title: Culture industry

text: The aims of the culture industry are—as in every industry—economic in nature. All endeavors become focused on economic success.


title: Culture industry

text: Authentic culture, however, is not goal-oriented, but is an end in itself. Authentic culture fosters the capacity of human imagination by presenting suggestions and possibilities, but in a different way than the culture industry does since it leaves room for independent thought. Authentic culture does not become channeled into regurgitating reality but goes levels beyond such. Authentic culture is unique and cannot be forced into any pre-formed schemas.


title: Culture industry

text: As for discovering the causes of the development of the culture industry, Horkheimer and Adorno contend that it arises from companies' pursuit of the maximization of profit, in the economic sense. However, this cannot be said to be culture, or what culture is supposed to be. It can only be described as being a form of commerce, just like any other kind of commerce.


title: Culture industry

text: The culture industry argument is often assumed to be fundamentally pessimistic in nature because its purveyors seem to condemn "mass media" and their consumers.


title: Culture industry

text: However, for Adorno, the term "culture industry" does not refer to "mass culture", or the culture of the masses of people in terms of something being produced by the masses and conveying the representations of the masses. On the contrary, such involvement of the masses is only apparent, or a type of seeming democratic participation. Adorno contends that what is actually occurring is a type of "defrauding of the masses". Horkheimer and Adorno deliberately chose the term "culture industry" instead of "mass culture" or "mass media". "The culture industry perpetually cheats its consumers of what it perpetually promises." The culture industry even encroaches upon the small distractions of leisure activity: "Amusement has become an extension of labor under late capitalism." Horkheimer and Adorno, above all, in their critical analyses, delve into what they call "the fraying of art" and the "de-artification of art", and discuss how the arts are defused by the culture industry. Works of art have become commodified: Beethoven, Mozart and Wagner are only used in fragmentary forms when included in advertisement. According to Critical Theory, "selling out" is not the decisive factor involved, but rather it's the manner in which art is commodified and how art and culture are changed that is the crucial issue.


title: Culture industry

text: "Culture today is infecting everything with sameness." For Adorno and Horkheimer, subversion has become no longer possible.


title: Culture industry

text: Wiggershaus states: "The other side of Adorno's apparently paradoxical definition was ignored: that rational objectivity was still possible for the modern work of art, in any significant sense, only as a product of subjectivity". This would deny Adorno contemporary political significance, arguing that politics in a prosperous society is more concerned with action than with thought. He also notes that the young generation of critical theorists largely ignore Adorno's work which, in part, stems from Adorno's inability to draw practical conclusions from his theories.


title: Culture industry

text: Adorno is also accused of a lack of consistency in his claims to be implementing Marxism. Whereas he accepted the classical Marxist analysis of society showing how one class exercises domination over another, he deviated from Marx in his failure to use dialectics as a method to propose ways to change. Marx's theory depended on the willingness of the working class to overthrow the ruling class, but Adorno and Horkheimer postulated that the culture industry has undermined the revolutionary movement.


title: Culture industry

text: Adorno's idea that the mass of the people are only objects of the culture industry is linked to his feeling that the time when the working class could be the tool of overthrowing capitalism is over.


title: Culture industry

text: Adorno's work is still of interest. Writing in "The New Yorker" in 2014, music critic Alex Ross argued that Adorno's work has a renewed importance in the digital age: "The pop hegemony is all but complete, its superstars dominating the media and wielding the economic might of tycoons...Culture appears more monolithic than ever, with a few gigantic corporations—Google, Apple, Facebook, Amazon—presiding over unprecedented monopolies."


title: Culture industry

text: Scholar Jack Zipes, influenced by Adorno, critiqued the mass commercialisation and corporate hegemony behind the "Harry Potter" franchise. He argued that the commodities of the culture industry are "popular" because they are homogenous and obey standard conventions; the media then influences the tastes of children. In his analysis of "Harry Potter"s global brand, Zipes wrote, "It must conform to the standards of exception set by the mass media and promoted by the culture industry in general. To be a phenomenon means that a person or commodity must conform to the hegemonic groups that determine what makes up a phenomenon".


title: The New Seekers

text: The New Seekers are a British pop group, formed in London in 1969 by Keith Potger after the break-up of his group, The Seekers. The idea was that the New Seekers would appeal to the same market as the original Seekers, but their music would have pop as well as folk influences. They achieved worldwide success in the early 1970s with hits including "I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing", "You Won't Find Another Fool Like Me" and "Beg, Steal or Borrow".


