title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Brunswick is located on a harbor of the Atlantic Ocean, approximately north of Florida and south of South Carolina. Brunswick is bordered on the west by Oglethorpe Bay, the East River, and the Turtle River. It is bordered on the south by the Brunswick River and on the east by the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway in the Mackay River, which separates it from the Golden Isles.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The Mocama, a Timucua-speaking people, lived in and cultivated the lands in what is now Brunswick. The Spanish established missions in Timucuan villages beginning in 1568. During this time, much of the Native American population was depleted through enslavement and disease. When the Province of Carolina was founded in 1663, the British claimed all lands south to the 31st parallel north, but little colonization occurred south of the Altamaha River as the Spanish also claimed this land. Three years after the Province of Georgia was founded in 1733, James Oglethorpe had the town of Frederica built on St. Simons Island, challenging Spaniards who laid claim to the island. The Spanish were driven out of the province after British victories in the battles of Bloody Marsh and Gully Hole Creek in 1742; it was not until the Treaty of Paris of 1763 that Spain's threat to the province was formally ended, when all lands north of the St. Marys River and south of the Savannah River were designated as Georgia.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The area's first European settler, Mark Carr, arrived in 1738. Carr, a Scotsman, was a captain in Oglethorpe's Marine Boat Company. Upon landing, he established his tobacco plantation, which he called "Plug Point", along the East and Brunswick rivers. The Province of Georgia purchased Carr's fields in 1771 and laid out the town of Brunswick in the grid plan akin to that of Savannah, with large, public squares at given intervals. The town was named for the duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg in Germany, the ancestral home of George III and the House of Hanover. Brunswick was a rectangular tract of land consisting of . The first lot was granted on June 30, 1772; 179 lots were granted in the first three years. However, about this time Brunswick lost most of its citizens, many of whom were Loyalists, to East Florida, the Caribbean Basin, and the United Kingdom for protection during the American Revolutionary War. From 1783 to 1788 a number of these lots were regranted and there collected in Brunswick a few families who desired proper education for their children. By the act of the General Assembly on February 1, 1788, eight town commissioners were appointed and Glynn Academy was chartered, the funding of which was to come from the sales of town lots. Brunswick was recognized as an official port of entry in 1789 by an act of the United States Congress. In 1797 the General Assembly transferred the seat of Glynn County from Frederica to Brunswick.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: At the end of the eighteenth century, a large tract of land surrounding Brunswick on three sides had been laid off and designated as Commons. Commissioners were named in 1796 to support these efforts. The General Assembly authorized them to sell of Commons, one-half of the proceeds to go to the construction of the courthouse and jail and one-half to the support of the academy. In 1819 the commissioners erected a suitable building for school purposes on the southeastern corner of Reynolds and L streets. This was the first public building in Brunswick. It was abandoned four years later, but a new building was erected on Hillsborough Square in 1840 using Commons proceeds. A courthouse and jail were built around this time.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The town was officially incorporated as a city on February 22, 1856. It was at this time that state representative Jacob Moore in conjunction with others conspired to control the Commons, and any proceeds that might be had from sales. Moore managed to persuade the Georgia General Assembly to pass legislation giving him control over significant amounts of local real estate. This precipitated a period of strife, pitting the powerful interests, headed by Rep. Moore, against the common citizenry. It was into this turmoil that Carey Wentworth Styles appeared, in 1857, when he moved his family to Brunswick from Edgefield, South Carolina. Styles, an attorney, was attracted to the area by news of the civil strife. As one observer later wrote, the citizens of Brunswick were in "need of a defender".


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Styles quickly became embroiled in the dispute, siding with the citizenry. He announced his intention to run for mayor, and organized a mass protest rally for the evening of December 24. In spite of bad weather, a crowd gathered at the protest point, where Styles delivered an impassioned speech against the powerful interests, and the legislative act giving them the power to seize local property. Styles called the legislation "dishonorable", at which point Moore (the bill's sponsor and beneficiary) jumped to his feet and shouted at Styles, calling the accusation a "falsehood". In the official testimony on file in the Glynn County courthouse, Styles is said to have yelled back at Moore, saying "You are a damned liar!", to which Moore replied "You are a damneder liar!". Gunfire ensued, resulting in the death of Moore. Witness accounts had Moore firing first, and though Styles was subsequently arrested for manslaughter, the charges were eventually dropped. On March 1, 1858, Styles was elected mayor of Brunswick. Some years later, Styles moved to Atlanta, where he founded "The Atlanta Constitution". In November 1879, nineteen years after he left, Styles returned to Brunswick, where he established the local weekly "Seaport Appeal". When that eventually failed, Styles moved to Texas, never to see Brunswick again.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: By 1860 Brunswick had a population of 468, a bank, a weekly newspaper, and a sawmill which employed nine workers.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Brunswick was abandoned during the American Civil War when citizens were ordered to evacuate. The city, like many others in the South, suffered from post-war depression. After one of the nation's largest lumber mills began operation on nearby St. Simons Island, economic prosperity returned. Rail lines were constructed from Brunswick to inland Georgia, which stimulated a sawmill boom, said to average one mill every two miles, along with the new industrial corridor. In his book "The New South Comes to Wiregrass Georgia, 1860–1910" author Mark V. Wetherington states that from Eastman, former Quartermaster General Ira R. Foster "shipped lumber to Brunswick, where it was loaded onto timber schooners and transported to international markets like Liverpool, Rio de Janeiro, and Havana." Unlike many other southern cities during the Reconstruction period, Brunswick experienced an economic boom.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: In 1878, poet and native Georgian Sidney Lanier, who sought relief from tuberculosis in Brunswick's climate, wrote "The Marshes of Glynn", a poem based on the salt marshes that span Glynn County. The December 1888 issue of "Harper's Weekly" predicted that "Brunswick by the Sea" was destined to become the "winter Newport of America." Jekyll Island had become a resort destination for some of the era's most influential families (most notably Rockefellers, Vanderbilts, Pulitzers, and Goodyears) who arrived by train or yacht.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: A yellow fever epidemic began in 1893, which heralded a decade of hardships for the city; it was flooded in 1893 when a modern-day Category 3 hurricane (today known as the Sea Islands Hurricane) paralleled the coast of Georgia before hitting South Carolina. The storm left the city under of water. A Category 4 hurricane hit Cumberland Island just south of Brunswick in October 1898, which caused a storm surge in the city. As a result, 179 were killed.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Construction of an electric streetcar line began in 1909 and was completed in 1911. Tracks were located in the center of several city streets. In July 1924, the F.J. Torras Causeway, the roadway between Brunswick and St. Simons Island, was completed, and passenger boat service from Brunswick to St. Simons Island was terminated. By 1926, the electric streetcar line in Brunswick was discontinued; the decline of the streetcar systems coincided with the rise of the automobile.In World War II, Brunswick served as a strategic military location. German U-boats threatened the coast of the southern United States, and blimps became a common sight as they patrolled the coastal areas. During the war, blimps from Brunswick's Naval Air Station Glynco (at the time, the largest blimp base in the world) safely escorted almost 100,000 ships without a single vessel lost to enemy submarines.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: In World War II, Brunswick boomed as over 16,000 workers of the J.A. Jones Construction Company produced ninety-nine Liberty ships and "Knot" ships (type C1-M ships which were designed for short coastal runs, and most often named for knots for the U.S. Maritime Commission to transport materiel to the European and Pacific theatres.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The first ship was the SS "James M. Wayne" (named after James Moore Wayne), whose keel was laid on July 6, 1942, and which was launched on March 13, 1943. The last ship was the SS "Coastal Ranger", whose keel was laid on June 7, 1945, and which was launched on August 25, 1945. The first six ships took 305 to 331 days each to complete, but soon production ramped up and most of the remaining ships were built in about two months, bringing the average down to 89 days each. By November 1943, about four ships were launched per month. The SS "William F. Jerman" was completed in only 34 days in November and December 1944. Six ships could be under construction in slipways at one time.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The city of Brunswick is located in southeastern Georgia, approximately halfway between Jacksonville, Florida and Savannah. The city is located at the apex of the bight of the Georgia coast, the westernmost point on the Atlantic seaboard, and is naturally sheltered by two barrier islands, Jekyll and St. Simons. The city is situated on a peninsula with the East River and the Turtle River to the west, the Brunswick River to the south, and the Mackay River with the Intracoastal Waterway to the east. An abundance of salt marshes separates the city from the Intracoastal Waterway, which passes between Brunswick and the barrier islands. The East River separates Brunswick from Andrews Island, a dredge spoil site.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The city is the lowest in the U.S. state of Georgia, with an elevation of only above sea level. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Brunswick's land area is . Its total area is ; of this is water.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Brunswick's climate is classified as humid subtropical ("Cfa" in the ). During the summer months, it is common for the temperature to reach over 90 °F (32 °C). However, the humidity results in a heat index higher than the actual temperature. Summer mornings average nearly 90 percent humidity and nearly 60 percent in the afternoon. Scattered afternoon thunderstorms are common in the summer. The hottest temperature ever recorded in Brunswick was 106 °F (41 °C) in 1986. Winters in Brunswick are fairly temperate. The average high in January, the coldest month, is 63 °F (17 °C), while the average low is 44 °F (7 °C). Snowfall is very rare. The last snow accumulation in Brunswick was on December 23, 1989. The coldest temperature ever recorded in Brunswick was on January 21, 1985, and January 30, 1966.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Brunswick receives a high amount of rainfall annually, averaging about . The wettest months are August and September, the peak of hurricane season. The city has suffered less damage from hurricanes than most other East Coast cities. A major hurricane has not made landfall on the Georgia coast since 1898, and the only hurricane that has hit the coast since then was Hurricane David in 1979. However, the city has experienced hurricane or near-hurricane conditions several times due to storms passing through Florida from the Gulf of Mexico and entering Georgia or passing to the north or south in the Atlantic and brushing the area.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The Brunswick area has four Superfund sites, formerly home to heavily contaminated toxic waste sites: the LCP Chemicals site, Brunswick Wood Preserving, the Hercules 009 Landfill, and the Terry Creek Dredge Spoil Areas/Hercules Outfall. Research published in 2011 revealed that bottlenose dolphins that fed in the estuaries near these Superfund sites had the highest concentration of PCBs of any mammal in the world.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: In 2000, the city of Brunswick had 15,600 people, 6,085 households, and 3,681 families living in the city, down from the city's initial historic high of 21,703 in 1960. There were 6,952 housing units at an average density of . At the 2010 United States census, there were 15,383 people living within the city; experiencing population fluctuations since, the 2020 U.S. census reported a population of 15,210 people, 6,486 households, and 3,781 families residing in the city.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Among the city's population between 2015 and 2020, the American Community Survey estimated a median age of 34.8, down from 2000's 35 years. Approximately 16.7% of the population were from under 5 years of age to 5 to 9 years; 20.5% were from 15 to 29 years of age; and 16.5% were aged 65 and older. For every 100 females, there were 80 males, and there was a child-dependency ratio of 46.6.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: At the 2000 census, the median income for a household in the city was $22,272, and the median income for a family was $28,564. Males had a median income of $26,172 versus $18,602 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,062. About 25.2% of families and 30.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 43.9% of those under age 18 and 21.7% of those ages 65 or over. By 2020, the median household income was $27,471 with a mean of $57,395. Among families, the median income was $29,953 with a mean of $53,434; married-couple families had a median income of $63,301; and non-family households had a median income of $22,163 with a mean of $59,980.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The median monthly costs for occupied-housing units and renter-owned units was $718 in 2020; for homeowners with a mortgage, the median value of their single-family detached homes was $117,400 and the monthly costs were $1,068. The median real estate taxes paid among homeowners in the city was $951. Among the growing metropolitan statistical areas of Georgia, Brunswick has one of the lowest costs of living in contrast with Atlanta and its metropolitan region.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Brunswick, like most of the United States, has had a traditional population from a predominantly non-Hispanic white, Anglo American background. With the diversification of the nation and state of Georgia, by 2000 its racial and ethnic makeup was 59.8% Black or African American, 33.1% White (non-Hispanic whites), 0.3% American Indian or Alaska Native, 0.4% Asian, <0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.7% from other races, and 1.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino Americans of any race were 5.8% of the population. At the 2020 census, the racial and ethnic makeup was 56.2% Black or African American, 30.39% non-Hispanic white, 0.16% American Indian or Alaska Native, 0.36% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 3.36% multiracial, and 9.49% Hispanic or Latino Americans of any race. Per 2008 estimates, the top five ancestry groups in the city were American (5.3%), English (5.1%), Subsarahan African (4.3%), Irish (4.1%), and German (3.6%). Approximately 54.1% of the population reported another ancestry.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: According to Sperling's BestPlaces, approximately 56.3% of the city's population identify with a religion as of 2020. Typical of those traditionally placed within the Bible Belt and conservative American South, the majority of the religiously-affiliated population identify as Christians. The single largest Christian tradition within the city and metropolitan area are Baptists (15.7%), primarily divided into the National Baptist Convention and Southern Baptist Convention among others; in contrast, the largest single Christian denomination has been the Roman Catholic Church and its Diocese of Savannah (6.8%).


