that he had many friends who were also addicted to video games. He began helping them, but he soon realized that he didn't have the time to provide support to everyone. This prompted Kanojia and his wife Kruti to create a startup, Healthy Gamer, through which they could provide resources to help people overcome their addiction. He has stated that he believes gaming addiction is not typically treated productively by therapists and hopes to provide better support.


title: Alok Kanojia

text: Kanojia started hosting group discussion sessions to talk about gaming and mental health and, finding that these were valuable to participants, began streaming on Twitch. He hosts live interviews mainly with other popular Twitch streamers where they discuss mental health issues. Guests of the show have included Reckful, Asmongold, Mizkif, xQc, and Pokimane. Kanojia also includes viewers who apply to be interviewed publicly on his livestreams. Some psychologists have raised concerns that, despite disclaimers stating that Kanojia's streams aren't therapy, they can still be perceived as such. Kanojia's streams are among the most popular mental health channels on Twitch due to his high-profile guests.


title: Alok Kanojia

text: Healthy Gamer, which received support through an incubator at Boston University, trains coaches who provide non-medical advice and support to the gaming community. The coaches go through 10 weeks of free training and are paid to host individual and group sessions for paying customers, through which they explore attendees' goals and motivations and may provide guidance on meditation. The guides are not licensed medical professionals, and Kanojia encourages participants to continue with other support from trained psychiatrists or therapists.


title: 2022–23 A.C. Milan season

text: The 2022–23 season is the 124th season in the existence of A.C. Milan and the club's 89th season in the top flight of Italian football. In addition to the domestic league, Milan are participating in this season's editions of the Coppa Italia, Supercoppa Italiana and UEFA Champions League.


title: Chokehold

text: A chokehold, choke, stranglehold or, in Judo, shime-waza () is a general term for a grappling hold that critically reduces or prevents either air (choking) or blood (strangling) from passing through the neck of an opponent. The restriction may be of one or both and depends on the hold used and the reaction of the victim. While the time it takes for the choke to render an opponent unconscious varies depending on the type of choke, the average across all has been recorded as 9 seconds.


title: Chokehold

text: The lack of blood or air often leads to unconsciousness or even death if the hold is maintained. Chokeholds are used in martial arts, combat sports, self-defense, law enforcement and in military hand to hand combat applications. They are considered superior to brute-force manual strangling, which generally requires a large disparity in physical strength to be effective. Rather than using the fingers or arms to attempt to crush the neck, chokeholds effectively use leverage such as figure-four holds or collar holds that use the clothes to assist in the constriction.


title: Chokehold

text: The terminology used varies; in most martial arts, the term "chokehold" or "choke" is used for all types of grappling holds that strangle. This can be misleading as most holds aim to strangle not choke with the exception of "air chokes" (choking means "to have severe difficulty in breathing because of a constricted or obstructed throat or a lack of air"). In Judo terminology, "blood chokes" are referred to as "strangleholds" or "strangles" while "air chokes" are called "chokeholds" or "chokes". In forensics, the terms "strangle" and "stranglehold" designate any type of neck compression, while in law-enforcement they are referred to as "neck holds".


title: Chokehold

text: An air choke (or tracheal choke) specifically refers to a "true" choke that compresses the upper airway (trachea, larynx or laryngopharynx), hence interfering with breathing and leading to asphyxia. Although less effective at inducing unconsciousness than its vascular counterpart, the air choke causes excruciating pain and air hunger, and in combat sports a fighter will usually yield to such a submission hold. Air chokes have been associated with fractures of the larynx or hyoid bone, and are considered less safe than blood chokes to practice.


title: Chokehold

text: Blood chokes (or carotid restraints / sleeper holds) are a form of strangulation that compress one or both carotid arteries and/or the jugular veins without compressing the airway, hence causing cerebral ischemia and a temporary hypoxic condition in the brain. A well-applied blood choke may lead to unconsciousness in 10–20 seconds. Injury or death is plausible if the arteries remain constricted for more than 20 seconds. Compared to strangulation with the hands, properly applied blood chokes require little physical strength.


title: Chokehold

text: Most chokeholds featured in combat sports and martial arts are blood chokes, although some air chokes or combinations occur as well. Blood chokes, especially the rear naked choke, triangle chokes, or gi chokes, are commonly used as submission holds in Brazilian jiu-jitsu. In judo, chokeholds, known as shime-waza, are often subject to restrictions based on age or rank. Chokeholds are not allowed in sport sambo but are allowed in combat sambo. The chokeholds used in catch wrestling and shoot wrestling are the inspiration for the "chokeholds" in modern professional wrestling performances. Due to the effectiveness of chokeholds and their popularity in a wide variety of martial arts, they are most often used to force submissions in mixed martial art and submission grappling competitions.


