title: KaBlam!

text: Shorts from "KaBlam!" have appeared at the beginning of theatrical releases. An episode of "Action League Now!" titled "Rock-A-Big Baby" was shown before the Nickelodeon film "Good Burger". "Angela Anaconda" appeared before "".


title: KaBlam!

text: A television special called "The Henry & June Show" was produced and aired on Nickelodeon in 1999. The first segment, "A Show of Their Own" aired, featured Henry and June with a studio audience and musical guests. The next segment was "Be True to Your School", where Henry and June attend school, and try their best to tackle hard subjects like "How to Look Your Best". It was never shown again after it premiered.


title: KaBlam!

text: During the promos, Henry's hair looked slightly different in some shots, along with it being a different shade of green. June's cardigan was cherry-red instead of light red/dark orange, and the dots weren't visible. Also, their eyes were blue and green in every shot, instead of being black or blue (or green) and black.


title: KaBlam!

text: KaBlam! first premiered on October 11, 1996 and ran for four seasons, totaling 48 episodes. The final episode was broadcast on May 27, 2000. Reruns continued to air on Nickelodeon until 2001.


title: KaBlam!

text: In 2002, Nicktoons was launched, and the channel began airing reruns of the program, though not all episodes were aired. During commercial breaks, various shorts from the show would play, not including any shorts involving Henry and June or music videos. In September 2005, Nicktoons revamped its branding and schedule, and removed several older series in the process, including "KaBlam!". The "KaBlam! Presents:" shorts would continue to air until 2008 when the channel removed all of their intersitial programming for more commercial space. The program would only be seen one more time in December 2007 for Nicktoons Network's "100 Greatest Nicktoon Episodes" marathon, although it was not shown when Nick had a marathon of the first episodes of each Nicktoon on Thanksgiving Day 2007, despite having Henry and June on the cover of the now-defunct "Nickelodeon Magazine".


title: KaBlam!

text: KaBlam! was not seen on American television again until October 8–9, 2016, when Nickelodeon's 1990s-oriented block on TeenNick spotlighted the show and other classic Nicktoons for the brand's 25th anniversary.


title: KaBlam!

text: Internationally, a French-language dub has been broadcast in France on television channel Game One (see Télévision Par Satellite), and other dubs of the show are on other Nickelodeon channels around Europe. It also was shown in the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2000. In Poland, it aired from 1999 to 2001 on Fantastic. The show was aired in Estonia as well. The show is aired on YTV in Canada.


title: KaBlam!

text: The show has only one episode "Won’t Crack or Peel" (3D broadcast version) that was ever released on VHS, as part of a promotion with Tombstone Pizza. There is no DVD release. Additionally, the show would not be included on a streaming service until VRV added "KaBlam!" on August 28, 2018. As of June 2021, select episodes of "KaBlam!" have been made available to stream on Paramount+. and on Amazon Prime Video through a Paramount+ subscription.


title: D battery

text: A D battery (D cell or IEC R20) is a standardized size of a dry cell. A D cell is cylindrical with an electrical contact at each end; the positive end has a nub or bump. D cells are typically used in high current drain applications, such as in large flashlights, radio receivers, and transmitters, and other devices that require an extended running time. A D cell may be either rechargeable or non-rechargeable. Its terminal voltage and capacity depend upon its cell chemistry.


title: D battery

text: The National Carbon Company introduced the first D cell in 1898. Before smaller cells became more common, D cells were widely known as "flashlight batteries." The U.S. military designation for this battery has been BA-30 since sometime before World War II. During World War II, it was designated the Type C battery by the U.S. Navy, leading to confusion with the smaller C cell battery (BA-42).


title: D battery

text: In 2007, D batteries accounted for 8% of alkaline primary battery sales (numerically) in the US. In 2008, Swiss purchases of D batteries amounted to 3.4% of primary and 1.4% of secondary (rechargeable) sales.


title: D battery

text: A battery's capacity depends upon its cell chemistry and current draw. Duracell brand rates its alkaline D cell performance as approximately 20,000 mAh at 25 mA draw, but about 10,000 mAh at 500 mA draw. This effect is generally less pronounced in cells with NiMH chemistry and hardly at all with NiCd. Many commonly available size D rechargeable cells are actually sub-C cells in a D-sized holder.


title: Jeremy Grantham

text: Robert Jeremy Goltho Grantham (born 6 October 1938) is a British investor and co-founder and chief investment strategist of Grantham, Mayo, & van Otterloo (GMO), a Boston-based asset management firm. GMO had more than US$118 billion in assets under management as of March 2015. GMO has seen this number halve to US$65 billion in assets under management as of Dec 2020. He has been a vocal critic of various governmental responses to the Global Financial Crisis from 2007 to 2010. Grantham started one of the world's first index funds in the early 1970s.


title: Jeremy Grantham

text: Grantham was born in Ware, Hertfordshire and grew up in Doncaster. He studied Economics at the University of Sheffield. In 1966, he completed an MBA at Harvard Business School.


title: Jeremy Grantham

text: Grantham's investment philosophy can be summarised by his commonly used phrase "reversion to the mean." Essentially, he believes that all asset classes and markets will revert to mean historical levels from highs and lows. His firm seeks to understand historical changes in markets and predict results for seven years into the future. When there is deviation from historical means (averages), the firm may take an investment position based on anticipated return to the mean. The firm allocates assets based on internal predictions of market direction.


title: Jeremy Grantham

text: In 1971, Grantham helped established one of the earliest index funds at Batterymarch Financial Management. The idea was unusual at the time and the fund was not a success.


title: Jeremy Grantham

text: Grantham built much of his investing reputation over the course of his career by identifying speculative asset bubbles as they were unfolding. Grantham avoided investing in Japanese equities and real estate in the late 1980s during the peak of the Japanese asset price bubble, and avoided technology stocks during the Internet bubble of the 1990s. A decade later, he limited his exposure to the housing bubble. Writing in "Kiplinger" in 2010, Elizabeth Leary noted that many of Grantham's predictions can be confirmed by analysis of his past newsletters. In a 2021 interview, Grantham distinguishes between identifying overpriced asset bubbles (which he believes is not particularly difficult), and predicting when such bubbles will collapse (which he admits is impossible, stating only that asset bubbles will eventually end at an uncertain future date). Grantham also acknowledges his strategy can underperform market averages for years, testing the patience of his clients, but he asserts that his strategy has always paid off long-term by avoiding overvalued assets.


title: Jeremy Grantham

text: In GMO's April 2010 Quarterly Letter Grantham spoke to the tendency for all bubbles to revert to the mean saying:


title: Jeremy Grantham

text: In his Fall 2008 GMO letter, Grantham commented on his evaluation of the underlying causes of the then-ongoing world credit crisis:


title: Jeremy Grantham

text: Grantham focused on the issue of personal traits and leadership in trying to explain how we reached the current economic crisis.


title: Jeremy Grantham

text: Grantham has repeatedly stated his opinion that the rising cost of energy – the most fundamental commodity – between 2002 and 2008 has falsely inflated economic growth and GDP figures worldwide and that we have been in a "carbon bubble" for approximately the last 250 years in which energy was very cheap. He believes that this bubble is coming to an end. He has stated his opposition to the Keystone Pipeline on the basis of the ruinous environmental consequences that its construction will bring to Alberta and to the entire planet due to the contribution that burning the extracted oil would make to climate change.


title: Jeremy Grantham

text: Grantham is known to be a strong advocate for investments in the timber industry that also relies on trees for biomass/biofuel (wood chips). The potential conflict of interest with Grantham's philanthropic engagement for the "beyond coal" campaign of the Sierra Club was criticized in Jeff Gibbs' documentary Planet of the Humans.


title: Jeremy Grantham

text: Grantham, together with his wife Hannelore, established the Grantham Foundation For the Protection of the Environment in 1997. Substantial commitments have been made to Imperial College London, the London School of Economics and the University of Sheffield, to establish the Grantham Institute - Climate Change and Environment, the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment and the Grantham Centre for Sustainable Futures, respectively, which will enable the institutions to build on their extensive expertise in climate change research. The 2011 tax filing for the Grantham Foundation for the Protection of the Environment shows the Foundation donated $1 million to both the Sierra Club and to Nature Conservancy, and $2 million to the Environmental Defense Fund that year. The Foundation has also provided support to Greenpeace, the WWF, Rare and the Smithsonian. From 2006 to 2012, The Grantham Foundation for Protection of the Environment funded a $75,000 prize for environmental reporting. The prize was administered by the University of Rhode Island's Metcalf Institute for Marine & Environmental Reporting.


title: Jeremy Grantham

text: In August 2019, he dedicated 98% (approximately $1 billion) of his personal wealth to fight climate change. Grantham believes that investing in green technologies, is a profitable investment in the long run, claiming that decarbonizing the economy will be an investing bonanza for those who know it’s coming.


title: Jeremy Grantham

text: Grantham was elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. With his wife, Hannelore, he received the Carnegie Medal for Philanthropy.


title: Jeremy Grantham

text: He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2016 Birthday Honours for philanthropic service to climate change research.


title: Spermidine

text: Spermidine is a polyamine compound () found in ribosomes and living tissues and having various metabolic functions within organisms. It was originally isolated from semen.


title: Spermidine

text: Spermidine is an aliphatic polyamine. Spermidine synthase (SPDS) catalyzes its formation from putrescine. It is a precursor to other polyamines, such as spermine and its structural isomer thermospermine.


title: Spermidine

text: Spermidine synchronizes an array of biological processes, (such as Ca, Na, K -ATPase) thus maintaining membrane potential and controlling intracellular pH and volume. Spermidine regulates biological processes, such as Ca influx by glutamatergic N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDA receptor), which has been associated with nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and cGMP/PKG pathway activation and a decrease of Na,K-ATPase activity in cerebral cortex synaptosomes.


title: Spermidine

text: Spermidine is a longevity agent in mammals due to various mechanisms of action, which are just beginning to be understood. Autophagy is the main mechanism at the molecular level, but evidence has been found for other mechanisms, including inflammation reduction, lipid metabolism, and regulation of cell growth, proliferation, and death.