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Following, Methodism was the second largest tradition (12.3%) and Pentecostalism was the third largest Christian tradition in the area (8.2%), notably served through the Assemblies of God and Church of God. Other prominent Christian communities operating with a substantial presence in the city and area have also been Presbyterians, Episcopalians or Anglicans of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States and Continuing Anglicanism, Lutherans, etc. Among non-mainstream Christianity, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints makes up 1.5% of the faithful as of 2020.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Outside of local Christendom, the second-largest religion practiced or adhered to in the area has been Judaism, and collectively, Eastern religions such as Buddhism or Hinduism made up 0.3% of the population. The largest Jewish movement within the city has been Reform Judaism, spread throughout the historic Temple Beth Tefilloh, founded in 1886.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The Port of Brunswick forms a vital part of the city's economy. It is recognized as one of the most productive ports on the East Coast and is the sixth-busiest automobile port in the United States; it is the primary export facility for two of the three United States traditional automotive manufacturers: Ford and General Motors. The port is also the primary export facility for Mercedes-Benz. The port serves as the central import facility for Hyundai, Jaguar, Kia, Land Rover, Mitsubishi, Porsche, and Volvo. Audi, BMW, and Volkswagen utilize the port as a facility for imports as well. International Auto Processing is one of the town's largest employers. In addition to automobiles, exports include agricultural products and other bulk cargoes.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The port is operated by the Georgia Ports Authority and features four separate terminals: Colonel's Island RoRo, Colonel's Island Agri-bulk, Mayor's Point, and Marine Port. Mayor's Point is the only terminal located within the city. The Colonel's Island and Marine Port terminals are located southwest of the city.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC), a large agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security, is headquartered in Glynco, north of the city. A study conducted by Georgia Tech identified FLETC as the largest employer in Glynn County; it was further determined that FLETC's annual localized economic impact is in excess of $600 million.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Southeast Georgia Health System is the largest private employer in Brunswick. Other major employers in Brunswick include King & Prince Seafood, GSI Commerce, Pinova and Gulfstream Aerospace. Wood pulp is produced by the Georgia-Pacific mill in Brunswick. The mill, which has been in operation since 1937, has the capability to produce over 800,000 metric tons of cellulose each year. Additionally, it is the largest single-site fluff production facility in the world. Hercules, a manufacturer, and marketer of chemical specialties operates a production facility on the north side of Brunswick. Jet aircraft manufacturer Gulfstream Aerospace has a presence at the city's airport.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Tourism is the single largest industry in the city and the county. Brunswick and the Golden Isles are a year-round resort community. The islands' beaches, resorts, shops, and historic sites annually attract visitors from around the world. President George W. Bush hosted the G8 summit in 2004 on Sea Island.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Brunswick is home to a variety of arts and cultural events. The most significant professional performing-arts group is the Coastal Symphony of Georgia, in existence since 1982, which stages productions each year at Glynn Academy's Memorial Auditorium. This group of professional musicians also has a Youth Symphony division and a fundraising auxiliary.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Old Town Brunswick's historic and ornate Ritz Theatre hosts a range of performances. Renovated in the early 1980s and again in 2000 through 2001, the Ritz is home to the Golden Isles Arts and Humanities Association, the coordinating arts council for Brunswick and Glynn County. The association hosts an annual performing arts series and rents space to individual producers and organizations.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The city is home to various art galleries. Art Downtown is a cultural arts center featuring a fine art gallery, studio, and production company. It is home to the Brunswick Actors' Theatre. The Gallery on Newcastle is home to a display of scenes from coastal Georgia's marshes.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Along Union Street is a collection of 19th and early 20th-century Victorian mansions. Each December the Magnolia Garden Club tours select Union Street homes in addition to other areas in historic Brunswick as part of its Christmas Tour of Homes.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The city lays claim to Brunswick stew, a tomato-based stew containing various types of lima beans, corn, okra, and other vegetables, and one or more types of meat. Most recipes claiming authenticity call for squirrel or rabbit meat, but chicken, pork, and beef are also common ingredients. A twenty-five-gallon (95 L) iron pot outside the city bears a plaque declaring the stew was first cooked there in 1898. The Brunswick Rockin' Stewbilee, held annually in October, features a stew-tasting contest where visitors sample over 50 teams' stews. The Stewbilee became famous when the city invited Brunswick County, Virginia, to the festival for a stew cookoff in the 1980s, which led the Brunswick "Stew Wars" to be featured in "Southern Living".


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Brunswick is the center of Georgia's shrimping industry. The city was once called "The Shrimp Capital of the World", but in recent times, production has been far below average. Nevertheless, nearby Jekyll Island hosts the Wild Georgia Shrimp & Grits Festival in September. Apart from shrimping, the area is also the center of Georgia's crab and oyster industries.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The College of Coastal Georgia has an active collegiate sports program. The local high schools compete in the Georgia High School Association's quad-A Region 2 sporting events. From 1950 to 2007, Brunswick served host to the Golden Isles Bowl Classic, one of the most prestigious junior college football bowl games in the country. Scholastic and intramural sports are held at school and park facilities around the city. Glynn County Stadium and Lanier Field are two sports stadiums available in the city.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Golden Isles Speedway, a  mile (1 km) race track, is located in western Glynn County, approximately west of the city.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The PGA Tour holds the RSM Classic every year at the Seaside Course on Sea Island. The area is famous for its golf resorts. In 2008 Sea Island was ranked the number-one destination for business meetings and golf by "Golf Digest" and "USA Today". Sea Island was also ranked number-one among the best golf resorts in North America by "Golf Digest". There are three golf courses located just north of the city, and combined with Jekyll, St. Simons, and Sea islands, there are 252 holes of golf in the Brunswick area.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The Brunswick area is home to two out of three publicly accessible beaches in the state. Brunswick is the gateway city to Jekyll and St. Simons islands; both are accessible via automobile only by causeways from the city. The islands, known colloquially as the Golden Isles, feature white-sand public beaches and are popular destinations for tourists and local citizens.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: In 1906 the city was home to a Class D-level minor league baseball team, the River Snipes, a team shared with Columbus as part of the inaugural season of the Georgia State League. The league went defunct following that season. In 1913 the Brunswick Pilots debuted as part of the short-lived Empire State League, before joining the Georgia State League in 1914, and the Florida–Alabama–Georgia League in 1915. The Pilots stopped play following the 1915 season. Thirty-six years passed before Brunswick had another professional baseball team. In 1951 the Brunswick Pirates, a Class D minor league affiliate of the major league Pittsburgh Pirates, began to play in the Georgia–Florida League, beginning eight years of presence in the city. The Pirates won league championships in 1954 and 1955. In 1957 the Pirates became affiliates of the Philadelphia Phillies, respectively adopting the name Brunswick Phillies. Following the 1958 season, the Phillies ceased to play. Brunswick was home to the Cardinals of the Georgia–Florida League in 1962 and 1963 before the league disbanded in 1963.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The Brunswick Parks and Recreation Department operates city parks and squares. Six city squares were part of Brunswick's original 1771 Town Plan. The two largest central squares were Wright and Hanover. Though half of Wright Square was built on by a middle school in the 1950s, the square was recently returned to its original size with George Street removed through the middle. Five of the six still exist today, with Hillsboro Square converted into the campus of Glynn Academy High School. There are also two additional squares located within the city, Orange, and Palmetto. Numerous parks exist in the city, the largest being Howard Coffin Park. The parks include features such as playgrounds, baseball fields, softball fields, soccer fields, basketball courts, and picnic areas. Coffin Park includes a walking track. The district also owns the Roosevelt Lawrence Community Center, a center equipped with popular and traditional recreational game tables, two classrooms, and a multi-purpose gymnasium.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The Brunswick area is rich in live oak trees, particularly the Southern live oak. Such is the quality of the live oak trees in the Brunswick and the Golden Isles area that Revolutionary warships such as the (nicknamed "Old Ironsides") were clad in St. Simons Island oak planks. Brunswick has a notable live oak named Lover's Oak (located at Prince and Albany streets). As of 2005, it is approximately 900 years old. According to the State of Georgia and American Indian folklore, Native American braves and their maidens would meet under the oak. Another notable oak, Lanier's Oak, is notable as being the location where poet Sidney Lanier, on one of his visits to Brunswick, was inspired to write "The Marshes of Glynn".