title: Chokehold

text: Some martial arts include instruction on , resuscitation techniques to heal a fighter choked to unconsciousness.


title: Chokehold

text: In law enforcement the goal is to force an uncooperative subject to submit without causing death or permanent injury. In this situation it is vital to distinguish between air and blood chokes. A hold that simultaneously blocks both the left and right carotid arteries results in cerebral ischemia and loss of consciousness within seconds. If properly applied, the hold produces almost immediate cessation of resistance. However to avoid injury the hold cannot be maintained more than a few seconds. When pressure on the carotids is released, the flow of oxygenated blood resumes immediately and consciousness slowly returns. In contrast, if the airway rather than the carotid arteries is blocked, the subject cannot breathe, but his brain is still perfused with blood and he will remain conscious and may continue to struggle for a minute or more; he will lose consciousness only when the oxygen in the circulating blood is consumed and he collapses from hypoxia. Even if the hold is released at this point, the blood circulating through the brain contains no oxygen, and consequently the subject may not regain consciousness or resume spontaneous breathing. Possibly the most important element of training for the use of chokeholds in law enforcement is the understanding that the subject should always be able to breathe freely. The operator uses his right arm to compress both sides of the subject's neck, assisted by the pressure of his left hand, while his elbow, sharply flexed and centered over the midline, places no pressure on the trachea.


title: Chokehold

text: Following a series of choking deaths, the Los Angeles Police Department banned chokeholds in 1980, and was soon followed by police departments nationwide. Choking suspects was widely banned by American police departments by the early 1990s, when New York City strengthened the force of an earlier ban on chokeholds. (It is also forensically known as a "carotid sleeper".)


title: Chokehold

text: One powerful way to grasp the arms together when doing front headlocks is the Gable grip. Named after wrestler Dan Gable, it involves clasping the hands together, palm to palm, at a ninety degree angle, with thumbs tucked in.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Willard Van Orman Quine (; known to his friends as "Van"; June 25, 1908 – December 25, 2000) was an American philosopher and logician in the analytic tradition, recognized as "one of the most influential philosophers of the twentieth century". From 1930 until his death 70 years later, Quine was continually affiliated with Harvard University in one way or another, first as a student, then as a professor. He filled the Edgar Pierce Chair of Philosophy at Harvard from 1956 to 1978.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Quine was a teacher of logic and set theory. Quine was famous for his position that first order logic is the only kind worthy of the name, and developed his own system of mathematics and set theory, known as New Foundations. In philosophy of mathematics, he and his Harvard colleague Hilary Putnam developed the Quine–Putnam indispensability argument, an argument for the reality of mathematical entities. However, he was the main proponent of the view that philosophy is not conceptual analysis, but continuous with science; the abstract branch of the empirical sciences. This led to his famous quip that "philosophy of science is philosophy enough". He led a "systematic attempt to understand science from within the resources of science itself" and developed an influential naturalized epistemology that tried to provide "an improved scientific explanation of how we have developed elaborate scientific theories on the basis of meager sensory input". He also advocated ontological relativity in science, known as the Duhem–Quine thesis.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: His major writings include the papers "On What There Is" (1948), which elucidated Bertrand Russell's theory of descriptions and contains Quine's famous dictum of ontological commitment, "To be is to be the value of a variable", and "Two Dogmas of Empiricism" (1951), which attacked the traditional analytic-synthetic distinction and reductionism, undermining the then-popular logical positivism, advocating instead a form of semantic holism. They also include the books "The Web of Belief", which advocates a kind of coherentism, and "Word and Object" (1960), which further developed these positions and introduced Quine's famous indeterminacy of translation thesis, advocating a behaviorist theory of meaning.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: A 2009 poll conducted among analytic philosophers named Quine as the fifth most important philosopher of the past two centuries. He won the first Schock Prize in Logic and Philosophy in 1993 for "his systematical and penetrating discussions of how learning of language and communication are based on socially available evidence and of the consequences of this for theories on knowledge and linguistic meaning". In 1996 he was awarded the Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy for his "outstanding contributions to the progress of philosophy in the 20th century by proposing numerous theories based on keen insights in logic, epistemology, philosophy of science and philosophy of language".


