title: Solar thermal energy

text: Heat gain is the heat accumulated from the sun in the system. Solar thermal heat is trapped using the greenhouse effect; the greenhouse effect in this case is the ability of a reflective surface to transmit short wave radiation and reflect long wave radiation. Heat and infrared radiation (IR) are produced when short wave radiation light hits the absorber plate, which is then trapped inside the collector. Fluid, usually water, in the absorber tubes collect the trapped heat and transfer it to a heat storage vault.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: Heat is transferred either by conduction or convection. When water is heated, kinetic energy is transferred by conduction to water molecules throughout the medium. These molecules spread their thermal energy by conduction and occupy more space than the cold slow moving molecules above them. The distribution of energy from the rising hot water to the sinking cold water contributes to the convection process. Heat is transferred from the absorber plates of the collector in the fluid by conduction. The collector fluid is circulated through the carrier pipes to the heat transfer vault. Inside the vault, heat is transferred throughout the medium through convection.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: Heat storage enables solar thermal plants to produce electricity during hours without sunlight. Heat is transferred to a thermal storage medium in an insulated reservoir during hours with sunlight, and is withdrawn for power generation during hours lacking sunlight. Thermal storage mediums will be discussed in a heat storage section. Rate of heat transfer is related to the conductive and convection medium as well as the temperature differences. Bodies with large temperature differences transfer heat faster than bodies with lower temperature differences.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: Heat transport refers to the activity in which heat from a solar collector is transported to the heat storage vault. Heat insulation is vital in both heat transport tubing as well as the storage vault. It prevents heat loss, which in turn relates to energy loss, or decrease in the efficiency of the system.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: Heat storage allows a solar thermal plant to produce electricity at night and on overcast days. This allows the use of solar power for baseload generation as well as peak power generation, with the potential of displacing both coal- and natural gas-fired power plants. Additionally, the utilization of the generator is higher which reduces cost. Even short term storage can help by smoothing out the "duck curve" of rapid change in generation requirements at sunset when a grid includes large amounts of solar capacity.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: Heat is transferred to a thermal storage medium in an insulated reservoir during the day, and withdrawn for power generation at night. Thermal storage media include pressurized steam, concrete, a variety of phase change materials, and molten salts such as calcium, sodium and potassium nitrate.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: The PS10 solar power tower stores heat in tanks as pressurized steam at 50 bar and 285 °C. The steam condenses and flashes back to steam, when pressure is lowered. Storage is for one hour. It is suggested that longer storage is possible, but that has not been proven in an existing power plant.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: Molten salt is used to transport heat in solar power tower systems because it is liquid at atmospheric pressure, provides a low-cost medium to store thermal energy, its operating temperatures are compatible with today's steam turbines, and it is non-flammable and nontoxic. Molten salt is also used in the chemical and metals industries to transport heat.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: The first commercial molten salt mixture was a common form of saltpeter, 60% sodium nitrate and 40% potassium nitrate. Saltpeter melts at 220 °C (430 °F) and is kept liquid at 290 °C (550 °F) in an insulated storage tank. Calcium nitrate can reduce the melting point to 131 °C, permitting more energy to be extracted before the salt freezes. There are now several technical calcium nitrate grades stable at more than 500 °C.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: This solar power system can generate power in cloudy weather or at night using the heat in the tank of hot salt. The tanks are insulated, able to store heat for a week. Tanks that power a 100-megawatt turbine for four hours would be about 9 m (30 ft) tall and 24 m (80 ft) in diameter.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: The Andasol power plant in Spain is the first commercial solar thermal power plant using molten salt for heat storage and nighttime generation. It came on line March 2009. On July 4, 2011, a company in Spain celebrated an historic moment for the solar industry: Torresol’s 19.9 MW concentrating solar power plant became the first ever to generate uninterrupted electricity for 24 hours straight, using a molten salt heat storage.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: In January 2019 Shouhang Energy Saving Dunhuang 100MW molten salt tower solar energy photothermal power station project was connected to grid and started operating. Its configuration includes an 11-hour molten salt heat storage system and can generate power consecutively for 24 hours.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: Phase Change Material (PCMs) offer an alternative solution in energy storage. Using a similar heat transfer infrastructure, PCMs have the potential of providing a more efficient means of storage. PCMs can be either organic or inorganic materials. Advantages of organic PCMs include no corrosives, low or no undercooling, and chemical and thermal stability. Disadvantages include low phase-change enthalpy, low thermal conductivity, and flammability. Inorganics are advantageous with greater phase-change enthalpy, but exhibit disadvantages with undercooling, corrosion, phase separation, and lack of thermal stability. The greater phase-change enthalpy in inorganic PCMs make hydrate salts a strong candidate in the solar energy storage field.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: A design which requires water for condensation or cooling may conflict with location of solar thermal plants in desert areas with good solar radiation but limited water resources. The conflict is illustrated by plans of Solar Millennium, a German company, to build a plant in the Amargosa Valley of Nevada which would require 20% of the water available in the area. Some other projected plants by the same and other companies in the Mojave Desert of California may also be affected by difficulty in obtaining adequate and appropriate water rights. California water law currently prohibits use of potable water for cooling.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: Other designs require less water. The Ivanpah Solar Power Facility in south-eastern California conserves scarce desert water by using air-cooling to convert the steam back into water. Compared to conventional wet-cooling, this results in a 90% reduction in water usage at the cost of some loss of efficiency. The water is then returned to the boiler in a closed process which is environmentally friendly.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: Of all of these technologies the solar dish/Stirling engine has the highest energy efficiency. A single solar dish-Stirling engine installed at Sandia National Laboratories National Solar Thermal Test Facility (NSTTF) produces as much as 25 kW of electricity, with a conversion efficiency of 31.25%.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: Solar parabolic trough plants have been built with efficiencies of about 20%. Fresnel reflectors have a slightly lower efficiency (but this is compensated by the denser packing).


title: Solar thermal energy

text: The gross conversion efficiencies (taking into account that the solar dishes or troughs occupy only a fraction of the total area of the power plant) are determined by net generating capacity over the solar energy that falls on the total area of the solar plant. The 500-megawatt (MW) SCE/SES plant would extract about 2.75% of the radiation (1 kW/m²; see Solar power for a discussion) that falls on its 4,500 acres (18.2 km²). For the 50 MW AndaSol Power Plant that is being built in Spain (total area of 1,300×1,500 m = 1.95 km²) gross conversion efficiency comes out at 2.6%.


title: Solar thermal energy

text: Efficiency does not directly relate to cost: total cost includes the cost of construction and maintenance.


title: Population history of China

text: The population history of China covers the long-term pattern of population growth in China and its impact on the history of China.


title: Population history of China

text: The population went through many cycles that generally reached peaks along each imperial power and was decimated due to wars and barbarian invasions.


title: Population history of China

text: The census data shows that the population as percentage share of the world has a long-term average of 26%, with 6% standard deviation. The minimum could be as low as 16% while the maximum as high as 33%.


title: Population history of China

text: In the late 20th century and the early 21st century, the percentage share has been trending down. This was caused by two opposite factors: On one hand, the world population has been growing explosively. On the other hand, in order to address the poverty issue, China implemented a strict birth control policy.


title: Population history of China

text: During the Warring States period (403–221 BC), the development of private commerce, new trade routes, handicraft industries, and a money economy led to the growth of new urban centers. These centers were markedly different from the older cities, which had merely served as power bases for the nobility. The use of a standardized, nationwide currency during the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) facilitated long-distance trade between cities. Many Han cities grew large: the Western Han capital, Chang'an, had approximately 250,000 inhabitants, while the Eastern Han capital, Luoyang, had approximately 500,000 inhabitants. The population of the Han Empire, recorded in the tax census of 2 AD, was 57.6 million people in 12,366,470 households. The majority of commoners who populated the cities lived in extended urban and suburban areas outside the city walls and gatehouses.


title: Population history of China

text: Demographic historian Angus Maddison uses extensive data to argue that the main base of the Chinese economy shifted southwards between about 750 AD and 1250 AD. In 750 three quarters of the population lived in the rural north, growing wheat and millet. By about 1250 three quarters lived south of the Yangtze and grew mainly rice. By 1000 AD per capita income in China was higher than the Europe average at the same time. Divergence took place from fifteenth and eighteenth centuries as the European economy grew faster. From 1250 to 1900 China saw a fourfold increase in population whilst maintaining an average per capita income more or less stable. The main explanation were peace, irrigation and fast ripening seeds that permitted two crops a year. Chinese total GDP grew faster than that of western Europe from 1700 to 1820, even though European per capita income grew faster.


title: Population history of China

text: Sinologist historians debate the population figures for each era in the Ming dynasty. The historian Timothy Brook notes that the Ming government census figures are dubious since fiscal obligations prompted many families to underreport the number of people in their households and many county officials to underreport the number of households in their jurisdiction. Children were often underreported, especially female children, as shown by skewed population statistics throughout the Ming. Even adult women were underreported; for example, the Daming Prefecture in North Zhili reported a population of 378,167 males and 226,982 females in 1502. The government attempted to revise the census figures using estimates of the expected average number of people in each household, but this did not solve the widespread problem of tax registration. Some part of the gender imbalance may be attributed to the practice of female infanticide. The practice is well documented in China, going back over two thousand years, and it was described as "rampant" and "practiced by almost every family" by contemporary authors. However, the dramatically skewed sex ratios, which many counties reported exceeding 2:1 by 1586, cannot likely be explained by infanticide alone.


title: Population history of China

text: The number of people counted in the census of 1381 was 59,873,305; however, this number dropped significantly when the government found that some 3 million people were missing from the tax census of 1391. Even though underreporting figures was made a capital crime in 1381, the need for survival pushed many to abandon the tax registration and wander from their region, where Hongwu had attempted to impose rigid immobility on the populace. The government tried to mitigate this by creating their own conservative estimate of 60,545,812 people in 1393. In his "Studies on the Population of China", Ho Ping-ti suggests revising the 1393 census to 65 million people, noting that large areas of North China and frontier areas were not counted in that census. Brook states that the population figures gathered in the official censuses after 1393 ranged between 51 and 62 million, while the population was in fact increasing. Even the Hongzhi Emperor (r. 1487–1505) remarked that the daily increase in subjects coincided with the daily dwindling amount of registered civilians and soldiers. William Atwell states that around 1400 the population of China was perhaps 90 million people, citing Heijdra and Mote.