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Brunswick uses the council-manager model of municipal government. The city commission consists of five individuals, including the mayor, elected on a plurality-at-large basis. Commissioners constitute the legislative body of the city and, as a group, are responsible for taxation, appropriations, ordinances, and other general functions. The mayor of Brunswick is Cornell Harvey, who was elected in 2014 and is the first African-American mayor of Brunswick.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The city is divided into two wards with each ward electing two city commission representatives. The mayor serves as an at-large commissioner and chairperson. The commission meets twice each month at Old City Hall in Old Town. The city commission appoints a city manager to serve at will for an infinite term. The main duty of the manager is to implement policy set by the city commission and manage the operations of the city on a daily basis. The city manager is to see that all laws, provisions of the city charter, and any acts of the city commission are executed and enforced. The city manager of Brunswick is Regina McDuffie.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: In November 2008, Mayor Thompson and the city commission of Brunswick traveled to Ganzhou to strengthen ties between the two cities. Ganzhou, a city with a population of 8.5 million, reciprocated, sending a delegation to Brunswick where an official sister city agreement was signed at Old Brunswick City Hall on April 3, 2009.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Brunswick is home to the College of Coastal Georgia, which has more than 3,000 enrolled students. Since 1961, the college had been a two-year institution, but in 2008, the college began its transition to a four-year institution. The college is currently a state college within the University System of Georgia, with bachelor's degree programs in education, business, and nursing sciences, and other associate degree programs designed to prepare students to transfer to senior colleges and universities.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The Glynn County School System is the governing authority of public schools in the city. More than 12,000 students attend schools in the school system. There are ten elementary schools, four middle schools, and two high schools: Brunswick High School and Glynn Academy. Glynn Academy, the second-oldest public high school in the American South and the sixth-oldest public high school in the United States, was founded in 1788 by an act of the Georgia General Assembly. Brunswick High School opened in 1967. Specialized institutions include a career-technical academy.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: There are several private schools operating in the area. In the city, there is one Catholic school and one Seventh-day Adventist school. There are also Baptist, Pentecostal, and non-denominational Christian schools north of the city, such as Heritage Christian Academy. On St. Simons Island, there is a Presbyterian school. Several smaller Christian schools in Brunswick offer high school education.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: "The Brunswick News" is one of two major daily newspapers serving Brunswick; the other is "The Georgia Times-Union", a subsidiary of the Jacksonville-based "Florida Times-Union". Brunswick has one free weekly newspaper delivered to most homes in Glynn County, "The Harbor Sound" (a free publication). "The Islander" is a weekly paper, member of the Georgia Press Association, and available at newsstands or by subscription.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The major AM radio stations in Brunswick are WSFN 790, an ESPN affiliate and primarily a sports station; WGIG 1440; and WBGA 1490, which are all news and talk stations. The city's FM stations include NPR affiliate WWIO-FM 88.9, public radio WWEZ at 94.7 (St. Simons Island) and 97.5 (Brunswick), and commercial stations WAYR-FM 90.7, WSSI 92.7, WMUV 100.7, WSOL 101.5, WYNR 102.5, WQGA 103.3, WRJY 104.1, WXMK 105.9, and WHFX 107.7. 96.3


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: WPXC-TV, channel 21, an Ion affiliate, is the only broadcast television station in Brunswick. The station became an ABC affiliate in 1996, but in 2001, Allbritton Communications sold the station and, therefore, the station lost its affiliation. All major U.S. television networks are represented in Brunswick from Jacksonville and Savannah-based television stations.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Brunswick has been featured in scenes from the films "The View from Pompey's Head" (1955), "Conrack" (1974), "The Longest Yard" (1974), and the documentary "Criminalizing Dissent" (2006).


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Brunswick Golden Isles Airport (BQK, KBQK) is served by Delta Air Lines, with several daily round trips to the Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport. The city was formerly served by DayJet, with service to cities in Alabama, Florida, and Georgia; the company suspended its operations in September 2008.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Two railway lines run through the city: CSX and Norfolk Southern. The Golden Isles Terminal Railroad is a short line operating of mainline trackage between Anguilla Junction and the Colonel's Island and Marine Port terminals of the Port of Brunswick. This line connects with a line that originates in Old Town Brunswick at Anguilla Junction. Brunswick last had direct passenger service in 1966 or 1967 with the unnamed successor to the Southern Railway's "Kansas City-Florida Special." Amtrak passenger service is available in Jesup, northwest of the city.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: The original Sidney Lanier Bridge was a vertical-lift bridge on U.S. 17 crossing the Brunswick River and was opened on June 22, 1956. On November 7, 1972, the ship "African Neptune" struck the bridge, causing parts of the bridge to collapse, taking cars with it. The accident resulted in ten deaths. On May 3, 1987, the bridge was again struck by a ship, the Polish freighter "Ziemia Bialostocka". A new cable-stayed bridge with the same name opened in 2003 to allow larger ships to enter the port and to eliminate the need for the drawbridge on U.S. 17. It is the longest-spanning bridge in Georgia. The elevation at the top of the support towers is .


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Three federal highways pass through Brunswick: U.S. Route 17, U.S. Route 341, and U.S. Route 25. U.S. 17 runs north to south through the eastern part of town and is a four-lane highway. U.S. 341 overlaps U.S. 25 for almost the entire route and originates in Brunswick off U.S. 17. Interstate 95 runs west and northwest of the city, and U.S. Route 82 originates at the junction of U.S. 17 and State Route 303 just west of I-95.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: In 2006, Glynn County applied for approximately $930,000 for first-year funding for a transit service. The county and city match was for over $100,000 combined. The first-year project would fund the purchase of up to four buses, two vans, signage, equipment, and facility improvements. As of 2007 the first-year application was pending with the Georgia DOT and the Federal Transit Administration.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: With over 1,321 employees and over 201 physicians, Southeast Georgia Health System is the main provider of health care in Brunswick and the surrounding area and is also the largest private employer in Brunswick. Southeast Georgia Health System's medical campus in the city offers a 316-bed full-service hospital. Southeast Georgia Health System Brunswick campus also has an alliance with the International Seafarer's Center that provides first-class medical attention to seamen who come into the Brunswick port; the medical needs of approximately 15,000 international merchant seafarers are met each year. Southeast Georgia Health System also operates a 180-bed skilled nursing facility in Brunswick, The Senior Care Center, which offers short-term rehabilitation services, as well as long-term care.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: Southeast Georgia Health System recently opened the Outpatient Care Center on the Brunswick campus. This six-story, building includes outpatient surgery and imaging services, the Cancer Care Center, a retail area, the Dick Mitchell Health Information Center, as well as physician offices and suites.


title: Brunswick, Georgia

text: In 2004, the Brunswick campus was named Best Large Hospital in the State of Georgia by the Georgia Alliance of Community Hospitals.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: The General Certificate of Education (GCE) is a subject-specific family of academic qualifications used in awarding bodies in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, Crown dependencies and a few Commonwealth countries. For some time, the Scottish education system has been different from those in the other countries of the United Kingdom.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: The General Certificate of Education Advanced Level (GCE "A Levels") is an entry qualification for universities in the United Kingdom and many other locations worldwide.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: The General Certificate of Education set out to provide a national standard for matriculation to university undergraduate courses. It had two levels, Ordinary and Advanced, which rapidly became known throughout the education system as "O levels" and "A Levels." Ordinary levels were usually taken at the age of 16, and Advanced levels at the age of 18 after a further two-year course. Both the O level and A level courses were examined by subject, and matriculation (the minimum standard for university entrance) was set at five passes in different subjects, of which two had to be at A level.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: For matriculation purposes the highest grade pass of a subject taken at CSE level was considered a pass at O level.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: In the English education system both the GCE and CSE examinations were replaced in 1988 with the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), which set out to provide a multi-level examination system catering for all abilities of secondary school pupils.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: Though the GCE was considered a national standard, there was no national syllabus, and it was run by a number of different Examination Boards, each of which set their own syllabi and papers. These included the "Northern Universities Joint Matriculation Board"—generally known as the JMB, The University of London ("The London Board") and the "Oxford and Cambridge Board".


