title: Branch and bound

text: Branch and bound (BB, B&B, or BnB) is an algorithm design paradigm for discrete and combinatorial optimization problems, as well as mathematical optimization. A branch-and-bound algorithm consists of a systematic enumeration of candidate solutions by means of state space search: the set of candidate solutions is thought of as forming a rooted tree with the full set at the root. The algorithm explores "branches" of this tree, which represent subsets of the solution set. Before enumerating the candidate solutions of a branch, the branch is checked against upper and lower estimated "bounds" on the optimal solution, and is discarded if it cannot produce a better solution than the best one found so far by the algorithm.


title: Branch and bound

text: The algorithm depends on efficient estimation of the lower and upper bounds of regions/branches of the search space. If no bounds are available, the algorithm degenerates to an exhaustive search.


title: Branch and bound

text: The method was first proposed by Ailsa Land and Alison Doig whilst carrying out research at the London School of Economics sponsored by British Petroleum in 1960 for discrete programming, and has become the most commonly used tool for solving NP-hard optimization problems. The name "branch and bound" first occurred in the work of Little "et al." on the traveling salesman problem. Branch and bound methods do not go deep like Depth-first search; the first direction is lateral movement in the tree similar to Breadth-first search (BFS).


title: Branch and bound

text: The goal of a branch-and-bound algorithm is to find a value that maximizes or minimizes the value of a real-valued function , called an objective function, among some set of admissible, or candidate solutions. The set is called the search space, or feasible region. The rest of this section assumes that minimization of is desired; this assumption comes without loss of generality, since one can find the maximum value of by finding the minimum of . A B&B algorithm operates according to two principles:


title: Branch and bound

text: Turning these principles into a concrete algorithm for a specific optimization problem requires some kind of data structure that represents sets of candidate solutions. Such a representation is called an "instance" of the problem. Denote the set of candidate solutions of an instance by . The instance representation has to come with three operations:


title: Branch and bound

text: Using these operations, a B&B algorithm performs a top-down recursive search through the tree of instances formed by the branch operation. Upon visiting an instance , it checks whether is equal or greater than the current upper bound; if so, may be safely discarded from the search and the recursion stops. This pruning step is usually implemented by maintaining a global variable that records the minimum upper bound seen among all instances examined so far.


title: Branch and bound

text: The following is the skeleton of a generic branch and bound algorithm for minimizing an arbitrary objective function . To obtain an actual algorithm from this, one requires a bounding function , that computes lower bounds of on nodes of the search tree, as well as a problem-specific branching rule. As such, the generic algorithm presented here is a higher-order function.


title: Branch and bound

text: Several different queue data structures can be used. This FIFO queue-based implementation yields a breadth-first search. A stack (LIFO queue) will yield a depth-first algorithm. A best-first branch and bound algorithm can be obtained by using a priority queue that sorts nodes on their lower bound. Examples of best-first search algorithms with this premise are Dijkstra's algorithm and its descendant A* search. The depth-first variant is recommended when no good heuristic is available for producing an initial solution, because it quickly produces full solutions, and therefore upper bounds.


title: Branch and bound

text: In the above pseudocode, the functions codice_1 and codice_2 called as subroutines must be provided as applicable to the problem. The functions (codice_3) and (codice_4) are treated as function objects as written, and could correspond to lambda expressions, function pointers and other types of callable objects in the C++ programming language.


title: Branch and bound

text: When formula_1 is a vector of formula_2, branch and bound algorithms can be combined with interval analysis and contractor techniques in order to provide guaranteed enclosures of the global minimum.


title: Branch and bound

text: Branch-and-bound may also be a base of various heuristics. For example, one may wish to stop branching when the gap between the upper and lower bounds becomes smaller than a certain threshold. This is used when the solution is "good enough for practical purposes" and can greatly reduce the computations required. This type of solution is particularly applicable when the cost function used is "noisy" or is the result of statistical estimates and so is not known precisely but rather only known to lie within a range of values with a specific probability.


title: Branch and bound

text: Nau "et al." present a generalization of branch and bound that also subsumes the A*, B* and alpha-beta search algorithms.


title: Branch and bound

text: The first step is to relax the integer constraint. We have two extreme points for the first equation that form a line: formula_9 and formula_10. We can form the second line with the vector points formula_11 and formula_12.


title: Branch and bound

text: The third point is formula_13. This is a convex hull region so the solution lies on one of the vertices of the region. We can find the intersection using row reduction, which is formula_14, or formula_15 with a value of 276.667. We test the other endpoints by sweeping the line over the region and find this is the maximum over the reals.


title: Branch and bound

text: We choose the variable with the maximum fractional part, in this case formula_8 becomes the parameter for the branch and bound method. We branch to formula_17 and obtain 276 @ formula_18. We have reached an integer solution so we move to the other branch formula_19. We obtain 275.75 @formula_20. We have a decimal so we branch formula_7 to formula_22 and we find 274.571 @formula_23. We try the other branch formula_24 and there are no feasible solutions. Therefore, the maximum is 276 with formula_25 and formula_26.


title: Pączki

text: "A pączek" is a deep-fried piece of dough shaped into spheres and filled with confiture or other sweet filling. "Pączki" are usually covered with powdered sugar, icing, glaze or bits of dried orange zest. A small amount of grain alcohol (traditionally rectified spirit) is added to the dough before cooking; as it evaporates, it prevents the absorption of oil deep into the dough. "Pączki" are commonly thought of as fluffy but somewhat collapsed, with a bright stripe around them; these features are seen as evidence that the dough was fried in fresh oil.


title: Pączki

text: Although they look like German berliners (in North America bismarcks) or jelly doughnuts, "pączki" are made from especially rich dough containing eggs, fats, sugar, yeast and sometimes milk. They feature a variety of fruit and creme fillings and can be glazed, or covered with granulated or powdered sugar. "Powidła" (stewed plum jam) and wild rose petal jam are traditional fillings, but many others are used as well, including strawberry, Bavarian cream, blueberry, custard, raspberry, and apple.


title: Pączki

text: The Polish word (plural: ) is a diminutive of the Polish word "bud". The latter derives from Proto-Slavic , which may have referred to anything that is round, bulging and about to burst (compare Proto-Slavic "to swell, burst"), possibly of ultimately onomatopoeic origin. From Polish the word has been borrowed into several other Slavic languages, where the respective loanwords (, or ) refer to a similar ball-shaped pastry.


title: Pączki

text: English speakers typically use the plural form of the Polish word in both singular and plural. They mispronounce it as and often write it as "paczki", i.e., without the ogonek (hook-shaped diacritic). This should not be confused with the unrelated Polish word , which is the plural form of , meaning "package" or "parcel".


title: Pączki

text: In Poland, are eaten especially on Fat Thursday (), the last Thursday prior to Ash Wednesday and the beginning of Lent. The traditional reason for making "pączki" was to use up all the lard, sugar, eggs and fruit in the house, because their consumption was forbidden by Christian fasting practices during the season of Lent.


title: Pączki

text: In North America, particularly the large Polish communities of Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, and other large cities across the Midwest and Northeast, Paczki Day is celebrated annually by immigrants and locals alike. The date of this observance merges with that of pre-Lenten traditions of other immigrants ("e.g.", Pancake Day, "Mardi Gras") on Fat Tuesday. With its sizable Polish population, Chicago celebrates the festival on both Fat Thursday and Fat Tuesday. "Pączki" are also often eaten on Casimir Pulaski Day. In Buffalo, Toledo, Cleveland, Detroit, Grand Rapids, St.Louis, South Bend, Louisville, and Windsor, Pączki Day is celebrated on Fat Tuesday.


title: Pączki

text: The Pączki Day celebrations in some areas are even larger than many celebrations for St. Patrick's Day. In Hamtramck, Michigan, an enclave of Detroit, there is an annual Pączki Day (Shrove Tuesday) Parade, which has gained a devoted following. Throughout the Metro Detroit area, it is so widespread that many bakeries attract lines of customers for "pączki" on Pączki Day. In suburban Cleveland, where Eastern European bakery Rudy's Strudel hosts a large indoor and outdoor Paczki Day party in conjunction with neighboring record store The Current Year, it's called "the Mardi Gras of the Midwest".


title: Pączki

text: In some areas, Pączki Day is celebrated with "pączki"-eating contests. The contest in Evanston, Illinois, started in 2010, and is held on the weekend before Fat Tuesday, while Hamtramck's contest is held on the holiday.


title: Pączki

text: These pastries have become popular in the United States as a result of Polish immigrants and marketing by the bakery industry. Sold in bakeries mainly on both Fat Tuesday and Fat Thursday throughout Detroit and Chicago, they are particularly popular in areas where there is a large concentration of Polish immigrants: Milwaukee, Northcentral and Southeastern Wisconsin, Chicago, Northern Illinois, Northwest Indiana, Metro Detroit, Greater Grand Rapids, Mid Michigan, Toledo, Greater Cincinnati, Greater Cleveland, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Scranton/Wilkes-Barre, Northern and Central New Jersey, Central Connecticut, and Western Massachusetts. The Polish community in Buffalo has the largest Fat Thursday event outside of Poland, which is run in cooperation with the monthly Polish Happy Hour Buffalo event.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: The Spanish influence on Filipino culture has been profound, having originated from the Spanish East Indies. A variety of aspects of the customs and traditions in the Philippines today can be traced back to this influence.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: Spanish settlement in the Philippines first took place in the 1500s, during the Spanish colonial period of the islands. The conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi founded the first Spanish settlement in Cebu in 1565 and later established Manila as the capital of the Spanish East Indies in 1571. The Philippine Islands are named after King Philip.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: Spaniards are referred to by Filipinos as "Kastila" (Castilian) named after the former Kingdom of Castile, now a region of Spain. The majority of the Filipinos of Spanish descent are of Spaniard origin, while a very small minority are Latin American descents. Another term for them is Spanish Filipino.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: Some of the societies scattered in the islands remained isolated but many evolved into states that developed substantial trade and contacts with the peoples of Eastern and Southern Asia, including those from India, China, Japan and other Austronesian islands (The Malay archipelago).