title: Population history of China

text: Historians are now turning to local gazetteers of Ming China for clues that would show consistent growth in population. Using the gazetteers, Brook estimates that the overall population under the Chenghua Emperor (r. 1464–87) was roughly 75 million, despite mid-Ming census figures hovering around 62 million. While prefectures across the empire in the mid-Ming period were reporting either a drop in or stagnant population size, local gazetteers reported massive amounts of incoming vagrant workers with not enough good cultivated land for them to till, so that many would become drifters, conmen, or wood-cutters that contributed to deforestation. The Hongzhi and Zhengde emperors lessened the penalties against those who had fled their home region, while the Jiajing Emperor (r. 1521–67) finally had officials register migrants wherever they had moved or fled in order to bring in more revenues.


title: Population history of China

text: Even with the Jiajing reforms to document migrant workers and merchants, by the late Ming era the government census still did not accurately reflect the enormous growth in population. Gazetteers across the empire noted this and made their own estimations of the overall population in the Ming, some guessing that it had doubled, tripled, or even grown fivefold since 1368. Fairbank estimates that the population was perhaps 160 million in the late Ming dynasty, while Brook estimates 175 million, and Ebrey states perhaps as large as 200 million. However, a great epidemic that entered China through the northwest in 1641 ravaged the densely populated areas along the Grand Canal; a gazetteer in northern Zhejiang noted more than half the population fell ill that year and that 90% of the local populace in one area was dead by 1642.


title: Population history of China

text: The most significant facts of early and mid-Qing social history was growth in population, population density, and mobility. The population in 1700, according to widely accepted estimates, was roughly 150 million, about what it had been under the late Ming a century before, then doubled over the next century, and reached a height of 450 million on the eve of the Taiping Rebellion in 1850. The food supply increased due to better irrigation and especially the introduction of fast-maturing rice seeds, which permitted harvesting two or even three crops a year on the same land. An additional factor was the spread of New World crops like peanuts, potatoes, and especially sweet potatoes. They helped to sustain the people during shortages of harvest for crops such as rice or wheat. These crops could be grown under harsher conditions, and thus were cheaper as well, which led to them becoming staples for poorer farmers, decreasing the number of deaths from malnutrition. Diseases such as smallpox, widespread in the seventeenth century, were brought under control by an increase in inoculations. In addition, infant deaths were also greatly decreased due to improvements in birthing techniques and childcare performed by midwives and doctors. Government campaigns lowered the incidence of infanticide. Unlike Europe, where numerical growth in this period was greatest in the cities, in China the growth in cities and the lower Yangzi was low. The greatest growth was in the borderlands and the highlands, where farmers could clear large tracts of marshlands and forests.


title: Population history of China

text: The population was also remarkably mobile, perhaps more so than at any time in Chinese history. Indeed, the Qing government did far more to encourage mobility than to discourage it. Millions of Han Chinese migrated to Yunnan and Guizhou in the 18th century, and also to Taiwan. After the conquests of the 1750s and 1760s, the court organized agricultural colonies in Xinjiang. Migration might be permanent, for resettlement, or the migrants (in theory at least) might regard the move as a sojourn. The latter included an increasingly large and mobile workforce. Local-origin-based merchant groups also moved freely. This mobility also included the organized movement of Qing subjects overseas, largely to Southeastern Asia, in search of trade and other economic opportunities.


title: Population history of China

text: Chinese scholars had kept count of 1,828 instances of famine from 108 BC to 1911 in one province or another—an average of close to one famine per year. From 1333 to 1337 a famine in the north killed 6 million Chinese. The four famines of 1810, 1811, 1846, and 1849 cost perhaps 45 million lives.


title: Population history of China

text: The period from 1850 to 1873 saw, as a result of the Taiping Rebellion, drought, and famine, the population of China drop by over 30 million people. China's Qing Dynasty bureaucracy, which devoted extensive attention to minimizing famines, is credited with averting a series of famines following El Niño-Southern Oscillation-linked droughts and floods. These events are comparable, though somewhat smaller in scale, to the ecological trigger events of China's vast 19th-century famines. Qing China carried out its relief efforts, which included vast shipments of food, a requirement that the rich open their storehouses to the poor, and price regulation, as part of a state guarantee of subsistence to the peasantry (known as "ming-sheng").


title: Population history of China

text: When a stressed monarchy shifted from state management and direct shipments of grain to monetary charity in the mid-19th century, the system broke down. Thus the 1867–68 famine under the Tongzhi Restoration was successfully relieved but the Great North China Famine of 1877–78, caused by drought across northern China, was a catastrophe. The province of Shanxi was substantially depopulated as grains ran out, and desperately starving people stripped forests, fields, and their very houses for food. Estimated mortality is 9.5 to 13 million people.


title: Population history of China

text: The largest famine of the 20th century, and almost certainly of all time, was the 1958–1961 famine associated with the Great Leap Forward in China. The immediate causes of this famine lay in Mao Zedong's ill-fated attempt to transform China from an agricultural nation to an industrial power in one huge leap. Communist Party cadres across China insisted that peasants abandon their farms for collective farms, and begin to produce steel in small foundries, often melting down their farm instruments in the process. Collectivisation undermined incentives for the investment of labor and resources in agriculture; unrealistic plans for decentralized metal production sapped needed labor; unfavorable weather conditions; and communal dining halls encouraged overconsumption of available food. Such was the centralized control of information and the intense pressure on party cadres to report only good news—such as production quotas met or exceeded—that information about the escalating disaster was effectively suppressed. When the leadership did become aware of the scale of the famine, it did little to respond, and continued to ban any discussion of the cataclysm. This blanket suppression of news was so effective that very few Chinese citizens were aware of the scale of the famine, and the greatest peacetime demographic disaster of the 20th century only became widely known twenty years later, when the veil of censorship began to lift.


title: Population history of China

text: The number of famine deaths during 1958–1961 range from 18 million to at least 42 million people, with a further 30 million cancelled or delayed births. Agricultural collectivisation policies began to be reversed in 1978.


title: Population history of China

text: Chinese emigration first occurred thousands of years ago. The mass emigration that occurred from the 19th century to 1949 was caused mainly by wars and starvation in mainland China, as well as political corruption. Most migrants were illiterate or poorly educated peasants, called by the now-recognized racial slur coolies (Chinese: 苦力, literally "hard labor"), who migrated to developing countries in need of labor, such as the Americas, Australia, South Africa, Southeast Asia, Malaya and other places.


title: Population history of China

text: In 2009, there were 40-45 million overseas Chinese. They lived in 180 countries; 75% lived in Southeast Asia, and 19% in the United States.


title: Population history of China

text: In 2011, there were 73.3% of overseas Chinese lived in 35 Asia countries, and 18.6 in 40 countries of the Americas.


title: Population history of China

text: From 1980 to 2015, the government of China permitted the great majority of families to have only one child. The ongoing Cultural Revolution and the strain it placed on the nation were large factors. During this time, the birth rate dropped from nearly 6 children per woman to just under 3. (The colloquial term "births per woman" is usually formalized as the "Total Fertility Rate" (TFR), a technical term in demographic analysis meaning the average number of children that would be born to a woman over her lifetime if she were to experience the exact current age-specific fertility rates through her lifetime.)


title: Population history of China

text: As China's youngest generation (born under the one-child policy) came of age for formation of the next generation, a single child would be left with having to provide support for their two parents and four grandparents. By 2014 families could have two children if one of the parents is an only child.


title: Population history of China

text: The policy was supposedly voluntary. It was more strongly enforced in urban areas, where housing was in very short supply. Policies included free contraceptives, financial and employment incentives, economic penalties, and sometimes forced abortions and sterilizations.


title: Population history of China

text: After 2000 the policy was steadily relaxed. Han Chinese living in rural areas were often permitted to have two children, as exceptions existed if the first child was a daughter. Because of cases such as these, as well as urban couples who simply paid a fine (or "social maintenance fee") to have more children, the overall fertility rate of mainland China during the aughts was, in fact, around 1.8, closer to two children per family than to one child per family. In addition, since 2012, Han Chinese in southern Xinjiang were allowed to have two children. This, along with incentives and restrictions against higher Muslim Uyghur fertility, was seen as attempt to counter the threat of Uyghur separatism.


title: Population history of China

text: In 2016 the national policy changed to a two-child policy; in 2018 it changed to a three-policy. The new policies helped address the aging issue in China.


title: Population history of China

text: In 2018, about two years after the new policy reform, China is facing new ramifications from the two-child policy. Since the revision of the one-child policy, 90 million women have become eligible to have a second child. According to "The Economist", the new two-child policy may have negative implications on gender roles, with new expectations for women to bear more children and to abandon their careers.


title: Population history of China

text: After the reform, China saw a short-lived boost in fertility rate for 2016. Chinese women gave birth to 17.9 million babies in 2016 (a record value in the 21st century), but the number of births declined by 3.5% to 17.2 million in 2017, and to 15.2 million in 2018.


title: Population history of China

text: In China, men still have greater marital power, which increases fertility pressure on their female partners. The dynamic of relationships (amount of "power" held by each parent), and the amount of resources each parent has contributes to the struggle for dominance. Resources would be items such as income, and health insurance. Dominance would be described as who has the final say in pregnancy, who has to resign in their career for maternal/parental leave. However, women have shown interest in a second child if the first child did not possess the desired gender.


title: Population history of China

text: Chinese couples were also polled and stated that they would rather invest in one child opposed to two children. To add, another concern for couples would be the high costs of raising another child; China's childcare system needs to be further developed. The change in cultural norms appears to be having negative consequences and leads to fear of a large aging population with smaller younger generations; thus the lack of workforce to drive the economy.


title: Population history of China

text: In May 2018, it was reported that Chinese authorities were in the process of ending their population control policies. In May 2021, the Chinese government announced it would scrap the two child policy in favour of a three child policy, allowing couples to have three children in order to mitigate the country's falling birth rates.