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Quine grew up in Akron, Ohio, where he lived with his parents and older brother Robert Cloyd. His father, Cloyd Robert, was a manufacturing entrepreneur (founder of the Akron Equipment Company, which produced tire molds) and his mother, Harriett E., was a schoolteacher and later a housewife. Quine was an atheist when he was a teenager.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Quine received his B.A. "summa cum laude" in mathematics from Oberlin College in 1930, and his Ph.D. in philosophy from Harvard University in 1932. His thesis supervisor was Alfred North Whitehead. He was then appointed a Harvard Junior Fellow, which excused him from having to teach for four years. During the academic year 1932–33, he travelled in Europe thanks to a Sheldon fellowship, meeting Polish logicians (including Stanislaw Lesniewski and Alfred Tarski) and members of the Vienna Circle (including Rudolf Carnap), as well as the logical positivist A. J. Ayer.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Quine arranged for Tarski to be invited to the September 1939 Unity of Science Congress in Cambridge, for which the Jewish Tarski sailed on the last ship to leave Danzig before Nazi Germany invaded Poland and triggered World War II. Tarski survived the war and worked another 44 years in the US. During the war, Quine lectured on logic in Brazil, in Portuguese, and served in the United States Navy in a military intelligence role, deciphering messages from German submarines, and reaching the rank of lieutenant commander. Quine could lecture in French, Spanish, Portuguese and German, as well as his native English.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Quine was politically conservative, but the bulk of his writing was in technical areas of philosophy removed from direct political issues. He did, however, write in defense of several conservative positions: for example, he wrote in defense of moral censorship; while, in his autobiography, he made some criticisms of American postwar academics.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: At Harvard, Quine helped supervise the Harvard graduate theses of, among others, David Lewis, Gilbert Harman, Dagfinn Føllesdal, Hao Wang, Hugues LeBlanc, Henry Hiz and George Myro. For the academic year 1964–1965, Quine was a fellow on the faculty in the Center for Advanced Studies at Wesleyan University. In 1980


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Quine's student Dagfinn Føllesdal noted that Quine began to lose his memory toward the end of his life. The deterioration of his short-term memory was so severe that he struggled to continue following arguments. Quine also had considerable difficulty in his project to make the desired revisions to "Word and Object". Before passing away, Quine noted to Morton White: "I do not remember what my illness is called, Althusser or Alzheimer, but since I cannot remember it, it must be Alzheimer." He died from the illness on Christmas Day in 2000.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Quine's Ph.D. thesis and early publications were on formal logic and set theory. Only after World War II did he, by virtue of seminal papers on ontology, epistemology and language, emerge as a major philosopher. By the 1960s, he had worked out his "naturalized epistemology" whose aim was to answer all substantive questions of knowledge and meaning using the methods and tools of the natural sciences. Quine roundly rejected the notion that there should be a "first philosophy", a theoretical standpoint somehow prior to natural science and capable of justifying it. These views are intrinsic to his naturalism.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Like the logical positivists, Quine evinced little interest in the philosophical canon: only once did he teach a course in the history of philosophy, on David Hume.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Over the course of his career, Quine published numerous technical and expository papers on formal logic, some of which are reprinted in his "Selected Logic Papers" and in "The Ways of Paradox". His most well-known collection of papers is "From A Logical Point of View". Quine confined logic to classical bivalent first-order logic, hence to truth and falsity under any (nonempty) universe of discourse. Hence the following were not logic for Quine:


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: "Mathematical Logic" is based on Quine's graduate teaching during the 1930s and 1940s. It shows that much of what "Principia Mathematica" took more than 1000 pages to say can be said in 250 pages. The proofs are concise, even cryptic. The last chapter, on Gödel's incompleteness theorem and Tarski's indefinability theorem, along with the article Quine (1946), became a launching point for Raymond Smullyan's later lucid exposition of these and related results.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Quine's work in logic gradually became dated in some respects. Techniques he did not teach and discuss include analytic tableaux, recursive functions, and model theory. His treatment of metalogic left something to be desired. For example, "Mathematical Logic" does not include any proofs of soundness and completeness. Early in his career, the notation of his writings on logic was often idiosyncratic. His later writings nearly always employed the now-dated notation of "Principia Mathematica". Set against all this are the simplicity of his preferred method (as exposited in his "Methods of Logic") for determining the satisfiability of quantified formulas, the richness of his philosophical and linguistic insights, and the fine prose in which he expressed them.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Most of Quine's original work in formal logic from 1960 onwards was on variants of his predicate functor logic, one of several ways that have been proposed for doing logic without quantifiers. For a comprehensive treatment of predicate functor logic and its history, see Quine (1976). For an introduction, see ch. 45 of his "Methods of Logic".