title: General Certificate of Education

text: Examination sessions were held bi-annually in May and November and successful candidates received a certificate listing the subjects they had passed in the session, together with the marks achieved in each. In the earliest years of the system subject marks were given as percentages at both Ordinary and Advanced Level. In later years ordinary level pass marks were graded 1–6, with 1 being the highest. The grading system was further simplified in 1975 when the six pass marks were reduced to three, graded A, B, C. In normalised terms at O level the lower bound for A was then 70% and the lower bound for C 45%. For matriculation purposes C was the lowest pass grade. D, E and F grades were also shown for the first time—indicating that a paper had been sat but the student had not achieved a pass mark.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: In the late 1970s, A level certificates showed grades from A to F. At A level E was considered a pass for matriculation, and corresponded to 30%. All these examinations were closed book, and Art was the only subject for which any assignment outside the examination hall contributed to the final mark.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: Though the GCE was replaced in the English education system in the 1980s, some examination boards continue to offer Ordinary and Advanced level examinations to English Language schools overseas. This enables these students to obtain matriculation instantly recognisable to British universities.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: Significant numbers of private schools in England have also reverted to preparing pupils for GCE examinations.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: Letter grades are used, with A, B, C, D, and E representing a pass and U (unclassified) representing a fail. After leading British universities had expressed concerns that the A grade alone would no longer be enough to distinguish the most exceptional candidates, the A* grade was introduced (GCSE, the replacement of GCE and CSE) for students who achieve 80% and above in the overall A-Level qualification and achieve 90% and over in all A2 (this applies to GCSE and not GCE but may apply to CSE) modules.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: 2017 introduced a new 9-1 grading system in GCSEs (the replacement of A*-U, with U being retained). Grade 9 is situated above the former A*, which is a Grade 8.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: An additional GCE qualification, the Alternative Ordinary Level (AO Level), was formerly available in most subject areas. Sometimes incorrectly known as the Advanced Ordinary Level, the AO Level syllabus and examination both assumed a higher degree of maturity on the part of candidates, and employed teaching methods more commonly associated with A Level study. The AO Level was discontinued, with final admissions in 1987 and final qualifications awarded in 1988.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: In the past, a Scholarship / Special / "S-Level" / Advanced Extension Award (AEA) existed. An Advanced Supplementary Level qualification was also formerly available (designated "AS Level" but not to be confused with the modern-day AS Level, which is lower than the A Level).


title: General Certificate of Education

text: GCE Ordinary and Advanced levels did not exist within the Scottish Education system, but have an equivalent, administered by the Scottish Qualification Authority (the SQA). GCSEs are the equivalent to a Scottish National level 5 (Nat5), A Levels are the equivalent to Highers.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: Both more advanced and less advanced examinations are offered by the SQA, National level 3, National level 4 (equivalent to a Btec) National level 5 (equivalent to GCSE), Higher (equivalent to A Levels) and Advanced higher.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: The secondary education system in Northern Ireland continues to use the GCE Ordinary and Advanced level system. It also retains selection to grammar school by the 11+ examination, a public examination which selects children as suitable for an academic (essentially a liberal arts) secondary syllabus from the age of eleven to eighteen.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: Up to now, most schools in Brunei are under GCE, the levels are of O-level, A-level, and AS-level Examinations are conducted by the Examinations Department of Brunei Darussalam.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: In Cameroon, the GCE Ordinary Level examination is a 3-year course program starting from Form 3 to Form 5 (Years 9 to 11). It is usually written in Form 5 (Year 11) in secondary schools, meanwhile the GCE Advanced Level examinations are written in Upper 6 (Year 13) in high school. Most secondary schools in Cameroon which do the English form of education and write both the GCE A-Level and O-Level examinations were boarding schools, but since then many day schools were opened which offered a complete GCE course, and anyone wishing to have an English education is no longer obliged to attend a boarding school. The GCE saw changes in syllabus content at the ordinary and advanced levels in some science subjects in order to adapt to the world's advancing school program.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: During Easter break around March, students in these boarding schools stay for GCE courses for a week and a few days in school for extra classes in order to cover up their syllabus.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: At the end of the school year, all other students leave, while GCE candidates stay on to revise and prepare for the exams in late May. Once the candidates finish writing in early June, they all return to their various homes, waiting to hear their results. The same thing applies for GCE candidates in day schools. The results for the GCE O-Level and A-level exams in Cameroon are announced around mid-July.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: The two educational qualifications, Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE) and Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination (HKALE), were the two school-leaving exams until they were replaced by the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE). The HKDSE eventually replaced the two exams by only having one public exam in high school year 3 (year 12). English Schools Foundation (though some schools are also adopting the IB Diploma program).


title: General Certificate of Education

text: Some of Pakistan's top schools offers the GCE certification which are mostly private schools. The number of entries for GCE qualifications for O Levels and A Levels has been increasing in Pakistan. The entries for O Levels qualifications in Pakistan grew by 5% in 2015-16 from the previous year, and increased by 8% for A Levels. O Levels and A Levels are considered to be equivalent to the local board of intermediate and secondary education (BISE) education system in Pakistan.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: Students take the O-Levels after completing Secondary 4 at age 16 for the Special and Express streams, or Secondary 5 at age 17 for the Normal Academic Stream. After that, they have the option to go on to a junior college for two years in preparation for the A-Levels or study a vocational trade and earn a diploma at a polytechnic or technical school. Increasingly, students who perform well in school are given the option to bypass the O-levels and take the A-Levels, in a scheme dubbed the integrated programme (also known as the "through-train" programme).


title: General Certificate of Education

text: In Sri Lanka GCE Ordinary Level and GCE Advanced Level examinations are conducted by the Department of Examinations of the Government of Sri Lanka. The GCE(O/L) is normally conducted in the month of December and GCE (A/L)s are conducted in the month of August. They are conducted on an island-wide examination centres on same time. Examination entrance is restricted by a minimal number of formal school going years and laboratory field work. The majority of candidates enter the exams via their respective schools, while candidates who have finished school education can also apply as a private candidate.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: The O/L examination is regarded as the qualification examination for starting on GCE(A/L). Specialization streaming is depended on the grades obtained for subjects in the O/L. The country's reputed schools admit students to their A/L, depending on the O/L grades.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: The Sri Lankan University Grants commission determines the cut-off points for the selection of students to the Sri Lankan universities according to the grade points obtained in the A/L examinations based on the standard normal distribution.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: GCE examinations in Malaysia were used to be conducted by the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate, when two agencies of the Malaysian Ministry of Education took over the role with UCLES retaining an advisory role on standards.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: The US equivalent of the GCE for admissions would be, roughly, the High School Diploma. However, in England and Wales, the high school diploma is considered to be at the level of the General Certificate of Secondary Education and general certificate of education. (GCSE) and (GCE), which is awarded at Year 11 and at the end of year 13. For college and university admissions, the high school diploma may be accepted in lieu of the GCSE if an average grade of C is obtained in subjects with a GCSE counterpart.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: As the more academically rigorous A Levels awarded at Year 13 are expected for university admission, Students who wish to study in the United Kingdom may additionally participate in the Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) programs, which are considered to be at the level of the A Level qualifications and earn points on the UCAS Tariff, or may opt to take A Level examinations in British international schools or as private candidates. Standardized tests, such as the College Board's SAT and SAT Subject Tests or the ACT, may also be considered.


title: General Certificate of Education

text: The Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS) recommends that in addition to a high school diploma, grades of 3 or above in at least two, or ideally three, Advanced Placement exams may be considered as meeting general entry requirements for admission. The IB Diploma may also be accepted. For College Board tests, a minimum score of 600 or higher in all sections of the SAT or a minimum score of 26 or higher in all sections of the ACT along with a minimum score of 600 in relevant SAT Subject Tests may be considered as meeting general entry requirements for admission.


title: House of Fraser

text: House of Fraser (also operating as Frasers) is a British department store group with 44 locations across the United Kingdom, which is now part of Frasers Group. It was established in Glasgow, Scotland in 1849 as Arthur and Fraser. By 1891, it was known as Fraser & Sons. The company grew steadily during the early 20th century, and after the Second World War a large number of acquisitions transformed the company into a national chain.


title: House of Fraser

text: From 1936, the company expanded substantially through acquisitions, including Scottish Drapery Corporation (1952), Binns (1953), Barkers of Kensington (1957), Dickins & Jones and the Harrods group (1959), and J J Allen and Colson's (1969). In 1948, the company was first listed on the London Stock Exchange. Later acquisitions included Howells (1972) and Army & Navy Stores (1973).


title: House of Fraser

text: The group was purchased by the Al Fayed family in 1985 for £615million, beating out Tiny Rowland for control. By 1993, the management of the group were making attempts to purchase the group from the Al Fayeds, and a floatation was agreed, with the group initially trading separately as House of Fraser Holdings with the Fayed group..


title: House of Fraser

text: The public float happened in 1995, when it was listed in the FTSE Index as House of Fraser plc, with Harrods moved into the private ownership of the Al Fayeds.


title: House of Fraser

text: In the 1990s, several stores were closed and fifteen stores transferred to a joint venture with British Land Company, which then continued operating under their old name. The former Harrods group store D H Evans on Oxford Street, London was re-branded as House of Fraser in 2001 and became the chain's flagship store.


title: House of Fraser

text: In 2005, the group acquired Jenners (£46m), and Beatties (£69m). In 2006, the firm was acquired by a consortium of investors (Highland Group Holdings) including Icelandic based Landsbanki (35%). An online store was launched in 2007. In 2014, the group (as Highland Group Holdings Ltd) was sold to Nanjing Xinjiekou Department Store Co. (Sanpower Group), a leading chain of Chinese department stores for approximately £450 million. In May 2018, the group entered a company voluntary arrangement, and in June the closure of 31 stores was announced. On 10 August 2018, Mike Ashley's Sports Direct chain agreed to buy the business (stores, stock, brand) for £90 million after the chain went into administration earlier that day.