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: The 1st millennium saw the rise of the harbor principalities and their growth into maritime states composed of autonomous barangays independent of, or allied with larger nations which were either Malay thalassocracies, led by Datus or Indianized kingdoms governed by Rajahs.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: Philippine Spanish (Spanish: Español Filipino, Castellano Filipino) is a variant of standard Spanish spoken in the Philippines. It is a Spanish dialect of the Spanish language.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: Chavacano, a Spanish-based creole, is spoken in the Zamboanga Peninsula (where it is an official language), Davao, and Cotabato in Mindanao, and Cavite in Luzon.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: Filipinos today speak a variety of different languages including Cebuano, Tagalog, Ilocano, Ilonggo, and Bikolano, in addition to English—all of which are 90% Austronesian languages, and also contain up several Spanish loanwords. The Philippines still completely attained its entire languages and culture despite years of colonial rule.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: The most common languages spoken in the Philippines today are English and Filipino, the national language that is a standardised form of Tagalog. Spanish was an official language of the country until immediately after the People Power Revolution in February 1986 and the subsequent ratification of the 1987 Constitution. The new charter dropped Spanish as an official language and today it is very rare to find a native Spanish speaker, less than 0.1% of the population.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: However, the government of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, the fourteenth president of the Philippines and a hispanophone, reintroduced the study of Spanish into the state school system.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: The name of the Philippines comes from the king of Spain Philip II. It was given by the Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos who named the islands of Samar and Leyte "Las Islas Felipinas" (The Philippine Islands), during his expedition in 1543. Throughout the colonial period, the name Felipinas (Philippines) was used, and became the official name of the Philippines.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: There are many provinces in the Philippines with Spanish names, such as Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Écija (Nueva Ecija), Laguna, Isabela, Quirino, Aurora, La Unión (La Union), Marinduque, Antique, Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, Nueva Segovia and Valle de Compostela.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: Many cities and towns are also named in Spanish, such as Medellin, La Libertad, Naga, Camarines Sur (prior to 1919 was known as "Nueva Cáceres"), Las Piñas, Prosperidad, Isabela, Sierra Bullones, Angeles, La Paz, Esperanza, Buenavista, Pilar, La Trinidad, Garcia Hernandez, Trece Martires, Los Baños, and many more. There are numerous other towns and cities named after saints, such as San Fernando, Santa Rosa, San Isidro, San José, San Juan and San Pablo, as well as after Spanish places like Madrid, Santander, Toledo, Cádiz, Valencia, Murcia, Lucena, and Pamplona.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: Other native Filipino names are spelled using Spanish orthography, such as Cagayán de Oro, Parañaque, and Cebú.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: A Spanish or Latin-sounding surname does not necessarily denote Spanish ancestry in the Philippines. The names derive from the Spanish conquest of the Philippine Islands and its implementation of a Spanish naming system.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: After the Spanish conquest of the Philippine islands, many early Christianized Filipinos assumed religious-instrument or saint names. This resulted in many people surnamed "de Los Santos" ("of the Saints"), "de la Cruz" ("of the Cross"), "del Rosario" ("of the Rosary"), "Bautista" ("Baptist"), and "de Jesus" ("of Jesus").


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: On November 21, 1849, the Spanish Governor-General of the Philippine Islands, Narciso Clavería, decreed the systematic distribution of surnames and the implementation of the Spanish naming system for the Filipinos. This produced the "Catálogo alfabético de apellidos" ("Alphabetical Catalogue of Surnames") listing Hispanicized Chinese and Filipino words, names, and numbers. Surnames of Spanish nobility and several colonial administrators, which include the preposition "de" as a nobiliary particle, were explicitly prohibited. Many names which resulted are not common to the Hispanophone world, because they were Hispanicized from the original Filipino or Chinese. This new naming system also did away with the Filipino custom of siblings taking different surnames.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: Filipinos belong to the Austronesian ethnic group of the Southeast Asian region. The natives of the Philippine Islands may be related to the Chamorro people in the Mariana Islands (named Islas de Ladrones during Ferdinand Magellan's expedition) of the Pacific Ocean due to their racial similarity, and for being geographically not connected to the Southeast Asian mainland as a group of islands, but are rather different from the Pacific Islanders belonging to the Polynesian, Micronesian, and Melanesian ethnic groups. The natives of the Philippines are rather closely related to their closest neighbors, which are Malaysia and Indonesia. Most of the immigrant ethnicities of the Philippine Islands are from the Southeast Asian region. Although there are many ethnic groups in the Philippines, such as the native population (Tagalog, Bisaya, Bicolano, Ilocano, Mindanaoans, and the native Moros in Mindanao), that some people of the Philippines of this present time, consider them to be related to the Aborigines of Australia and Melanesians, are rather the result of the long period of interracial mixture among the native ethnic groups of the Islands. The Philippine Islands is still politically divided among the ethnic groups and regional groups, but there are also Chinese, Japanese, and Indian peoples who migrated after the Spanish colonial era and created their own non-native ethnic group. There are still a few Filipinos and prominent Filipino families today who are of pure Spanish ancestry.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: Nevertheless, Stanford University had stated that only 1–3% of the Philippine population had minimal degrees of Spanish blood. The official percentage of Filipinos with Spanish ancestry is unknown. However, in a research done by Dr. Michael Purugganan, NYU Dean of Science in 2013, he conclude that Filipinos today are the conclusion of an Austronesian and Chinese migration result from thousands of years, a melting pot of Asia in pre-colonial era. He stated that; "We are all of many Indo-China mixes, and I think every Filipino who is genetically tested will show up as a mix. We are products of what we evolutionary genomicists call genetic admixture, the result of several thousand years of mixing in our island archipelago at the edge of the Pacific. We were always getting genes from everyone who came to our shores. We are, in a genetic sense, a truly global people."


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: The Philippines is one of two predominantly Christian countries in Asia, the other being East Timor. About 81% of the population is Catholic, 11% belong to Protestant or other Christian denominations, 5.6% are Muslim, and about 2% practice other religions or are irreligious.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: Filipinos at home set up altars in the Hispanic tradition adorned with Catholic images, flowers, and candles. During fiestas, most communities organise church services and religious processions in honor of a patron saint, hold funfairs and concerts, and feast with a variety of Filipino foods.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: All major Christian holidays are observed as official national holidays in the Philippines. Spanish culture and Christianity has influenced the customs and traditions of the Philippines.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: Every year on the 3rd Sunday of January, the Philippines celebrates the festival of the "Santo Niño" (Holy Child Jesus), the largest being held in Cebu City.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: Hispanic influence is based on Indigenous, and European tradition. Folk dance, music and literature have remained intact in the 21st century. These were introduced from Spain in the 16th century and can be regarded as largely Hispanic in the constitution, which has remained in the Philippines for centuries.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: In the business community, the Philippine Chamber of Commerce and Industry (PCCI) plays an integral role in the economic, political and social development of the nation. Historically, the chamber can be traced back as early as the 1890s with the inauguration of the Cámara de Comercio de Filipinas. This organisation was composed mainly of Spanish companies such as the Compañia General de Tabacos de Filipinas, Fábrica de Cerveza San Miguel, and Elizalde y Cía, among other Spanish, and Philippine companies.


title: Spanish influence on Filipino culture

text: During the first half of the 20th-century commerce, and industrial trades with other Hispanic countries declined due to the United States administration of the Philippines and the Second World War. However, the resurgence of trade between Spain and Latin American nations had risen toward the closing of the century. 1998 marked the centennial celebration of Philippine independence and opened a new opportunity for both Hispanic and Filipino businesses to reconnect their historic ties as trade partners.


title: Kelly McCormack

text: Kelly McCormack is a Canadian actor. She has worked in film, television, and on stage, and she runs her production company, Floyder Films.


title: Kelly McCormack

text: She is best known for her portraying Zeph in the Syfy science fiction television series "Killjoys" and for her role as Betty Anne on the Crave series "Letterkenny". She also stars as Jess McCready in the Amazon series, "A League of Their Own".


title: Kelly McCormack

text: McCormack has written and starred in several independent feature films that have screened at film festivals around the world, including "Play the Film" (2013), "Barn Wedding" (2015), and "Sugar Daddy" (2020). She also starred in and produced the award-winning CBC mockumentary "The Neddeaus of Duqesne Island."


title: Kelly McCormack

text: McCormack was born and raised in Vancouver, British Columbia. She has performed on stage since the age of seven and began her training as a performer in classical music and theatre. As a teenager, she studied at the Lyric School of Acting, Vancouver, before attending university first in England at Herstmonceux International Study Centre, where she studied literature, and later at the University of British Columbia.


title: Kelly McCormack

text: After university, McCormack moved to New York City to study acting, musical theatre and experimental theatre and performed with The Flea Theatre Company as a member of The Bat Company, performing in Tony Award nominated Liz Swados' "Kaspar Hauser". She later moved to Toronto and started working in the Toronto indie theatre scene with playwright Kat Sandler, originating roles in plays like "Delicacy", and working in the entertainment industry.


title: Kelly McCormack

text: Throughout the 2010s, she played a variety of supporting roles in a number of productions, including in the television series "Defiance", "11.22.63", and "Damien", as well as in the web series "Teenagers" and "That's My DJ".


title: Kelly McCormack

text: In 2013, she wrote her first feature film, "Play the Film", in which she also starred. The film was produced for only $1,000. McCormack won several awards for writing the film, including Best Screenplay at the Broad Humor Film Festival. The following year, she wrote another feature film, "Barn Wedding", which screened at film festivals throughout 2015.


title: Kelly McCormack

text: In 2017, McCormack served as a producer and actress on several productions. In February of that year, she joined the cast of the Syfy science fiction television series "Killjoys" in its third season. On the series, she portrayed Zeph, an androgynous scientist, in a recurring role until the series ended.