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Quine was very warm to the possibility that formal logic would eventually be applied outside of philosophy and mathematics. He wrote several papers on the sort of Boolean algebra employed in electrical engineering, and with Edward J. McCluskey, devised the Quine–McCluskey algorithm of reducing Boolean equations to a minimum covering sum of prime implicants.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: While his contributions to logic include elegant expositions and a number of technical results, it is in set theory that Quine was most innovative. He always maintained that mathematics required set theory and that set theory was quite distinct from logic. He flirted with Nelson Goodman's nominalism for a while but backed away when he failed to find a nominalist grounding of mathematics.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: All three set theories admit a universal class, but since they are free of any hierarchy of types, they have no need for a distinct universal class at each type level.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Quine's set theory and its background logic were driven by a desire to minimize posits; each innovation is pushed as far as it can be pushed before further innovations are introduced. For Quine, there is but one connective, the Sheffer stroke, and one quantifier, the universal quantifier. All polyadic predicates can be reduced to one dyadic predicate, interpretable as set membership. His rules of proof were limited to modus ponens and substitution. He preferred conjunction to either disjunction or the conditional, because conjunction has the least semantic ambiguity. He was delighted to discover early in his career that all of first order logic and set theory could be grounded in a mere two primitive notions: abstraction and inclusion. For an elegant introduction to the parsimony of Quine's approach to logic, see his "New Foundations for Mathematical Logic", ch. 5 in his "From a Logical Point of View".


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Quine has had numerous influences on contemporary metaphysics. He coined the term "abstract object". He also coined the term "Plato's beard" to refer to the problem of empty names.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: In the 1930s and 40s, discussions with Rudolf Carnap, Nelson Goodman and Alfred Tarski, among others, led Quine to doubt the tenability of the distinction between "analytic" statements—those true simply by the meanings of their words, such as "No bachelor is married"— and "synthetic" statements, those true or false by virtue of facts about the world, such as "There is a cat on the mat." This distinction was central to logical positivism. Although Quine is not normally associated with verificationism, some philosophers believe the tenet is not incompatible with his general philosophy of language, citing his Harvard colleague B. F. Skinner and his analysis of language in "Verbal Behavior".


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Like other analytic philosophers before him, Quine accepted the definition of "analytic" as "true in virtue of meaning alone". Unlike them, however, he concluded that ultimately the definition was circular. In other words, Quine accepted that analytic statements are those that are true by definition, then argued that the notion of truth by definition was unsatisfactory.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Quine's chief objection to analyticity is with the notion of cognitive synonymy (sameness of meaning). He argues that analytical sentences are typically divided into two kinds; sentences that are clearly logically true (e.g. "no unmarried man is married") and the more dubious ones; sentences like "no bachelor is married". Previously it was thought that if you can prove that there is synonymity between "unmarried man" and "bachelor", you have proved that both sentences are logically true and therefore self evident. Quine however gives several arguments for why this is not possible, for instance that "bachelor" in some contexts mean a bachelor of arts, not an unmarried man.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Colleague Hilary Putnam called Quine's indeterminacy of translation thesis "the most fascinating and the most discussed philosophical argument since Kant's Transcendental Deduction of the Categories". The central theses underlying it are ontological relativity and the related doctrine of confirmation holism. The premise of confirmation holism is that all theories (and the propositions derived from them) are under-determined by empirical data (data, sensory-data, evidence); although some theories are not justifiable, failing to fit with the data or being unworkably complex, there are many equally justifiable alternatives. While the Greeks' assumption that (unobservable) Homeric gods exist is false, and our supposition of (unobservable) electromagnetic waves is true, both are to be justified solely by their ability to explain our observations.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: The "gavagai" thought experiment tells about a linguist, who tries to find out, what the expression "gavagai" means, when uttered by a speaker of a yet unknown, native language upon seeing a rabbit. At first glance, it seems that "gavagai" simply translates with "rabbit". Now, Quine points out that the background language and its referring devices might fool the linguist here, because he is misled in a sense that he always makes direct comparisons between the foreign language and his own. However, when shouting "gavagai", and pointing at a rabbit, the natives could as well refer to something like "undetached rabbit-parts", or "rabbit-tropes" and it would not make any observable difference. The behavioural data the linguist could collect from the native speaker would be the same in every case, or to reword it, several translation hypotheses could be built on the same sensoric stimuli.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: As an empiricist I continue to think of the conceptual scheme of science as a tool, ultimately, for predicting future experience in the light of past experience. Physical objects are conceptually imported into the situation as convenient intermediaries not by definition in terms of experience, but simply as irreducible posits comparable, epistemologically, to the gods of Homer …. For my part I do, qua lay physicist, believe in physical objects and not in Homer's gods; and I consider it a scientific error to believe otherwise. But in point of epistemological footing, the physical objects and the gods differ only in degree and not in kind. Both sorts of entities enter our conceptions only as cultural posits.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Quine's ontological relativism (evident in the passage above) led him to agree with Pierre Duhem that for any collection of empirical evidence, there would always be many theories able to account for it, known as the Duhem–Quine thesis. However, Duhem's holism is much more restricted and limited than Quine's. For Duhem, underdetermination applies only to physics or possibly to natural science, while for Quine it applies to all of human knowledge. Thus, while it is possible to verify or falsify whole theories, it is not possible to verify or falsify individual statements. Almost any particular statement can be saved, given sufficiently radical modifications of the containing theory. For Quine, scientific thought forms a coherent web in which any part could be altered in the light of empirical evidence, and in which no empirical evidence could force the revision of a given part.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: The problem of non-referring names is an old puzzle in philosophy, which Quine captured when he wrote,