Ernest Augustus, Crown Prince of Hanover, 3rd Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale (; 21 September 1845 – 14 November 1923), was the eldest child and only son of George V of Hanover and his wife, Marie of Saxe-Altenburg. Ernest Augustus was deprived of the thrones of Hanover upon its annexation by Prussia in 1866 and later the Duchy of Brunswick in 1884. Although he was the most senior male-line descendant of George I, II, and III, the Duke of Cumberland was deprived of his British peerages and honours for having sided with Germany in World War I. Ernest Augustus was the last Hanoverian prince to hold a British royal title and the Order of the Garter.


title: Ernest Augustus, Crown Prince of Hanover

text: Prince Ernest Augustus of Hanover, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Prince of Great Britain and Ireland, was born at Hanover during the reign of his paternal grandfather, Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover. He became the crown prince of Hanover upon his father's accession as George V in November 1851. William I of Prussia and his minister-president Otto von Bismarck deposed George V and annexed Hanover after George sided with the defeated Austria in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War. During that war, the Crown Prince saw action at the Battle of Langensalza.


text: After the war, the exiled Hanoverian royal family took up residence in Hietzing, near Vienna, but spent a good deal of time in Paris. George V never abandoned his claim to the Hanoverian throne and maintained the Guelphic Legion at his own expense. The former Crown Prince travelled during this early period of exile, and ultimately accepted a commission in the Imperial and Royal Army of Austria-Hungary. The Guelph Party, or the German-Hanoverian Party, as a minor party in the legislature of the North German Federation and then the German Empire continued to protest the annexation of Hanover and advocated for the restoration of the state of Hanover with a Guelph at its head.


text: When King George V died in Paris on 12 June 1878, Prince Ernest Augustus succeeded him as Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale in the Peerage of Great Britain and Earl of Armagh in the Peerage of Ireland. Queen Victoria created him a Knight of the Garter on 1 August 1878. Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria appointed him to succeed his father as colonel and proprietor of the Austrian 42nd Regiment of Infantry. The regiment's name was changed to honour him, and he served as its honorary colonel from 1879 to the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in 1918.


text: While visiting his second cousin Albert Edward, Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII) at Sandringham in 1875, he met Princess Thyra of Denmark (29 September 1853 – 26 February 1933), the youngest daughter of King Christian IX and a sister of the Princess of Wales (later Queen Alexandra).


text: Queen Victoria appointed the Duke of Cumberland a colonel in the British Army in 1876 and promoted him to major general in 1886, lieutenant general in 1892 and general in 1898. Although he was a British peer and a prince of Great Britain and Ireland, he continued to consider himself an exiled monarch of a German realm and refused to disclaim his succession rights to Hanover, making his home in Gmunden, Upper Austria.


text: The Duke of Cumberland was also first in the line of succession to the Duchy of Brunswick after his distant cousin, Duke William. In 1879, when it became apparent that the senior line of the House of Welf would die with William, the Brunswick parliament created a council of regency to take over administration of the duchy upon William's death. This council would appoint a regent if the Duke of Cumberland could not ascend the throne. When William died in 1884, the Duke of Cumberland proclaimed himself Duke of Brunswick. However, since he still claimed to be the legitimate King of Hanover as well, the German Bundesrat declared that he would disturb the peace of the empire if he ascended the ducal throne. Under Prussian pressure, the council of regency ignored his claim and appointed Prince Albert of Prussia as regent.


text: Negotiations between Ernest Augustus and the German government continued for almost three decades, to no avail. During this time, Regent Albert died and Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg was appointed as regent.


text: The Duke of Cumberland was partially reconciled with the Hohenzollern dynasty in 1913, when his surviving son, Prince Ernest Augustus, married the only daughter of Kaiser Wilhelm II, the grandson of the Prussian king who had deposed his father. On 24 October 1913, he renounced his succession rights to the Brunswick duchy (which had belonged to the Guelph dynasty since 1235) in favour of his son. The younger Ernest Augustus thus became the reigning Duke of Brunswick on 1 November 1913 and married the Kaiser's daughter. As a mark of regard for his daughter's father-in-law, Kaiser Wilhelm II created the elder Ernest Augustus a Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle.


text: In 1918, the younger Duke Ernest Augustus abdicated his throne along with the other German princes when all the German dynasties were disestablished by the successor German provisional Government which was established when the Emperor himself abdicated and fled Germany in exile to the Netherlands.


text: The outbreak of World War I created a breach between the British Royal Family and its Hanoverian cousins. On 13 May 1915, King George V of the United Kingdom ordered the removal of the Duke of Cumberland from the Roll of the Order of the Garter. According to the letters patent on 30 November 1917, he lost the status of a British prince and the style of Highness. Under the terms of the Titles Deprivation Act 1917, on 28 March 1919 his name was removed from the roll of Peers of Great Britain and of Ireland by Order of the King in Council for "bearing arms against Great Britain."


text: Prince Ernest Augustus, the former Crown Prince of Hanover and former Duke of Cumberland, died of a stroke on his estate at Gmunden in November 1923. He is interred, next to his wife and his mother, in a mausoleum which he had built adjacent to Cumberland Castle.


text: Until his father's death in 1878, Ernest Augustus's arms in right of the United Kingdom were those of his father (being the arms of the Kingdom of Hanover differenced by a label gules bearing a horse courant argent). Upon his father's death, he inherited his arms.


text: Patrilineal descent, descent from father to son, is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations - which means that the "historically accurate" royal house of monarchs of the House of Hanover was the House of Lucca (or Este, or Welf).


text: This is the descent of the primary male heir. For the complete expanded family tree, see List of members of the House of Hanover.


title: James Stewart filmography

text: James Stewart was a prolific American actor who appeared in a variety of film roles in Hollywood, primarily of The Golden Age of Hollywood in which in 1999, he was listed by the American Film Institute, as the third most popular male actor. From the beginning of his career in 1935 through his final theatrical project in 1991, Stewart appeared in more than 92 films, television programs, and shorts.


title: James Stewart filmography

text: Eleven of his films have been preserved in the United States National Film Registry. He won the Academy Award for Best Actor for "The Philadelphia Story" whilst roles in "Mr. Smith Goes to Washington", "It's a Wonderful Life", "Harvey" and "Anatomy of a Murder" earned him Academy Award nominations. He also won a Golden Globe Award for his role in the television series "Hawkins".


title: James Stewart filmography

text: Stewart made his mark in screwball comedies, suspense thrillers, westerns and family comedies. He worked multiple times with directors such as Anthony Mann ("Winchester '73", "Bend of the River", "Thunder Bay", "The Naked Spur", "The Glenn Miller Story", "The Far Country", "The Man from Laramie", and "Strategic Air Command"), Alfred Hitchcock ("Rope", "Rear Window", "The Man Who Knew Too Much" and "Vertigo"), John Ford ("Two Rode Together", "The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance" and "Cheyenne Autumn)," and Frank Capra ("It's A Wonderful Life", "Mr. Smith Goes to Washington" and "You Can't Take it with You").


title: James Stewart filmography

text: Directors he also worked with include Henry Hathaway ("Call Northside 777" and "How the West Was Won"), Frank Borzage ("The Mortal Storm"), Ernst Lubitsch ("The Shop around the Corner"), Billy Wilder ("The Spirit of St. Louis"), and Otto Preminger ("Anatomy of a Murder").


title: James Stewart filmography

text: Actors with whom Stewart worked include John Wayne, Clark Gable, Cary Grant, Robert Taylor, Spencer Tracy, Robert Mitchum, Charlton Heston, Rock Hudson, Lionel Barrymore, William Powell, Edward G. Robinson, Lee Marvin, Robert Ryan, Oliver Reed, Richard Widmark, Henry Fonda, and Harry Morgan.


title: James Stewart filmography

text: His leading ladies included Margaret Sullavan, Katharine Hepburn, Paulette Goddard, Joan Crawford, Jean Harlow, Joan Fontaine, Jean Arthur, Bette Davis, Hedy Lamarr, Marlene Dietrich, Grace Kelly, Kim Novak, Maureen O'Hara, Donna Reed, Ginger Rogers, Natalie Wood, Eleanor Powell, Doris Day, June Allyson, Janet Leigh, Claudette Colbert and Rosalind Russell.


title: James Stewart filmography

text: Stewart had made guest appearances on television, "The Jack Benny Program", in the 1950s, but first starred in "Flashing Spikes", an hour-long episode of "Alcoa Premiere" directed by John Ford. In the early 1970s, he transitioned his career from cinema to television. For the series "Hawkins", Stewart received the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Drama. In 1972, Stewart reprised his role from the film "Harvey" in a television film of the same name.


title: The Beano

text: The Beano (formerly The Beano Comic, also known as Beano) is a British anthology comic magazine created by Scottish publishing company DC Thomson. Its first issue was published on 30 July 1938, and it became the world's longest-running comic issued weekly in 2018, publishing its 4000th issue in August 2019. Popular and well-known comic strips and characters include "Dennis the Menace", "Minnie the Minx", "The Bash Street Kids", "Roger the Dodger", "Billy Whizz", "Lord Snooty and His Pals", "Ivy the Terrible", "General Jumbo", "Jonah", and "Biffo the Bear".


title: The Beano

text: "The Beano" was planned as a pioneering children's magazine that contained mostly comic strips, in the style of American newspaper gag-a-days, as opposed to the more text story based Story papers that were immensely popular before the Second World War. In the present, its legacy is its misbehaving characters, escapist tales and anarchic humour with an audience of all ages. "Beano" is a multimedia franchise with spin-off books and Christmas annuals, a website, theme park rides, games, cartoon adaptations, and a production company.


title: The Beano

text: Throughout the 1920s, DC Thomson dominated the British comics industry. Dubbed "the big five", the publisher's most successful comics were "Adventure" (1921), "The Rover" and "The Wizard" (1922), "The Skipper" (1930) and "The Hotspur" (1933). These were weekly issued boys' magazines for preteen males, containing anthologies by DC Thomson's creator staff designed in various formats and genres. They became popular throughout the United Kingdom, notably in English industrial cities, helped through the company's ability to view sales and promotions in the areas much easier than the rival publishers in London. Although many were about "super men" the young readers could idolise, the rest of the stories would be comic strips inspired by the gag-a-day strips in American newspapers full of stylised characters, slapstick and puns.