title: House of Fraser

text: In 2021, a new spin-off of the House of Fraser brand opened in Wolverhampton's Mander Centre named Frasers. It was a first of its kind in the country, and its products are mostly high-end designer brands. The store features other Frasers Group brands Sports Direct, Evans Cycles, GAME and Flannels. Several other House of Fraser stores have been converted to the Frasers format since the opening of its Wolverhampton flagship.


title: House of Fraser

text: The company was founded by Hugh Fraser and James Arthur in 1849 as a small drapery shop on the corner of Argyle Street and Buchanan Street in Glasgow, Scotland trading as Arthur and Fraser. Hugh Fraser had been apprenticed to Stewart & McDonald Ltd, a Glasgow drapery warehouse where he eventually rose to the position of warehouse manager. It was from here that he brought many of his new company's initial customers. James Arthur also owned a retail drapery business in Paisley, near Glasgow: he appointed a manager to oversee the Paisley business while he focused on his new business.


title: House of Fraser

text: The company established a wholesale trade in adjoining premises in Argyle Street. In 1856 the wholesale business moved to a larger site in Miller Street, Glasgow, and started to trade under the name Arthur & Co. The retail side of the business expanded into the vacant buildings left by the wholesale side.


title: House of Fraser

text: During the late 1850s and early 1860s, the retail business was run by a professional manager – first Thomas Kirkpatrick and then Alexander McLaren. In 1865 the partnership between the partners was dissolved and Fraser assumed control of the retail business leaving Arthur with the wholesale business. In 1865 McLaren joined the retail business and the name was changed to Fraser & McLaren.


title: House of Fraser

text: When the first Hugh Fraser died in 1873, his three eldest sons, James, John and Hugh, acquired stakes in the business. James and John Fraser were initially directors in the business and employed Alexander McLaren and later John Towers to manage it for them. In 1891 Hugh also joined the partnership which by then was called Fraser & Sons.


title: House of Fraser

text: In 1879, the current flagship store on Oxford Street in London was opened by Dan Harries Evans, a 23-year-old from Whitemill in Carmarthenshire, Wales who had previously been apprenticed to a draper in Forest Hamlet near Merthyr Tydfil, Wales. He moved to London in 1878 to set up his own business in Westminster Bridge Road. The store traded under the D H Evans name until 2001.


title: House of Fraser

text: By 1900, Hugh Fraser II was in charge: he incorporated the business as Fraser & Sons Ltd in 1909 and introduced the famous stag's head motif.


title: House of Fraser

text: After Hugh Fraser II died in 1927, his son Hugh Fraser III, an accountant, became Chairman of the business. He opened new departments, enlarged the tearoom, opened a restaurant and also began to look at possible acquisitions. In 1936 he purchased Arnott & Co Ltd and its neighbour Robert Simpson & Sons Ltd in nearby Argyle Street, merging the companies to help improve trade. In 1948 the company, now named House of Fraser, was first listed on the London Stock Exchange.


title: House of Fraser

text: In 1951, the Company purchased McDonald's Ltd, and with it a branch in Harrogate. Fraser then purchased the Scottish Drapery Corporation in 1952, followed by the Sunderland based Binns group of stores in 1953.


title: House of Fraser

text: Fraser sold the property sites to insurance companies, leasing them back for long terms at advantageous rates. This enabled the release of capital for the purchase of new premises and the modernisation of existing stores. In 1957, the Kensington store group of John Barker & Co Ltd was acquired and in 1959 Harrods and Dickins & Jones also joined the Group.


title: House of Fraser

text: Sir Hugh Fraser succeeded his father as Chairman of the company when his father died in 1966. Sir Hugh resumed the expansion of the company in 1969 with the takeover of J. J. Allen Ltd, a Bournemouth based group, also including Colson's of Exeter and Brights of Bristol and Bournemouth.


title: House of Fraser

text: During the 1970s, the House of Fraser Group acquired more companies including T. Baird & Sons Ltd of Scotland, Switzer & Co. Ltd of Dublin, Ireland, and E. Dingle & Co. Ltd, Chiesmans Ltd, Hide & Co and the Army & Navy Stores in southern England, as well as a number of independent stores, totaling over fifty stores during the decade. In 1973, the House of Fraser Group was considering merging with the British pharmacy company Boots, and was even subject to a written answer in the House of Commons. The government decided to block the proposed merger in 1974.


title: House of Fraser

text: In 1981, Prof. Roland Smith succeeded Sir Hugh Fraser as chairman. A takeover bid by Lonrho was referred to the Monopolies and Mergers Commission and declared to be contrary to the public interest. Four new stores opened between 1980 and 1984, including D H Evans in Wood Green, North London in 1980, Dickins & Jones in Milton Keynes in 1981, Frasers in Perth in April 1984, and Army & Navy in Epsom, Surrey in May 1984.


title: House of Fraser

text: The company, by then House of Fraser PLC, diversified into sports goods under the name of Astral Sports and Leisure (subsequently sold to Sears plc, owned Olympus Sport division) and into funerals with Wylie & Lochhead. It also launched the 'You' range of cosmetics and jewellery shops, and in 1985 acquired Turnbull & Asser Holdings Ltd, shirt makers of Jermyn Street, London and Kurt Geiger Holdings Ltd, shoe retailers. Other developments during the 1980s included the introduction of "Lifestyle" merchandise ranges and a huge investment in store refurbishment nationwide. In 1983 the Company introduced the Frasercard (later renamed Recognition), valid at all stores, and administered from a central facility based in Swindon.


title: House of Fraser

text: In 1985, the Al Fayed family bought the business for £615 million. The Al Fayeds supported the continuing expansion of the company and replaced the stag's head logo with a stag leaping from a green triangle with shop signs of this period using a double-layered sans-serif typeface. In 1988, a five-year strategic business plan was announced which saw a rationalisation of stores. Small branches were to be relinquished and replaced with larger units.


title: House of Fraser

text: In September 1990, two new department stores were opened, a House of Fraser in the Meadowhall Shopping Centre in Sheffield, and Schofields in Leeds. In 1991, a new House of Fraser store was opened at the Lakeside Shopping Centre in West Thurrock, Essex.


title: House of Fraser

text: In 1994, before House of Fraser PLC was relisted on the London Stock Exchange, Harrods was moved out of the Group so that it could remain under the private ownership of the Al Fayed family. John Coleman, who was appointed chief executive of the House of Fraser Group in 1996, launched the Linea brand in 1997, along with Platinum and Fraser the following year. The House of Fraser logo was revised in 1996 with the leaping stag now going over an "F" shadow and shop signs using a serif typeface. There were many store closures in this period which included the closure or selling off of branches in locations including Sheffield (House of Fraser), Newcastle (Binns), Sunderland (Binns), Bradford (Rackhams) and Leeds (Schofields which had closed only six years after opening although House of Fraser continued to have a presence with their Rackhams (now House of Fraser store) in the city) with the loss of around 1,000 jobs.


title: House of Fraser

text: House of Fraser set up BL Fraser, a 50–50 joint venture with the British Land Company, in 1999 to buy 15 House of Fraser stores that would continue to be operated by House of Fraser. The Company added to its private-label brands in 2000 with House of Fraser womenswear, The Collection menswear, and a Linea Home.


title: House of Fraser

text: In 2003, Tom Hunter put forward a hostile bid for the Group, with the possible intention to merge with Allders, another department store in which he had shareholdings. In addition, there was a large reduction in the number of House of Fraser stores in Scotland which included the sell off or closure of branches in Aberdeen (Frasers), Dundee (Arnotts), Inverness (Frasers), Paisley (Arnotts) and Perth (Frasers).


title: House of Fraser

text: In 2005, the House of Fraser acquired the four Jenners department stores in April for £46m, and Beatties, a mainly Midlands based department store chain of 12 sites, for £69.3m in the summer of 2005. In addition to buying companies, House of Fraser continued its own development programme and opened several more stores including its first store outside the UK (since the disposal of the Switzer business in Ireland in 1991) in Dundrum Town Centre, Dublin, Ireland. as well as stores in Maidstone and Norwich.


title: House of Fraser

text: In 2006, the Company consolidated its portfolio by closing the 135-year-old Barkers business in Kensington High Street on 2 January 2006. and on 14 January 2006, closed its Dickins & Jones store in London's Regent Street following a substantial rent increase. In addition, the Company closed its Birmingham Beatties store in January 2006 (although retained the House of Fraser store in Birmingham).


title: House of Fraser

text: In February 2006, the Group announced that it had received a preliminary bid approach valuing it at £300 million and, in August 2006, the House of Fraser confirmed a takeover approach from the Highland consortium who acquired the company for £351.4 million in November 2006. Highland Group Holdings Limited was 35% owned by Landsbanki. As part of the Highland takeover all brand names for their stores, including most of the Beatties branches, will be replaced with the House of Fraser name (with the exception of Jenners) with the stag logo axed and a new sans-serif typeface used on shop signs.


title: House of Fraser

text: The company had four major openings in 2008, including its first store in Northern Ireland in the newly built Victoria Square Shopping Centre, Belfast in March. At it was the largest store that House of Fraser had opened (as opposed to taken over) in the UK. Also in March 2008, the Company opened a store in High Wycombe. On 25 September 2008 the Company opened a store in the Cabot Circus development in Bristol, and a branch in Westfield London, a new store, on 30 October 2008.


title: House of Fraser

text: House of Fraser launched the HouseofFraser.com "Buy & Collect" concept shop in October 2011 with its first location in Aberdeen. A further site, in Liverpool, opened in 2012. These small shops were equipped with computer terminals to allow customers to order from the House of Fraser website. Both shops had closed by the summer of 2016.


title: House of Fraser

text: In December 2013, talks to takeover House of Fraser were held by French department store Galeries Lafayette with House of Fraser also exploring a floating on the London Stock Exchange once more in the summer of 2014 if the takeover was to be abandoned.