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: A curious thing about the ontological problem is its simplicity. It can be put into three Anglo-Saxon monosyllables: 'What is there?' It can be answered, moreover, in a word—'Everything'—and everyone will accept this answer as true.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: How can we talk about Pegasus? To what does the word 'Pegasus' refer? If our answer is, 'Something', then we seem to believe in mystical entities; if our answer is, 'nothing', then we seem to talk about nothing and what sense can be made of this? Certainly when we said that Pegasus was a mythological winged horse we make sense, and moreover we speak the truth! If we speak the truth, this must be truth "about something". So we cannot be speaking of nothing.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Quine resists the temptation to say that non-referring terms are meaningless for reasons made clear above. Instead he tells us that we must first determine whether our terms refer or not before we know the proper way to understand them. However, Czesław Lejewski criticizes this belief for reducing the matter to empirical discovery when it seems we should have a formal distinction between referring and non-referring terms or elements of our domain. Lejewski writes further:


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: This state of affairs does not seem to be very satisfactory. The idea that some of our rules of inference should depend on empirical information, which may not be forthcoming, is so foreign to the character of logical inquiry that a thorough re-examination of the two inferences [existential generalization and universal instantiation] may prove worth our while.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Lejewski then goes on to offer a description of free logic, which he claims accommodates an answer to the problem.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Lejewski also points out that free logic additionally can handle the problem of the empty set for statements like formula_1. Quine had considered the problem of the empty set unrealistic, which left Lejewski unsatisfied.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: The notion of ontological commitment plays a central role in Quine's contributions to ontology. A theory is ontologically committed to an entity if that entity must exist in order for the theory to be true. Quine proposed that the best way to determine this is by translating the theory in question into first-order predicate logic. Of special interest in this translation are the logical constants known as existential quantifiers ("), whose meaning corresponds to expressions like "there exists..." or "for some...". They are used to bind the variables in the expression following the quantifier. The ontological commitments of the theory then correspond to the variables bound by existential quantifiers. For example, the sentence "There are electrons" could be translated as "", in which the bound variable "x" ranges over electrons, resulting in an ontological commitment to electrons. This approach is summed up by Quine's famous dictum that "[t]o be is to be the value of a variable". Quine applied this method to various traditional disputes in ontology. For example, he reasoned from the sentence "There are prime numbers between 1000 and 1010" to an ontological commitment to the existence of numbers, i.e. realism about numbers. This method by itself is not sufficient for ontology since it depends on a theory in order to result in ontological commitments. Quine proposed that we should base our ontology on our best scientific theory. Various followers of Quine's method chose to apply it to different fields, for example to "everyday conceptions expressed in natural language".


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: In philosophy of mathematics, he and his Harvard colleague Hilary Putnam developed the Quine–Putnam indispensability thesis, an argument for the reality of mathematical entities.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: The justification for the first premise is the most controversial. Both Putnam and Quine invoke naturalism to justify the exclusion of all non-scientific entities, and hence to defend the "only" part of "all and only". The assertion that "all" entities postulated in scientific theories, including numbers, should be accepted as real is justified by confirmation holism. Since theories are not confirmed in a piecemeal fashion, but as a whole, there is no justification for excluding any of the entities referred to in well-confirmed theories. This puts the nominalist who wishes to exclude the existence of sets and non-Euclidean geometry, but to include the existence of quarks and other undetectable entities of physics, for example, in a difficult position.