title: The New Seekers

text: The group was formed after the disbanding of the successful 1960s Australian group the Seekers. Keith Potger, a member of the Seekers, put together the New Seekers in 1969, featuring Laurie Heath, Chris Barrington, Marty Kristian, and Eve Graham and Sally Graham (no relation), the latter of whom was a member of "The Young Generation". Potger himself also performed and recorded with the group.


title: The New Seekers

text: Despite their having only released one album with no commercial success, ITV's Scottish Television gave the group their own TV series "Finders, Seekers". The lineup for this version of the group hosting the series was Keith Potger, Eve Graham, Sally Graham, Laurie Heath, Marty Kristian and Chris Barrington. Produced in colour the show was given a prime-time slot, starting on March 27, 1970 (Good Friday) and continuing for seven shows. The public did not take to the show, with several complaints seemingly targeted at the band. Despite the complaints, the series was shown on several ITV channels, sold to Canada, Australia and Sweden with interest from other countries as a result of being shown at the international television market in Cannes.


title: The New Seekers

text: Following the series failure, later in 1970, after one album release, the line-up was reworked to comprise Graham, Kristian, Lyn Paul, Peter Doyle and Paul Layton. This line-up found instant success with their debut release, a cover of Melanie Safka's "What Have They Done to My Song, Ma" (titled in the U.S. as "Look What They've Done to My Song, Ma"), which became a top 20 hit in the US, No. 3 in Canada, and a minor one in the UK.


title: The New Seekers

text: Over the next year, the group released a number of singles to little recognition, but it was in June 1971 that they released their breakthrough hit, "Never Ending Song of Love" (the first of many hit songs to be produced by David Mackay, and a cover of the American hit by Delaney & Bonnie). The song became a big hit in the UK, spending five weeks at No. 2 in the singles chart and was one of the biggest selling singles of the year. This was their last single released on the Philips Records label. The huge success of this single was mildly ironic in that prior to the single's release, the group were dropped by Philips and had signed with Polydor Records. Their first single for Polydor was "Good Old Fashioned Music", which they promoted on television (including an appearance on "Top Of The Pops"), but it failed to chart. Towards the end of 1971, the group recorded an adaptation of the Coca-Cola jingle, "I'd Like to Buy the World a Coke", which had gained much interest. Reworked as "I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing", the song became a worldwide success. It made No. 1 in the UK for four weeks and sold just under a million copies. In the US, the song was also a hit, reaching No. 7, and in Canada it reached No. 3. It became a No. 1 hit in many other countries and is the most recognised song by the group.


title: The New Seekers

text: The group were chosen to represent the United Kingdom in the 1972 "Eurovision Song Contest". They entered with the song "Beg, Steal or Borrow", which was chosen by viewers of BBC1's "" show from six shortlisted songs performed by the group on a weekly basis. They went on to finish in second place at the Eurovision final in Edinburgh, where the group received the biggest cheer of the night from the partisan audience. The song was a No. 2 hit in the UK and sold well in Europe. Around this time, they also charted highly with their most successful album, "We'd Like to Teach the World to Sing", which reached No. 2. Another top five hit came with the next single, "Circles" in mid 1972. At the end of the year, the group took part in the BBC's anniversary TV show "Fifty Years Of Music".


title: The New Seekers

text: The following year the group saw a slight dip, although they did score a top 20 hit with an adaptation of "Pinball Wizard". Member Peter Doyle left the group this year and was replaced by Peter Oliver. The New Seekers had enjoyed a number of hits in the US by this time and toured there with Liza Minnelli in 1973. While there, they recorded the title track of the American Marlo Thomas’s 1972 album "Free to Be... You and Me". In 1974, the album was made into a landmark television programme designed to teach children how to express themselves and be independent through a series of vignettes. Since the special was first broadcast, the song became a cult classic.


title: The New Seekers

text: Up to now, the group's biggest success had been as a five-piece harmony, but it was around this time that they began to favour lead singers for their songs with title credits given to Marty Kristian for "Come Softly to Me" and Eve Graham for "Nevertheless", but it was in late 1973 that this formula found its biggest success when Lyn Paul took the lead on the new single, "You Won't Find Another Fool Like Me". The song became a big hit over Christmas and eventually peaked at No. 1 in January 1974, becoming their second biggest hit. This formula continued with the next single, "I Get a Little Sentimental Over You", which also became a big hit, peaking at No. 5. However, despite this revival, the group announced their split amid much publicity. With allegations that the members were receiving little financial reward for their success, The New Seekers officially disbanded in May 1974.


title: The New Seekers

text: The group's two UK number one singles are listed as being in the top 30 best selling singles for the 1970s, with "I'd Like To Teach The World To sing" at No. 17 and "You Won't Find Another Fool Like Me" at No. 27.