title: Kelly McCormack

text: That summer, the CBC mockumentary "The Neddeaus of Duqesne Island", which McCormack both produced and starred in, was released online via CBC's official website. The series received three Canadian Screen Award nominations at the 6th Canadian Screen Awards in 2018.


title: Kelly McCormack

text: In November 2017, she joined the cast for the third season of the CraveTV series "Letterkenny". In early 2018, she appeared in an episode of the CBC comedy series "Crawford". Later that year, she was featured in an episode of "The Expanse".


title: Kelly McCormack

text: On stage, McCormack has developed and performed in "Charlotte: A Tri-Coloured Play With Music", an original opera based on the life of German painter Charlotte Salomon, which ran at the 2017 Luminato Festival in Toronto and at the World Stage Design Festival in Taipei.


title: Kelly McCormack

text: In 2019, Kelly wrapped production of her latest feature film "Sugar Daddy", which she wrote, produced, and starred in alongside Colm Feore and an ensemble cast that includes Amanda Brugel, Aaron Ashmore, Nicholas Campbell, Noam Jenkins, Ishan Davé, Tiio Horn, Jess Salgueiro, Tony Nappo, Rob Stewart, Michelle Morgan, and Broken Social Scene’s Brendan Canning. The film premiered at the 2020 Whistler Film Festival, where McCormack received an honorable mention for the Borsos Competition award for best performance in a Canadian film, and won the One to Watch award.


title: Kelly McCormack

text: McCormack has been vocal about her support of the #MeToo movement, and was invited to discuss the subject in an interview with CBC's "q" radio show.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: Miami Sound Machine was an American band of Latin-influenced music that had featured the vocals of Cuban-born recording artist Gloria Estefan (née Fajardo). Established in 1975 by Emilio Estefan Jr., the band was originally known as the Miami Latin Boys before becoming the Miami Sound Machine in 1977.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: The band had a number of albums and a string of hit singles until 1989. The band's 1985 album "Primitive Love" credited the band whereas their follow-up album "Let It Loose" in 1987 placed Gloria Estefan at the forefront. From 1988 to 1989, the latter album was also repackaged as "Anything For You" with new cover art with the international release in Europe, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. In 1989, the group's name ceased being included on the CD or album products—as Estefan continued as a solo artist.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: In 1975, Gloria and her cousin Mercedes "Merci" Navarro (1957–2007) met Emilio Estefan Jr. while performing at a church ensemble rehearsal. Estefan, who had formed the band The Miami Latin Boys earlier that year, learned about Gloria through a mutual acquaintance.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: While The Miami Latin Boys were performing at a Cuban wedding at Hotel Dupont, Gloria and Merci (who were wedding guests) performed two Cuban standards impromptu. They impressed The Miami Latin Boys so much that they were invited to join the band permanently; thereby, the band's name was changed to The Miami Sound Machine. Gloria, who was attending the University of Miami at the time, only agreed to perform during the weekends so that her studies would not be interrupted.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: Beginning in 1977, The Miami Sound Machine began recording and releasing various albums and 45s on Audiofon Records in Miami, Florida. The group's primary lineup consisted of six Cuban-born Americans:


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: In 1977, Miami Sound Machine's first album "Live Again/Renacer" was released with two different covers. The group had several more releases on the Audiofon label, the RCA Victor label, and subsequently Miami Sound Machine's own label Miami Sound Machine Records. In 1978, Gloria married Emilio Estefan Jr. after two years of dating. In 1979, Miami Sound Machine added American guitarist and native Miamian, Wesley B. Wright, and Cuban-born Fernando Garcia on trumpet (unrelated to "Kiki" Garcia).


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: By the end of 1979, the band was signed to Discos CBS International. Miami Sound Machine then released several albums, 45s, and twelve-inch singles beginning with the 1980 self-titled "Miami Sound Machine". The combination of traditional Latin rhythms and American R&B grooves (along with the songwriting talents of Gloria Estefan, "Kiki" Garcia, and Wesley B. Wright) set a crossover musical standard for the next two decades to come.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: During the 1980s, with the popularity of Miami-based films and television series such as "Scarface," "Invasion USA", and "Miami Vice", the city was gaining a reputation as an exciting and notorious destination. South Beach and the remainder of Dade County was also attracting attention. NFL Miami Dolphins quarterback Dan Marino was breaking football records and adding to the Miami mystique.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: In 1980, Miami Sound Machine added a more complete horn section primarily consisting of trumpeters Fernando Garcia and Victor "Papito" Lopez and trombonist Louis Perez. The permanent addition of a full horn section added a new dimension and would become a future Miami Sound Machine musical trademark. MSM using this lineup flew to San Juan, Puerto Rico in 1981 to record their second LP on the C.B.S. International label. The album was entitled "Otra Vez" and was recorded at Ochoa Studios in San Juan, Puerto Rico. This would be the last LP to feature the early signature sound of two female vocalists (Gloria and her cousin Merci) singing both in harmony and unison.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: By early 1982, Roger Fisher was added as a second keyboardist, as well as the virtuoso harmonica player Gustavo Lezcano. Merci and Raul left the band in late 1982, just prior to the recording of the third CBS International LP "Rio". The painfully shy Gloria was now the sole lead vocalist on stage and in the studio. As a result, she began to evolve both systematically and stylistically in her performances. Fisher filled Raul's piano duties. At the same time, Betty Cortés was brought in as replacement for Fisher's second keyboardist role and to sing background vocals live and occasionally in the studio. During the same time period, Elena Stracuzzi was brought in to sing background vocals for live performances. In 1983, Leo Villar was added as second trumpeter to replace Fernando Garcia who had left the prior year.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: Miami Sound Machine was now a large ensemble. Despite an eclectic lineup, Miami Sound Machine was focused primarily on the founding members:


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: By the early 1980s, Miami Sound Machine had established themselves as major musical artists in Latin America with a strong presence in both the media and on the radio. The next major hurdle was conquered in early 1984 when a Dutch DJ began playing "Dr. Beat" in Amsterdam. Garcia's catchy lyrics, Gloria's sassy vocals, Wright's funky guitar, and Emilio's infectious conga drums took Europe by storm with the tune eventually reaching the top 10 in the UK and most of Continental Europe, finally causing record labels in the US Market to take notice of the group's strong musical prowess.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: In late 1984, the group released their first Epic/Columbia album, "Eyes of Innocence", which contained the Garcia-penned classic, previously released, single and dance hit "Dr. Beat" as well as the ballad "I Need Your Love".


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: Miami Sound Machine's follow-up album "Primitive Love" was released in 1985. While the horn section were featured on prominent cuts, guitarist Wesley B. Wright was the only member of the core rhythm section to actually record on the LP. On all of the previous LPs, the band members almost exclusively recorded the original studio tracks. In 1985, there would be personnel changes:


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: The successful LP launched three top 10 hits on the "Billboard" Hot 100: the Garcia-penned "Conga" reached No. 10 on the "Billboard" Hot 100; "Bad Boy" reached No. 8 and "Words Get in the Way" (written by Gloria Estefan) reaching No. 5 on the Hot 100 and No. 1 on the US Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart, establishing that the group could perform pop ballads as successfully as dance tunes. At the end of 1985, the stalwart horn section was now in flux, with session player Dana Teboe filling the trombone position in place of the original trombonist, Louis Perez. By early 1986, Victor "Papito" Lopez (visually known for his iconic jet black Cuban mustache) was subsequently replaced by Randy Barlow. By the end of 1986, Teddy Mulet became the band's official trombonist.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: In 1985, Miami Sound Machine appeared on "The Tonight Show" with Johnny Carson, "Solid Gold", "American Bandstand", "CBS Morning News", Walt Disney specials, and frequent spots on "MTV". The band twice performed on the television presentation of the Miss Universe Pageant (1984; 1986). The song "Hot Summer Nights" was also released that year and was part of the soundtrack for the film "Top Gun." The song "Suavé" was also recorded as part of the soundtrack for the Sylvester Stallone film "Cobra". Miami Sound Machine also made a cameo appearance in the ABC Sunday Night Movie "Club Med."


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: After a massive world tour that ran from 1985 to 1986, the following members left the group: guitarist Wesley B. Wright; founding bassist Juan Marcos Avila; and keyboardist Roger Fisher. Emilio assumed the role of producer and no longer performed live.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: Miami Sound Machine returned to the studio in early 1987, and bassist Jorgé "George" Casas on bass, keyboardist Clay Ostwald, and guitarist John DeFaria joined the remaining members. With "Kiki" Garcia being the remaining core member, Gloria Estefan was given top billing and the band's name was changed to Gloria Estefan and Miami Sound Machine to capitalize on the lead singer's mass appeal.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: In late 1987, Miami Sound Machine released "Let It Loose", and it went multi-platinum, with three million copies sold in the US alone. It featured the hits "Anything for You" reaching number 1 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, "1-2-3" making it to No. 3, "Betcha Say That" to number 36, "Rhythm Is Gonna Get You" to No. 5, and "Can't Stay Away from You" to No. 6. "Can't Stay Away from You", "Anything for You" and "1-2-3" were all top charting singles on the Adult Contemporary hits as well.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: Another world tour began and the group traveled for the first time to Europe, South America and an even more extensive tour in the United States, culminating in a finale with massive sold-out concert in their hometown of Miami, Florida, which was recorded and later sold on VHS. By 1988, founding member "Kiki" Garcia quit. With no other core members remaining other than Gloria herself, the "Miami Sound Machine" moniker was to be used from that point on for concerts and live performances only.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: In 1988, after the worldwide chart success of single "Anything for You", her "Let it Loose" album was repackaged overseas as "Anything for You." It became the band's first UK number 1 album, selling over a million copies. It was the biggest selling album of the year in The Netherlands, staying at number 1 for 22 weeks. The album also took top honors in Australia and Canada, launching Gloria Estefan to superstar status.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: By the end of 1988, none of the originating members of the group that once was Miami Sound Machine were performing with Estefan. A new rhythm section was put in place, and the horn section was expanded.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: Although there have been changes in personnel, three members (Jorge Casas, Clay Ostwald and Teddy Mulet) have performed with Estefan since 1986. The current rhythm section has been in place since 1992 (with the subsequent addition of drummer Olbin Burgos and percussionist Edwin Bonilla). Seven members of the Miami Sound Machine lineage appeared in New York City's staging of the Broadway show "On Your Feet!": Jorge Casas, Clay Ostwald, Teddy Mulet, Olbin Burgos, Edwin Bonilla, Tom Timko and David Fernandez.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: In 2002, an attempt was made to create a shoot-off "Miami Sound Machine" with a new eponymous album (produced by Emilio Estefan) and a completely different lineup consisting of Lorena Pinot, Sohanny Gross and Carla Ramirez.