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Just as he challenged the dominant analytic–synthetic distinction, Quine also took aim at traditional normative epistemology. According to Quine, traditional epistemology tried to justify the sciences, but this effort (as exemplified by Rudolf Carnap) failed, and so we should replace traditional epistemology with an empirical study of what sensory inputs produce what theoretical outputs: "Epistemology, or something like it, simply falls into place as a chapter of psychology and hence of natural science. It studies a natural phenomenon, viz., a physical human subject. This human subject is accorded a certain experimentally controlled input—certain patterns of irradiation in assorted frequencies, for instance—and in the fullness of time the subject delivers as output a description of the three-dimensional external world and its history. The relation between the meager input and the torrential output is a relation that we are prompted to study for somewhat the same reasons that always prompted epistemology: namely, in order to see how evidence relates to theory, and in what ways one's theory of nature transcends any available evidence... But a conspicuous difference between old epistemology and the epistemological enterprise in this new psychological setting is that we can now make free use of empirical psychology." (Quine, 1969: 82–83)


title: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: Quine's proposal is controversial among contemporary philosophers and has several critics, with Jaegwon Kim the most prominent among them.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: Sad clown paradox is the contradictory association between comedy and mental disorders such as depression and anxiety. These comedic performers are characterised by feelings of deprivation and isolation in their early lives, where comedy evolves as a release for tension, removing feelings of suppressed physical rage through a verbal outlet.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: A series of psychological experiments first published in 1981 by psychologist Seymour Fisher indicated certain behavioural traits exclusive to comedians and not matched in regular actors. Later work conducted by Kaufman and Kozbelt re-interpreted these results, drawing the understanding that whilst comedy serves as a coping mechanism to hide trauma, it may also motivate a comedian to use humour as a way of forming relations and gaining acceptance.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: Humour has been shown to develop from a young age, fostered by parental behaviour. A parent's immature nature can lead to additional responsibilities forced onto children, which can evoke issues of self-worth and a need for acceptance. The constant search for approval may cause mental health issues such as anxiety or depression and when untreated can lead to suicide in extreme situations. Laughter can evolve as a medium for self-preservation, detaching the individual from any adversity faced allowing for perceived control over uncomfortable situations.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: Sad clown paradox is characterised by a cyclothymic temperament, which encourages the creation of light-hearted humour in a professional setting, despite inner turmoil. The use of humour as a form of self-medication provides short periods of satisfaction, repeatedly needing to deal with inner turmoil. There is an ever present anxiety amongst comedians that their popularity may disappear tomorrow and hence are driven to exhaustion in their work.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: Comedic performers frequently show humorous tendencies early in life, often identified as the 'class clown' throughout school. Comics recalled mocking the strict nature of school, taking great pleasure in the laughter from their peers. Tommy Smothers commented that during his schooling experiences;"I got a big kick out of them laughing, but I didn’t know what it was that made them laugh, but I knew I could make people laugh." Johnny Carson also emphasised the role of school in a comedian’s life stating that:


title: Sad clown paradox

text: Despite comedians often being of high intelligence, the school environment was detested and frequently avoided. Comics explained that their teachers lacked understanding and acceptance, identifying their mannerisms as a form of personal exclusion. Woody Allen commented that school "was boring, frightening. The whole thing was ugly. I never had the answers. I never did the homework." Even though a school’s orientation to order and discipline conflicts with the nature of a comic, it can serve as an initial arena for an individual to realise their ability to produce laughter. This discovery creates mixed feelings as frequently the laughter can be directed at themselves with undertones of ridicule or mockery. Regardless of the unpleasantness involved, comics are attracted to the ability of 'making' someone laugh and the power it holds.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: The talent for creating humour directs the individual towards a career in the entertainment industry. It was found that comedians did not directly enter the industry as comics; rather, a large proportion began through some form of musical performance. Fisher believed this trend among comedians to have a musical background was derived from their pursuit of creating a more cheerful, welcoming world for the audience.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: Relationships formed with family members are key in adolescent development, particularly for future satisfaction with life. Studies have shown that comedic performers tend to be raised in distant, somewhat disjointed family settings, characterised by family animosity. Prasinos and Tittler interpreted that this 'family distance' caused individuals to identify as victims of neglect and hence associate as an alienated group. Sad clown paradox can evolve from these incohesive environments from a young age, where a child desires social contact, using humour to obtain intimacy and somewhat relate to others from a distance. Norman Lear commented on his painful childhood due to the constant conflict from his parents stating that; "the only defence against that was to laugh at it, find out what was funny in it."