title: The Beano

text: Overseeing the magazines was the Managing Editor of Children's Publications, R. D. Low, who first joined the company in 1913. Almost a decade into the big five's success, the stories shifted to comedic and included more comic strips, which gave Low an idea of creating a new "big five" which focused on the funnies more than drama. The suggestion was approved; editors Bill Blain and (sub-editor) Albert Barnes of "The Wizard" and "The Hotspur", respectively, joined Low's project. The new team placed a newspaper advertisement into "The Daily Telegraph" asking for artists and/or comic ideas. With the help of the advertisement responses and employed artists at DC Thomson, "The Dandy" was published in 1937, the New Big Five's first member. For "The Beano" (initially called "The Beano Comic" until issue 412), Low received comic strip suggestions by Reg Carter, an English illustrator in Sussex who had created funnies for several British comics and designed humorous postcards. After an in-person interview, Low and Carter planned the front cover for "The Beano" first issue, eventually creating the character Big Eggo (originally named Oswald the Ostrich). It would be in colour whilst the inside of the magazine would be black and white, a tactic used for "The Dandy" first issue (black and white stories inside, colourful Korky the Cat strip on the front). Joining the "Big Eggo" strip would be many funnies, such as Hugh McNeill's "Ping the Elastic Man", James Jewell's "Wee Peem", Allan Morley's "Big Fat Joe", Eric Roberts' "Rip Van Wink", Dudley D. Watkins' "Lord Snooty and His Pals", and Roland Davies' "Contrary Mary". Despite the aim to make a new comic series full of American-inspired comic strips, "The Beano" also contained short stories, serial fiction and adventure stories similar to the Big Five's magazines; "Morgyn the Mighty" was previously in "The Rover". "Tin-Can Tommy" and "Brave Captain Kipper" were reprints, co-produced by the Italian art agency Torelli Bros.


title: The Beano

text: Worth 2d with a free prize of a "whoopee mask", issue 1 of "The Beano" was released on 26 July 1938 for the 30th, selling roughly 443,000 copies. Like "The Dandy", its name is from a Low-led DC Thomson office party called The DB Club (The Dandy Beano Club). DC Thomson had several office party clubs that hosted different types of staff gatherings to choose from (e.g. The Prancers would hike hills), but Low's DB Club preferred playing golf and dining throughout Dundee. The two magazines also followed the one-word titles of other comics by rival companies, such as Amalgamated Press' "Crackers", "Sparkler", "Puck" and some books from its "Union Jack" series ("The Marvel", "The Magnet" and "The Gem"); and Target Publications' "Chuckler", "Rattler" and "Dazzler". "Beano" editor-in-chief was George Moonie, former sub-editor of "The Wizard", who would be editor until the summer of 1959. He later explained DC Thomson was a competitive company that wanted to make the best children's literature in the United Kingdom, but there was also competition within itself as "Beano" offices was determined to beat "The Dandy" popularity.


title: The Beano

text: Drastic changes occurred behind the scenes of "The Beano" during the Second World War: George Moonie and editing partner Ron Fraser left to join the Royal Marines and Air Force, respectively, both not returning until c. 1946. Stuart Gilchrist became sole editor-in-chief after Moonie's other sub-editor Freddie Simpson became ill and resigned. Contact was also lost with Torelli Bros. so in-house creations of "Tin-Can Tommy" began from issue 69 by Sam Fair. Paper rationing caused the rest of Low's New Big Five to be cancelled (it stopped at three published, the third member being "The Magic Comic" (1939), which ended with 80 issues in 1941), and "The Beano" to fluctuate its page count instead of its usual 28. Eventually, "The Beano" became a fortnightly magazine until 23 July 1949.


title: The Beano

text: Comic strips would encourage readers to help their parents and other adults with the war effort, and to be optimistic about the war's outcome. New comic strips mocked Mussolini and propagandist William Joyce, "Lord Snooty and His Pals" stories would be about the protagonists outsmarting the Axis leaders, and other stories would be about characters recycling paper. "Big Eggo" front covers were often about Eggo pranking servicemen during the Blitz, and Pansy Potter received a medal for single-handedly capturing a Nazi U-boat. Issue 192 would debut a 16-part prose story about a boy and his mother being evacuated to the United States and becoming the enemy of a Chicago gangster's widow.


title: The Beano

text: Issues published weekly every Tuesday in 1938, and when the magazine changed distribution to every two weeks, the day remained unchanged. From issue 366, the day changed to Friday until issue 375 which began the Thursday publication day schedule.


title: The Beano

text: December 1945 marked a milestone: issue 272 became the first "Beano" issue to sell over a million copies. The end of the war also ushered in a new era for the comic, debuting superhero Jack Flash, the debut of Biffo the Bear as new cover star and a new generation of trouble-making kids: Dennis the Menace, Minnie the Minx, The Bash Street Kids, and Roger the Dodger. DC Thomson also introduced new comic magazines like "The Beezer" and "The Topper" that a few "Beano" artists also created characters and stories for.


title: The Beano

text: After the war saw a drift away from text stories and adventure comics, with the last text story published in 1955; adventure comics lasted longer with 1975 being the last year to feature them as "General Jumbo" eighth series drew to a close in issue 1734.


title: The Beano

text: George Moonie resigned as editor-in-chief in 1959 to develop comics for girls. Sub-editor of "The Beezer" Harry Cramond succeeded Moonie until retiring in 1984, described as the most influential editor in "The Beano" history. He oversaw new merchandising, high sales, and the thousandth and two thousandth issues. Behind the scenes of the magazine became humanised throughout the years as DC Thomson's "Beano" offices featured on documentary television and Cramond's successor Euan Kerr guest-starred on television for the magazine's 50th anniversary.


title: The Beano

text: "The Beano" began to advertise outside of DC Thomson's products in 1988 in order to keep both it and "The Dandy" "pocket money" cheap, beginning with issue 2407. Issue 2674 in 1993 was the first issue to feature every page in colour.


title: The Beano

text: A notable revamp was the 50th birthday issue, which had an abnormally larger page count with more coloured sections and printed on wider sheets. A decade later, issues gained eight extra pages with computer-based art. In the 21st century, there were seven changes within a five-year span: logo updates, fonts assigned for certain design roles, and the magazine started using glossy paper.


title: The Beano

text: Outside of the magazine, "Beano"s brand expanded into a multimedia franchise. Theme park tie-ins, a website, spin-off magazines, and animated television programmes starring the popular comic characters (several for Dennis the Menace) became common, keeping "The Beano" in popular culture. The turn of the millennium began a sales decline and led to friendly rival "The Dandy" to discontinue in 2012. Eventually, "The Beano" recovered after the creation of its magazine subscription service, which also shipped internationally.


title: The Beano

text: Plots and dialogue are written into a script by an (often) uncredited DC Thomson writer, a formerly common practice for DC Thomson magazines. Uncredited artists assigned to a strip(s) will design all its stories into a "series" that the chief editor will arrange into an order to publish for each issue. Strips are sometimes ghostwritten by other artists who imitate the original designer's style, which is helpful if artists retire or die unexpectedly, otherwise the strip is discontinued. "When I started I was drawing two pages a week and thinking 'Phew, that's quite a lot'. Now I do 10 or 12 pages a week. You have to do more all the time to stay where you are," explained Nigel Parkinson. From March 2016, authors and illustrators are now credited in issues.


title: The Beano

text: There have been over a thousand stories throughout the magazine's history told through various ways. Since November 1975, the magazine has contained only comic strips in the style of American newspaper "funnies", but it began with other genres. The last genre to leave "Beano" was adventure stories: short tales eleven-pictures long in text comics format. The stories were either dramatic or dramedies, but heavily featured hobbies and interests young boys had (war and the military, hunting, sailing, jungle men). They also stood out because the illustrations of backgrounds, animals and human characters were photorealistic. Although artists like Dudley D. Watkins drew for a few series, the most prolific illustrator was Irish artist Paddy Brennan, who notably drew for "The Daring Deeds of Sinbad the Sailor", "Red Rory of the Eagles" and "General Jumbo" in the 1950s. Comic adventure stories were a hybrid: adventure stories presented as a comic strip.


title: The Beano

text: Prose stories were a page of text with an illustration at the top. Some stories were about animals with artwork by former Big Five illustrator Richard "Toby" Baines, but the longest-running prose character in the magazine's history was Prince Ivor, who first starred in "Follow the Secret Hand". The last prose story to appear was "Ace From Space" in 1955.


title: The Beano

text: Although comic strips have featured in "The Beano" since issue 1, their contents has changed throughout. Anthropomorphic animals were common stars that would partake in human activities, and the punchlines occurred from the failures to do so. Misbehaving children showed most popular with "Lord Snooty and His Pals" becoming the first longest-running strip when it concluded in 1991, but the most well known that continue to appear in issues are "Dennis the Menace", "Minnie the Minx", "The Bash Street Kids", and "Roger the Dodger". Some adult-starring characters also misbehaved but they were usually portrayed as incompetent, notably Jonah. In the late 20th century, merging comic strip characters in the same vicinity became common in the franchise, such as the video game "Beanotown Racing", but characters living together in "Beanotown" became a prominent feature of comic strips into the present.


title: The Beano

text: Due to the initial target audience of "The Beano" being schoolboys, masculine interests, hobbies, and values dominated issues constantly. Aside from aforementioned adventure stories and comedic characters, there were cowboys, aliens, kings, the supernatural, fantasy creatures (and talking animals), and men whose lifestyle or jobs require physical strength (despite the story making their careers incidental). "The Beano" alternated between mocking or idolising these characters through story formats; wealthy characters causing mischief, caring about their families or being shown underprivileged lives made the working-class audience relate and sympathise with them. Female characters were usually supporting a male character, joint protagonist with a male character, or the antagonist. Prose stories starring girls and women were about the protagonist searching out the truth to a secret, usually over a friend's/family disappearance, or they were witches cursing or tormenting the male protagonists. Female comic characters were also in supporting roles with or join-protagonist with a male character, but the starring characters notably had binary stereotypical traits: drawn as tall and flowy, "Swanky, Lanky Liz" is obsessed with fashion and makeup and acts vain and snobbish, whereas Pansy Potter, Minnie the Minx and Toots from "The Bash Street Kids" share the round-faced and snub-nosed art style of the boys in their stories and are unruly tomboys (in Pansy Potter's case, showcases the strength she inherited from her father). Non-White characters starred in their stories either set in Africa, Asia, or South America, or were about the character adapting to a new life in the United Kingdom.