title: Miami Sound Machine

text: Without Gloria Estefan's signature vocals or any real connection to the preexisting Miami Sound Machine musicians, however, the new project was only met with moderate success in a few select European countries and failed to chart significantly in the United States.


title: Deng Xiaoping Theory

text: Deng Xiaoping Theory (), also known as Dengism, is the series of political and economic ideologies first developed by Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping. The theory does not reject Marxism–Leninism or Mao Zedong Thought, but instead claims to be an adaptation of them to the existing socioeconomic conditions of China.


title: Deng Xiaoping Theory

text: The theory also played an important role China's modern economy, as Deng stressed opening China to the outside world, the implementation of one country, two systems, and through the phrase "seek truth from facts", an advocation of political and economic pragmatism.


title: Deng Xiaoping Theory

text: Deng's theory encouraged the construction of socialism within China by having it develop "Chinese characteristics," which was guided by China’s economic reform policy with the goal of self-improvement and the development of a socialist system. His theory did not suggest improvement or development of China's closed economic system, but rather overthrow the existing economic system for a more open one.


title: Deng Xiaoping Theory

text: China largely owes its economic growth to Deng Xiaoping's emphasis on economic production, under the theory of the productive forces – a subset of 20th century Marxist theory. In the view of Deng, the task faced by the leadership of China was twofold: (i) promoting modernization of the Chinese economy, and (ii) preserving the ideological unity of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and its control of the difficult reforms required by modernization.


title: Deng Xiaoping Theory

text: Deng argued that in order for China to achieve socialism, it would have to borrow aspects of capitalism into its economy. However, he also suggested that its usage would have to be state-controlled. These borrowed principles, in Deng's mind, allowed a more liberal interpretation of China’s modernization into a socialist state. This includes marketing characteristics such as planning, production, and distribution that could be interpreted as socialism. Modernization efforts were generalized by the concept of the Four Modernizations. The Four Modernizations were goals, set forth by Zhou Enlai in 1963, to improve agriculture, industry, national defense, and science and technology in China.


title: Deng Xiaoping Theory

text: To preserve ideological unity, Deng Xiaoping Theory formulated "Four Cardinal Principles" which the Communist Party must uphold:


title: Deng Xiaoping Theory

text: In 1992, fourteen years after Deng had become China's leader, he embarked on a tour of southern China (). During this trip he uttered his famous phrase: "Open up" (). "Open up" would be the foundation for China's economic development up until the present day.


title: Deng Xiaoping Theory

text: Little evidence of Mao's approach survived in Deng. Deng Xiaoping Theory argues that upholding Mao Zedong Thought does not mean blindly imitating Mao's actions without deviation as seen in the government of Hua Guofeng, and that doing so would actually "contradict Mao Zedong Thought".


title: Deng Xiaoping Theory

text: The Deng Xiaoping theory played a crucial role in China reforming from its previous state-owned market economy, which resulted in a rapid increase in economic growth within the country.


title: Deng Xiaoping Theory

text: Deng’s theory would be inherited by Jiang Zemin, along with aspects of Mao Zedong Thought and Marxist-Leninism, into a socio-political theory known as the “Three Represents.” This theory was added to the Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party in 2004.


title: Deng Xiaoping Theory

text: Having served as the Chinese Communist Party's (CCP) major policy guide since the Third Plenum of the 11th CCP National Congress in 1978, the theory was entrenched into the Communist Party's Constitution as a guiding ideology in 1997, and was also subsequently written into the Constitution of the People's Republic of China:


title: Queens College, City University of New York

text: Queens College (QC) is a public college in the Queens borough of New York City. It is part of the City University of New York system. Its 80-acre campus is primarily located in Flushing, Queens. It has a student body representing more than 170 countries.


text: Queens College was established in 1937 and offers undergraduate degrees in over 70 majors, graduate studies in over 100 degree programs and certificates, over 40 accelerated master's options, 20 doctoral degrees through the CUNY Graduate Center, and a number of advanced certificate programs. Alumni and faculty of the school, such as Arturo O'Farrill and Jerry Seinfeld, have received over 100 Grammy Award nominations.


text: The college is organized into seven schools: Aaron Copland School of Music, Graduate School of Library and Information Studies, School of Arts & Humanities, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, School of Education, School of Math and Natural Sciences, and School of Social Sciences. Queens College competes in Division II of the NCAA and sponsors 15 men's and women's championship-eligible varsity teams.


text: Before Queens College was established in 1937, the site of the campus was home to the Jamaica Academy, a one-room schoolhouse built in the early 19th century, where Walt Whitman once worked as teacher. The building was located on Flushing-Jamaica Road (later renamed Kissena Boulevard). Jamaica Academy became public in 1844. In 1909, the New York Parental School, a home for troubled boys, opened on the land surrounding the future site of Queens College and incorporated Jamaica Academy on its campus. Buildings such as Jefferson Hall (named after Thomas Jefferson) were used as both dormitories and classrooms.


text: In 1934, the New York Parental School was investigated amid rumors of abuse. The school was shut down and students were transferred to local public schools. A few months later, the grounds were turned over to the city. The city planned to house 500 mental patients from Randall's Island Hospital, who were temporarily displaced by the construction of the Triborough Bridge.


text: Meanwhile, County Judge Charles S. Colden appointed and chaired a committee to assess the feasibility of opening a free college in Queens. In September 1935, the committee recommended the establishment of such a college. Mayor La Guardia backed the recommendation and pushed for the free college's creation. In March 1937, the Board of Education designated the site of the former Parental School to be the future location of Queens College. Paul Klapper, former dean of the School of Education at City College of New York, was appointed the new college's president. The college opened in October 1937—later than anticipated due to a painters' strike—with 21 members on its teaching staff and 400 students in its inaugural freshmen class. The school's colors of blue and silver were selected by a "Color Committee" drawn from the entering class of students, and were announced at the first school dance, which was held on Wednesday, November 24, 1937. Around 1,200 students enlisted in the American military during World War II; fifty-nine would be killed in action.


text: Queens College's motto is "Discimus ut serviamus," which translates to "We learn so that we may serve." With public service for the common good on his mind, Prof. Konrad Gries created the motto in 1937 to inspire the first class of students and the following generations.


text: The college campus grew as buildings were constructed and enrollment increased. But changes beyond growth were in store for Queens College: in 1970, CUNY adopted the controversial policy of Open Admissions, which guaranteed a place at CUNY for any high school graduate in New York, regardless of traditional criteria like grades or test scores. The program was intended to offer college education to more New York City residents, in particular those of color. But Open Admissions did not seem to affect Queens College as much as it did other schools — a year after its implementation, only 10% of its student body was black or Puerto Rican, according to the newly appointed college president, Dr. Joseph S. Murphy. In 1973 enrollment at Queens reached an all-time high of 31,413 students. By 1976 new concerns overtook the college as New York City faced a crippling financial crisis. CUNY's policy of free tuition was revoked; the overall CUNY budget was cut by $135 million; and CUNY Chancellor Robert Kibbee demanded that Queens College slash its budget by 15%. Some faculty members resigned in protest. "The New York Times" reported in December 1976 that "Queens College, considered the jewel in the university's crown, has been particularly hard hit by the cuts, which have gone to the heart of the faculty." All hiring and building on campus was halted.


text: By 1984 student enrollment had declined to 15,000. But with a $175 million building program in place by 1986 for the college's 50th anniversary, enrollments were expected to rise and the college was beginning to recover from the financial crisis of the 1970s. In addition, the student body, in accordance with the mission of the short-lived Open Admissions program, had grown much more diverse, and college faculty were trained to understand Latin American culture and how to teach American literature to non-native students. By that time, former Queens College president Dr. Joseph S. Murphy was CUNY Chancellor. In the 1990s, the college attracted high-profile researchers to its faculty, including the virologist Luc Montagnier. Under President Allen Lee Sessoms, the college underwent some growth but also some missteps, including the highly publicized inability to fund the planned AIDS research center that Dr. Montagnier had been hired to lead.


text: Queens College students were active participants in the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, including the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in 1963. The most well-known student activist was Andrew Goodman, who was slain in Mississippi in 1964 with two other young men, James Chaney, and Michael Schwerner; all three were trying to register African Americans to vote in the South. Schwerner and Chaney were on the organizing staff of CORE; Goodman was a Freedom Summer volunteer. The three activists were stopped and arrested for allegedly driving over the speed limit on a Mississippi road. After being brought into the sheriff's department and released, the three young men were stopped by two carloads of Ku Klux Klan members on a remote rural road. The men approached their car, then shot and killed all three young men. The murders received national attention, and six conspirators were brought to trial and convicted by federal prosecutors for civil rights violations. The Chaney-Goodman-Schwerner Clock Tower of Rosenthal Library, a highly visible borough landmark, is named in their honor.


text: In February 2011, Queens College inherited the personal collection of the late James Forman. The collection, along with other civil rights leaders' collections, is available online at the Queens College Civil Rights Archive. A special program on February 17, 2011, included a presentation by the Honorable Julian Bond for Black History Month, as well as a formal announcement of the acquisition.