title: The New Seekers

text: In 1976, the New Seekers reformed with Kathy Ann Rae and Danny Finn replacing Lyn Paul and Peter Oliver. Although they never replicated their earlier success, signed to CBS (Columbia in the US) the group did manage to score a few hits with "It's So Nice (To Have You Home)" (1976), "I Wanna Go Back" (1977) and "Anthem (One Day in Every Week)" (1978). This line up remained intact until 1978, when Danny Finn and Eve Graham left the group to marry. Their final single for CBS was "Don't Stop The Music" in 1979, with Kathy Ann Rae on lead vocal, but after it failed to chart, she left the band and the group signed their final contract with EMI.


title: The New Seekers

text: In 1980, the group attempted to represent the UK again in the Eurovision Song Contest with the song "Tell Me", but it was disqualified shortly before the British heats were televised due to the fact the group had already performed the song on TV a year earlier. Had they appeared in the 1980 UK contest, the group would have been up against former member Danny Finn, who was the lead singer of the winning group Prima Donna. In addition, Mick Flinn and Donna Jones of the final New Seekers line-up (2010) were also in the contest, placing fourth under the group name Pussyfoot. Marty Kristian entered a song in the 1983 UK Eurovision finals, performed by a trio called 'Audio', which included Kathy Ann Rae in the line up. Since then, there have been personnel changes which included Caitriona Walsh, Nicola Kerr and Vikki James (Grammy Winner Victoria Horn). Paul Layton remained with the band throughout this time. The final tour was 2010.


title: The New Seekers

text: Today's New Seekers toured from 2006 with the latest line up of Paul Layton, Donna Jones, Francine Rees, Mick Flinn and Mark Hankins. A CD of the 2006 tour was released which includes all of the group's hits along with some cover versions. With a Royal Variety performance at St James's Palace, London for Charles, Prince of Wales and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall and an appearance on ITV's "This Morning", they completed 2006. The New Seekers helped host a garden party in 2007 at Buckingham Palace. This was repeated the following year along with a special show at The Tower of London and a return batch of concerts in British theatres. The 40th anniversary of the group in 2009 was celebrated by a 35-date UK concert tour, which began at London's Shaw Theatre on 31 January and continued throughout the year. In July 2009, an album was released; "It's Been Too Long – Greatest Hits and More", comprising the group's hits and some new recordings. It became a success by entering the UK album charts at No. 17 – their first album to enter the chart for 35 years.


title: The New Seekers

text: Peter Doyle died on 13 October 2001, from throat cancer, aged 52. Kathy Ann Rae died on 11 January 2011, from cancer, aged 53. Danny (Kevin) Finn died on 24 February 2016 of pulmonary embolism at the age of 71.


title: Guido (slang)

text: Guido (, ) is a North American subculture and ethnic slur or slang term, often derogatory, for a working-class urban Italian-American. The guido stereotype is multi-faceted. Originally, the term was used as a demeaning term for Italian-Americans in general. More recently, it has come to refer to working-class urban Italian-Americans who conduct themselves in an overtly macho manner or belong to a particular working-class Italian-American subculture. The time period in which it obtained the later meaning is not clear, but some sources date it to the 1970s or 1980s. The term is not used in Italy.


title: Guido (slang)

text: The word "guido" is derived from the Italian given name "Guido", originally the Italian version of the French given name Guy. Fishermen of Italian descent were often called "Guidos" in medieval times.


title: Guido (slang)

text: The term is used in states and metropolitan areas associated with large Italian-American populations, such as New York City, New Jersey, Connecticut, Buffalo, Chicago, Detroit, Ohio, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Boston, and Providence. In other areas, terms such as "Cugine" (Brooklyn), "Mario" (Chicago) and "Gino" (Toronto) have a meaning similar to guido. Although some Italians self-identify as "guidos", the term is often considered derogatory or an ethnic slur.


title: Guido (slang)

text: MTV caused controversy in 2009 when they used the term in promotions for the reality television show "Jersey Shore". This spurred objections from Italian-American organizations such as Unico National, NIAF, the Order Sons of Italy in America, and the Internet watchdog organization ItalianAware. Although MTV removed the term from some promotions, it remains closely associated with the show, and some of the cast members use it regularly to describe themselves while the females sometimes refer to themselves as a "guidette."


title: Guido (slang)

text: According to author and professor Pellegrino D'Acierno, "guido" is a derogatory term for stereotypical working class or lower class Italian-American males, "a pejorative term applied to lower-class, [Italian-American], macho, gold-amulet-wearing, self-displaying neighborhood boys [...] [with a] penchant for cruising in hot cars [...] "Guidette" is their gum-chewing, big-haired, air-headed female counterpart." In regards to the "guido" stereotype and the depiction of working class Italian-American communities in American film, Peter Bondanella contends that: "Although some films view the working class as a potentially noble and dignified group, others see the working-class Italian American as a Guido or Guidette - part of a tasteless, uneducated […] group of characters with vulgar gold chains, big hair, and abrasive manners."