title: House of Fraser

text: In April 2014, it was reported by BBC News that House of Fraser would be sold to Chinese conglomerate Sanpower Group, who would obtain 89% share in the company which would value the business at about £450 million. Nanjing Xinjiekou Department Store Co will buy an 89% stake in Highland Group Holdings Ltd, which owns House of Fraser. The purchase was worth £450 million. Sanpower Group is a 22 percent shareholder of the Nanjing Xinjiekou Department Store Co. On 2 September 2014. Don McCarthy, retiring Executive Chairman of House of Fraser, announced the completion of the sale of 100% of the preferred ordinary shares and B ordinary shares, and approximately 89% of the A ordinary shares and preference shares of Highland Group Holdings Ltd, to Nanjing Xinjiekou Department Store Co, a leading chain of Chinese department stores and part of the Sanpower Group, for an enterprise value of approximately £480 million.


title: House of Fraser

text: In 2017, a new department store opened at the Rushden Lakes development in Rushden, Northamptonshire. The closure of House of Fraser Outlet in Leicester also took place during the year and a further closure, in Aylesbury, was announced for 2018, however, this never materialised following the acquisition by Sports Direct International. A new store in Chester was announced in February 2017 with construction due to start in mid-2018. It was announced later in 2018 that House of Fraser had pulled out of these plans due to their financial issues.


title: House of Fraser

text: On 2 May 2018, the company announced that it was to be entering into a conditional sale of a controlling stake in the firm to Nanjing Cenbest (another Sanpower Group subsidiary) to Hamleys owner C.banner, another Chinese firm. A condition of the sale that the company streamline its existing store portfolio and cost base was set out. The intention to launch a company voluntary arrangement (CVA) was announced on the same day. However, C.banner later pulled out.


title: House of Fraser

text: Altrincham • Aylesbury • Birkenhead • Birmingham • Bournemouth • Camberley • Cardiff • Carlisle • Chichester • Cirencester • Cwmbran • Darlington • Doncaster • Edinburgh Frasers • Epsom • Grimsby • High Wycombe • Hull • Leamington Spa • Lincoln • London Oxford Street • London King William Street • Middlesbrough • Milton Keynes • Plymouth • Shrewsbury • Skipton • Swindon • Telford • Wolverhampton • Worcester


title: House of Fraser

text: This included the flagship Oxford Street branch and the largest store, Birmingham, to be closed by January 2019. Richard Lim of Retail Economics said that it remained "hard to know with any certainty just what will happen next at House of Fraser" but that without any external funding within a matter of weeks it would inevitably fall into administration. Before the intended closures the company employed 6,000 people directly, with another 11,500 employed through concessions. The subsequent administration of the business meant the CVA and associated plans for restructuring (including the previously announced store closures) came to an abrupt end.


title: House of Fraser

text: On 10 August 2018, House of Fraser entered administration. Later that day, Sports Direct (now Frasers Group) agreed to buy the assets of the business – the House of Fraser stores, brand and the stock – for £90 million in cash on a pre-packaged insolvency basis. Soon after the acquisition, many store closures were announced including the previously safe Manchester store, as well as Nottingham, Lakeside, Gateshead and Norwich, among others. However, after months of negotiations, almost all stores were saved, with the exception of the branch in Shrewsbury, Cirencester, Edinburgh Frasers, Chichester and London King William Street, all of which closed during December 2018 and January 2019.


title: House of Fraser

text: In October 2018, Frasers Group plc purchased the Frasers building in Glasgow for £95 million and pledged to restore the building to its former condition.


title: House of Fraser

text: On 14 June 2019, it was confirmed that the store in Hull, which nearly closed in December, would close in Summer 2019 as a result of failing to agree on redevelopments to the site.


title: House of Fraser

text: On 26 July 2019, it was reported that Sports Direct had received a £605 million bill from the Belgian tax authorities. The retailer rebutted the claims and the matter was resolved in January 2020. Sports Direct described the problems at House of Fraser as "nothing short of terminal". The cost of keeping the group running had been £51 million at that time. Its owner said there would be further store closures and added that there were a number of stores that, despite paying no rent, were still unprofitable. Sports Direct's CEO, Mike Ashley, attributed the collapse of House of Fraser to the "incompetence of previous management".


title: House of Fraser

text: In the Frasers Group plc interim results in December 2019, the group noted it was starting to see signs of recovery as it continued to integrate the business into the Group and bring new disciplines, experience, and skills to bear which were helping the turnaround. The group also noted that the Frasers strategy is to create a superior shopping experience for the consumer which will be led by the original Frasers in Glasgow.


title: House of Fraser

text: On 29 September 2021, the company stated that of the original 59 stores House of Fraser operated at the time of administration, 43 were still open. In November 2021, it was announced that House of Fraser had been given notice of eviction at their Oxford Street store by the landlord, who were going to redevelop the building into a mix of office, retail and leisure. The store would close in January 2022, which along with other store closures would see the chain drop to 41 stores.


title: House of Fraser

text: It was reported in the press in May 2019 that Mike Ashley planned to open a new group of department stores under the Frasers nameplate. This group would have been positioned at the luxury end of the market with a focus on brands, experiences, and services. The project was led by Michael Murray, the group's Head of Elevation. The original Frasers store in Glasgow was planned to become the flagship of the group with a number of existing House of Fraser stores converted to the Frasers format. It was announced that House of Fraser Meadowhall and House of Fraser Belfast would each receive significant investment to become Frasers stores. New Frasers stores would have opened in Liverpool and Wolverhampton. The Wolverhampton opening was announced on 3 October 2019, a new 94,000 sq ft store in premises due to be vacated by Debenhams. The closure of House of Fraser's 376,000 sq ft Beatties store in the city was confirmed at the same time.


title: House of Fraser

text: House of Fraser stores in Lincoln and White City are scheduled for permanent closure (as of April 2021). In addition to the confirmed closures many of House of Fraser's landlords are currently exploring alternative uses for sites occupied by the group. These include department stores in Bath (Jollys), Birmingham, Cardiff, Edinburgh (Jenners), Guildford, High Wycombe, London (Oxford Street), Manchester, Middlesbrough, Plymouth and Reading.


title: House of Fraser

text: House of Fraser previously traded under many different, long established brand names. A number of regional groups of stores were acquired and subsequently extended or amalgamated. The Arnotts and Frasers groups were created by House of Fraser from scratch. These key groups, together with the flagship store of each one, and the regions to which they are largely associated are:


title: House of Fraser

text: House of Fraser owned several other retail businesses that were not department stores. In 1941, Fraser's purchased the furniture retailer Muir Simpson of Sauchiehall Street, Glasgow, while J & A Ogilvie Ltd was added in 1966 after the purchase of Wylie and Lochhead. Another business that was gained by purchasing Wylie and Lochhead was funeral directors, which were grown by further purchases. The company also owned clothing manufacturers Nithco Manufacturing, Arthur & Co, and John Kirsop & Son. They also operated clothing stores including Carswell (The Modern Man's Shop), Cochranes Stores, and Logie & Co.


title: House of Fraser

text: In the 1980s it created the brand YOU jewellery & cosmetic stores, purchased the shoe retailer Kurt Geiger, in addition to growing its sports chain Astral Sports which it had purchased in 1978.


title: House of Fraser

text: Over the years, the following department stores have closed and no longer trade as part of the company.


title: Melty Blood

text: , sometimes shortened as , is a series of 2D visual novel fighting games, co-developed by dōjin circles Type-Moon and French-Bread as the meta-sequel of the Type-Moon's first visual novel "Tsukihime". The first game was originally released at Comiket in December 2002, and later spawned multiple sequels, such as an arcade version titled "Act Cadenza", developed by Ecole Software, which has also been ported to the PlayStation 2, the first Type-Moon title to receive a console release.


title: Melty Blood

text: A manga series, written and illustrated by Takeru Kirishima, was first serialized in Kadokawa Shoten manga magazine Comp Ace in 2006. The series ended in 2011 with nine bound volumes released in Japan.


title: Melty Blood

text: The latest title, called "", was released for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Microsoft Windows on September 30, 2021. It serves as a reboot of the series, and takes place in a new continuity first depicted in "Tsukihime -A piece of blue glass moon-", a remake of the original "Tsukihime".


title: Melty Blood

text: "Melty Blood" makes use of widely used concepts in fighting games such as cancels (canceling a normal attack with a special attack before its animation ends, allowing for more complex and damaging combos) chain combos (normal moves that cancel into other normal moves) and the use of super bars ("Magic Circuits"). It also introduces Shielding, an advanced defensive technique; and French-Bread games’ staple gameplay mechanic Reverse Beat, a type of chain combo that can cancel from a higher normal move to a weaker normal move. "Melty Blood"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s primary gameplay mechanic is an ability to cancel a normal attack to an air throw.


title: Melty Blood

text: Depending on the Moon, a mode of the character with varying normal moves and special moves, certain system mechanics are different or unavailable. (E.g. Full-moon cannot Reverse Beat)


title: Melty Blood

text: The original "Melty Blood" game takes place in one year after Satsuki Yumizuka's non-existent route of "Tsukihime" and a month after "Kagetsu Tohya". In the beginning of August 2001, Shiki Tohno hears of a new series of murders in Misaki Town, similar to the ones that took place in "Tsukihime", in the last weeks of October 1999. Whilst searching for the murderer he meets Sion Eltnam Atlasia who initiates a fight with him, attempting to capture him. After the fight she reveals that her reason for trying to capture him is to get in contact with the "True Ancestor" (referring to Arcueid) so that she may acquire information on the "cure for vampirism". Shiki then decides to help her with this task. The games’ story moves through a series of fights. Depending on the outcome of the fight the story will branch in one of two ways. This corresponds to the ending of the game.


title: Melty Blood

text: Each of the 31 playable characters have 3 Moons, with each providing new variation to normal moves, special moves and system mechanics as well as gameplay feel. They consist of Full Moon, Half Moon or Crescent Moon.


title: Melty Blood

text: This is for playable characters depicted in "Melty Blood", "Re-ACT", "Act Cadenza" and "Actress Again". For playable characters who appeared in "", see "".