text: The college campus continued improving its facilities. Under a $1 billion CUNY-wide improvement program, Queens College's Powdermaker Hall was given a $57 million renovation, begun in 2000.


text: Dr. Felix V. Matos Rodriguez was appointed president of Queens College by the CUNY Board of Trustees in 2014. On May 1, 2019, Dr. Matos Rodriguez became the new Chancellor of the City University of New York as the first Latino and first minority educator to head the university in its 172-year history. William Tramontano served as QC's interim president from 2019 until July 1, 2020, when Frank H. Wu succeeded him as the new college president.


text: The 80-acre campus, located off Kissena Boulevard, is on a 100-foot-high hill that gives a fine view westward towards Manhattan. However, despite occasional claims to the contrary, it is not on the highest point in Queens. Six of the original Spanish-style buildings dating back to the early 20th century still stand, such as Jefferson Hall, which was built in 1907. The college has since expanded to over 40 buildings, including the main classroom building, Powdermaker Hall, rebuilt in 2003 and named after the college's distinguished anthropologist Hortense Powdermaker.


text: Queens College is one of two CUNY colleges that participates in Division II sports (the other is The College of Staten Island). A Child Development Center, staffed by professionals, offers inexpensive child care services to students with children. The college is also home to the Godwin-Ternbach Museum, which houses more than 6,000 works of art.


text: The college holds courses at several off-campus locations, including the 43rd Street Extension Center in Manhattan and the CUNY Center for Higher Education in downtown Flushing, which opened in late 2003.


text: The college has a low-rise 506-bed residence hall on campus called the Summit Apartments, which opened in late 2009. This makes Queens College one of only three CUNY campuses with dorm facilities (the other two being Hunter College and City College).


text: The college is home to the Aaron Copland School of Music (named for Aaron Copland), which is located in the Music Building. The Music Building also houses the music library and the 490-seat LeFrak Concert Hall.


text: CUNY School of Law was previously located to the west of the campus of Queens College; while it was always a separate administrative unit of CUNY, the building itself read "CUNY School of Law at Queens College," and was once a building for the Department of Education. The CUNY Board of Trustees approved plans for the Law School to be relocated to 2 Court Square in Long Island City, with the first semester of classes held in 2012. Queens College has since taken over the former Law School building, now named Queens Hall and home to the college's language departments.


text: Townsend Harris High School and John Bowne High School are located at the edge of the Queens College campus.


text: The Kupferberg Center for the Arts is home to Colden Auditorium, Goldstein Theatre, and the Ethel & Samuel Lefrak Concert Hall. Trevor Noah, Jerry Seinfeld, David Bowie, Patti LaBelle and Johnny Mathis, The Byrds, Victor Manuelle, Cesar Millan, and El Gran Combo have performed at Colden.


text: The campus maintains the Benjamin Rosenthal Library. The library's Chaney-Schwerner-Goodman Clocktower was named after the three civil rights workers who were murdered in 1964, including Andrew Goodman, a Queens College student. Built in 1988, the library contains over 800,000 books, 32,600 print and electronic materials, the electronic archives, a collection of multimedia materials in its Media Center and an art center. The library is also home to the Louis Armstrong archives.


text: The Art Library and the Queens College Art Center are on the sixth floor of Rosenthal. The Art Library has over 70,000 books; 5,000 bound periodicals; and 110,000 slides, pictures, and exhibition catalogs and pamphlets. The collection includes resources for the study of all aspects of the visual arts and material culture, including art and architectural history, theory, criticism, materials, techniques, and practice.


text: Nurtured by both the Aaron Copland School of Music and the Queens College Library, the Music Library has evolved into a first-class research facility and is the largest music collection in the CUNY system. The Music Library is located on two levels in the School of Music building and contains over 35,000 scores, 30,000 books, and 20,000 sound recordings, including the David S. Walker Music Education Collection and the Ursula Springer Choral Music Collection.


text: Since 1957 Queens College has been collecting works of art, these collections were initially used for teaching purposes and were meant to serve the college community. The collections were eventually brought together with the establishment of the Godwin-Ternbach Museum in 1980. The museum is now a part of the Kupferberg Center for the Arts, which has joined all the works of art on campus in collaborations of visual, performance, dance, and theater arts. In the early 1990s, the museum was downsized due to budget cuts. Over the next few years, the college kept it open but on a reduced budget and staff. In 2001, however, the college hired Amy Winter as director of the museum. To address the concerns of the museum Winter turned to MAP (The Museum Assessment Program); as a result not only did the museum improve its facilities but increased its collections-related staff as well. Today the museum is an integral part of Queens College that serves not only the faculty and staff but the community at large.


text: The museum, located in Klapper Hall, maintains a fine collection of 6,000 pieces of art, as well as artifacts from all cultures dating from ancient times to the modern day. These include works by Rembrandt Van Rijn, Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Georges Braque. The museum also hosts a series of exhibitions each year. These exhibitions and events are free and open to the public.


text: Queens College's first residence hall, the Summit Apartments, opened in 2009. This low-rise, 506-bed facility is located in the middle of the campus. Queens College is still primarily a commuter school, as only 500 of its over 19,000 students live on campus. The building has a gold certificate from the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED), an organization that certifies buildings to have met environmentally sustainable construction standards. Queens College's residence hall offers study lounges on each floor, wireless internet, laundry services, and a state of the art fitness center. The Summit Apartments also includes kitchens with full-size appliances, as well as dining areas, microwaves, couches, entertainment stands, and music practice rooms.


text: In addition to the Summit, many students rent apartments off campus in the surrounding neighborhoods.


text: Queens College operates a free shuttle service for students from campus (next to the Student Union building) to major transportation hubs in Flushing and Jamaica. The shuttle service also transports students from the Kissena end of campus to the Main Street end. The shuttle operates seven days a week.


text: Queens College is a liberal arts college that offers undergraduate degrees in 78 majors, over 100 master's degrees, over 40 accelerated master's options, 20 doctoral degrees through the CUNY Graduate Center, and a number of advanced certificate programs. It is also one of seven participating schools in the CUNY Macaulay Honors College. Queens College has a Freshman Honors Program, as well as a program called TIME 2000 for future math educators. The college's Professional & Continuing Studies program offers non-credit courses in such fields as health care, real estate, and risk management.


text: There are seven schools within the college: Aaron Copland School of Music, Graduate School of Library and Information Studies, School of Arts & Humanities, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, School of Education, School of Math and Natural Sciences, and School of Social Sciences.


text: The Aaron Copland School of Music is one of the oldest departments at Queens College, founded when the college opened in 1937. The department's curriculum was originally established by Edwin Stringham, and a later emphasis on the analytical system of Heinrich Schenker was initiated by Saul Novack. It offers undergraduate and graduate degrees.


text: GSLIS is an American Library Association accredited program and the only public school of library science in New York City. The school offers a Master of Library Science (MLS), MLS School Media Specialist, and dual MLS/MA in history degree paths. Additionally, the school offers two professional certificates, one in Children and Young Adult Services as well as one in Archives, Records Management, and Preservation.


text: Starting as a program within the education department at Queens College in 1955, GSLIS began issuing MLS degrees in 1965. It achieved status as a separate school for graduate studies within Queens College in 1979. In 2002, the school opened its Children and Young Adult Services certificate and, in 2003, its Archives, Records Management, and Preservation certificate.


text: The college is home to many centers which focus their research on various pressing social issues facing the local communities, students, faculty and the many ethnic and religious groups of the Queens area.


text: Queens College students represent 170 countries and speak over 90 different native languages. This rich variety has influenced Queens College's curriculum, research, and outreach programs.


text: Queens College has over 100 different clubs and organizations, ranging from fraternities/sororities to cultural, religious, technology, and art clubs. Most of the organizations are located within the Student Union building. To complement the college's educational mission, the Student Union provides various facilities, services, co-curricular activities, and programs.


text: After one year as the "Israel Business Club", a small group of Queens College students successfully achieved chapter status in the TAMID Group. The TAMID Group (formerly '"TAMID Israel Investment Group"') is a student-led, apolitical, and areligious organization on 35 elite U.S. college campuses that provides experiential learning and leadership opportunities to 2,000+ students through hands-on interaction with the Israeli economy.


text: Queens College Greek life consists of eight fraternities and seven sororities. Greek membership numbers in the hundreds, with more members in Greek Life than in all the other clubs on campus combined. The Queens College Greek life supports a variety of different philanthropies with thousands of dollars in donations to various charitable organizations, as well as thousands of hours of volunteer work. The Dining Hall is a popular gathering place for Greeks, as is the field directly outside during good weather. They hold events such a Greek Week, Fall Brawl, and Meet the Greeks, where they showcase their respective organizations, as well as compete for recreation.


text: Queens (NY) athletic teams are the Knights. The college is a member of the Division II level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), primarily competing in the East Coast Conference (ECC, formerly known as the New York Collegiate Athletic Conference until after the 2005–06 school year) since the 1989–90 academic year. The Knights previously competed in the City University of New York Athletic Conference (CUNYAC) at the Division III level from 1978–79 to 1979–80.


text: Queens compete in 15 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, soccer, tennis and track & field; while women's sports include basketball, cross country, dance, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball. The longest running among these programs are the men's basketball and baseball teams.


text: The men's basketball team has put a team on the court in every season since its inception in 1938. On February 14, 2004, the team played its 1500th game and, in those 1500 games, has produced twenty 1,000-point scorers. Of these twenty players, twelve have achieved this after the college began play in NCAA Division II in 1983 and three of these players: Alan Hevesi (#5), Norman Roberts (#15) & Geoff Maloney (#22) have had their numbers retired. Although the program has a long-running record of achievement, its biggest successes have come in the 21st century. In 2001 the Knights earned their first NCAA Division II Northeast Regional bid. A year later the team earned its second consecutive bid along with the program's first NYCAC championship. In 2005 the team once again was crowned NYCAC Champions and received an automatic bid to the NCAAs.