title: Spermidine

text: Spermidine is known to regulate plant growth, assisting the "in vitro" process of transcribing RNA, and inhibition of NOS. Also, spermidine is a precursor to other polyamines, such as spermine and thermospermine, some of which contribute to tolerance against drought and salinity in plants.


title: Spermidine

text: Spermidine has been tested and discovered to encourage hair shaft elongation and lengthen hair growth. Spermidine has also been found to “upregulate expression of the epithelial stem cell-associated keratins K15 and K19, and dose-dependently modulated K15 promoter activity "in situ" and the colony forming efficiency, proliferation and K15 expression of isolated human K15-GFP+ cells "in vitro".”


title: Spermidine

text: Good dietary sources of spermidine are aged cheese, mushrooms, soy products, legumes, corn, and whole grains. Spermidine is plentiful in a Mediterranean diet.


title: Spermidine

text: For comparison: The spermidine content in human seminal plasma varies between approx. 15 and 50 mg/L (mean 31 mg/L).


title: Spermidine

text: In grains, the endosperm contains most of the spermidine. One of the best known grain dietary sources is wheat germ, containing as much as 243 mg/kg.


title: Old Dominion (band)

text: Old Dominion is an American country music band formed in Nashville, Tennessee. The band consists of Matthew Ramsey (lead vocals), Trevor Rosen (guitar, keyboards), Whit Sellers (drums), Geoff Sprung (bass guitar), and Brad Tursi (guitar). Their music is contemporary country with rock instrumentation, and has pop overtones.


title: Old Dominion (band)

text: The band has released four full-length albums and three EPs. They released their self-titled EP in 2014, followed in the next year by their debut studio album, "Meat and Candy" on RCA Records Nashville, which includes the singles "Break Up with Him", "Snapback", and "Song for Another Time". Their second album "Happy Endings" was released in 2017, which includes the singles "No Such Thing as a Broken Heart", "Written in the Sand", and "Hotel Key". The third album "Old Dominion" was released in 2019, with the singles "Make It Sweet" and "One Man Band" both successful on the chart. This is followed by "Time, Tequila & Therapy", which was released in 2021.


title: Old Dominion (band)

text: In addition to their own material, Ramsey, Rosen, and Tursi have written several hit singles for other contemporary country music artists.


title: Old Dominion (band)

text: The band members of Old Dominion are lead singer Matthew Ramsey, Trevor Rosen on guitar and keyboard, Whit Sellers on drums, Geoff Sprung on bass, and Brad Tursi on guitar. The band was named Old Dominion in 2007. "Old Dominion" was chosen because it is a nickname for the state of Virginia, and four members of the group have links to Virginia.


title: Old Dominion (band)

text: Ramsey and Sellers are both originally from the Roanoke Region of Virginia, and played on drumlines for their respective, rival high schools, James River High School and Lord Botetourt High School. After high school, Ramsey went to Virginia Commonwealth University and moved to Nashville after graduation to become a songwriter. He was introduced to Rosen in 2003 and formed a songwriting partnership for some years while working as a solo artist. Sellers went to James Madison University in Virginia where he met Sprung and Tursi. Sellers and Sprung also ended up in Nashville where they joined force with Ramsey and formed Old Dominion. Tursi was once a member of the Washington, D.C. rock band Army of Me; he joined Old Dominion in 2012. Rosen is the only band member who did not have a connection to Virginia; he was born and raised in Michigan, and gradually met the other eventual bandmates in Nashville.


title: Old Dominion (band)

text: The band was initially formed to showcase the songs that its individual band members had written. Members of the band have writing credits on many songs recorded by other artists: Brad Tursi has written Luke Bryan's "Light It Up", Cole Swindell's "Remember Boys" and "Up" as well as Tyler Farr's "A Guy Walks Into a Bar" in addition to songs for Kenny Chesney, the Randy Rogers Band, Michael Ray, Josh Turner, Ryan Hurd, and for the ABC musical drama "Nashville". Matthew Ramsey co-wrote "Chainsaw" for The Band Perry, Trevor Rosen co-wrote Kelsea Ballerini's "I Hate Love Songs", Blake Shelton's "Sangria", William Michael Morgan's "I Met A Girl", Chris Young's "Neon" and The Band Perry's "Better Dig Two", Two songs written for the band by Ramsey and Rosen, "Wake Up Lovin' You" and "Say You Do", were covered by Craig Morgan and Dierks Bentley respectively and became hits. The success of these songs led to the band self-releasing the extended play "It Was Always Yours" in 2012.


title: Old Dominion (band)

text: Their song "Dirt on a Road" was their first song as a band that received significant airplay, and their single "Shut Me Up" further gained them some attention. The band had opened for Alabama, Jake Owen and Chase Rice.


title: Old Dominion (band)

text: On October 7, 2014, they released their self-titled EP, produced by Shane McAnally. The EP debuted on the Top Country Albums chart at No. 33 with 1,000 copies sold. The lead single from the EP was "Shut Me Up", the music video features American country music singer and songwriter Whitney Duncan. A song from the EP "Break Up with Him" first received exposure on the satellite Sirius XM Radio's "The Highway" channel in late 2014 which boosted its popularity, and the song was then released as the second single to radio on January 20, 2015.


title: Old Dominion (band)

text: They signed a record deal with RCA Nashville in late February 2015. The band also opened for Kenny Chesney in his Big Revival Tour. In September, they announced that their debut studio album, titled "Meat and Candy", would be released on November 6, 2015. Shortly before the album's release, "Break Up with Him" reached No. 1 on Country Airplay. The album's second single, "Snapback" released to country radio on January 11, 2016. It reached at number 2 on the Country Airplay in June 2016. The album's third single, "Song for Another Time" released to country radio on June 20, 2016.


title: Old Dominion (band)

text: On March 10, 2017, Old Dominion released "No Such Thing as a Broken Heart", the lead single to their second RCA album, which went to number one on the Country Airplay Charts. The album's name, "Happy Endings", was announced in June, and the album was released on August 25, 2017. "Written in the Sand" was the album's second single, and "Hotel Key" its third.


title: Old Dominion (band)

text: The band released "Make It Sweet" in November 2018. Make It Sweet is also the name of the corresponding tour, the band's first as a headliner. Acts joining them on this tour include Morgan Evans, Jordan Davis, and Mitchell Tenpenny. Both "Make It Sweet" and "One Man Band" appear on the band's third album, "Old Dominion", released in October 2019, with the latter becoming their highest-peaking Billboard Hot 100 hit to date. However, the album's third single "Some People Do" became their first single since their commercial breakthrough to fail to chart the Billboard Hot 100, as well as their first single to peak outside the top twenty of Billboard's Country Airplay chart.


title: Old Dominion (band)

text: The fourth album, "Time, Tequila & Therapy", was released on October 8, 2021. It was led off by the single "I Was on a Boat That Day". For the second single, the band switched to Arista Nashville, also an imprint of Sony Nashville.


title: Senate

text: A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: "Senatus"), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: "senex" meaning "the elder" or "old man") and therefore considered wiser and more experienced members of the society or ruling class. However the Roman Senate was not the ancestor or predecessor of modern parliamentarism in any sense, because the Roman senate was not a legislative body.


title: Senate

text: Many countries have an assembly named a "senate", composed of "senators" who may be elected, appointed, have inherited the title, or gained membership by other methods, depending on the country. Modern senates typically serve to provide a chamber of "sober second thought" to consider legislation passed by a lower house, whose members are usually elected. Most senates have asymmetrical duties and powers compared with their respective lower house meaning they have special duties, for example to fill important political positions or to pass special laws. Conversely many senates have limited powers in changing or stopping bills under consideration and efforts to stall or veto a bill may be bypassed by the lower house or another branch of government.


title: Senate

text: The modern word "Senate" is derived from the Latin word "senātus" (senate), which comes from "senex", 'old man'. The members or legislators of a senate are called senators. The Latin word "senator" was adopted into English with no change in spelling. Its meaning is derived from a very ancient form of social organization, in which advisory or decision-making powers are reserved for the eldest men. For the same reason, the word "senate" is correctly used when referring to any powerful authority characteristically composed by the eldest members of a community, as a deliberative body of a faculty in an institution of higher learning is often called a senate. This form of adaptation was used to show the power of those in body and for the decision-making process to be thorough, which could take a long period of time. The original senate was the Roman Senate, which lasted until at least AD 603, although various efforts to revive it were made in Medieval Rome. In the Eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine Senate continued until the Fourth Crusade, circa 1202–1204.


title: Senate

text: Modern democratic states with bicameral parliamentary systems are sometimes equipped with a senate, often distinguished from an ordinary parallel lower house, known variously as the "House of Representatives", "House of Commons", "Chamber of Deputies", "National Assembly", "Legislative Assembly", or "House of Assembly", by electoral rules. This may include minimum age required for voters and candidates, one house employing a proportional voting system and the other being elected on a majoritarian or plurality basis, and an electoral basis or "collegium". Typically, the senate is referred to as the upper house and has a smaller membership than the lower house. In some federal states senates also exist at the subnational level. In the United States, every state has a senate, with the exception of Nebraska (whose legislature is a unicameral body called the "Legislature" but whose members refer to themselves as "senators"). There is also the US Senate at the federal level. Similarly in Argentina, in addition to the Senate at federal level, eight of the country's provinces, Buenos Aires, Catamarca, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Mendoza, Salta, San Luis (since 1987) and Santa Fe, have bicameral legislatures with a Senate. Córdoba and Tucumán changed to unicameral systems in 2001 and 2003 respectively.


title: Senate

text: In Australia and Canada, only the upper house of the federal parliament is known as the Senate. All Australian states other than Queensland have an upper house known as a Legislative council. Several Canadian provinces also once had a Legislative Council, but these have all been abolished, the last being Quebec's Legislative council in 1968.