title: Sad clown paradox

text: A study conducted by Fisher found humour-orientated individuals likely to identify their mothers as demanding, unsympathetic and distant. They were seen as avoiding the nurturant role, commonly falling on the father to fulfil this role for the family. An inkblot test for parents of comedians revealed their tendency toward a childlike view of the world, describing protocols with juvenile imagery. Fisher concluded that these views were linked with a parent's reluctance towards responsibilities, associated with a general tone that "happiness prevails.” Parents of comics were found to avoid solemn ideas, identifying negative images in Rorschach tests and then denying their negative elements, such as: "this is a wolf. I thought it was ferocious. But I heard that it is not." This childlike view of the world and rejection of family obligations can cause comedians to embody a greater sense of responsibility and a feeling of obligation to protect others, a compensation for their parents’ unconscious rejection of adult responsibilities. This burden of responsibilities has been shown to evoke issues regarding self-worth that foster the development of the sad clown paradox.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: It has also been suggested that humour may serve as an attempt to relate to people from a distance, evoked by a childhood desire for social contact. Typically humour is described as an emotional and cognitive state and its absence has been found to cause depression and anxiety.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: Comedians have been found to recognize the importance of a competent caregiver, and are often worried about being inadequate parents or caregivers themselves. A study conducted by Samuel Janus revealed that the sampled comedic performers were more prone to wanting larger families. This was associated with a comic's need to provide and form connections that can be fulfilled in a family setting.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: The early lives of comedians are characterised by suffering, isolation and feelings of deprivation, where humour is used as an outlet or defence against experienced anxiety. German philosopher Nietzsche once described it as; "man alone suffers so excruciatingly in the world that he was compelled to invent laughter." The inability to exhibit direct aggression results in expression through the socially acceptable manner of humour.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: Humour provides the ability to assert control and invincibility in a situation. An example is the British comedian Spike Milligan, who suffered from a long cycle of manic-depressive states that were onset by severe mental breakdowns. Milligan was capable of creating light-hearted humour and outrageous ideas, despite his manic state. Finding laughter served as motivation to remedy a depressed mental state and effectively function as self-medication. This process has been described as a safeguard against the formation of hopelessness and subsequent depression. Additionally, affiliative and self-enhancing humour can be used to predict symptoms of depression, with higher levels shown to correlate with lower levels of depression.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: Recounts from psychiatric treatments revealed some patients to be overwhelmed by negative aspects of their life. However, when these issues were confronted the psychiatrist was met with laughter, followed by the patient dismissing the severity of the issue. The laughter can hide feelings of frustration, disappointment, grief, remorse or even joy in an effort to defend against adversity and allow for self preservation.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: The use of inkblot imaging reveals certain characteristics and worries of comedic performers that are not matched in regular actors. Fisher identified four key trends that were common for comedians' Rorschach Tests;


title: Sad clown paradox

text: Fisher suggested that these traits are directly linked to the comics perception of self, believing a need to convince others of their value. Comedians were commonly shown to not hold themselves in high regard, providing more self-depreciating remarks than regular actors in a controlled context. These feelings of unworthiness are defended against in the comic's mind by their role in society of helping people and providing laughter. This intent to help people is only momentarily satisfied by audience recognition and approval.This is contrasted against regular actors who were seen to find validation in identifying with figures and concepts larger than themselves.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: A study conducted by Janus found comedians worked to exhaustion to ensure they remained relevant and funny. He found that from his sample of comedic performers, eighty percent have been involved in psychotherapy and feared its effect on their ability for humour. Comedians were shown to be critical towards the motives of others and feared the longevity of their popularity as celebrities. Most participants from Janus’ study revealed an inescapable sense of depression which they faced alongside their work. The manner in which comedy momentarily alleviates their depression and anxiety allows them to function. However, comedians function for short periods of time, constantly requiring admiration and acknowledgement for their work.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: Comedians have also been shown to display high levels of psychotic personality traits, scoring high in introvertive anhedonia and impulsive non-conformity. The instability between depressive traits and more extroverted, manic states is traditionally described as cyclothymic temperament. British comedian Stephen Fry confessed to the common mental state he experiences when performing; "there are times when I'm doing QI and I'm going 'ha ha, yeah, yeah', and inside I'm going 'I want to fucking die. I... want... to... fucking... die.'"


title: Sad clown paradox

text: Fry's comments indicate the idea of manic defence, where opposite emotions are used to distract and cope with uncomfortable feelings.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: The sad clown paradox can be seen embodied in a performer's performance on stage, such as their characterisation or jokes.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: A joke dating from at least the 19th century exemplifies the sad clown paradox. The joke involves a doctor recommending his depressed patient to visit a great clown in town (typically named "Pagliacci"), but it turns out that the patient is actually the clown out of costume.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: One of the first forms of the joke can be seen in the Spanish poem 'Reír Llorando' "(Laughing While Crying)" by the late 19th century Mexican poet Juan de Dios Peza. The poem tells of an English actor called 'Garrick' that a doctor recommends to his patient as the only cure for his loss of interest in life, whereupon the patient reveals that he indeed is Garrick. It has been suggested that this Garrick was the entertainer Joseph Grimaldi. The joke also appears in the closing lines of Ralph Waldo Emerson's essay, "The Comic," collected in "Letters and Social Aims" (1875); Emerson's comedian is named Carlini.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: The poem was then seen as a story in the 1910s, again, with the performer called 'Grimaldi', and again from the 1930s, featuring a clown called 'Grock', suggested as being the Swiss clown Charles Adrien Wettach.