text: With the exception of three years during World War II, the baseball program, like men's basketball, has fielded a team since 1938. In both 1967 and 1976 the team captured the Knickerbocker Conference championship, and in 1981 it won the CUNY championship. Their championships in 1976 and 1981 also earned them NCAA Division III tournament bids. More recently, the squad captured the NYCAC regular season championships in 1997 and 1998, the NYCAC tournament championship in 1998 and a bid to the NCAA Division II Northeast Regional. Seven players have been drafted and nine players have gone on to play professionally with organizations including the New York Yankees, Philadelphia Phillies, Chicago White Sox and Kansas City Royals. The latest of these draftees is 1998 All-American Justin Davies who, after playing in the Toronto Blue Jays organization for two seasons, has spent four years (2000–2004) as on outfielder for the Long Island Ducks of the Independent League.


text: The women's basketball team has also experienced success. On March 24, 1973, the Knights, who were ranked #2 in the country, took the FitzGerald Gymnasium court with the AIAW (Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women) National Championship at stake. On February 22, 1975, they played in the first women's basketball game ever played in Madison Square Garden. Three players from this era (Debbie Mason (#15), Gail Marquis (#25) and Althea Gwyn (#31)) have had their numbers retired. On January 4, 2015, the two teams played in the Maggie Dixon Classic as a commemoration of the 40th anniversary of the original event. In the 2000s, the team has rebounded from a short down period to make a return to the NYCAC playoffs while producing several top-flight players, including Honorable Mention All-American in Carolyn Burke. In 2014 and 2015, under the Leadership of Bet Naumovski, the women's team won ECC Championships and advanced to the second round of NCAA postseason play in 2015.


text: In the period from 1997 to 2003, the softball team posted a .640 winning percentage and won 30 or more games in a season three times. One of those 30 win seasons came in 1999 when the team won their first NYCAC tournament championship and earned their first NCAA bid. Two season later, third team All-American Cheryl Cosenzo helped lead the Lady Knights to their second NYCAC championship as well as an NCAA bid and in 2002 the team earned their third Northeast Regional bid in five years. The Knights rose back to prominence in 2015, winning the ECC Championship under Head Coach Amy Delmore. Queens would make appearances in the NCAA Tournament in 2014 & 2015.


text: The women's tennis team has experienced 19 consecutive winning seasons. The team has won four conference championships, while its players have won a number of individual and doubles titles. In 2004 Dominika Bajuk was selected as NYCAC Player of the Year. The Lady Knights have also earned NCAA Division II post-season championship bids in 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005; as well as in 1995 when, as hosts, they won their region. Marilyn Aschner, who became a professional tennis player, played for the school.


text: The men's track and field team won back-to-back ECC Championships in 2013 and 2014. In May 2022, the college completed renovation on its running track and two soccer fields. The nearly $10 million project was paid for through a combination of state and city funding.


title: Arthralgia

text: Arthralgia (from Greek "arthro-", joint + "-algos", pain) literally means "joint pain". Specifically, arthralgia is a symptom of injury, infection, illness (in particular arthritis), or an allergic reaction to medication.


title: Arthralgia

text: According to MeSH, the term "arthralgia" should only be used when the condition is non-inflammatory, and the term "arthritis" should be used when the condition is inflammatory.


title: Arthralgia

text: The causes of "arthralgia" are varied and range, from a joints perspective, from degenerative and destructive processes such as osteoarthritis and sports injuries to inflammation of tissues surrounding the joints, such as bursitis. These might be triggered by other things, such as infections or vaccinations.


title: Arthralgia

text: Diagnosis involves interviewing the patient and performing physical exams. When attempting to establish the cause of the arthralgia, the emphasis is on the interview. The patient is asked questions intended to narrow the number of potential causes. Given the varied nature of these possible causes, some questions may seem irrelevant. For example, the patient may be asked about dry mouth, light sensitivity, rashes or a history of seizures. Answering yes or no to any of these questions limits the number of possible causes and guides the physician toward the appropriate exams and lab tests.


title: Arthralgia

text: Treatment depends on a specific underlying cause. The underlying cause will be treated first and foremost. The treatments may include joint replacement surgery for severely damaged joints, immunosuppressants for immune system dysfunction, antibiotics when an infection is the cause, and discontinuing medication when an allergic reaction is the cause. When treating the primary cause, pain management may still play a role in treatment. The extent of its role varies depending on the specific cause of the arthralgia. Pain management may include stretching exercises, over the counter pain medications, prescription pain medication, or other treatments deemed appropriate for the symptoms.


title: Arthralgia

text: Capsaicin, a substance found in chili peppers, may relieve joint pain from arthritis and other conditions. Capsaicin blocks the actions of substance P, which helps transmit pain signals, and capsaicin triggers the release of pain-blocking chemicals in the body known as endorphins. Side effects of capsaicin cream include burning or stinging in the area where it is applied. Another topical option is an arthritis cream containing the ingredient, methyl salicylate (Bengay).


title: Noel Jones (Pentecostal bishop)

text: Noel Jones (born January 31, 1950) is a Jamaican minister and a Pentecostal bishop. He is the senior pastor of the City of Refuge Church in Gardena, California, which has about 17,000 members, and was formerly the Greater Bethany Community Church.


title: Noel Jones (Pentecostal bishop)

text: Jones was born in Spanish Town, Jamaica on January 31, 1950. One of seven children born to Bishop Robert (who was a politician and Apostolic clergyman) and Marjorie Jones. He was raised alongside a diverse array of siblings (one of whom is the actress and singer Grace Jones). His parents took him and his two siblings at the time, Chris and Grace, and relocated to Syracuse, New York in 1965.


title: Noel Jones (Pentecostal bishop)

text: Jones received the call to ministry at the age of 19. He attended St. Jago High School and went on to attain a Bachelor of Science in Theology degree from Aenon Bible College. He would later receive an honorary doctoral degree from the International Circle of Faith College (Now, Life College and Seminary) . At the age of 26, he accepted his first pastorate at Bethel Temple of Longview in Longview, Texas.


title: Noel Jones (Pentecostal bishop)

text: In June 1994, Jones was chosen to succeed Bishop Robert W. McMurray as pastor to approximately 1,000 members of the Greater Bethany Community Church, located at 84th & Hoover Street in South Los Angeles, California. During his tenure, the membership of the church has increased so significantly that, in 2003, a new building was acquired in Gardena, California. The new sanctuary, now known as "The City of Refuge", accommodates a growing membership of 17,000. The church has a choir known as the City of Refuge Sanctuary Choir. Their 2007 debut album, "Welcome to the City", charted on the "Billboard" 200 chart and made number one on the Billboard Top Gospel Albums chart.


title: Noel Jones (Pentecostal bishop)

text: English film director and producer Sophie Fiennes in 2002 made a documentary film about the Greater Bethany Community Church with the title "Hoover Street Revival".


title: Batman of Zur-En-Arrh

text: Batman of Zur-En-Arrh is a fictional character in the DC Comics universe. In the Silver Age story, the character is an alien named Tlano from the planet Zur-En-Arrh who decided to become a version of Batman for his own planet. The character's reappearance in the 2000s rebranded him as a violent and unhinged backup personality of Bruce Wayne.


title: Batman of Zur-En-Arrh

text: Batman of Zur-En-Arrh first appeared in "Batman" #113 (February 1958), in the story "Batman—The Superman of Planet-X!". It was written by France Herron and drawn by Dick Sprang. In the story, Tlano, the Batman from Zur-En-Arrh, brings Earth's Batman to his planet to help him battle giant robots piloted by an unidentified alien race. While on the planet, Earth's Batman discovers he has "Superman-like" powers through similar means of the Superman of his world. The end of the story leaves it ambiguous to the reader whether Batman's adventure was real or a dream.


title: Batman of Zur-En-Arrh

text: When Grant Morrison took over the "Batman" series in September 2006, they began referencing classic moments from the character's career, including using a version of Bat-Mite and reusing a costume and dialogue from the then-50-year-old "Batman" #156. Among the references was the "Zur-En-Arrh" phrase, which appears on an alley wall and again on a dumpster in "Batman" #655 and continues to appear, usually as a background element graffiti, until the "Batman R.I.P." story arc begins. The story reveals that the "Zur-En-Arrh" persona is a backup personality created by Bruce Wayne in the event he was ever mentally compromised. The Zur-En-Arrh personality is shown to be more violent and unhinged than Batman's normal persona and is dressed in a costume out of red, yellow, and purple rags referencing the one worn by Tlano.


title: Batman of Zur-En-Arrh

text: In 2022, when Chip Zdarsky took over as the new Batman writer, he reintroduced the Zur-En-Arrh persona as having created Failsafe, the titular robot who serves as a contingency plan should Bruce fall from grace.


title: Batman of Zur-En-Arrh

text: One night, Bruce Wayne finds himself in a daze. He dresses as Batman and takes off in the Batplane while remaining unclear of his own actions. Batman soon finds out that he has been teleported to another planet called Zur-En-Arrh. There, he meets the scientist Tlano monitoring his activities on Earth and has decided to become a version of Batman for his own planet. On this planet, the Batman of Earth has enhanced abilities, similar to those of Superman, due to the different elements of the alien planet. The two Batmen join forces to defeat giant invading robots piloted by an unidentified alien race. After the robots are destroyed, the Batman of Zur-En-Arrh gives Batman (Bruce Wayne) his Bat-Radia device as a keepsake before he returns to Earth.


title: Batman of Zur-En-Arrh

text: In the past, the psychiatrist Simon Hurt was hired to oversee an isolation experiment, for which Batman volunteered. During this process, he gave Bruce Wayne a post-hypnotic trigger connected to the phrase "Zur-En-Arrh", young Bruce Wayne's mishearing of his father's last words ("the sad thing is they'd probably throw someone like 'Zorro in Arkham'"). Many years later, Doctor Hurt was working with the Black Glove when they decided to target Batman and his allies, first spreading information to the effect that Batman's father somehow survived his murder by Joe Chill. Then, using the Zur-En-Arrh trigger in conjunction with drugs, he sent a dazed and confused Bruce Wayne onto the streets of Gotham with no memory of his life. Bruce assembles a makeshift Batman costume (of a similar style to that worn by Tlano from the Silver Age story) and declares himself "the Batman of Zur-En-Arrh".