title: Senate

text: Senate membership can be determined either through elections or appointments. For example, elections are held every three years for half the membership of the Senate of the Philippines, the term of a senator being six years. In contrast, members of the Canadian Senate are appointed by the Governor General upon the recommendation of the Prime Minister of Canada, holding the office until they resign, are removed, or retire at the mandatory age of 75.


title: Senate

text: The terms "senate" and "senator", however, do not necessarily refer to a second chamber of a legislature:


title: Isoelectric point

text: The isoelectric point (pI, pH(I), IEP), is the pH at which a molecule carries no net electrical charge or is electrically neutral in the statistical mean. The standard nomenclature to represent the isoelectric point is pH(I). However, pI is also used. For brevity, this article uses pI. The net charge on the molecule is affected by pH of its surrounding environment and can become more positively or negatively charged due to the gain or loss, respectively, of protons (H).


title: Isoelectric point

text: Surfaces naturally charge to form a double layer. In the common case when the surface charge-determining ions are H/HO, the net surface charge is affected by the pH of the liquid in which the solid is submerged.


title: Isoelectric point

text: The pI value can affect the solubility of a molecule at a given pH. Such molecules have minimum solubility in water or salt solutions at the pH that corresponds to their pI and often precipitate out of solution. Biological amphoteric molecules such as proteins contain both acidic and basic functional groups. Amino acids that make up proteins may be positive, negative, neutral, or polar in nature, and together give a protein its overall charge. At a pH below their pI, proteins carry a net positive charge; above their pI they carry a net negative charge. Proteins can, thus, be separated by net charge in a polyacrylamide gel using either preparative gel electrophoresis, which uses a constant pH to separate proteins or isoelectric focusing, which uses a pH gradient to separate proteins. Isoelectric focusing is also the first step in 2-D gel polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.


title: Isoelectric point

text: In biomolecules, proteins can be separated by ion exchange chromatography. Biological proteins are made up of zwitterionic amino acid compounds; the net charge of these proteins can be positive or negative depending on the pH of the environment. The specific pI of the target protein can be used to model the process around and the compound can then be purified from the rest of the mixture. Buffers of various pH can be used for this purification process to change the pH of the environment. When a mixture containing a target protein is loaded into an ion exchanger, the stationary matrix can be either positively-charged (for mobile anions) or negatively-charged (for mobile cations). At low pH values, the net charge of most proteins in the mixture is positive - in cation exchangers, these positively-charged proteins bind to the negatively-charged matrix. At high pH values, the net charge of most proteins is negative, where they bind to the positively-charged matrix in anion exchangers. When the environment is at a pH value equal to the protein's pI, the net charge is zero, and the protein is not bound to any exchanger, and therefore, can be eluted out.


title: Isoelectric point

text: For an amino acid with only one amine and one carboxyl group, the pI can be calculated from the mean of the pKas of this molecule.


title: Isoelectric point

text: The pH of an electrophoretic gel is determined by the buffer used for that gel. If the pH of the buffer is above the pI of the protein being run, the protein will migrate to the positive pole (negative charge is attracted to a positive pole). If the pH of the buffer is below the pI of the protein being run, the protein will migrate to the negative pole of the gel (positive charge is attracted to the negative pole). If the protein is run with a buffer pH that is equal to the pI, it will not migrate at all. This is also true for individual amino acids.


title: Isoelectric point

text: In the two examples (on the right) the isoelectric point is shown by the green vertical line. In glycine the pK values are separated by nearly 7 units. Thus in the gas phase, the concentration of the neutral species, glycine (GlyH), is effectively 100% of the analytical glycine concentration. Glycine may exist as a zwitterion at the isoelectric point, but the equilibrium constant for the isomerization reaction in solution


title: Isoelectric point

text: The other example, adenosine monophosphate is shown to illustrate the fact that a third species may, in principle, be involved. In fact the concentration of is negligible at the isoelectric point in this case.


title: Isoelectric point

text: A number of algorithms for estimating isoelectric points of peptides and proteins have been developed. Most of them use Henderson–Hasselbalch equation with different pK values. For instance, within the model proposed by Bjellqvist and co-workers the pK's were determined between closely related immobilines, by focusing the same sample in overlapping pH gradients. Some improvements in the methodology (especially in the determination of the pK values for modified amino acids) have been also proposed. More advanced methods take into account the effect of adjacent amino acids ±3 residues away from a charged aspartic or glutamic acid, the effects on free C terminus, as well as they apply a correction term to the corresponding pK values using genetic algorithm. Other recent approaches are based on a support vector machine algorithm and pKa optimization against experimentally known protein/peptide isoelectric points.


title: Isoelectric point

text: Moreover, experimentally measured isoelectric point of proteins were aggregated into the databases. Recently, a database of isoelectric points for all proteins predicted using most of the available methods had been also developed.


title: Isoelectric point

text: In practice, a protein with an excess of basic aminoacids (arginine, lysine and/or histidine) will bear an isoelectric point roughly greater than 7 (basic), while a protein with an excess of acidic aminoacids (aspartic acid and/or glutamic acid) will often have an isoelectric point lower than 7 (acidic).


title: Isoelectric point

text: The electrophoretic linear (horizontal) separation of proteins by Ip along a pH gradient in a polyacrylamide gel (also known as isoelectric focusing), followed by a standard molecular weight linear (vertical) separation in a second polyacrylamide gel (SDS-PAGE), constitutes the so called two-dimensional gel electrophoresis or PAGE 2D. This technique allows a thorough separation of proteins as distinct "spots", with proteins of high molecular weight and low Ip migrating to the upper-left part of the bidimensional gel, while proteins with low molecular weight and high Ip locate to the bottom-right region of the same gel.


title: Isoelectric point

text: The isoelectric points (IEP) of metal oxide ceramics are used extensively in material science in various aqueous processing steps (synthesis, modification, etc.). In the absence of chemisorbed or physisorbed species particle surfaces in aqueous suspension are generally assumed to be covered with surface hydroxyl species, M-OH (where M is a metal such as Al, Si, etc.). At pH values above the IEP, the predominant surface species is M-O, while at pH values below the IEP, M-OH species predominate. Some approximate values of common ceramics are listed below:


title: Isoelectric point

text: "Note: The following list gives the isoelectric point at 25 °C for selected materials in water. The exact value can vary widely, depending on material factors such as purity and phase as well as physical parameters such as temperature. Moreover, the precise measurement of isoelectric points can be difficult, thus many sources often cite differing values for isoelectric points of these materials."


title: Isoelectric point

text: Mixed oxides may exhibit isoelectric point values that are intermediate to those of the corresponding pure oxides. For example, a synthetically prepared amorphous aluminosilicate (AlO-SiO) was initially measured as having IEP of 4.5 (the electrokinetic behavior of the surface was dominated by surface Si-OH species, thus explaining the relatively low IEP value). Significantly higher IEP values (pH 6 to 8) have been reported for 3AlO-2SiO by others. Similarly, also IEP of barium titanate, BaTiO was reported in the range 5-6 while others got a value of 3. Mixtures of titania (TiO) and zirconia (ZrO) were studied and found to have an isoelectric point between 5.3-6.9, varying non-linearly with %(ZrO). The surface charge of the mixed oxides was correlated with acidity. Greater titania content led to increased Lewis acidity, whereas zirconia-rich oxides displayed Br::onsted acidity. The different types of acidities produced differences in ion adsorption rates and capacities.


title: Isoelectric point

text: The terms isoelectric point (IEP) and point of zero charge (PZC) are often used interchangeably, although under certain circumstances, it may be productive to make the distinction.


title: Isoelectric point

text: In systems in which H/OH are the interface potential-determining ions, the point of zero charge is given in terms of pH. The pH at which the surface exhibits a neutral net electrical charge is the point of zero charge at the surface. Electrokinetic phenomena generally measure zeta potential, and a zero zeta potential is interpreted as the point of zero net charge at the shear plane. This is termed the isoelectric point. Thus, the isoelectric point is the value of pH at which the colloidal particle remains stationary in an electrical field. The isoelectric point is expected to be somewhat different from the point of zero charge at the particle surface, but this difference is often ignored in practice for so-called pristine surfaces, i.e., surfaces with no specifically adsorbed positive or negative charges. In this context, specific adsorption is understood as adsorption occurring in a Stern layer or chemisorption. Thus, point of zero charge at the surface is taken as equal to isoelectric point in the absence of specific adsorption on that surface.


title: Isoelectric point

text: According to Jolivet, in the absence of positive or negative charges, the surface is best described by the point of zero charge. If positive and negative charges are both present in equal amounts, then this is the isoelectric point. Thus, the PZC refers to the absence of any type of surface charge, while the IEP refers to a state of neutral net surface charge. The difference between the two, therefore, is the quantity of charged sites at the point of net zero charge. Jolivet uses the intrinsic surface equilibrium constants, p"K" and p"K" to define the two conditions in terms of the relative number of charged sites:


title: Isoelectric point

text: For large Δp"K" (>4 according to Jolivet), the predominant species is MOH while there are relatively few charged species - so the PZC is relevant. For small values of Δp"K", there are many charged species in approximately equal numbers, so one speaks of the IEP.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: The Chattahoochee River forms the southern half of the Alabama and Georgia border, as well as a portion of the Florida - Georgia border. It is a tributary of the Apalachicola River, a relatively short river formed by the confluence of the Chattahoochee and Flint rivers and emptying from Florida into Apalachicola Bay in the Gulf of Mexico. The Chattahoochee River is about long. The Chattahoochee, Flint, and Apalachicola rivers together make up the Apalachicola–Chattahoochee–Flint River Basin (ACF River Basin). The Chattahoochee makes up the largest part of the ACF's drainage basin.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: The source of the Chattahoochee River is located in Jacks Gap at the southeastern foot of Jacks Knob, in the very southeastern corner of Union County, in the southern Blue Ridge Mountains, a subrange of the Appalachian Mountains. The headwaters of the river flow south from ridges that form the Tennessee Valley Divide. The Appalachian Trail crosses the river's uppermost headwaters. The Chattahoochee's source and upper course lie within Chattahoochee National Forest.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: From its source in the Blue Ridge Mountains, the Chattahoochee River flows southwesterly to Atlanta and through its suburbs. It eventually turns due-south to form the southern half of the Georgia/Alabama state line. Flowing through a series of reservoirs and artificial lakes, it flows by Columbus, the third-largest city in Georgia, and the Fort Benning Army base. At Columbus, it crosses the Fall Line of the eastern United States.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: From Lake Oliver to Fort Benning, the Chattahoochee Riverwalk provides cycling, rollerblading, and walking along of the river's banks. Farther south, it merges with the Flint River and other tributaries at Lake Seminole near Bainbridge, to form the Apalachicola River that flows into the Florida Panhandle. The Chattahoochee River ends in the city of Chattahoochee, FL. From there, the same river is then named Apalachicola River, which ends (160 miles away) in the city of Apalachicola, FL (meaning both rivers end in the city named after them). Although the same river, this portion was given a different name by separated settlers in different regions during the colonial times.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: The name "Chattahoochee" is thought to come from a Muskogee word meaning "rocks-marked" (or "painted"), from "chato" ("rock") plus "huchi" ("marked"). This possibly refers to the many colorful granite outcroppings along the northeast-to-southwest segment of the river. Much of that segment of the river runs through the Brevard fault zone.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: The current course of the Chattahoochee River has a geologic history that extends back in time at least 100 million years. A Late Cretaceous system of paleovalleys incised into the Coastal Plain unconformity in the vicinity of Columbus, Georgia is infilled with fluvial sands and gravels of the lower Tuscaloosa Formation. Younger rocks of the overlying Eutaw Formation record an estuarine environment in approximately the same location, suggesting a persistent paleodrainage system in the vicinity of the modern Chattahoochee for at least 10-20 million years during the Late Cretaceous. North of the Fall Line, in the Piedmont of Georgia and Alabama, the course of the Chattahoochee River cuts across prominent, resistant rock layers, including the Hollis Quartzite of the Pine Mountain belt, and must have established its current course prior to uplift of those units. At the mouth of the Chattahoochee-Flint-Apalachicola River system, in the Apalachicola River delta, the geologic history of the delta can be traced at least as far back as the Miocene.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: The vicinity of the Chattahoochee River was inhabited in prehistoric times by indigenous peoples since at least 1000 BC. The Kolomoki Mounds, now protected in the Kolomoki Mounds Historic Park near present-day Blakely in Early County in southwest Georgia, were built from 350 AD to 650 AD and constitute the largest mound complex in the state.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: Among the historical Indigenous nations, the Chattahoochee served as a dividing line between the Muscogee (Creek) (to the east) and the Cherokee territories (to the west) in the Southeast. The Chattahoochee River became the dividing point for the Creek Confederacy, which straddled the river and became known as the Upper Creek Red Sticks and the Lower Creek White Sticks.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: The United States removed the Native Americans to extinguish their claims and make way for European-American settlement through a series of treaties, land lotteries, and forced removals lasting from 1820 through 1832. The Muscogee were first removed from the southeastern side of the river, and then the Cherokee from the northwest.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: The Chattahoochee River was of considerable strategic importance during the Atlanta Campaign by Union General William Tecumseh Sherman of the American Civil War.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: Between the tributaries of Proctor Creek and Nickajack Creek on the Cobb and Fulton county lines in metropolitan Atlanta, are nine remaining fortifications nicknamed "Shoupades" that were part of a defensive line occupied by the Confederate Army in early July 1864. Designed by Confederate Brigadier General Francis A. Shoup, the line became known as Johnston's River Line after Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: A month prior to the Battle of Atlanta, Shoup talked with Johnston on June 18, 1864, about building fortifications. Johnston agreed, and Shoup supervised the building of 36 small elevated earth and wooden triangular fortifications, arranged in a sawtooth pattern to maximize the crossfire of defenders. Sherman tried to avoid the Shoupade defenses by crossing the river to the northeast. The nine remaining Shoupades consist of the earthworks portion of the original earth and wooden structures; they are endangered by land development in the area.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: Two of the last battles of the war, West Point and Columbus took place at strategically important crossings of the Chattahoochee.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: Since the nineteenth century, early improvements and alterations to the river were for the purposes of navigation. The river was important for carrying trade and passengers and was a major transportation route.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: In the twentieth century, the United States Congress passed legislation in 1944 and 1945 to improve navigation for commercial traffic on the river, as well as to establish hydroelectric power and recreational facilities on a series of lakes to be created by building dams and establishing reservoirs. Creating the manmade, 46,000-acre Walter F. George Lake required evacuating numerous communities, including the historically majority-Native American settlement of Oketeyeconne, Georgia. The lakes were complete in 1963, covering over numerous historic and prehistoric sites of settlement.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: Beginning in the late twentieth century, the nonprofit organization called "Upper Chattahoochee Riverkeeper" has advocated for the preservation of the environment and ecology of the northern part of the river, especially the part traversing Metropolitan Atlanta.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: In 2010, a campaign to create a whitewater river course was launched in the portion of the Chattahoochee River that runs through Columbus, Georgia. Between 2010 and 2013, construction took place on the river, the Eagle and Phenix and City Mills Dams were breached and a 2.5 mile Whitewater Course was formed in Uptown, Columbus. The project returned the river to its natural path across the Fall Line, as well as creating the longest urban whitewater course in the world.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: Several large manmade reservoirs, including Lanier, Walter F. George, West Point, and George W. Andrews, lakes are controlled by the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The dams and reservoirs were developed following legislation by Congress of the mid-1940s for flood control, domestic and industrial water, hydroelectricity, recreation, and improved navigation for river barges. Most of the lakes were completed by 1963. Numerous historic and prehistoric sites were covered over by the lakes during the flooding of the reservoirs, including Oketeyconne, Georgia.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: The Georgia Power Company also owns a small series of dams along the middle portion of the river (the Columbus area) between West Point Lake and Lake Walter F. George. Several smaller and older lakes and dams also provide these services on a much smaller and more localized scale, including Bull Sluice Lake, which is held by the Morgan Falls Dam. This dam was built by the Georgia Railway and Power Company in 1902 to provide electric power for the Atlanta trolley system, which has long since been replaced by other forms of transportation.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: At various points, the Chattahoochee serves as the boundary between several counties and cities, as well as forming the lower half of the boundary between Alabama and Georgia.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: Atlanta is built upon the crest of a large ridge, rather than in the floodplain of the river. This has contributed the preservation of much of the natural scenic beauty of the section that runs through metropolitan Atlanta. North of the metropolis, the Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area protects other portions of the riverbanks in a region that is spread across several disconnected areas.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: The river traverses much of Atlanta's hilly topography of the northern suburbs. Wealthy suburban communities in northern metro Atlanta that abut the river include: Vinings, Buckhead, Sandy Springs, East Cobb, Roswell, Dunwoody, Peachtree Corners, Duluth, Johns Creek, and Berkeley Lake.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: Since three states have needs related to the river, there has been increasing controversy since the late twentieth century related to competing development among the regions and the implications for the river. The enormous growth of metropolitan Atlanta has increased its water withdrawals from the river. This has effects downstream. For example, the oysters in the Apalachicola Bay of Florida depend on the brackish water mixture of river and ocean water, and the alternating freshwater and saltwater flows that the river and the tides provide. The amount of flow in the Chattahoochee has also been decreased by interbasin water transfers, where water is withdrawn from the Chattahoochee, but discharged as treated sewage water into another river, such as the Oconee River, which flow to the Atlantic Seaboard via the Altamaha River.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: Interest groups and the state of Florida have asked the U.S. Congress to intervene to reduce the priority given to put navigation of the lower Chattahoochee, south of Columbus, by river barge. This requirement causes large water withdrawals, which environmental supporters consider a waste of water needed to support habitats, especially during droughts. The navigation issue has aggravated the fight between Georgia, Florida, and Alabama over rights to the river water. A lawsuit has been filed in the case to reduce priorities given to navigation. The lawsuit is now in court, and may take years to resolve.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: The most recent major flooding of the Chattahoochee River took place in November 2009. This was caused by torrential rains from Tropical Storm Ida as it tore through the Georgia Piedmont. Downstream from Roswell, the Chattahoochee River remained in moderate flood stage. Streams affected by the September 2009 floods included the following:


title: Chattahoochee River

text: The second most recent major flood along the river occurred during the 2009 Georgia floods, with of water recorded at Vinings at the northwestern Atlanta city limit. The flood was over higher than the previous flood recorded in September 2004, as a result of Hurricane Fred. Numerous tributaries also swelled far over and beyond their banks. These were the highest water levels seen since 1990, and the second-highest ever since the large Buford Dam was built upstream. The National Weather Service in Peachtree City estimated that this was a 500-year flood event.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: Water-level forecasts are regularly issued only at Vinings and Atlanta. Forecasts are issued only during high water at Norcross, Whitesburg, West Point, and the Lake Walter F. George and Andrews Dams. All other locations have observations only.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: Note that the above list is incomplete, and that each item is not in the exact order in which it joins the Chattahoochee. (For confluences now inundated by lakes, it may be impossible to determine from current maps exactly where they were.)


title: Chattahoochee River

text: The beauty of the Chattahoochee River is commemorated in the poem "The Song of the Chattahoochee" (1877), by the noted Georgian poet Sidney Lanier. Lake Lanier on the Chattahoochee is named for him.


title: Chattahoochee River

text: Country music artist Alan Jackson released his song "Chattahoochee" in 1993 as a single off his album "A Lot About Livin' (And a Little 'bout Love)" (the name of the album being the last line of the aforementioned song's chorus). "Chattahoochee" received Country Music Association awards for Single of the Year and Song of the Year.


title: Spencer Gifts

text: Spencer Gifts LLC, doing business as Spencer's, is a North American mall retailer with over 600 stores in the United States and Canada. Its stores specialize in novelty and gag gifts, and also sell clothing, band merchandise, sex toys, room decor, collectible figures, fashion and body jewelry, fantasy and horror items. The company also owns and operates a pop-up seasonal retailer, Spirit Halloween.