title: The Beano

text: Stories used to vary in length and layout, but in 2012, "The Beano" debuted a chapter called Funsize Funnies where shorter comic strips shared some pages. In some instances, these extremely short strips were brand new ("Stunt Gran", "BamBeanos", "BSK CCTV", "Gnash Gnews", "Winston"), but others were tiny reboots of older comic strips that the new audience could not recall reading before. Quiet reboots included "Simply Smiffy" (cancelled 1987), "Rasher" (cancelled 1995), "Little Plum" (cancelled 2007), "Les Pretend" (cancelled 2007), "Baby Face Finlayson" (cancelled 2005), "Biffo the Bear" (cancelled 1999), "Pansy Potter" (cancelled 1993), and "Lord Snooty" (cancelled 1991).


title: The Beano

text: "The Beano" allows its characters from different strips to interact with each other. Reprinting old stories or redistributing characters into other magazines is common throughout DC Thomson's history, as if the stories are set in the same universe. The "Lord Snooty" series discontinued old characters and replaced them with "Beano" strip characters of the past; "Dennis the Menace" featured in DC Thomson's "Champ" magazine in the mid-1980s and "The Weekly News" tabloid-magazine for four years in the 1950s. "Morgyn the Mighty", "Tricky Dicky", "Bananaman" and "Corporal Clott" were stories previously from "The Rover", "The Topper", "Nutty" and "The Dandy", respectively, whereas one of Gnasher's puppies had her own strip in "The Beezer and Topper" and "Jackie" magazine.


title: The Beano

text: Along with guest editors, anniversary issues are frequently contained with crossovers. The 2000th issue had the "Hall of Fame" strip which showed framed portraits of characters from the past, and issue 3443's "Fred's Bed" featured Fred crawling under his bed and time travelling through the magazine's comic strips. For the 80th anniversary, issue 3945 was guest edited by actor-turned children's author David Walliams and had a large crossover story about Bash Street School opening the Beanotown's 1938 time capsule and discovering a map, which leads to robots and a giant tentacle monster breaking out to attack the residents. There was also a flashback panel of the time capsule being sealed which featured a handful of comic strip characters from the first issue, later helping the present day characters discover how to defeat the tentacle monster, named Simon. Issue 4000's crossover was a time travel story where the Beanotown characters of the present helped their future selves save the world.


title: The Beano

text: From the first issue, readers have received free gifts from "The Beano": toy masks, sweets, posters, and toys. Originally, free gifts would be attached inside the cover or strategically on the front so that it could distract the buyer from other comics next to "The Beano" on the shelves, hopefully excited for the next issue after reading it and eating/playing with the toys. Gifts were intentionally sporadic, especially during the Christmas period when families' money would be saved for food and presents. Issue 90 would be the last issue with a gift (licorice "black eye") due to rationing, the next free gift being the Flying Snorter Balloon in issue 953. The most popular free gift was issue 2201's Gnasher Snapper, a prank toy that would make a bang sound when unfolded, and was re-gifted occasionally in later issues, as well as the 60th anniversary.


title: The Beano

text: During the 25th anniversary of "Dennis the Menace", The Dennis the Menace Fan Club was formed. The fan club was instantly popular, recalls Euan Kerr in 1984; "The club enrolled over 2000 new members every week, well into the 90s[.]" Membership was 30p, and new members received a membership card full of classified communication tactics and two badges: a red one with Dennis' face on the front and a furry one of a googly-eyed Gnasher face—the latter was the most sought-after badge in the club's history. For two years, there was a tie-in agony aunt page called "Dear Dennis" (issue 1679–1767) where fan club members sent Dennis their problems that Dennis would reply to in the following issue; thousands of letters would arrive at DC Thomson per week and the authors of the messages would receive prizes. The club would be renamed The Beano Club, which ended in 2010, but had over 1.5 million members. A spin-off was introduced called Gnasher's Fang Club, and Gnasher would ask readers to send him stories about their pets' adventures which could be printed into the next issue. "The mailbag of little drawings of pets was several thousand per week," remembers sub-editor Morris Heggie. "And the popularity lasted and lasted."


title: The Beano

text: The 21st century celebrated anniversaries with more memorabilia. For "The Beano" 70th birthday, DC Thomson published "The Beano Special Collectors Edition: 70 Years of Fun" (2008), and "The History of The Beano" (2008) was published by Waverly Books, both documenting the magazine's history; two exhibitions at the University of Dundee ("Happy Birthday, Beano!") and The Cartoon Museum ("Beano and Dandy Birthday Bash!") showed the public private DC Thomson artwork and the history of the magazine. For 2018, readers could buy a box for the 80th anniversary containing posters, reprints of selected older issues, and two books updating the previous documentation of the magazine's history, as well as "Minnie the Minx" origins. Both anniversaries had tie-in museum exhibitions that also told their audiences the magazine's history. Limited-edition figurines from Robert Harrop were available to buy from their official website in late 2008. The 21st century also began "Beano" branching into different mediums: their first website, Beanotown.com, formed in 2000, and Chessington World of Adventures opened Beanoland in the same year. Both would later discontinue but Beanotown.com would be revamped as beano.com, a website full of games, "Beano" secrets and other activities for children. Gulliver's Travels opened the Beano 6 Super Ride in May 2021. "The Beano" was also the face of the United Kingdom's 2018 Summer Reading Challenge, called Mischief Makers, which included a special Dennis the Menace novel tie-in called "Dennis the Menace and the Chamber of Mischief" by Beano artist Nigel Auchterlounie. The Dennis the Menace Fan Club was re-launched as a phone app, rebranded as The Dennis and Gnasher Fan Club, and allowed readers free membership, printable badges, and pranks. On television, the Sky Kids show "SO Beano!" aired; a TV show with special guests, children presenters, and fun and games, in a similar style to "Friday Download" and "Scrambled!"


title: The Beano

text: Since 1982 the comic, along with "The Dandy", has also run "Comic Library" titles. Released monthly, these titles are a feature-length (usually about 64-page) adventure, featuring a character from the comic itself. They are available in A5 size only. In 1998, these were replaced by the "Fun Size Beano". Fun Size Comics were discontinued in late 2010.


title: The Beano

text: The comic also ran A4-sized "Beano Specials" in 1987 with full coloured pages, which later were replaced by "Beano Superstars" which ran for 121 issues from 1992 to 2002. These were similar to the Comic Library series. Some of the last issues were printed versions of episodes from the 1996–1998 "Dennis and Gnasher" animated TV series. A "Beano Poster Comic" series was also printed in the early 1990s.


title: The Beano

text: The Beano Specials returned in 2003, and are now published seasonally. The issues were numbered, and the first one was a Dennis and Friends special, the last a Christmas reprint special. These were replaced by BeanoMAX in early 2007.


title: The Beano

text: On 15 February 2007, the first issue of a monthly comic entitled "BeanoMAX" was published. The sister comic features many of the same characters; however, the stories in "BeanoMAX" are written in a longer format meant for 10- to 13-year-olds. The first issue was a Comic Relief special featuring assorted celebrity guests. The magazine has been rebranded several times since 2013, and is currently known as "EPIC Magazine".


title: The Beano

text: "Plug" was a comic based on the eponymous character from "The Bash Street Kids" that began with issue dated 24 September 1977, and is notable for being the first comic to make use of rotogravure printing. The magazine similar in style to I.P.C's "Krazy" which had started the previous year. It contained uncharacteristically outlandish material for D C. Thomson, as well as later including celebrity appearances in the comic.


title: The Beano

text: The comic revealed Plug's full name to be Percival Proudfoot Plugsley and also gave him a pet monkey by the name of Chumkee. Plug's strip was mostly drawn by Vic Neill but other artists, including Dave Gudgeon drew some later strips. Other strips included "Antchester United", "Violent Elizabeth", "Eebagoom", "Hugh's Zoo" and "D'ye Ken John Squeal and his Hopeless Hounds".


title: The Beano

text: The venture was unsuccessful, in part because the comic cost 9p, with the "Beano" at the time only costing 4p and most of its rivals priced similarly. It merged with "The Beezer" on 24 February 1979.


title: The Beano

text: The brand new "Dennis and Gnasher" was launched separately from "The Beano" in September 2009. It coincided with their new cartoon on CBBC of the same name.


title: The Beano

text: 44-page special issue 4062, with cover date 21 November 2020, during a lockdown in the COVID-19 pandemic had an eight-page adult pullout named "BeanOLD", with cartoons poking fun at British politicians such as Boris Johnson and Dominic Cummings, and with appearances by Greta Thunberg, Captain Tom, and footballer Marcus Rashford. The slogan was "2020 has been tough. So tough that even grown-ups need "Beano"".


title: The Beano

text: In June 2016, DC Thomson launched Beano Studios, a spin-off media studio (based in both London and Dundee) with the intention of creating media appropriate for children and expanding "The Beano" franchise. Its introduction to the readers came in "The Beano" issue 3854 with a revamp of the cover's layout and the logo, removing "The" to make it coincide with the studio, and unveiling the website beano.com. Former chief-editor Michael Stirling (who stepped down in 2012) became head of the Dundee studio and the franchise's spokesman. Jodie Morris became Head of Digital Content, James Neal stood as Director of Content, Nigel Pickard joined as non-executive director and Emma Scott stood as CEO until 2020, succeeded by David Guppy.