title: Batman of Zur-En-Arrh

text: The character Bat-Mite appears on the last page with him, commenting "uh-oh" over Batman's increasing delusions. Bat-Mite then counsels the Zur-En-Arrh Batman, revealed over the course of the story to be a backup personality created after a hallucination Batman suffered when exposed to Professor Milo's gas. It was intended to take over for Bruce Wayne if he was ever psychologically attacked in such a manner as to render Batman out of action. The colorful costume expresses a greater confidence and demonstrates a greater willingness to torture and possibly kill his opponents; on one occasion, the Zur-En-Arrh Batman describes himself as being Batman "when you take Bruce out of the equation". It is revealed that Bat-Mite is actually a product of Batman's imagination, being Batman's rational side to prevent the unstable Zur-En-Arrh persona from going too far, although he comments that he is from the 5th dimension because "the fifth dimension is imagination".


title: Batman of Zur-En-Arrh

text: The costumes of the two incarnations of the Batman of Zur-En-Arrh are the same, consisting of gaudy, outlandish colors. In the modern continuity, the crazed Bruce Wayne comments that, despite the ostentatiousness of the costume, Robin had dressed this way for years, implying that it reflects the "total confidence" of the Zur-En-Arrh Batman in his ability to attract the attention of his enemies whereas the Earth Batman dresses in dark colors to attack his foes in the shadows.


title: Batman of Zur-En-Arrh

text: Tlano possessed much high-tech equipment, owing to his residence on a futuristic planet. His version of the Batmobile had an "atomic-powered" motor, and he flew a rocket-shaped Batplane. His main weapon was the "Bat-radia", with which he could "jam atmospheric molecules", affecting the equipment of his enemies. At the end of the story, Tlano leaves Bruce with the device, which becomes inoperable in Earth's environment.


title: Batman of Zur-En-Arrh

text: The Bruce Wayne incarnation also possesses a Bat-radia. This may or may not reflect a continuity between the two stories, as Grant Morrison has made efforts to treat Batman's entire publication history as his backstory. This version of the device scrambled security systems, for instance, overriding and confusing Arkham Asylum's, as well as serving as a tracking device to allow Batman's allies to find him. To add a note of humor to the story, the radia is presented as a "cheap-ass radio" instead of the object seen in the imaginary story, and members of the Black Glove dismiss it as such until they discover its true purpose.


title: Taurus (manufacturer)

text: Taurus Armas S.A. (previously known as Forjas Taurus S.A.) is a Brazilian manufacturing conglomerate based in São Leopoldo, Rio Grande do Sul with plants in Bainbridge, Georgia, Mandirituba, Paraná and São Leopoldo. Founded in 1924 as a tool and die forging plant, the company now consists of Taurus Armas, its firearm division, as well as other divisions focusing on metals manufacturing, plastics, body armors, helmets and civil construction.


title: Taurus (manufacturer)

text: In 2021, the U.S. accounted for 79.6% of total sales, a growth of 23.4%. In 2020, 41% of all the revolvers sold in the US were Taurus brand revolvers and, in 2021, it is estimated that this market share has reached 61%. Firearms and accessories accounted for 70.1% of total sales revenue in the U.S.


title: Taurus (manufacturer)

text: Taurus produced its first revolver, the Model 38101SO, in 1941. Beginning in 1953, it exported revolvers to the U.S. market through a series of importers.


title: Taurus (manufacturer)

text: In 1962, the Bangor Punta Corporation, then the parent company of Smith & Wesson, purchased 87 percent of Forjas Taurus, allowing the two firearms manufacturers to easily share information regarding design and manufacturing. In 1973, Taurus was purchased from Bangor Punta by its current owners, and its ties to Smith & Wesson were severed.


title: Taurus (manufacturer)

text: In 1981, after Italian arms manufacturer Beretta had completed its contracts to produce firearms for Brazil's military, Taurus purchased Beretta's São Paulo manufacturing plant along with the tooling, technical drawings, and work force necessary to produce several different pistol designs.


title: Taurus (manufacturer)

text: In order to more effectively tap the U.S. market, the company created a subsidiary, Taurus International Manufacturing Incorporated, also known as Taurus USA, in 1988.


title: Taurus (manufacturer)

text: In 1995 Forjas Taurus purchased the rights & equipment to manufacture Rossi brand revolvers. They currently manufacture three .38 Special models and four .357 Magnum models under the Rossi name, manufactured in São Leopoldo, Brazil. In 2009, Heritage Manufacturing was also purchased and its production later moved to Taurus' Miami, Florida plant.


title: Taurus (manufacturer)

text: The current product line includes steel-frame pistols, polymer-frame pistols, revolvers, and law enforcement weapons (submachine guns and rifles), the latter intended for the domestic Brazilian market. The company manufactures and sells its firearms for generally less than other manufacturers due to low labor costs, as well as having the facilities available to build virtually every part themselves.


title: Taurus (manufacturer)

text: One writer said in 2010 that the "quality of Taurus handguns in the modern era is second to none". In 2015, Taurus settled a lawsuit for $39 million and recalled nearly one million handguns produced between 1997 and 2013 due to "safety defects".


title: Taurus (manufacturer)

text: Taurus was originally known for manufacturing revolvers similar in design to those offered by Smith & Wesson. The company moved away from this realm by offering larger framed models such as the Raging Bull (.454 Casull) and Raging Hornet (.22 Hornet) revolvers as well as the Judge 5-shot revolvers (.410 bore and .45 Colt).


title: Taurus (manufacturer)

text: One of Taurus' most successful semiautomatic handguns has been its PT92, a model similar to Beretta's model 92 line, but with the addition of an ambidextrous frame safety, rather than the Beretta's slide-mounted safety.


title: Taurus (manufacturer)

text: The most recent addition to the Taurus pistol lineup is a copy of the Colt 1911 .45 ACP pistol, the PT1911. This slightly redesigned and updated design offers many features.


title: Taurus (manufacturer)

text: Nine of their more popular models manufactured between 1997 and 2013 have been issued a voluntary recall in 2015. This is around one million pistols and includes the following models.


title: Taurus (manufacturer)

text: A class action settlement has also been agreed to which amounts to almost 39 million dollars due to the defective models.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: The Charleston is a dance named after the harbor city of Charleston, South Carolina. The rhythm was popularized in mainstream dance music in the United States by a 1923 tune called "The Charleston" by composer/pianist James P. Johnson, which originated in the Broadway show "Runnin' Wild" and became one of the most popular hits of the decade. "Runnin' Wild" ran from October 28, 1923, through June 28, 1924. The peak year for the Charleston as a dance by the public was mid-1926 to 1927.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: While the dance probably came from the "star" or challenge dances that were all part of the African-American dance called Juba, the particular sequence of steps which appeared in "Runnin' Wild" were probably newly devised for popular appeal. "At first, the step started off with a simple twisting of the feet, to rhythm in a lazy sort of way. [This could well be the Jay-Bird.] When the dance hit Harlem, a new version was added. It became a fast kicking step, kicking the feet, both forward and backward and later done with a tap." Further changes were undoubtedly made before the dance was put on stage. In the words of Harold Courlander, while the Charleston had some characteristics of traditional Black American dance, it "was a synthetic creation, a newly-devised conglomerate tailored for widespread popular appeal." Although the step known as "Jay-Bird", and other specific movement sequences are of Afro-American origin, no record of the Charleston being performed on the plantation has been discovered.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: Although it achieved popularity when the song "Charleston", sung by Elisabeth Welch, was added in the production "Runnin' Wild", the dance itself was first introduced in Irving C. Miller's "Liza" in the spring of 1923.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: Willie "The Lion" Smith noted that the dance was known well before that; in particular, he mentions the version done by Russell Brown under the name "Geechie dance".


title: Charleston (dance)