title: Spencer Gifts

text: Spencer Gifts was founded in 1947 in Easton, Pennsylvania by Max Spencer Adler as a mail-order catalog that sold an assortment of novelty merchandise. In 1960, Max's brother Harry Adler, who had been with the company since 1947, sold his shares and left.


title: Spencer Gifts

text: In 1963, Spencer Gifts opened its first retail store in the Cherry Hill Mall in Cherry Hill, New Jersey, where it operates to this day.


title: Spencer Gifts

text: After opening approximately 450 stores under the name Spencer Gifts, Adler sold Spencer Gifts to entertainment conglomerate MCA in 1967. In 2003, Spencer's Gifts was completely rebranded after being put under new management, and with the change become known as just Spencer's.


title: Spencer Gifts

text: In 1993 and 1996, respectively, Spencer Gifts acquired the DAPY line of stores and opened its first GLOW! store. The DAPY and GLOW! trademarks were retired sometime before 2007. As of 2021, both GLOW! And DAPY have returned to business under a private entity.


title: Spencer Gifts

text: In 1995, MCA was acquired by Seagram Company Ltd. and was renamed Universal Studios. Spencer Gifts began to operate Universal Studios stores as a subsidiary of its parent company.


title: Spencer Gifts

text: In 1999, Spencer's acquired Spirit Halloween, a seasonal retailer that was founded by Joseph Marver in 1983. At that time, the business had 60 temporary locations. Spirit's stores are only open for the two months leading up to Halloween, though it maintains a website year-round. The stores are generally operated out of the spaces of recently vacated businesses. As of 2013, Spirit had over 1,000 locations, which comprised about half of Spencer's annual revenue of $250 million.


title: Spencer Gifts

text: In 2000, Spencer's expanded into the United Kingdom. The chain opened up to 14 stores in the United Kingdom before closing them sometime in the mid-2000s.


title: Spencer Gifts

text: In 2001, Vivendi acquired Universal Studios and rebranded the entire organization as Vivendi Universal Entertainment. Less than two years later, in 2003, GB Palladin, a joint venture between Gordon Brothers Group and Palladin Capital Group, acquired Spencer Gifts from Vivendi, around the same time that Vivendi was preparing to sell majority of the shares of Universal Studios to General Electric's NBC division. As a result of the sale, Steven Silverstein became Spencer Gifts' CEO and also the CEO and president of Spirit Halloween.


title: Spencer Gifts

text: In 2006, Spencer's began its "Spirit of Children" program, which raises donations through its Spirit Halloween stores for, and hosts Halloween parties in, children's hospitals in Canada and the United States. Since 2007, the program has raised over $16 million for over 130 children's hospitals.


title: Spencer Gifts

text: The company has been investigated by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) for its advertising practices.


title: Spencer Gifts

text: In 1962, Spencer Gifts was found by the Federal Trade Commission to have violated the Federal Trade Commission Act by making misleading statements in advertising its "Reduce-Eze" girdles and ordered to cease making false claims. The girdles were advertised with statements such as "Slim 4 Inches Without Diet" and "Trims 4 Inches Off Your Figure".


title: Spencer Gifts

text: In 1969, Spencer Gifts was found by the FTC to, through the use of words like "stone", "birthstone", and "gold", have misrepresented its jewelry products. As its jewelry did not contain any "genuine precious or semiprecious stones", nor was its metal 24 karat gold, Spencer Gifts was ordered to stop use of deceptive statements in the promotion of its jewelry.


title: Spencer Gifts

text: In 1970, Spencer Gifts was found by the FTC to have misled its customers as to the efficacy of its "non-prescription magnifying spectacles" by failing to disclose that correction of vision defects is limited to older persons who do not have any eye diseases, like astigmatism, but only need "simple magnifying or reducing lenses". The FTC ordered the retailer to cease the use of advertisements that misrepresented the quality of its optical products.


title: Spencer Gifts

text: Spencer Gifts has come under fire for its merchandise, which has been considered to be sexually explicit and racist.


title: Spencer Gifts

text: In 1989, the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee (ADC) mailed thousands of pamphlets to Arab-Americans across the United States to campaign against Spencer's 'sheik' and 'Arafat' Halloween masks, which were marketed as part of its "Fright Stuff" line of products. The pamphlet featured a picture of the 'sheik' mask and claimed that it "was the only ethnic one in the product line and being marketed alongside traditional monster masks reinforced the notion Arab people are scary." Spencer Gifts pulled the two masks from its stores in October following a "three-day protest and telephone campaign" by the ADC, but decided later that month to place the masks back on sale, prompting the ADC to boycott and picket Spencer's stores. In a letter to ADC spokesperson Faris Bouhafa, Spencer's general counsel Ronald Mangel said that "after re-reviewing the 'Sheik' and 'Arafat' masks and discussing the look of the masks with others", Spencer's president John Hacala decided to reverse the earlier decision and place the masks back in stores. "We will not reorder the masks for next year," the letter added.


title: Spencer Gifts

text: Spencer Gifts has been criticized for allowing children access to adult toys and other explicit products. While adults-only products are ostensibly kept in areas off-limits to children, there have been several instances where that is not the case. In one instance, police seized adult materials from the Spencer Gifts in Rapid City, South Dakota as "possible evidence for the national retailer's failure to register as an adult-oriented business".


title: Spencer Gifts

text: In February 2014, the Ancient Order of Hibernians, the largest Irish organization in the United States, called on Spencer's to cease the sale of merchandise it felt propagated stereotypes about Irish Americans, such as a T-shirt with the slogan "F*** me I'm Irish" and a hat sporting the phrase "Irish Girl Wasted". AOH National Anti-Defamation Chairman Neil Cosgrove protested, "We note that Spencer's Gifts is a recidivist when it comes to denigrating the heritage and culture of Irish Americans. Spencer's St. Pat's merchandise seems to plumb new lows with each year."


title: Straight razor

text: A straight razor is a razor with a blade that can fold into its handle. They are also called open razors and cut-throat razors. The predecessors of the modern straight razors include bronze razors, with cutting edges and fixed handles, produced by craftsmen from Ancient Egypt during the New Kingdom (1569 — 1081 BC). Solid gold and copper razors were also found in Ancient Egyptian tombs dating back to the 4th millennium BC.


title: Straight razor

text: The first steel-edged cutthroat razors were manufactured in Sheffield in 1680. By the late 1680s, early 1690s, razors with silver-covered handles along with other Sheffield-made products known as "Sheffield wares" were being exported to ports in the Gulf of Finland, approximately 1200 miles (1931km) from Sheffield. From there, these goods were probably sent to Finland and even Russia. By 1740, Benjamin Huntsman was making straight razors complete with decorated handles and hollow-ground blades made from cast steel, using a process he invented. Huntsman's process was adopted by the French sometime later, albeit reluctantly at first due to nationalist considerations. In England, razor manufacturers were even more reluctant than the French to adopt Huntsman's steel-making process and only did so after they saw its success in France.


title: Straight razor

text: After their introduction in 1680, straight razors became the principal method of manual shaving for more than two hundred years, and remained in common use until the mid-20th century. Straight razor production eventually fell behind that of the safety razor, which was introduced in the late 19th century and featured a disposable blade. Electric razors have also reduced the market share of the straight razors, especially since the 1950s. A 1979 comparative study of straight and electric razors, performed by Dutch researchers, found that straight razors shave hair approximately 0.002 in. (0.05mm) shorter than electrics.


title: Straight razor

text: Since 2012, production of straight razors has increased multifold. Straight razor sales are increasing globally and manufacturers have difficulty satisfying demand. Sales started increasing since the product was featured in the 2012 James Bond film "Skyfall" and have remained high since. Straight razors are also perceived as a better value and a more sustainable and efficient product. Dovo in Germany reports that since a production low of less than 8,000 units per year in 2006, the company sells 3,000 units per month, and has 110,000 orders with production lead time of three years. The increased sales have also led to an increase in the number of associated trades and artisans such as bladesmiths, leather craftsmen, and potters.


title: Straight razor

text: Forums and outlets provide products, directions, and advice to straight razor users. Straight razor manufacturers exist in Europe, Asia, and North America. Antique straight razors are also actively traded.


title: Straight razor

text: Straight razors require considerable skill to hone and strop, and require more care during shaving. Straight razor design and use was once a major portion of the curriculum in barber colleges.


title: Straight razor

text: Various forms of razors were used throughout history, which are different in appearance but similar in use to modern straight razors. In prehistoric times clam shells, shark's teeth, and flint were sharpened and used for shaving. Drawings of such blades were found in prehistoric caves. Some tribes still use blades made of flint to this day. Excavations in Egypt have unearthed solid gold and copper razors in tombs dating back to the 4th millennium BC. The Roman historian Livy reported that the razor was introduced in ancient Rome in the 6th century BC by legendary king Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. Priscus was ahead of his time because razors did not come to general use until a century later.


title: Straight razor

text: The first narrow-bladed folding straight razors were listed by a Sheffield, England manufacturer in 1680. By the late 1680s, early 1690s, razors with silver-covered handles along with other Sheffield-made products known as "Sheffield wares" were being exported by John Spencer (1655—1729) of Cannon Hall, a wealthy landowner and industrialist, to ports in the Gulf of Finland, approximately 1200 miles (1931km) from Sheffield. From there, these goods were probably sent to Finland and even Russia. By 1740, Benjamin Huntsman was making straight razors complete with decorated handles and hollow-ground blades made from cast steel, using a process he invented. Huntsman's process was adopted by the French sometime later; albeit reluctantly at first due to nationalist sentiments. The English manufacturers were even more reluctant than the French to adopt the process and only did so after they saw its success in France.