title: Sad clown paradox

text: The 1987 graphic novel "Watchmen" includes the character of Rorschach telling the story and naming the clown as Pagliacci.


title: Argument from ignorance

text: Argument from ignorance (from ), also known as appeal to ignorance (in which "ignorance" represents "a lack of contrary evidence"), is a fallacy in informal logic. It asserts that a proposition is true because it has not yet been proven false or a proposition is false because it has not yet been proven true. This represents a type of false dichotomy in that it excludes the possibility that there may have been an insufficient investigation to prove that the proposition is either true or false. It also does not allow for the possibility that the answer is unknowable, only knowable in the future, or neither completely true nor completely false. In debates, appealing to ignorance is sometimes an attempt to shift the burden of proof. The term was likely coined by philosopher John Locke in the late 17th century.


title: Argument from ignorance

text: Contraposition is a logically valid rule of inference that allows the creation of a new proposition from the negation and reordering of an existing one. The method applies to any proposition of the type "If A then B" and says that negating all the variables and switching them back to front leads to a new proposition i.e. "If Not-B then Not-A" that is just as true as the original one and that the first implies the second and the second implies the first.


title: Argument from ignorance

text: "Null result" is a term often used in science to indicate "evidence of absence". A search for water on the ground may yield a null result (the ground is dry); therefore, it probably did not rain.


title: Argument from ignorance

text: In practice these arguments are often unsound and rely on the truth of the supporting premise. For example, the claim that "If I had just sat on a wild porcupine then I would know it" is probably not fallacious and depends entirely on the truth of the first premise (the ability to know it).


title: The Hudson Brothers

text: The Hudson Brothers were an American musical group formed in Portland, Oregon, consisting of brothers Bill Hudson, Brett Hudson and Mark Hudson. They were discovered by a record producer while recording music at a local studio, and offered a recording contract. After releasing several garage rock singles in the late 1960s as The New Yorkers, the group began releasing material under the names Everyday Hudson, and Hudson.


title: The Hudson Brothers

text: They garnered fame as teen idols in the 1970s after their primetime series debuted as a Summer replacement for The "Sonny & Cher" Comedy Hour in 1974. The resulting popularity led to their Saturday-morning half-hour sketch comedy series for CBS, "The Hudson Brothers Razzle Dazzle Show", which ran from 1974 to 1975. They also released numerous hit singles during this time for producer Bernie Taupin, including "So You Are a Star" (1974), "Rendezvous" (1975), "Lonely School Year" (1975), and "Help Wanted" (1976).


title: The Hudson Brothers

text: The Hudson Brothers had their beginnings as a trio composed of teenage brothers Bill, Mark and Brett Hudson in the early 1960s. The three brothers had been raised in Portland, Oregon, by their Italian American mother who was also a singer and encouraged the boys to play music. Early on, the three brothers had formed a band known as the My Sirs.


title: The Hudson Brothers

text: After winning several local "battle of the bands"-type contest, the group recorded several songs at a local recording studio, where they received the attention of a local promoter, who offered them a contract promoting Chrysler automobiles. They were subsequently renamed The New Yorkers, after the Chrysler model of the same name. In early 1967, their song "Things Are Changin'" was issued on a promotional-only 45 for the Chrysler 1867 Go Show (b/w a song by another group, the Fury 4), after which they signed with Scepter. Their first Scepter 45 was issued in the spring of 1967, "When I'm Gone" b/w "You're Not My Girl" (SCE-12190) on Scepter Records, which became a radio hit in the Pacific Northwest. This was followed in August 1967 with the single "Seeds of Spring" b/w "Mr. Kirby" (SCE-12199). The B-side was favored by DJs and became a top 10 hit in the Portland area and did well in other regional markets but did not chart nationally. Their final Scepter 45 was "Show Me the Way to Love" b/w "Again" (SCE-12207) in autumn, 1967. To support the singles, the group toured with several popular music acts, such as Buffalo Springfield, The Supremes, Johnny Nash, and The Buckinghams. By October 1968, "The New Yorkers" had switched to Jerry Dennon's Pacific Northwest label Jerden Records and issued "Adrianne" (#906), following that up with "Land of Ur" (#908) in March 1969. Later in 1969 The New Yorkers also recorded the Harry Nilsson song "I Guess the Lord Must Be in New York City" (#32569) for Decca Records. The Scepter and Jerden recordings, excluding "You're Not My Girl" but including the previously unissued "Lazy Meadow," were included on the 1978 "cash-in" album, "TV's The Hudson Brothers," issued on the First American label. (The "New Yorkers" which recorded "Lonely" for Warner Bros. is not the same group.)