title: The Beano

text: As well as expanding "Beano" franchise through games and merchandise, Beano.com also contains other activities and interests for children to enjoy, such as news about popular celebrities, and miscellaneous videos and articles. Neal described it as "a fun but trusted babysitter who lets the kids stay up a bit late". For parents who formerly read "The Beano" during childhood, Beano Studios invites them to also participate on their nostalgia, once sending a cease and desist letter to politician Jacob Rees-Mogg for copyright infringement against Walter the Softy. The website became a continuing success worldwide with over two million visitors per year, and is credited for increasing comic sales by 10% in 2018. A similar approach had been planned for years through the first website Beanotown.com, which DC Thomson hoped would attract an international audience to "The Beano", especially the United States. "The Guardian" noted "The Beano" success in North America was plausible because of "Chicken Run", Monty Python, and Benny Hill's American popularity.


title: The Beano

text: Soon after the launch announcement, Beano Studios revealed it had a new "Dennis the Menace" adaptation in production: a 52-episode 3D-animated cartoon for CBBC co-produced by Jellyfish Pictures and distributed by Jetpack. The new programme, "", aired on the CBBC Channel in November 2017 and became one of the most popular children's series on the channel. Jetpack sold the cartoon to over 90 territories worldwide in 2018 through television deals and streaming services, and it received an Emmy nomination for Best International Animated Program at the 2019 International Emmy Kids Awards. Chief Creative Officer Mark Talbot explained his plans to look to Hollywood for "Beano" branching, noting: "what's been interesting with the Americans, they don't have "The Beano" but what they see is the archive with over 2,000 characters and storylines sat in a warehouse in Dundee waiting to be reimagined by new writers and established writers[.]" In November 2020, "Deadline" reported Talbot was in the midst of pitching another adaptation of "Dennis the Menace", rumoured to be about a reckless teenaged Dennis with a pilot script written by former "Chilling Adventures of Sabrina" writer Matthew Barry. Beano Studios and Lime Pictures announced a live-action "Minnie the Minx" children's programme in 2018 called "The Magnificent Misadventures of Minnie", and Fox Entertainment announced a "Bananaman" cartoon, the second cartoon adapting the comic strip after the BBC adaptation from 1983.


title: The Beano

text: "The Beano" was an instant success upon release, and became the longest-running, weekly-issued comic of all time in 2018. Although interest in comic magazines dwindled, it survived surrounding setbacks. In the 1950s, it (and "The Dandy") were unaffected by DC Thomson's magazine cancellations (selling over 100 million per year) that were caused by both paper rationing and public lack of interest. Alan Digby's attempt to boost sales with the 8-week "Missing Gnasher" plot in "Dennis the Menace" failed, but the story featured in newspapers and on radio broadcasts, causing people of all ages to contact "Beano" offices to voice their concerns. Roughly 31,000–41,000 copies are sold per week in the present day, but an estimated 2 billion "Beano" comic magazines have been sold in its lifetime. A 1997 television poll by the National Comics Awards selected it for the Best British Comic Ever award. Dennis the Menace would represent the comic when Royal Mail launched a special stamp collection in 2012, celebrating Britain's rich comic book history. "The Dandy", "Eagle", "The Topper", "Roy of the Rovers", "Bunty", "Buster", "Valiant", "Twinkle" and "2000 AD" were also featured.


title: The Beano

text: Like "The Dandy", "The Beano" is a definitive part of British pop culture. "It's refreshing to see how the [zany] principles that made it such a hit all those years ago have remained to this day." writes "Coventry Evening Telegraph". "Beano" annuals are the most popular Christmas annual sold, and old issues sell for thousands at auctions. Lord Snooty is often used as a pejorative in British politics. DC Thomson considers the 1950s "Beano" golden age possibly because of many commemorations based on the strips that first appeared from that decade: Dennis became the literal and metaphorical mascot of the magazine, his increasing popularity making him the last consistent cover star and his strips spawning three BBC animated adaptations; Minnie and the Bash Street Kids have a statue and a street named after the strip, respectively. The "anarchic" humour is credited as the key to the magazine's longevity, as well as its refusal to be condescending to its readers: ""The Beano" may have changed since the '30s but has always maintained its anti-authoritarian stance and steadfast refusal to treat children like idiots," theorised Morris Heggie.


title: The Beano

text: The magazine is cited as an inspiration to many readers. "Beano" artists Emily McGorman-Bruce, Zoom Rockman, Jess Bradley, and Barrie Appleby were avid readers of the magazine and/or its annuals before they became creators of its new strips. Meanwhile, "The Beano" inspired comic artists Jay Stephens, Carolyn Edwards (Titan Comics) and webcomic creator Sarah Millman ("NPC Tea", "The Heart of Time") to either work in the creative industry or create their own stories. Alan Moore theorised the magazine influenced numerous British comic artists into reimagining American comics in the 1980s by pioneering the Dark Age. Guest chief-editors Nick Park, David Walliams, Joe Sugg, and Harry Hill are also fans of "The Beano", with Park admitting "My dream job was always to work on "The Beano" and it's such an honour for me to be Guest Editor[.]"


title: The Beano

text: Notable famous members of the old Dennis the Menace/Beano Club include Auberon Waugh, Mike Read, and Mark Hamill, as well as honorary members Paul Gascoigne, and Princes William and Harry. Chris Tarrant cited Dennis as his role model when he was a child, and Paul Rudd revealed "Roger the Dodger" was his favourite strip. Stella McCartney created tribute fashion to both "The Beano" and "The Dandy", explaining they were "a huge part of my childhood" and wanted to celebrate "the next generation of "Beano" fans with a sustainable and practical range for kids who still share that ‘Beano’ spirit of these iconic characters". In music pop culture, the album "Blues Breakers with Eric Clapton" is nicknamed "The Beano Album" because Eric Clapton is holding issue 1242 on its cover.


title: The Beano

text: Interaction with the audience is a historic practice in "The Beano" history. Excluding fan clubs and merchandise, "Comic Idol" is a sporadic election in which readers vote for their favourite strips to keep in the magazine. Cancelled strips with the least votes include "Little Plum", "Baby Face Finlayson", "Les Pretend", "Calamity James", "Crazy for Daisy", and "Lord Snooty". "Super School" and "Meebo and Zuky" were nominees who won polls and became official strips in the following issues. Readers would find a voting slip covered with the candidates printed in an issue that they would fill out and mail to DC Thomson, but the creation of "Beano" websites would allow real-time opinions from readers. "Pets' Picture Gallery" invited readers to send drawings of their pets to feature in the following issue.


title: The Beano

text: Readers participated in the magazine's record-breaking stunts. In 1988, 100 children helped Euan Kerr and "Beano" scriptwriter Al Bernard recreate the front cover of issue 2396 on Scarborough Beach with Hann-Made Productions. It was awarded the Largest Comic Strip at 39950 square feet. "Beano" 2018 comic competition to celebrate the opening of V&A Dundee was awarded the biggest competition to finish a comic strip with 650 participants.


title: The Beano

text: Along with Nick Park's guest editor issue, the 70th anniversary coincided with Gnashional Menace Day, a CLIC Sargent-partnered event where readers could be sponsored "behaving like Dennis" for charity.


title: The Beano

text: "The Beano" has had a few controversies throughout its lifetime, but aspects have either been discontinued or changed to not cause offence. Its infamous changes are the removal of corporal punishment (e.g. Dennis the Menace often depicted receiving bottom spanks with a slipper by his furious father) and misbehaving characters abandoning slingshots—the latter irritating former readers for being a "politically correct" notion, usually highlighted with claim "Dennis has lost his menace".


title: The Beano

text: Racist depictions and terminology have been removed through the years as well. "Little Plum" sub-title "Your redskin chum" was not included in its 2002 revival. The first masthead character was a caricatured design of a black boy named Peanut, mascot of the "Little Peanut's Page of Fun" joke page (appeared from issues 1 to 112), usually eating watermelon. His last masthead feature was in December 1947, but subsequent reprints of the first issues have removed him. "Hard-Nut the Nigger" and "Mussolini the Wop" have not had reprints since their last appearances.


title: The Beano

text: Some changes were to not convince readers bullying was acceptable. Dennis and Gnasher's constant targeting of passive, diligent Walter "the Softy" (who was also a knitting and flower-picking hobbyist) was accused of encouraging playground homophobia, so it was toned down. Walter was also rewritten to be a bit less soft, becoming more antagonistic and stood up to Dennis sometimes, eventually having his first girlfriend. Fatty from the Bash Street Kids was renamed Freddy (his real name) in 2021, causing backlash from former readers, including Jacob Rees-Mogg who accused the change of being "publicity-seeking". Former chief-editor Mike Stirling explained it was due to fan letters from young readers asking why he was nicknamed so: "although it's always been used affectionately, and never pejoratively, we agreed it's time it changed." A "News of the World" report contained accusations of "Uh Oh, Si Co!" encouraging readers to mock children with anger issues or mental illness, which caused the strip to be cancelled.


title: Alien invasion

text: The alien invasion or space invasion is a common feature in science fiction stories and film, in which extraterrestrial lifeforms invade the Earth either to exterminate and supplant human life, enslave it under an intense state, harvest people for food, steal the planet's resources, or destroy the planet altogether.


title: Alien invasion

text: The invasion scenario has been used as an allegory for a protest against military hegemony and the societal ills of the time. H. G. Wells' novel "The War of the Worlds" extended the invasion literature that was already common when science fiction was first emerging as a genre.


title: Alien invasion

text: Prospects of invasion tended to vary with the state of current affairs, and current perceptions of threatening, duress, and terrorism. Alien invasion was a common metaphor in United States science fiction during the Cold War, illustrating the fears of foreign (e.g. Soviet Union) occupation and nuclear devastation of the American people. Examples of these stories include the short story “The Liberation of Earth“ (1950) by William Tenn and the film "The Invasion of the Body Snatchers" (1956).


title: Alien invasion

text: In the invasion trope, fictional aliens contacting Earth tend to either observe (sometimes using experiments) or invade, rather than help the population of Earth acquire the capacity to participate in interplanetary affairs. There are some notable exceptions, such as the alien-initiated first-contact scenarios in "The Day the Earth Stood Still" (1951), "" (1996) and "Arrival" (2016). A trope of the peaceful first-contact is humanity attaining a key technological threshold (e.g. nuclear weapons and space travel in "The Day the Earth Stood Still" or faster-than-light travel in "First Contact"), justifying their initiation into a broader community of intelligent species.