title: Straight razor

text: Sheffield steel, a highly polished steel, also known as 'Sheffield silver steel' and famous for its deep gloss finish, is considered a superior quality steel and is still used to this day in France by such manufacturers as Thiers Issard. After their introduction in 1680, straight razors became the principal method of manual shaving for more than two hundred years, and remained in common use until the mid-20th century. Electric razors have also cut into the straight razor's market share, especially since the 1950s.


title: Straight razor

text: Straight razors eventually fell out of fashion. Their first challenger was manufactured by King C. Gillette: a double-edged safety razor with replaceable blades. These new safety razors did not require any serious tutelage to use. The blades were extremely hard to sharpen, and were meant to be thrown away after one use, and rusted quickly if not discarded. They also required a smaller initial investment, although they cost more over time. Despite its long-term advantages, the straight razor lost significant market share. As shaving became less intimidating and men began to shave themselves more, the demand for barbers providing straight razor shaves decreased.


title: Straight razor

text: Since 2012, production of straight razors has increased multifold. Straight razor sales are increasing globally and manufacturers have difficulty satisfying demand. Straight razor sales are increasing because they are perceived as a better value and more efficient product.


title: Straight razor

text: Dovo in Germany reports that since a production low of less than 8,000 units per year in 2006, the company sells 3,000 units per month, and has 110,000 orders with production lead time of three years. The Dovo spokesman commented that around 2006, “we were producing less than 8,000 straight razors per year, The tradition of straight razor manufacturing had almost come to an end.” Dovo explains, that after the 2012 James Bond film "Skyfall", sales of straight razors increased multifold, and that "built into a wave of sustained overdemand that we are still riding today". The increased sales have also led to an increase in the number of associated trades and artisans such as bladesmiths, leather craftsmen, and potters.


title: Straight razor

text: The design of the straight razor is based on the grind of the blade, the width and length of the blade, the handle, which also affects the balance of the razor, the material of the blade, and the finish and degree of polish of the blade material.


title: Straight razor

text: the narrow end of the blade rotates on a pin called the pivot, between two protective pieces called the "scales" or "handle". The upward curved metal end of the narrow part of the blade beyond the pivot is called the "tang" and acts as a lever to help raise the blade from the handle. One or two fingers resting on the tang also help stabilize the blade while shaving. The narrow support piece between the tang and the main blade is called the "shank", but this reference is often avoided because it can be confusing since the "shank" is also referred to as "tang". The shank sometimes features decorations and the stamp of the brand. The top side and the underside of the shank can sometimes exhibit indentations known as "fluting", or "jimps" for a more secure grip. The curved lower part of the main blade from the shank to the cutting edge is called the "shoulder". The point where the shoulder joins the cutting edge is called the "heel". The endpoint of the cutting edge at the front of the blade, opposite to the "heel", is called the "toe".


title: Straight razor

text: A thick strip of metal running transversely at the junction where the main blade attaches to the shank is called the "stabiliser". The stabiliser can be double, single, or can be absent in some razor models. The first stabiliser is usually very narrow and thicker and runs at the shank-to-blade junction, covering the shank and just spilling over to the shoulder. The second stabiliser can be distinguished since it is considerably wider, thinner, and longer, appearing after the first stabiliser and running lower toward the heel.


title: Straight razor

text: The arched, non-cutting top of the blade is called the "back" or the "spine" while the cutting part of the blade opposite the back is called the "cutting edge". Finally the other free end of the blade, at the opposite end of the tang on the spine, is called the "point" and, sometimes, the "head" or the "nose".


title: Straight razor

text: There are usually two, but sometimes three, pins in the handle. The middle pin, if present, is plastic coated and is called the "centre plug". Its function is to stabilise the sides of the handle so that they cannot be squeezed in the middle and acts as a bridge between them. When folded into the scales, the blade is protected from accidental damage, and the user is protected from accidental injury. During folding, the back of the blade, being thick and normally with a curved cross-section, acts as a natural stopper and prevents further rotation of the blade out of the handle from the other side. The frictional force between the scales and the tang applied about the pivot is called the "Tension" and it determines how freely the blade rotates about the point of rotation. A proper amount of tension should be present, for safety reasons, to ensure that the blade does not spin freely when opening or closing.


title: Straight razor

text: Straight razors consist of a blade sharpened on one edge and a handle attached to the blade through a pin. The blade can then rotate in and out of the handle. The blade can be made of either stainless steel, which is resistant to rust but can be more difficult to hone, or high-carbon steel, which is much easier to hone, obtains a sharper edge but will rust more easily than stainless steel if neglected. Cheap stainless steel straight razors from Asia and more expensive stainless steel and carbon steel razors from Europe are available.


title: Straight razor

text: The blank of the blade is produced by forging steel ingots or steel available in other forms such as wire, springs, etc.. After the blank is formed, the first step is to clean it using a heavy forge. The material used for open razors is steel with a minimum carbon content of 0.6%. This percentage of carbon content ensures optimum hardness, flexibility and resistance to wear. Following the forging stage, a hole is drilled in the tang at the pivot point. This is a crucial step, since after the steel hardening process it would be impossible to drill. This process requires great skill.


title: Straight razor

text: The steel is hardened through a special process where the forged steel blade is heated up to approximately dependent on the specific steel. This heating enables fast and uniform heating of the steel at the optimum temperature for maximum hardness. The tempering stage follows the hardening process, where the blade is heated in a bath of oil at a temperature between . Tempering imparts the steel its flexibility and toughness according to the phase diagrams for steel. There are three types of steel blade according to the level of tempering it has received. Hard-tempered, medium-tempered and soft-tempered. Hard-tempered edges last longer but sharpening them is difficult. The converse is true for soft-tempered blades. The characteristics of medium-tempered blades are in-between the two extremes. Carbon steel blades can reach a maximum hardness of 61 HRC on the Rockwell scale.


title: Straight razor

text: Following the processes of hardening and tempering, the blanks are ground, according to the two fundamental blade cross sectional area profiles.


title: Straight razor

text: Subsequent to grinding, the blade is polished to various degrees of gloss. The finest finish, used in the most expensive razors, is the mirror finish. Mirror finish is the only finish used if gold leafing is to be part of the decoration of the blade.


title: Straight razor

text: Satin finish requires less polishing time and therefore is not as expensive to produce. This finish is mostly used with black acid etching. Satin finish can sometimes be applied, as a compromise, to the back of the blade while the mirror finish and gold leafing are applied to the more visible front of the blade. This way the blade will not be as expensive as a fully mirror finished one. Metal plating, using nickel or silver, is also used, but it is not preferred; the plating eventually erodes through use, revealing the underlying metal, which is often of inferior quality. Nickel-plated blades are very difficult to hone repeatedly and are made for mainly aesthetic reasons though lacking functionality.


title: Straight razor

text: The blade is decorated by engraving or gold leafing depending on the price. Less expensive blades undergo an electrolytic black acid engraving process. For more expensive blades, gold leafing applied by hand is employed, following a traditional process.


title: Straight razor

text: Sharpening is the final stage in the process. At first the blade is sharpened on a grinding wheel. Following that the blade can be honed by holding the blades against the flat side of rotating round stones, or by drawing the blade across stationary flat stones. The cutting edge is finished using a strop. Sharpening is usually not completed during manufacturing, instead being done after purchase.


title: Straight razor

text: Handle scales are made of various materials, including mother-of-pearl, Bakelite, celluloid, bone, plastic, wood, horn, acrylic, ivory and tortoise shell. Celluloid can spontaneously combust at elevated temperatures. Buffalo horn tends to deform with time and it possesses form memory so it tends to warp. Mother of pearl is a brittle material and can exhibit cracks after some use.


title: Straight razor

text: Resin impregnated wooden handles are water resistant, do not deform and their weight complements the blade's to provide good overall balance for the razor. Snakewood, "Brosimum guianense", is also suitable for long term and intensive use.


title: Straight razor

text: The mechanical properties of bone make it a good handle material. Handles were once made of elephant ivory, but this has been discontinued, though fossil ivory, such as mammoth, is still sometimes used, and antique razors with ivory scales are occasionally found (it is illegal to kill elephants for their ivory, but it is legal to buy an ivory-handled razor made before 1989).


title: Straight razor

text: The geometry of the blade can be categorised according to three factors: the blade width and weight, the shape of the profile of the point of the razor, and the type of grinding method used for the blade (as grinding method determines the degree of and therefore hollowness, or of the sides of the cross section of the blade).


title: Straight razor

text: Straight razors are, at first, categorised according to their blade profiles, from the head of the spine to the blade toe, based on their point, or nose, type. The following are the main types of blade profiles called points, or nose shapes:


title: Straight razor

text: The second category refers to the type of grinding method used and, since it affects the curvature of the blade cross section, includes the following two main types of blade grinds:


title: Straight razor

text: The combination of the types found in these two classification categories can, in theory, lead to a wide variety of blade types such as round point hollow ground, square point flat ground etc., but in practice some points are combined with a specific grind. As an example, a French point blade is usually flat ground.


title: Straight razor

text: A hollow grind produces a thinner blade than the flat grind because it removes more material from the blade ("hollows" or "thins" the blade more). The hollow-ground blade flexes more easily and provides more feedback on the resistance the blade meets while cutting the hair, which is an indicator of blade sharpness. Hollow-ground blades are preferred by most barbers and some high-end razor manufacturers limit their production exclusively to hollow ground razors.


title: Straight razor

text: The third and final category refers to blade width. The width of the blade is defined as the distance between the back of the blade and the cutting edge. It is expressed in units of eighth of an inch. The sizes vary from up to , rarely . A wider blade can carry more lather, much like a scoop, during multiple successive shaving strokes and thus it allows the user more shaving time and minimises blade rinse cycles. The disadvantage of the wider blade is that it is not as manoeuvrable as a narrower blade. A narrow blade can shave tight facial spots such as under the nose, but it must be rinsed more often. The most popular blade width size is . The width of the blade can also affect its sharpness. The wider the blade, the greater the thermal deformation that can occur due to changing temperatures, a fact that can lead to loss of edge sharpness.


title: Straight razor

text: The weight of the blade is inversely proportional to the pressure that is applied during shaving. The heavier the blade, the lighter the pressure that needs to be applied during shaving.