text: The characteristic Charleston beat, which Johnson said he first heard from Charleston dockworkers, incorporates the clave rhythm and was considered by composer and critic Gunther Schuller to be synonymous with the Habanera, and the Spanish Tinge. Johnson actually recorded several "Charlestons," and in later years derided most of them as being of "that same damn beat." Several of these were recorded on player piano rolls, several of which have survived to this day.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: The Charleston and similar dances such as the Black Bottom which involved "Kicking up your heels" were very popular in the later part of the 1920s. They became less popular after 1930, possibly because after seven years of being fashionable people simply became less interested. The new fashion for floor level sheath evening dresses was also probably a factor. The new dresses constricted the leg movements essential for the Charleston. There is a British Pathé Instructional Short from 1933 in which a new variation – the "Crawl Charleston" – is demonstrated by Santos Casini and Jean Mence. This shows a very sedate version of dance similar to a tango or waltz. It was not until dress hem lines rose toward the end of the thirties that the Charleston is again seen in film.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: A slightly different form of Charleston became popular in the 1930s and 1940s, and is associated with Lindy Hop. In this later Charleston form, the hot jazz timing of the 20s Charleston was adapted to suit the swing jazz music of the 1930s and 1940s. This style of Charleston has many common names, though the most common are Lindy Charleston, Savoy Charleston, 30s or 40s Charleston and Swinging Charleston. In both the 20s Charleston and Swinging Charleston, the basic step takes eight counts and is danced either alone or with a partner.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: Frankie Manning and other Savoy dancers saw themselves as doing Charleston steps within the Lindy rather than to be dancing Charleston.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: Today Charleston is an important dance in Lindy Hop dance culture, danced in many permutations: alone (solo), with a partner, or in groups of couples or solo dancers. The basic step allows for a vast range of variations and improvisation. Both the 20s and Swinging Charleston styles are popular today, though swinging Charleston is more commonly integrated into Lindy Hop dancing.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: Charleston can be danced solo, or with a partner. Its simple, flexible basic step makes it easy to concentrate on styling, improvisation and musicality.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: Whichever style of Charleston one chooses, whether dancing alone, with a partner, or in groups, the basic step resembles the natural movement of walking, though it is usually performed in place. The arms swing forward and backwards, with the right arm coming forward as the left leg 'steps' forwards, and then moving back as the left arm and right leg begin their forward movement. Toes are not pointed, but feet usually form a right angle with the leg at the ankle. Arms are usually extended from the shoulder, either with straight lines, or more frequently with bent elbows and hands at right angles from the wrist (characteristics of many African dances). Styling varies with each Charleston type from this point.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: Solo 20s Charleston gained popularity in the early 2000s, in many local Lindy Hop scenes around the world, prompted by competitions such as the Ultimate Lindy Hop Showdown (in 2005 and 2006 particularly) and workshops in the dance taught by high-profile dancers such as the Harlem Hot Shots (formerly known as The Rhythm Hot Shots) and a range of independent dancers.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: Usually danced to hot jazz music recorded or composed in the 1920s, solo 20s Charleston is styled quite differently from the Charleston associated with the 1930s, 1940s and Lindy Hop, though they are structurally similar.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: Solo 20s Charleston is usually danced to music at comparatively high tempos (usually above 200 or 250 beats per minute, with tempos above 300 BPM considered 'fast'), and is characterized by high-energy dancing. Faster movements are often contrasted with slower, dragging steps and improvisations.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: As it is danced today, solo 20s Charleston often combines steps from several dances associated with the 1920s. The most valued form of solo 20s Charleston combines choreography with improvisation and creative variations on familiar dance steps. Above all, the most popular and most "successful" solo 20s Charleston dancers respond to the music in creative ways to express themselves.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: Solo 20s Charleston is often danced in groups on the social dance floor or in formal choreography. Latterly, a derivative of the Charleston, known as the 'Chevin', has been witnessed in European dance halls. The origins of the Chevin are not known; however, some proponents suggest it is named after Elliott Chevin, a Serbian freedom fighter.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: Solo 20s Charleston competitions often make use of elements of the jam circle format, where individual competitors take turns dancing alone for the audience (usually for intervals of a phrase or number of phrases). Competitors move forwards to the audience out of an informal line, usually taking advantage of this movement to perform 'strolls' or other 'traveling' steps, taking the opportunity to "shine".


title: Charleston (dance)

text: Despite the emphasis on solo dancing in these sorts of competitions, there is often much interaction between competitors and between the audience and competitors, frequently in the employment of comic devices (such as "silly walks" or impersonations) or showy and physically impressive "stunt" moves. This type of interaction is typical of the call and response of West African and Aphro-American music and dance. In this call and response, audiences and fellow competitors encourage dancers with cheers, shouts, applause, physical gestures and other feedback.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: This sort of competition structure is increasingly popular in Lindy Hop communities around the world, providing added challenges for dancers, new types of pleasure for audiences and emphasizing social dancing skills such as improvisation and musicality. This structure also echoes the cutting contests of jazz music which Ralph Ellison describes in his stories about live jazz music in the 1930s.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: Partner Charleston uses the basic step described above, though stylistic changes over the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s affected the styling, as well as ways of holding a partner. Traditionally partner Charleston was danced by a man and a woman, but now both men and women may dance with same gender.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: In the 20s Partner Charleston couples stand facing each other in a traditional European partner dancing pose, often referred to as closed position which aids leading and following. The leader's right hand is placed on the follower's back between their shoulder blades. The follower's left hand rests on the leader's shoulder or biceps. The leader's left hand and the follower's right hand are clasped palm to palm, held either at shoulder height or higher. Partners may maintain space between their bodies or dance with their torsos touching.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: The basic step is for the leader to touch their left foot behind them, but not to shift their weight, on counts 1 and 2, while the follower mirrors the motion by touching their right foot in front of them without shifting weight. On counts 3 and 4, both partners bring their feet back to a standing position, but shift their weight onto the foot they have just moved. On counts 5 and 6, the leader touches their right foot in front of themselves while the follower touches their left foot back. On 7 and 8, both feet are brought back to the standing position where the necessary weight shift occurs to allow the basic step to repeat.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: 30s and 40s Partner Charleston involves a number of positions, including "jockey position", where closed position is opened out so that both partners may face forward, without breaking apart.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: In "side-by-side" Charleston partners open out the closed position entirely, so that their only points of connection are at their touching hips, and where the lead's right hand and arm touch the follower's back, and the follower's left hand and arm touch the leader's shoulder and arm. Both partners then swing their free arms as they would in solo Charleston. In both jockey and side-by-side Charleston the leader steps back onto their left foot, while the follower steps back onto their right.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: In "tandem Charleston" one partner stands in front of the other (usually the follower, though the arrangement may vary), and both step back onto their left feet to begin. The partner behind holds the front partner's hands at their hip height, and their joined arms swing backwards and forwards as in the basic step.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: There are numerous other variations on these holds, including "hand-to-hand" Charleston, and countless variations on the footwork (including Johnny's Drop, freezes, Savoy kicks and so on). Names for each vary in different local Lindy Hop scenes, though most have historic names associated with their creators or people in the community of the day. Aria Zapata and Teresa were the most famous dancers at the time.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: In swing dance or Lindy Hop communities today, both solo 20s Charleston and "solo" swinging Charleston are often danced in groups arranged in a loose circle on the social dance floor, in two long lines of facing dancers (evenly spaced) or in other formations in more strictly choreographed performances.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: They may choose to follow steps 'called' either by a designated Caller or by each dancer in turn. In this called context, the group perform the same step for a phrase, or until the new step is "called". Individual dancers often improvise within the structure of the called step, bringing their own personal "flavor".


title: Charleston (dance)

text: There are many local variations on this group dancing, including the following. One person will typically call out a variation (such as turning 360 degrees in place on counts 5–10), which is then done by everyone beginning the next measure and again for the following 2 measures. If the caller doesn't call another step immediately, the dancers return to the (default) basic step. Switching sides is sometimes called, upon which the dancers hop on the left foot across to the other side on counts 5–8, turning 180 degrees to the left.


title: Charleston (dance)

text: In the more casual social group context, individual dancers may choose to dance "alone", improvising in response to the music or copying dancers around them.


title: Efficiency

text: Efficiency is the often measurable ability to avoid wasting materials, energy, efforts, money, and time in doing something or in producing a desired result. In a more general sense, it is the ability to do things well, successfully, and without waste.


title: Efficiency

text: In more mathematical or scientific terms, it signifies the level of performance that uses the least amount of inputs to achieve the highest amount of output. It often specifically comprises the capability of a specific application of effort to produce a specific outcome with a minimum amount or quantity of waste, expense, or unnecessary effort. Efficiency refers to very different inputs and outputs in different fields and industries. In 2019, the European Commission said: "Resource efficiency means using the Earth's limited resources in a sustainable manner while minimising impacts on the environment. It allows us to create more with less and to deliver greater value with less input."


title: Efficiency

text: Writer Deborah Stone notes that efficiency is "not a goal in itself. It is not something we want for its own sake, but rather because it helps us attain more of the things we value."


title: Efficiency

text: Efficiency is very often confused with effectiveness. In general, efficiency is a measurable concept, quantitatively determined by the ratio of useful output to total useful input. Effectiveness is the simpler concept of being able to achieve a desired result, which can be expressed quantitatively but does not usually require more complicated mathematics than addition. Efficiency can often be expressed as a percentage of the result that could ideally be expected, for example if no energy were lost due to friction or other causes, in which case 100% of fuel or other input would be used to produce the desired result. In some cases efficiency can be indirectly quantified with a non-percentage value, e.g. specific impulse.


title: Efficiency

text: A common but confusing way of distinguishing between efficiency and effectiveness is the saying "Efficiency is doing things right, while effectiveness is doing the right things". This saying indirectly emphasizes that the selection of objectives of a production process is just as important as the quality of that process. This saying popular in business, however, obscures the more common sense of "effectiveness", which would/should produce the following mnemonic: "Efficiency is doing things right; effectiveness is getting things done". This makes it clear that effectiveness, for example large production numbers, can also be achieved through inefficient processes if, for example, workers are willing or used to working longer hours or with greater physical effort than in other companies or countries or if they can be forced to do so. Similarly, a company can achieve effectiveness, for example large production numbers, through inefficient processes if it can afford to use more energy per product, for example if energy prices or labor costs or both are lower than for its competitors.


title: Efficiency

text: Productive inefficiency, resource-market inefficiency, and X-inefficiency might be analyzed using data envelopment analysis and similar methods.


title: Efficiency

text: Efficiency is often measured as the ratio of useful output to total input, which can be expressed with the mathematical formula "r"="P"/"C", where "P" is the amount of useful output ("product") produced per the amount "C" ("cost") of resources consumed. This may correspond to a percentage if products and consumables are quantified in compatible units, and if consumables are transformed into products via a conservative process. For example, in the analysis of the energy conversion efficiency of heat engines in thermodynamics, the product "P" may be the amount of useful work output, while the consumable "C" is the amount of high-temperature heat input. Due to the conservation of energy, "P" can never be greater than "C", and so the efficiency "r" is never greater than 100% (and in fact must be even less at finite temperatures).


title: Gesture

text: A gesture is a form of non-verbal communication or non-vocal communication in which visible bodily actions communicate particular messages, either in place of, or in conjunction with, speech. Gestures include movement of the hands, face, or other parts of the body. Gestures differ from physical non-verbal communication that does not communicate specific messages, such as purely expressive displays, proxemics, or displays of joint attention. Gestures allow individuals to communicate a variety of feelings and thoughts, from contempt and hostility to approval and affection, often together with body language in addition to words when they speak. Gesticulation and speech work independently of each other, but join to provide emphasis and meaning.