title: Melty Blood

text: In the original "Melty Blood", only six (Sion, Arcueid, Ciel, Akiha, Kohaku & Hisui, and Shiki Tohno) of the characters above were available for play, with eight more being unlockable through story mode. However, in a later update released for the game (the "Nero" patch), all the characters are available from the start. The reasons for this are slightly unclear; it appears to be the result of a legal misunderstanding whereby Type-Moon mistakenly thought they would no longer be allowed to produce updates/patches, and thus made a "last patch" which unlocked the characters as a sort of gift for the fans. Whatever the case, Type-Moon has left these characters available throughout all subsequent releases. In addition, Aoko and Kouma were both added to the game as of "Act Cadenza", although Aoko was an unplayable boss character in previous versions. "Act Cadenza" also changed the given names of several characters, generally to make it easier to identify the doppelgangers by name. Sion later appeared in the French-Bread's spiritual successor of the series, "Under Night In-Birth", under her middle name Eltnum.


title: Melty Blood

text: The original "Melty Blood" was announced on October 8, 2001, at , the dōjin convention hosting only "Tsukihime" content. The plan was suggested by Nobuya Narita of Watanabe Seisakujo (French-Bread, from 2003). Kinoko Nasu wrote scenarios and Takashi Takeuchi designed characters. Watanabe Seisakujo developed the game system and pixel arts. They were known as the creator of parody games, but Nasu requested not to break the style of "Tsukihime". They had difficulty thinking of attacks because original characters didn't have an attractive skill suited for the fighting game. They also worked hard to create frames of animation exceeding "Street Fighter III".


title: Melty Blood

text: The full version of "Melty Blood" was released in December 2002 for Windows. An expansion patch, "Re-ACT" released two years later in May 2004, and an update, "Re-ACT Final Tuned", released in July 2005. An arcade version of the series, "Melty Blood Act Cadenza", was later developed by Ecole Software and released in March 2005. Later, a PlayStation 2 version of "Act Cadenza" was released on August 10, 2006. A Windows version, "Melty Blood Act Cadenza Ver.B", was also released on July 27, 2007. The series' newest game, "Melty Blood Actress Again", was released on September 19, 2008.


title: Melty Blood

text: An expansion to the original game, featuring an 'Arcade Mode' whose storyline takes place after the original "Melty Blood". The expansion made numerous changes in regards to character balance and to remove many infinite-combo sequences. New movesets were created for the doppelgänger characters, whereas in the original, most of these characters had nearly identical movesets to their counterparts. It also made changes to the game's mechanics and added several new characters, though only two are playable the other four NPCs: Ren, Satsuki Yumizuka, Neko-Arc (non-playable character) Executioner Ciel (Ciel holding the Seventh Holy Scripture, non-playable character), White Ren (Sub Boss) and Aoko Aozaki (non-playable boss).


title: Melty Blood

text: The final update to "Re-ACT", "Final Tuned", adds several features designed to allow the game to be configured to resemble the gameplay of "Melty Blood Act Cadenza". It also adds a large number of gameplay tweaks and slightly updated animations, such as the inclusion of a new, analog-friendly controller setup; new configuration options that lets players assign multi-button commands to individual buttons; the ability to alter and adjust many of the game's internal variables (via new interface options); and four new colors for each player.


title: Melty Blood

text: "Melty Blood Act Cadenza" was the first arcade port of the series and was published by Ecole Software. The visual novel was removed, while the Arcade Mode dialogue featured in "Re-ACT" returns. It completely revamped Aoko Aozaki's movelist for use as a playable character, and introduced Kouma Kishima into the series, a man who was deeply involved in Shiki Tohno's past. It also introduced the Shielding mechanic (separate from EX-Shielding), as well as including various changes to the properties of characters. This version (as well as the later released "Ver. A") can be identified by the Atlasia crest, and the phrase "Through the Looking-Glass, Black Light transparently", both present in the logo.


title: Melty Blood

text: "Melty Blood Act Cadenza", released for the PlayStation 2, was unique as a port in that it included an option to revert to "Version A" mechanics, yet introduced significant changes that were later included in "Ver. B", including an early version of Neco-Arc Chaos as a hidden character. It is sometimes known as ""Ver. A2"".


title: Melty Blood

text: "Melty Blood Act Cadenza Ver. B" is an arcade port of the PS2 game with various changes and upgrades, the most notable of which is the inclusion of White Len as a playable character, with a significantly weakened moveset. It also introduced a fifth button that served as a contextual action depending on the situation and the direction held on the joystick when pressed, such as dodging or throwing. This version can be identified by a dual silhouette of Len and White Len in the logo and the phrase "Through the Looking-Glass, Northern Light transparently".


title: Melty Blood

text: "Melty Blood Act Cadenza Ver. B2" is a Windows port of the arcade Ver. B. It has added features including tag-team mode, a 4-player team battle mode, a programmable dummy for training purposes and a new hidden boss character, Neco-Arc Chaos Black G666 (replacing G-Akiha from "Melty Blood Re-ACT"). It also included subtle gameplay changes, most notably altered defense ratings for characters and adjustments to the game's input system. It was released on July 27, 2007.


title: Melty Blood

text: "Melty Blood Actress Again" is the fourth game in the "Melty Blood" fighting game series. It was released on September 19, 2008, in Japan for the Sega Naomi hardware. Compared to "Act Cadenza", the game features three entirely new playable characters, as well as several new alternate versions of existing characters in the PS2 version. All characters now feature selection between three different fighting styles, known as Full Moon, Crescent Moon (most similar to "Act Cadenza") and Half Moon, which change not only the way in which the life and Magic Circuit meters function, but also each characters' basic and special attacks. "Actress Again" was first announced in the December 2007 issue of the Japanese arcade game magazine "Monthly Arcadia", published by Enterbrain.


title: Melty Blood

text: "Melty Blood Actress Again Current Code" is an arcade port of the PS2 version. The game underwent location testing in Akihabara from December 19–20, 2009. The characters formerly exclusive to the PS2 version of "Actress Again" became available for use, and the game runs on Sega's RingWide arcade system, as opposed to NAOMI like Act Cadenza and the original Actress Again. The game's website was launched February 11, 2010, and after being unveiled officially at Japan's Arcade Operators Union show on February 20, 2010, the game began undergoing another two week round of location testing. Unverified reports stated that the price for the game and RingWide hardware would be ¥230,000 plus ¥100,000 for a RingWide Harness and shipping costs, equaling US$3,560.83 at exchange rates as of May 13, 2010. Several arcade machine distributors showed the game as being pegged for a release on July 29, 2010.


title: Melty Blood

text: An upgrade for "Melty Blood Actress Again Current Code" was launched on May 18, 2011, branded as "Melty Blood Actress Again Current Code Ver. 1.05", with new changes in gameplay and adding 2 new playable characters, including Powerd Ciel (Ciel's Executioner version from "Melty Blood Re-ACT") with her own Story Mode and ending, along with new moves and sprites for her.


title: Melty Blood

text: A final upgrade for "Melty Blood Actress Again Current Code" was launched on October 14, 2011, named "Melty Blood Actress Again Current Code Ver. 1.07". It includes a complete version of Archetype:Earth (princess version of Arcueid Brunestud) with new sprites and moves and her own Story Mode and ending. Also added were Story Modes and endings for the Neco & Mech and Kohaku & Mech teams. Riesbyfe Stridberg (just as Neco-Arc in the PlayStation 2 version of the game) can gain a new route in Story Mode, showing her as living her new life with Sion Eltnam Atlasia and Satsuki Yumizuka as a member of the Back-Alley Alliance (after the endings of Sion and Satsuki).


title: Melty Blood

text: "Melty Blood Actress Again Current Code" was released for Windows on December 30, 2011, along with the Blu-ray release of "Carnival Phantasm" Season 3 limited edition. It included an online multiplayer option and an online matching mode. The matching server was taken down on October 10, 2014; however, direct connection is still available. Four patches have been released, the latest one bringing the game to version 1.4.0. This version was made available on Steam, published by Arc System Works on April 19, 2016.


title: Melty Blood

text: "Melty Blood: Type Lumina" is the fifth game in the "Melty Blood" fighting game series. It also serves as a reboot of the series, and takes place in the new continuity established by "Tsukihime -A piece of blue glass moon-", the first entry of "Tsukihime" remake series. As such, it shares the remake's modernized setting, revised designs, exclusive characters, and story changes. The visuals and mechanics of the game were also redone from the ground up. It was released worldwide on PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch and Microsoft Windows on September 30, 2021.


title: Melty Blood

text: "Destructoid" concluded their review with "Nearly 14 years after first bursting onto the scene, Melty Blood has aged to the point of near-perfection. While a few aspects of the package leave something to be desired, the fact remains that, at its core, this is a supreme fighter with a diverse roster and deep, compelling mechanics that merit your attention."


title: Melty Blood

text: "Melty Blood Act Cadenza" has been featured at the international fighting game tournament Tougeki in 2006, 2007, and 2008, but was not present at the 2009 Tougeki. "Melty Blood Actress Again" was featured at the Evolution Championship Series 2010 tournament after winning a poll, beating titles such as "".


title: Falcata

text: The falcata is a type of sword typical of pre-Roman Iberia. The falcata was used to great effect for warfare in the ancient Iberian peninsula, and is firmly associated with the southern Iberian tribes, among other ancient peoples of Hispania. It was highly prized by the ancient general Hannibal, who equipped Carthaginian troops with it during the Second Punic War.


title: Falcata

text: It is unknown which name ancient Iberians gave to the weapon. "Falcata" is neither a native name nor one used in classical sources, but a 19th century term coined by historian Fernando Fulgosio to describe the shape of its blade. The term derivates from Latin "falcatus", meaning literally "falcon-shaped". Classical vocabulary did have a sword named "ensis falcatus", but it was apparently meant to be either a falx or a harpe. In any case, the name caught on very quickly and is now firmly entrenched in the scholarly literature.