title: Straight razor

text: The degree of hollowness and thus the cross sectional area (thickness) of the blade vary depending on the grinding method used. Higher degree of hollowness in the blade implies a thinner cross section and this affects the stability (bending or buckling properties) of the blade; the thinner the blade the more flexible it is. The length and weight of the blade and handle and their relation to each other determines the balance of the straight razor. The cutting area of the razor is proportional to the length of the blade, therefore, a longer blade requires less frequent honing since its cutting edge does not deplete as fast as that of a shorter blade.


title: Straight razor

text: For hollow-ground blades stability is augmented by a transverse stabiliser in the form of one or two narrow strips of thicker metal running from the back of the blade to the end of the shoulder (at the junction where the blade meets the shank). This piece, if present, is simply called the stabiliser (single or double) and indicates a hollow ground blade, since a flat ground blade is massive and stable enough to not need a stabiliser. A double stabiliser implies (full) hollow ground blade. The stabiliser protects the blade from torsional bending in the transverse direction (transverse spine).


title: Straight razor

text: In addition to the transverse stabiliser, a longitudinal stabiliser is sometimes created in the form of a ridge parallel to the cutting edge and the blade is ground in two areas or bevels, each with different degrees of hollowness or curvature; the area between the back of the blade and the ridge is typically less hollow featuring a larger radius of curvature, also called the "belly", and the area between the ridge and the cutting edge which is more hollow i.e. with a smaller radius of curvature. These two beveled areas have different curvatures and in a well-made razor they transition seamlessly in the ridge (belly) and the cutting edge respectively. Sometimes there are three bevels.


title: Straight razor

text: The ridge stabilizes the blade against torsional flexing in a direction perpendicular to its longitudinal axis by acting as a lengthwise spine for the blade. The distance between the ridge and the back of the blade is inversely proportional to the hollowness of the blade and is described in fractional terms in ascending steps of as, for example, hollow, hollow, or or (full hollow). Full hollow indicates that the stabilizing ridge is very close to the midsection of the blade and the farthest from the cutting edge compared to the other grades. This is considered the most expensive blade.


title: Straight razor

text: At the highest end of hollow ground, more hollow than even the grade, is the so-called singing razor, so named because its blade produces a specific resonant tone when plucked, similar to a guitar string, however such use is not recommended as it can distort the cutting edge. Its manufacturing process is so demanding that a full 25% of the blades get rejected as not meeting standards.


title: Straight razor

text: There is a tradeoff between stability and long term blade sharpness. A full hollow ground () blade can keep a very sharp edge even after a great number of honing cycles because of its high degree of hollowness but it is more susceptible to torsional bending because it is thinner. A partially hollow blade ( or for example) cannot sustain the same degree of sharpness for as long, because as the cutting edge erodes it can eventually reach the stabilising ridge faster where there is more material and thus the cutting-edge bevel cannot be maintained without excessive honing of the stabilising ridge to remove the additional material, which could also destabilise the rest of the blade. However, the partially hollow blade is more stable because its additional material makes it stiffer, and thus more resistant to deformation. In addition a flat ground blade, since by definition is not hollow (curved) at all, is the most stable of the blades but because its cross sectional area is the largest it also feels heavier than hollow ground and this can affect the feel and balance of the razor.


title: Straight razor

text: A razor is well balanced if when opened it balances about its pivot pin, indicating that the torques about the pivot point, caused by the corresponding weight distributions of the blade and the handle about the pivot pin, counterbalance each other. A well-balanced razor is both safer to handle when open and easier to shave with.


title: Straight razor

text: The characteristics of each blade type determine the type of recommended uses for each blade as well as their performance and maintenance routines.


title: Straight razor

text: Extra hollow blades such as singing blades are the thinnest and therefore they provide the best possible shave from all the other types. However they are also very flexible and therefore not suitable for tasks requiring increased pressure to the blade such as heavy beard growth etc. Care should also be taken when stropping so that the thin blade will not be overly stressed, since it cannot withstand abuse as well as lower grades. Flat ground razors are very stable and as such they can handle tough shaving jobs since they do not easily deform under pressure and they can take rough handling such as heavy stropping and honing.


title: Straight razor

text: Although a wider blade is not as manoeuvreable as a narrower one, especially in tight spots, it is better to purchase a wider blade, since honing eventually reduces the width of the blade with use, a fact that can shorten the life of a straight razor with a narrow blade. On the other hand, the width of the blade is proportional to the blade distortion that can occur due to temperature fluctuations; this can lead to more frequent stropping and honing, because blade deformation due to thermal stress can lead to loss of cutting edge sharpness.


title: Straight razor

text: Shaving is done with the blade at approximately an angle of thirty degrees to the skin and in a direction perpendicular to the edge; an incision requires the movement of the blade to be sideways or in a direction parallel to the edge. These circumstances are always avoided by the shaver, who always shaves in a direction perpendicular to the cutting edge of the blade.


title: Straight razor

text: To be most effective, a straight razor must be kept extremely sharp. The edge is delicate, and inexpert use may bend or fold over the razor's edge. To unfold and straighten the microscopic sharp edge, one must strop the blade on leather periodically. A 1979 comparative study of straight and electric razors, performed by Dutch researchers, found that straight razors shave hair approximately 2/1000 in. (0.05mm) shorter than electrics.


title: Straight razor

text: To sharpen or finish the blade using a suspended strop, the razor is pushed toward the suspension ring while both the back and the cutting edge lie flat on the strop and with the back of the blade. No pressure should be applied on the cutting edge. A strop may be two sided with leather on one side and cloth on the other side. The cloth is used for blade alignment and sharpening. The leather is for finishing.


title: Straight razor

text: The stropping process involves sliding the razor blade flat on the strop; upon reaching the end of the cloth or leather near the suspension ring, the blade is turned about its back (clockwise for a right-handed barber; counter-clockwise for a left-handed one) until the cutting edge touches the strop. It is then pulled toward the rectangular handle of the strop with back and cutting edge flat on the strop as before. The blade is moved in a slightly diagonal direction so to give every point of the edge a chance to touch the strop, without applying too much pressure. This process aligns the cutting edge properly with the back of the blade, avoiding "bumps" on the cutting edge. Rotating the blade on the strop about the cutting edge can damage it because such use will impact the micro-alignment of the edge. Depending on use and condition, the blade can be sharpened occasionally by using a razor hone. Strops prepared with pastes containing fine grit are also used for honing but are not recommended for the inexperienced user, as they can easily rake off the edge if they apply the wrong amount or exert too much pressure.


title: Straight razor

text: Shaving soap in a cup is traditionally lathered and applied using a rotating in-and-out motion of a shaving brush, usually made of boar or badger bristles.


title: Straight razor

text: In the heyday of straight razor shaving, wealthy users maintained a weekly "rotation" of seven razors to reduce wear on any one piece. Straight razors were often sold in special boxes of seven labelled for the days of the week.


title: Straight razor

text: Straight razors are still manufactured. DOVO, of Solingen, Germany, and Thiers Issard of France are two of the best-known European manufacturers. Boeker of Solingen is yet another cutlery manufacturer known for their straight razors. Wusthof and Henckels are two prominent knife manufacturers in Solingen who also produced straight razors. Thiers Issard and Hart Steel are famous for their decorated blades and their Damascus steel. Feather Safety Razor Co. Ltd. of Osaka, Japan, makes a razor with the same form as a traditional straight, but featuring a disposable blade that can be installed through an injector-type system. Artisans also make handcrafted custom straight razors based on their own designs, the designs of their customers, or by finishing old blanks of blades.


title: Straight razor

text: Modern straight-razor users are known to favor them for a variety of reasons. Some are attracted to the nostalgia of using old and traditional methods of shaving. Others wish to avoid the waste of disposable blades.


title: Straight razor

text: Still others argue that straight razors provide a superior shave through a larger blade and greater control of the blade, including the blade angle. Straight razors cover a much greater area per shaving stroke, because their cutting edge is much longer than any of the multi-blade razors.


title: Straight razor

text: They also do not have to be rinsed as often, because their blade acts like a scoop and carries the lather on it during multiple shaving strokes, while the multi-blade razors are not nearly as efficient at such a task because of their considerably smaller blade geometry.


title: Straight razor

text: Straight razors are also much easier to clean and can handle tougher shaving tasks, such as longer facial hair, than modern multi-blade razors, which tend to trap shaving debris between their tightly packed blades and are easily clogged, even with relatively short stubble.


title: Straight razor

text: In addition, multi-edge razors can irritate the skin due to their multi-blade action, and this can lead to a condition known as pseudofolliculitis barbae, colloquially known as "razor bumps". One of the recommended actions for those so affected is to switch to single blade use.


title: Straight razor

text: Others simply like the good results and the satisfaction of maintaining the blade themselves. Yet others cite aesthetic reasons in addition to the practical ones. A well-made blade, in a nice handle with a well-crafted etching and decorated shank, carries a sense of craftsmanship and ownership difficult to associate with a disposable blade cartridge.


title: Straight razor

text: Finally, a well-kept razor can last for decades, and can become a family heirloom that can be passed from parent to child. For all of these reasons, devotees of the straight razor make for an active market.


title: Straight razor

text: Owing to health concerns, some areas require barbers who provide straight-razor shaving to use a version that employs a disposable or changeable blade system. In this type of straight razor the razor blade is changed and disposed of after each service. Various jurisdictions in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Turkey and the United States, however, permit the professional use of straight razors.


title: Straight razor

text: The 2012 James Bond film, "Skyfall," has renewed interest in straight razors due to a scene when the agent shaves with one and his co-star Naomie Harris helps him finish shaving while remarking that “sometimes the old ways are the best”. Online straight razor retailers have reported increased sales ranging from 50% to over 400% due to the exposure generated by the film.