title: Alien invasion

text: A similar trope depicts humans in the role of the "alien" invaders, where humans are the ones invading or attacking extraterrestrial lifeforms. Examples include the short story "Sentry" (1954) (in which the "aliens" described are, at the end, explained to be humans), the video game "Phantasy Star II" (1989), "The Martian Chronicles" by Ray Bradbury, the Imperium of Man in the Warhammer 40,000 universe, "Invaders from Earth" by Robert Silverberg, Ender's Game, the movies "Battle for Terra" (2007), "Planet 51" (2009), "Avatar" (2009) and "Mars Needs Moms" (2011).


title: Alien invasion

text: As well as being a subgenre of science fiction, alien invasions are also considered to be a subgenre of invasion literature, which also includes fictional depictions of humans invaded by other humans (for example, a fictional invasion of England by a hostile France strongly influenced Wells' depiction of a Martian invasion).


title: Alien invasion

text: Academics consider the prospects of an "actual" invasion of Earth by extraterrestrials to be unlikely, as Earth does not have any resources that could not be obtained by aliens elsewhere, among other reasons.


title: Alien invasion

text: In 1898, H. G. Wells published "The War of the Worlds", depicting the invasion of Victorian England by Martians equipped with advanced weaponry. It is now seen as the seminal alien invasion story and Wells is credited with establishing several extraterrestrial themes which were later greatly expanded by science fiction writers in the 20th Century, including first contact and war between planets and their differing species. However, there were stories of aliens and alien invasion prior to publication of "The War of the Worlds".


title: Alien invasion

text: Voltaire's "Micromégas" (1752) includes two aliens, from Saturn and Sirius, who are of immense size and visit the Earth out of curiosity. Initially, they believe the planet is uninhabited, due to the comparatively microscopic size of human beings. When they discover the haughty Earth-centric views of Earth philosophers, they are very much amused by how important Earth beings think they are compared to actual titans such as themselves.


title: Alien invasion

text: In 1892, Robert Potter, an Australian clergyman, published "The Germ Growers" in London. It describes a covert invasion by aliens who take on the appearance of human beings and attempt to develop a virulent disease to assist in their plans for global conquest. It was not widely read, and consequently Wells' vastly more successful novel is generally credited as the seminal alien invasion story.


title: Alien invasion

text: Wells had already proposed another outcome for the alien invasion story in "The War of the Worlds". When the Narrator meets the artilleryman the second time, the artilleryman imagines a future where humanity, hiding underground in sewers and tunnels, conducts a guerrilla war, fighting against the Martians for generations to come, and eventually, after learning how to duplicate Martian weapon technology, destroys the invaders and takes back the Earth.


title: Alien invasion

text: Six weeks after publication of the novel, "The Boston Post" newspaper published another alien invasion story, an unauthorized sequel to "The War of the Worlds", which turned the tables on the invaders. "Edison's Conquest of Mars" was written by Garrett P. Serviss, a now little-remembered writer, who described the famous inventor Thomas Edison leading a counterattack against the invaders on their home soil. Though this is actually a sequel to "Fighters from Mars", a revised and unauthorised reprint of "War of the Worlds", they both were first printed in the "Boston Post" in 1898.


title: Alien invasion

text: "The War of the Worlds" was reprinted in the United States in 1927, a year after the Golden Age of Science Fiction was created by Hugo Gernsback in "Amazing Stories". John W. Campbell, another key editor of the era, and periodic short story writer, published several alien invasion stories in the 1930s. Many well-known science fiction writers were to follow, including Isaac Asimov, Arthur C. Clarke, Clifford Simak, plus Robert A. Heinlein who wrote "The Puppet Masters" in 1951.


title: Alien invasion

text: This is a familiar variation on the alien invasion theme. In the infiltration scenario, the invaders will typically take human form and can move freely throughout human society, even to the point of taking control of command positions. The purpose of this may either be to take over the entire world through infiltration ("Invasion of the Body Snatchers"), or as advanced scouts meant to "soften up" Earth in preparation for a full-scale invasion by the aliens' conventional military ("First Wave"). This type of invasion usually emphasizes common fears during the Cold War, with the Communist agents suspected everywhere, but has also become common during any time of social change and unrest.


title: Alien invasion

text: This theme has also been explored in fiction on the rare occasion. With this type of story, the invaders, in a kind of little grey/green man's burden, colonize the planet in an effort to spread their culture and "civilize" the indigenous "barbaric" inhabitants or secretly watch and aid earthlings saving them from themselves. The former theme shares many traits with hostile occupation fiction, but the invaders tend to view the occupied peoples as students or equals rather than subjects and slaves. The latter theme of secret watcher is a paternalistic/maternalistic theme. In this fiction, the aliens intervene in human affairs to prevent them from destroying themselves, such as Klaatu and Gort in "The Day the Earth Stood Still" warning the leaders of Earth to abandon their warlike ways and join other space-faring civilizations else that they will destroy themselves or be destroyed by their interstellar union. Other examples of a beneficial alien invasion are Gene Roddenberry's movie "The Questor Tapes" (1974) and his "" episode "" (1968); Arthur C. Clarke's "Childhood's End", the novel (later anime) series "Crest of the Stars", the film "Arrival" (2016), and David Brin's "Uplift" series of books.


title: Alien invasion

text: The cult film "They Live" (1988) uses its own alien infiltration back story as a satire on Ronald Reagan's America and the 1980s as an era of conspicuous consumption, in which the hidden skull-faced aliens and their human collaborators oppress poverty-stricken humans and a shrinking middle class. The aliens' true forms can be seen with special sunglasses and contact lenses.


title: Alien invasion

text: In the 1983 TV miniseries ""V"" an alien race descends upon the earth in gigantic saucer-shaped motherships under the guise of friendship and the promise to enhance the human race with their advanced scientific advancements, however their real aim is to strip the earth of its natural resources and use the human race as a source of food. The made for television drama also draws parallels between the race of "Visitors" and to rise fascism in Nazi Germany in the 1930s. Similarly Roland Emmerich's Independence Day also features a hostile race of technologically advanced aliens arriving in motherships who also are revealed to be intent of ravaging the earth of its resources, however there are no subtleties or illusions of friendship in the 1996 blockbuster film.


title: Alien invasion

text: The beginning half of the popular video games "Halo 2" and "Halo 3" deals with the defense of Earth against a genocidal alien empire, the Covenant. The protagonist of the game along with Earth's military force, the "UNSC", and a group of former Covenant who rebelled, the Covenant Separatists, eventually repel the invasion and topple the Covenant.


title: Alien invasion

text: The "Mass Effect" franchise features a race of massive semi-organic sentient starships called Reapers who destroy any civilization advanced enough to devise artificial intelligence, based on the perceived inevitability of it rebelling.


title: Alien invasion

text: In Orson Scott Card's series "Ender's Game", an insectoid race of hiveminded aliens known as the Formics invade Earth on two occasions, known as the First and Second Formic Wars. The first invasion resulted in tens of millions of deaths, but the second resulted in very few casualties. After this second invasion, the conglomerate of nations known as the International Fleet decided to launch their own invasion that would completely devastate the Formic home planet.


title: Lucas number

text: The Lucas numbers or Lucas series are an integer sequence named after the mathematician François Édouard Anatole Lucas (1842–1891), who studied both that sequence and the closely related Fibonacci numbers. Lucas numbers and Fibonacci numbers form complementary instances of Lucas sequences.


title: Lucas number

text: The Lucas series has the same recursive relationship as the Fibonacci sequence, where each term is the sum of the two previous terms, but with different starting values. This produces a sequence where the ratios of successive terms approach the golden ratio, and in fact the terms themselves are roundings of integer powers of the golden ratio. The sequence also has a variety of relationships with the Fibonacci numbers, like the fact that adding any two Fibonacci numbers two terms apart in the Fibonacci sequence results in the Lucas number in between.


title: Lucas number

text: As with the Fibonacci numbers, each Lucas number is defined to be the sum of its two immediately previous terms, thereby forming a Fibonacci integer sequence. The first two Lucas numbers are formula_1 and formula_2, which differs from the first two Fibonacci numbers formula_3 and formula_4. Though closely related in definition, Lucas and Fibonacci numbers exhibit distinct properties.


title: Lucas number

text: All Fibonacci-like integer sequences appear in shifted form as a row of the Wythoff array; the Fibonacci sequence itself is the first row and the Lucas sequence is the second row. Also like all Fibonacci-like integer sequences, the ratio between two consecutive Lucas numbers converges to the golden ratio.


title: Lucas number

text: Using formula_7, one can extend the Lucas numbers to negative integers to obtain a doubly infinite sequence:


title: Lucas number

text: The Lucas numbers are related to the Fibonacci numbers by many identities. Among these are the following:


title: Lucas number

text: where formula_23 is the golden ratio. Alternatively, as for formula_24 the magnitude of the term formula_25 is less than 1/2, formula_8 is the closest integer to formula_27 or, equivalently, the integer part of formula_28, also written as formula_29.


title: Lucas number

text: Many of the Fibonacci identities have parallels in Lucas numbers. For example, the Cassini identity becomes


title: Lucas number

text: formula_8 is congruent to 1 modulo formula_67 if formula_67 is prime, but some composite values of formula_67 also have this property. These are the Fibonacci pseudoprimes.


title: Lucas number

text: , the largest confirmed Lucas prime is "L", which has 30950 decimal digits. , the largest known Lucas probable prime is "L", with 1,142,392 decimal digits.


title: Lucas number

text: If "L" is prime then "n" is 0, prime, or a power of 2. "L" is prime for "m" = 1, 2, 3, and 4 and no other known values of "m".


title: Lucas number

text: In the same way as Fibonacci polynomials are derived from the Fibonacci numbers, the Lucas polynomials formula_71 are a polynomial sequence derived from the Lucas numbers.


title: Lucas number

text: Close rational approximations for powers of the golden ratio can be obtained from their continued fractions.


title: Lucas number

text: Lucas numbers are the second most common pattern in sunflowers after Fibonacci numbers, when clockwise and counter-clockwise spirals are counted, according to an analysis of 657 sunflowers in 2016.