title: Falcata

text: The falcata has a single-edged blade that pitches forward towards the point, the edge being concave near the hilt, but convex near the point. This shape distributes the weight in such a way that the falcata is capable of delivering a blow with the momentum of an axe, while maintaining the longer cutting edge of a sword and some facility to execute a thrust. The grip is typically hook-shaped, the end often stylized in the shape of a horse or a bird. There is often a thin chain connecting the hooked butt of the Iberian with the hilt. The falcata is distinguished from its Greek counterpart, the kopis, by the fact that its blade is double-edged for about half its length.


title: Falcata

text: The falcata was derived from the sickle-shaped knives of the Iron Age; that too explains their ritual uses. It is thought to have been introduced in the Iberian Peninsula by the Celts who introduced iron working there. There are several historians who believe that its origin is parallel to the Greek kopis and is not derived from it. Meanwhile, others believe the design was carried over from Greece via merchants and traders.


title: Falcata

text: Roman armies in the Second Punic War and later, during the Conquest of Hispania, were surprised by the quality of the weapons used by Iberian mercenaries and warriors. The overall quality of the falcata came not only from the shape, but also from the quality of the iron. It is said that steel plates were buried in the ground for two to three years, corroding the weaker steel from them, but this is technically nonsensical as the higher carbon content of the 'better' steel makes it more vulnerable to chemical corrosion. The technique of joining layers of steel in a fire-welding process in a forge was a standard procedure.


title: Falcata

text: In the early times of the tribes in Iberia, its use was more ornamental and liturgical than military. Highly decorated falcata have been found in tombs, for example the Falcata de Almedinilla. The scarcity of the falcata during early times was due to the expense and scarcity of iron in the region.


title: Falcata

text: Since "falcata" is not a term used in Classical Latin, it is difficult to tell when, or even if, it is being referred to in ancient literature. There is, however, one passage that is generally agreed to refer to this type of sword, in Seneca's "De Beneficiis" 5.24:


title: Falcata

text: <poem>A veteran who had been a bit too rough with his neighbors was pleading his case before Julius Caesar. "Do you remember," he said, "Imperator, how you twisted your ankle near Sucro?" When Caesar said he did remember: "Then you certainly remember that when you were lying to rest under a tree that was casting just a tiny shadow, in a very tough terrain with just that one lonely tree sticking out, one of your men laid out his cloak for you?"


title: Falcata

text: Caesar said "Why shouldn't I remember, even if I was exhausted? Because I was unable to walk I couldn't go to the nearby spring, and I would have been willing to crawl there on hands and knees, if it were not for a good soldier, a brave industrious chap, hadn't brought me water in his helmet?" to which the man replied,


title: Falcata

text: "Then, Imperator, you could recognize that man, or that helmet?" Caesar answered that he couldn't recognize the helmet, but certainly the man, and added, a bit irritated I think, "And you certainly are not him!" "It's not surprising," said the man, "that you do not recognize me, Caesar; for when that happened I was whole. Afterwards, at Munda my eye was gouged out, and my skull smashed in. Nor would you recognize that helmet if you saw it: it was split by a Hispanian sword ("machaera Hispana")."</poem>


title: Falcata

text: Polybius also calls Iberian swords "machaera", possibly referring to the falcata given its similarities to the Greek makhaira. However, he also employs this name for the straight swords used by the Gauls and even the Romans themselves. The additional fact that other tribes from Hispania also used straight swords, which were later to inspire the Roman gladius, obscures the differentiation of their respective names.


title: The Disasters of War

text: The Disasters of War () is a series of 82 prints created between 1810 and 1820 by the Spanish painter and printmaker Francisco Goya (1746–1828). Although Goya did not make known his intention when creating the plates, art historians view them as a visual protest against the violence of the 1808 Dos de Mayo Uprising, the subsequent Peninsular War of 1808–1814 and the setbacks to the liberal cause following the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in 1814. During the conflicts between Napoleon's French Empire and Spain, Goya retained his position as first court painter to the Spanish crown and continued to produce portraits of the Spanish and French rulers. Although deeply affected by the war, he kept private his thoughts on the art he produced in response to the conflict and its aftermath.


title: The Disasters of War

text: He was in poor health and almost deaf when, at 62, he began work on the prints. They were not published until 1863, 35 years after his death. It is likely that only then was it considered politically safe to distribute a sequence of artworks criticising both the French and restored Bourbons. In total over a thousand sets have been printed, though later ones are of lower quality, and most print room collections have at least some of the set.


title: The Disasters of War

text: The name by which the series is known today is not Goya's own. His handwritten title on an album of proofs given to a friend reads: Fatal Consequences of Spain's Bloody War with Bonaparte, and Other Emphatic Caprices (). Aside from the titles or captions given to each print, these are Goya's only known words on the series. With these works, he breaks from a number of painterly traditions. He rejects the bombastic heroics of most previous Spanish war art to show the effect of conflict on individuals. In addition he abandons colour in favour of a more direct truth he found in shadow and shade.


title: The Disasters of War

text: The series was produced using a variety of intaglio printmaking techniques, mainly etching for the line work and aquatint for the tonal areas, but also engraving and drypoint. As with many other Goya prints, they are sometimes referred to as aquatints, but more often as etchings. The series is usually considered in three groups which broadly mirror the order of their creation. The first 47 focus on incidents from the war and show the consequences of the conflict on individual soldiers and civilians. The middle series (plates 48 to 64) record the effects of the famine that hit Madrid in 1811–12, before the city was liberated from the French. The final 17 reflect the bitter disappointment of liberals when the restored Bourbon monarchy, encouraged by the Catholic hierarchy, rejected the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and opposed both state and religious reform. Goya's scenes of atrocities, starvation, degradation and humiliation have been described as the "prodigious flowering of rage". The serial nature in which the plates unfold has led some to see the images as similar in nature to photography.


title: The Disasters of War

text: Napoleon I of France declared himself First Consul of the French Republic on 18 February 1799, and was crowned Emperor in 1804. Because Spain controlled access to the Mediterranean, it was politically and strategically important to him. The reigning Spanish sovereign, Charles IV, was internationally regarded as ineffectual, and his position at the time was threatened by his pro-British heir, Crown Prince Ferdinand. Napoleon took advantage of Charles's weak standing by suggesting the two nations conquer Portugal—the spoils to be divided equally between France, Spain and the Spanish Prime Minister, Manuel de Godoy, who would take the title "Prince of the Algarve". Seduced by the French offer, Godoy accepted, failing to detect the true motivations of either Napoleon or Ferdinand, who both intended to use the invasion as a ploy, to seize power in Spain.


title: The Disasters of War

text: Under the guise of reinforcing the Spanish armies, 25,000 French troops entered Spain unopposed in November 1807. Even when their intentions became clear the following February, the occupying forces faced little resistance besides isolated actions in disconnected areas. In 1808, a popular uprising—incited by Ferdinand's supporters—saw Godoy captured and left Charles with no choice but to abdicate; he did so on 19 March 1808, allowing his son to ascend the throne as Ferdinand VII. Ferdinand had been seeking French patronage, but Napoleon and his principal commander, Marshal Joachim Murat, believed that Spain would benefit from rulers who were more progressive and competent than the Bourbons. They decided that Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte, should be king. Under a pretext of mediation, Napoleon summoned Charles and Ferdinand to Bayonne, France, where they were coerced into relinquishing their rights to the throne in favour of Joseph.


title: The Disasters of War

text: Like other Spanish liberals, Goya was left in a difficult position after the French invasion. He had supported the initial aims of the French Revolution, and hoped its ideals would help liberate Spain from feudalism to become a secular, democratic political system. There were two conflicts being fought in Spain: the resistance against the French threat, and a domestic struggle between the ideals of liberal modernisation and the pre-political incumbent ruling class. The latter divide became more pronounced—and the differences far more entrenched—following the eventual withdrawal of the French.


title: The Disasters of War

text: Several of Goya's friends, including the poets Juan Meléndez Valdés and Leandro Fernández de Moratín, were overt : the supporters (or collaborators, in the view of many) of Joseph Bonaparte. He maintained his position as court painter, for which an oath of loyalty to Joseph was necessary. However, Goya had an instinctive dislike of authority, and witnessed first-hand the subjugation of his countrymen by French troops. During these years he painted little aside from portraits of figures from all parties, including an allegorical painting of Joseph Bonaparte in 1810, Wellington from 1812 to 1814, and French and Spanish generals. Meanwhile, Goya was working on drawings that would form the basis for "The Disasters of War". He visited many battle sites around Madrid to witness the Spanish resistance. The final plates are testament to what he described as ""—the dismemberment of Spain.


title: The Disasters of War

text: Art historians broadly agree that "The Disasters of War" is divided into three thematic groupings—war, famine, and political and cultural allegories. This sequence broadly reflects the order in which the plates were created. Few of the plates or drawings are dated; instead, their chronology has been established by identifying specific incidents to which the plates refer, and the different batches of plates used, which allow sequential groups to be divined. For the most part, Goya's numbering agrees with these other methods. However, there are several exceptions. For example, was among the last to be completed, after the end of the war.


title: The Disasters of War

text: In the early plates of the war grouping, Goya's sympathies appear to lie with the Spanish defenders. These images typically show patriots facing hulking, anonymous invaders who treat them with fierce cruelty. As the series progresses, the distinction between the Spanish and the imperialists becomes ambiguous. In other plates, it is difficult to tell to which camp the distorted and disfigured corpses belong. Some of the titles deliberately question the intentions of both sides; for example, "Con razon ó sin ella" can mean "with or without reason", "rightly or wrongly", or "for something or for nothing". Critic Philip Shaw notes that the ambiguity is still present in the final group of plates, saying there is no distinction between the "heroic defenders of the Fatherland and the barbaric supporters of the old regime". There have been a variety of English translations offered for the plate titles. In many instances, the satirical and often sardonic ambiguity and play on Spanish proverbs found in Goya's carefully worded original titles is lost.