title: Straight razor

text: The increase in sales is part of an overall growth in demand for straight razors, since about 2008, which has also seen an increase in the number of barbers offering straight razor shaves. The phenomenon seems to be driven by renewed nostalgia for things retro such as the straight razor which evokes simpler notions of the past such as the "macho" image associated with its use and also the skill required to shave with it which can be a source of pride.


title: Straight razor

text: As compared to the disposable and cartridge razors, straight razors are more economical, despite a higher initial cost, because if properly cared for, no additional cost is incurred, as compared to disposable razors where new cartridges must be periodically procured.


title: Straight razor

text: Straight razors are more environmentally friendly than other types of razors since the latter come with packaging that may have to be thrown away along with the razors, and, in the case of electric razors, batteries that are typically disposed of after they expire. Straight razors produce no waste and they require only a strop for honing.


title: Straight razor

text: The various straight razor honing and stropping directions and handling techniques are illustrated by the drawings below.


title: Racewalking

text: Racewalking, or race walking, is a long-distance discipline within the sport of athletics. Although a foot race, it is different from running in that one foot must appear to be in contact with the ground at all times. Race judges carefully assess that this is maintained throughout the race. Typically held on either roads or running tracks, common distances range from up to 100 kilometres (62.1 mi).


title: Racewalking

text: There are two racewalking distances contested at the Summer Olympics: the 20 kilometres race walk (men and women) and 50 kilometres race walk (men only). Both are held as road events. The biennial World Athletics Championships also featured these two events, in addition to a 50 km walk for women, until 2019. The 50km race walk was replaced by the 35 kilometres race walk as standard championship discipline in 2022. The IAAF World Race Walking Cup, first held in 1961, is a stand-alone global competition for the discipline and it has 10 kilometres race walks for junior athletes, in addition to the Olympic-standard events. The IAAF World Indoor Championships featured 5000 m and 3000 m race walk variations, but these were discontinued after 1993. Top level athletics championships and games typically feature 20 km racewalking events.


title: Racewalking

text: The sport emerged from a British culture of long-distance competitive walking known as pedestrianism, which began to develop the ruleset that is the basis of the modern discipline around the mid-19th century. Since the mid-20th century onwards, Russian and Chinese athletes have been among the most successful on the global stage, with Europe and parts of Latin America producing most of the remaining top level walkers. However, it has been particularly affected by doping, with many Russian world and Olympic champions testing positive for banned performance-enhancing drugs.


title: Racewalking

text: Compared to other forms of foot racing, stride length is reduced; to achieve competitive speeds racewalkers must attain cadence rates comparable to those achieved by world-class 800-1,500 metre runners.


title: Racewalking

text: There are only two rules that govern racewalking. The first dictates that the athlete's back toe cannot leave the ground until the heel of the front foot has touched. Violation of this rule is known as "loss of contact." The second rule requires that the supporting leg must straighten from the point of contact with the ground and remain straightened until the body passes directly over it. These rules are judged by the unaided human eye. Athletes regularly lose contact for a few milliseconds per stride, which can be caught on film, but such a short flight phase is said to be undetectable to the human eye.


title: Racewalking

text: Athletes stay low to the ground by keeping their arms pumping low, close to their hips. If one sees a racewalker's shoulders rising, it may be a sign that the athlete is losing contact with the ground. What appears to be an exaggerated swivel to the hip is, in fact, a full rotation of the pelvis. Athletes aim to move the pelvis forward and to minimize sideways motion in order to achieve maximum forward propulsion. Speed is achieved by stepping quickly with the aim of rapid turnover. This minimizes the risk of the feet leaving the ground. Strides are short and quick, with pushoff coming forward from the ball of the foot, again to minimize the risk of losing contact with the ground. World-class racewalkers (male and female) can average under four and five minutes per kilometre in a 20-km racewalk.


title: Racewalking

text: Races have been walked at distances as short as at the 1920 Summer Olympics, and as long as 100 km (62.1 mi). The men's world record for the 50-mile race walk is held by Israeli Shaul Ladany, whose time of 7:23:50 in 1972 beat the world record that had stood since 1935. The modern Olympic events are the 20 km (12.4 mi) race walk (men and women) and 50 km (31 mi) race walk (men only). One example of a longer racewalking competition is the annual Paris-Colmar which is 450 to 500 km. Indoor races are 3000 m and 5000 m.


title: Racewalking

text: There are judges on the course to monitor form. Three judges submitting "red cards" for violations results in disqualification of the competitor. There is a scoreboard placed on the course so competitors can see their violation status. If the third violation is received, the chief judge removes the competitor from the course by showing a red paddle. For monitoring reasons, races are held on a looped course or on a track so judges get to see competitors several times during a race. A judge could also "caution" a competitor that he or she is in danger of losing form by showing a paddle that indicates either losing contact or bent knees. No judge may submit more than one card for each walker and the chief judge may not submit any cards; it is his or her job only to disqualify the offending walker. Disqualifications are routine at the elite level, such as the famous case of Jane Saville, disqualified within sight of a gold medal in front of her home crowd in the 2000 Summer Olympics, or Yet Lyu, disqualified 20 metres before the finish line at the 2017 World Championships in Athletics.


title: Racewalking

text: Racewalking developed as one of the original track and field events of the first meeting of the English Amateur Athletics Association in 1880. The first racewalking codes came from an attempt to regulate rules for popular 19th-century long-distance competitive walking events, called pedestrianism. Pedestrianism had developed, like footraces and horse racing, as a popular working class British and American pastime, and a venue for wagering. Walkers organised the first English amateur walking championship in 1866, which was won by John Chambers, and judged by the "fair heel and toe" rule. This rather vague code was the basis for the rules codified at the first Championships Meeting in 1880 of the Amateur Athletics Association in England, the birth of modern athletics. With football (soccer), cricket, and other sports codified in the 19th century, the transition from professional pedestrianism to amateur racewalking was, while relatively late, part of a process of regularisation occurring in most modern sports at this time.


title: Racewalking

text: The Walk was included at the 1876 to 1879 National Association of Amateur Athletes of America Championships.


title: Racewalking

text: Racewalking is an Olympic athletics (track and field) event with distances of 20 kilometres for both men and women and 50 kilometres for men only.


title: Racewalking

text: Racewalking first appeared in the modern Olympics in 1904 in the form of a half-mile (804.672m) walk in the all-round competition, the precursor to the 10-event decathlon. In 1908, stand-alone 1,500m and 3,000m racewalks were added, and, excluding 1924, there has been at least one racewalk (for men) in every Olympics since.


title: Racewalking

text: Women's racewalking became an Olympic event in 1992, following years of active lobbying by female internationals.


title: Racewalking

text: A World Cup in racewalking is held biennially, and racewalk events appear in the World Athletics Championships, the Commonwealth Games and the Pan American Games, among others.


title: Racewalking

text: Since 2003, the IAAF has organised the IAAF Race Walking Challenge, an annual worldwide competition series in which elite athletes accumulate points for the right to compete in the IAAF Race Walking Challenge Final and to share over US$200,000 of prize money. The series of televised events takes place in several countries each year including Mexico, Spain, Russia and China.


title: Racewalking

text: High School: Racewalking is sometimes included in high school indoor and outdoor track meets, the rules often more relaxed. The distances walked tend to be relatively short, with the 1500 m being the most commonly held event. Racing also occurs at 3 km, 5 km and 10 km, with records kept and annual rankings published.


title: Racewalking

text: While participating in races essentially defines race walking, it can be practised by individuals for their own benefit, much like joggers not taking part in racing. One former jogger has written about injuries sustained while running, recommending race walking, which is much easier on the joints, instead. Requiring to have one foot in contact with the ground at all times reduces the impacts on ankles, knees and hips which lead to running injuries.


title: Racewalking

text: 1. not ratified by IAAF because it didn’t fulfil the criteria of having the required three international judges present.


title: Racewalking

text: 1. These times were achieved without the presence of international judges to officiate the competition or post-race doping tests, thus making them invalid for world record status. However, they are accepted as personal best marks for those athletes.


title: Racewalking

text: The women's 50 km walk is a new event, having been controversially added to the World Athletics Championships for the first time in 2017.


title: Racewalking

text: Racewalking is sometimes derided as a contrived or "artificial" sport. In 1992, noted sportscaster and longtime Olympic commentator Bob Costas compared it to "a contest to see who can whisper the loudest".


title: Racewalking

text: In "Malcolm in the Middle" season 4 episode "Malcolm Holds His Tongue", Hal gets into the sport and exposes his local park rival as 'nothing but a common jogger' by proving that both of his feet leave the ground at once every fourth step.


title: Racewalking

text: In the 1966 film "Walk, Don't Run", Jim Hutton plays a racewalker competing in the Tokyo Olympics. Cary Grant and Samantha Eggar co-star.


title: Racewalking

text: In the 2021 film "Queenpins", actress Kristen Bell plays a 3 time gold medal Olympic racewalker and extreme couponer.


title: Marissa Jaret Winokur

text: Marissa Jaret Winokur (born February 2, 1973), sometimes credited as Marissa Winokur, is an American actress and singer known for her Tony-winning performance as Tracy Turnblad in the Broadway musical "Hairspray," an adaptation of John Waters's film, as well as her work on the Pamela Anderson sitcom "Stacked." Some of her other TV credits include "Curb Your Enthusiasm," "Moesha," "The Steve Harvey Show," "Just Shoot Me!," "Felicity," and "Dharma & Greg."


title: Marissa Jaret Winokur

text: She was a contestant on the popular reality competition series "Dancing with the Stars" and went on to host the similar "Dance Your Ass Off." From 2010-2011 she served as a co-host on the daily daytime talk show "The Talk," ultimately leaving to focus on her clothing line and a new cable TV show. The cable TV show in question, when it premiered, proved to be a late-night talk show titled "All About Sex," whose co-hosting duties she shared with Margaret Cho, Heather McDonald, and Dr. Tiffanie Davis Henry, which aired on TLC at 11:00 PM Eastern time on Saturday nights.


title: Marissa Jaret Winokur

text: In 2018, Winokur participated in the first American season of "Celebrity Big Brother," where she was crowned the winner.