title: War bond

text: War bonds (sometimes referred to as Victory bonds, particularly in propaganda) are debt securities issued by a government to finance military operations and other expenditure in times of war without raising taxes to an unpopular level. They are also a means to control inflation by removing money from circulation in a stimulated wartime economy. War bonds are either retail bonds marketed directly to the public or wholesale bonds traded on a stock market. Exhortations to buy war bonds have often been accompanied by appeals to patriotism and conscience. Retail war bonds, like other retail bonds, tend to have a yield which is below that offered by the market and are often made available in a wide range of denominations to make them affordable for all citizens.


title: War bond

text: Governments throughout history have needed to borrow money to fight wars. Traditionally they dealt with a small group of rich financiers such as Jakob Fugger and Nathan Rothschild, but no particular distinction was made between debt incurred in war or peace. An early use of the term "war bond" was for the $ raised by the US Congress in an Act of 14 March 1812, to fund the War of 1812, but this was not aimed at the general public. Until July 2015, perhaps the oldest bonds still outstanding as a result of war were the British Consols, some of which were the result of the refinancing of incurring debts during the Napoleonic Wars, but these were redeemed following the passing of the Finance Act 2015.


title: War bond

text: The government of Austria-Hungary knew from the early days of the First World War that it could not count on advances from its principal banking institutions to meet the growing costs of the war. Instead, it implemented a war finance policy modeled upon that of Germany: in November 1914, the first funded loan was issued. As in Germany, the Austro-Hungarian loans followed a prearranged plan and were issued at half yearly intervals every November and May. The first Austrian bonds paid 5% interest and had a five-year term. The smallest bond denomination available was 100 kronen.


title: War bond

text: Hungary issued loans separately from Austria in 1919, after the war and after it had separated from Austria, in the form of stocks that permitted the subscriber to demand repayment after a year's notice. Interest was fixed at 6%, and the smallest denomination was 50 korona. Subscriptions to the first Austrian bond issue amounted to $; those of the first Hungarian issue amounted to $.


title: War bond

text: The limited financial resources of children were tapped through campaigns in schools. The initial minimum Austrian bond denomination of 100 kronen still exceeded the means of most children, so the third bond issue, in 1915, introduced a scheme whereby children could donate a small amount and take out a bank loan to cover the rest of the 100 kronen. The initiative was immensely successful, eliciting funds and encouraging loyalty to the state and its future among Austro-Hungarian youth. Over kronen was collected in the first three "child bond" issues.


title: War bond

text: Canada's involvement in the First World War began in 1914, with Canadian war bonds called "Victory Bonds" after 1917. The first domestic war loan was raised in November 1915, but not until the fourth campaign of November 1917 was the term Victory Loan applied. The First Victory Loan was a 5.5% issue of 5, 10 and 20 year gold bonds in denominations as small as $50. It was quickly oversubscribed, collecting $ or about $50 per capita. The Second and Third Victory Loans were floated in 1918 and 1919, bringing another $. For those who could not afford to buy Victory Bonds, the government also issued War Savings Certificates. The government awarded communities who bought large amounts of bonds Victory Loan Honour Flags.


title: War bond

text: Unlike France and Britain, at the outbreak of the First World War Germany found itself largely excluded from international financial markets. This became most apparent after an attempt to float a major loan on Wall Street failed in 1914. As such, Germany was largely limited to domestic borrowing, which was induced by a series of war credit bills passing the Reichstag. This took place in many forms; however, the most publicised were the public war bond () drives.


title: War bond

text: Nine bond drives were conducted over the length of the war and, as in Austria-Hungary, the loans were issued at six-month intervals. The drives themselves would often last several weeks, during which there was extensive use of propaganda via all possible media. Most bonds had a rate of return of 5% and were redeemable over a ten-year period, in semi-annual payments. Like war bonds in other countries, the German war bonds drives were designed to be extravagant displays of patriotism and the bonds were sold through banks, post offices and other financial institutions.


title: War bond

text: As in other countries, the majority investors were not individuals but institutions and large corporations. Industries, university endowments, local banks and even city governments were the prime investors in the war bonds. In part because of intense public pressure and in part due to patriotic commitment the bond drives proved extremely successful, raising approximately marks in funds. Although extremely successful the war bond drives only covered two-thirds of war-related expenditures. Meanwhile, the interest payable on the bonds represented a growing expense which required further resources to pay it.


title: War bond

text: In August 1914, the gold reserves of the Bank of England, and effectively of all banking institutions in Great Britain, amounted to £. The banks feared the declaration of war would trigger a run on the banks, so the Chancellor David Lloyd George extended the August bank holiday for three days to allow time for the passing of the Currency and Bank Notes Act 1914, by which Britain left the gold standard. Under this Act the Treasury issued £ (equivalent to £ in 2013) of paper banknotes, without the backing of gold, with which the banks could repay their obligations. Leading banker Walter Leaf described these Treasury notes as "essentially a War Loan free of interest, for an unlimited period, and as such was a highly profitable expedient from the point of view of the Government".


title: War bond

text: The first interest-bearing War Loan was issued in November 1914 at an interest rate of 3.5%, to be redeemed at par value in 1925–28. It raised £; £ at face value as it was issued at a 5% discount. It was revealed in 2017 that public subscriptions amounted to £91m, and the balance had been subscribed by the Bank of England, under the names of then governor, John Gordon Nairne, and his deputy Ernest Harvey. It was followed by £ of a second War Loan in June 1915, at 4.5%. £ of this was accounted for by conversion of the 3.5% issue, and a further £ by holders of 2.5% and 2.75% Consols, who were also allowed to transfer to the higher interest rate. The government also pledged that if they issued War Loans at even higher interest, holders of the 4.5% bonds might also convert to the new rate. In his memoirs Lloyd George stated his regret that his successor Reginald McKenna increased the interest rate at a time when investors had few alternatives. Not only did it directly increase the nation's annual interest payments by £ but it meant interest rates were higher throughout the economy during the post-war depression.


title: War bond

text: Compared to France, the British government relied more on short-term financing in the form of treasury bills and exchequer bonds during World War I. Treasury bills provided the bulk of British government funds in 1916, and were available for terms of 3, 6, 9 and 12 months at an interest rate of 5%. Although these were not formally designated as war bonds, advertising was explicit about their purpose. This April 1916 advertisement for 5% Exchequer bonds was typical of the time: "Lend Your Money to Your Country. The soldier does not grudge offering his life to his country. He offers it freely, for his life may be the price of Victory. But Victory cannot be won without money as well as men, and your money is needed. Unlike the soldier, the investor runs no risk. If you invest in Exchequer Bonds your money, capital and interest alike, is secured on the Consolidated Fund of the United Kingdom, the premier security of the world."


title: War bond

text: Policy changed when Asquith's government fell in December 1916 and Bonar Law became Chancellor in the new coalition government. The third War Loan was launched in January 1917 at a 5% discount to face value and paying 5% interest (or 4% tax-free for 25 years), a rate Lloyd George described as "penal". Holders of existing War Loans, Treasury Bills and War Expenditure Certificates could convert to the 5% issue. Of the £ raised by the 5% War Loan, only £ was new money; the rest was conversions of £ of 4.5% Loan, £ of Exchequer Bonds and £ of Treasury Bills. Labour politician Tom Johnston would later write of the 1917 War Loan "No foreign conqueror could have devised a more complete robbery and enslavement of the British Nation".


title: War bond

text: On 30 June 1932 Neville Chamberlain announced that the Government would exercise its right to call in the 5% War Loan, offering a choice of taking cash or continuing the loan at 3.5%. Although they were obliged to give 90 days' notice of such a change, a 1% tax-free cash bonus was offered to holders who acted by 31 July. This conversion saved the government about £ net per year. On 3 December 2014 the UK Government announced it would redeem the outstanding war loans on 9 March 2015.


title: War bond

text: In 1917 and 1918, the United States government issued Liberty Bonds to raise money for its involvement in World War I. An aggressive campaign was created by Secretary of the Treasury William Gibbs McAdoo to popularize the bonds, grounded largely as patriotic appeals. The Treasury Department worked closely with the Committee on Public Information in developing Liberty Bond campaigns. The resulting propaganda messages often borrowed heavily from military colloquial speech.


title: War bond

text: The government used famous artists to make posters, and used movie and stage stars to host bond rallies. Al Jolson, Ethel Barrymore, Marie Dressler, Elsie Janis, Theda Bara, Fatty Arbuckle, Mabel Normand, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks and Charlie Chaplin were among the celebrities who made public appearances promoting the patriotic element of purchasing Liberty Bonds. Chaplin also made a short film, "The Bond", at his own expense for the drive. Even the Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts sold bonds under the slogan "Every Scout to Save a Soldier". The campaign spurred community efforts across the country to sell the bonds and was a great success resulting in over-subscriptions to the second, third and fourth bond issues. According to the Massachusetts Historical Society, "Because the first World War cost the federal government more than $ (by way of comparison, total federal expenditures in 1913 were only $), these programs became vital as a way to raise funds."


title: War bond

text: Canada's involvement in the Second World War began when Canada declared war on Nazi Germany on September 10, 1939, one week after the United Kingdom. Approximately half of the Canadian war cost was covered by War Savings Certificates and war bonds known as "Victory Bonds" as in World War I. War Savings Certificates began selling in May 1940 and were sold door-to-door by volunteers as well as at banks, post offices, trust companies and other authorised dealers. They matured after seven years and paid $5 for every $4 invested but individuals could not own more than $600 each in certificates. Although the effort raised $ in funds and was successful in financially involving millions of Canadians in the war effort, it only provided the Government of Canada with a fraction of what was needed.


title: War bond

text: The sale of Victory Bonds proved far more successful financially. There were ten wartime and one postwar Victory Bond drives. Unlike the War Savings Certificates, there was no purchase limit to Victory Bonds. The bonds were issued with maturities of between six and fourteen years with interest rates ranging from 1.5% for short-term bonds and 3% for long-term bonds and were issued in denominations of between $50 and $100,000. Canadians bought $ worth of Victory Bonds or some $550 per capita with businesses accounting for half of all Victory Bond sales. The first Victory Bond issue in February 1940 met its goal of $ in less than 48 hours, the second issue in September 1940 reaching its goal of $ almost as quickly.