title: Guido (slang)

text: Clothing often associated with the "Guido" stereotype includes gold chains (often herringbone chains, figaro chains, cornicellos, or saints' medallions), pinky rings, oversized gold or silver crucifixes, rosaries worn as necklaces, working class clothing such as plain white T-shirts, muscle shirts or "guinea Ts", leather jackets, sweat or tracksuits, coppola caps or scally caps, unbuttoned dress shirts, Italian knit shirts, designer brand T-shirts such as Armani, and often typical Southern Italian "tamarro" or "truzzo" club dress. Slicked-back hair and pompadours, blowouts, tapers, quiffs, fades and heavily pomaded hair are also common stereotypes.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Spinal anaesthesia (or spinal anesthesia), also called spinal block, subarachnoid block, intradural block and intrathecal block, is a form of neuraxial regional anaesthesia involving the injection of a local anaesthetic or opioid into the subarachnoid space, generally through a fine needle, usually long. It is a safe and effective form of anesthesia usually performed by anesthesiologists that can be used as an alternative to general anesthesia commonly in surgeries involving the lower extremities and surgeries below the umbilicus. The local anesthetic with or without an opioid injected into the cerebrospinal fluid provides locoregional anaesthesia: true analgesia, motor, sensory and autonomic (sympathic) blockade.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Administering analgesics (opioid, alpha2-adrenoreceptor agonist) in the cerebrospinal fluid without a local anaesthetic produces locoregional analgesia: markedly reduced pain sensation (incomplete analgesia), some autonomic blockade (parasympathetic plexi), but no sensory or motor block.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Locoregional analgesia, due to mainly the absence of motor and sympathic block may be preferred over locoregional anaesthesia in some postoperative care settings.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: The tip of the spinal needle has a point or small bevel. Recently, pencil point needles have been made available (Whitacre, Sprotte, Gertie Marx and others).


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Spinal anaesthesia is a commonly used technique, either on its own or in combination with sedation or general anaesthesia. It is most commonly used for surgeries below the umbilicus, however recently its uses have extended to some surgeries above the umbilicus as well as for postoperative analgesia. Procedures which use spinal anesthesia include:


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Spinal anaesthesia is the technique of choice for Caesarean section as it avoids a general anaesthetic and the risk of failed intubation (which is probably a lot lower than the widely quoted 1 in 250 in pregnant women). It also means the mother is conscious and the partner is able to be present at the birth of the child. The post operative analgesia from intrathecal opioids in addition to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs is also good.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Spinal anesthesia may be favored when the surgical site is amenable to spinal blockade for patients with severe respiratory disease such as COPD as it avoids the potential respiratory consequences of intubation and ventilation. It may also be useful in patients where anatomical abnormalities may make tracheal intubation relatively difficult.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: In pediatric patients, spinal anesthesia is particularly useful in children with difficult airways and those who are poor candidates for endotracheal anesthesia such as increased respiratory risks or presence of full stomach.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: This can also be used to effectively treat and prevent pain following surgery, particularly thoracic, abdominal pelvic, and lower extremity orthopedic procedures.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Prior to receiving spinal anesthesia, it is important to provide a thorough medical evaluation to ensure there are no absolute contraindications and to minimize risks and complications. Although contraindications are rare, below are some of them:


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Complications of spinal anesthesia can result from the physiologic effects on the nervous system and can also be related to placement technique. Most of the common side effects are minor and are self-resolving or easily treatable while major complications can result in more serious and permanent neurological damage and rarely death. These symptoms can occur immediately after administration of the anesthetic or be delayed.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Serious and permanent complications are rare but are usually related to physiologic effects on the cardiovascular system and neurological system or when the injection has been unintentionally at the wrong site. The following are some major complications:


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Regardless of the anaesthetic agent (drug) used, the desired effect is to block the transmission of afferent nerve signals from peripheral nociceptors. Sensory signals from the site are blocked, thereby eliminating pain. The degree of neuronal blockade depends on the amount and concentration of local anaesthetic used and the properties of the axon. Thin unmyelinated C-fibres associated with pain are blocked first, while thick, heavily myelinated A-alpha motor neurons are blocked moderately. Heavily myelinated, small preganglionic sympathetic fibers are blocked last. The desired result is total numbness of the area. A pressure sensation is permissible and often occurs due to incomplete blockade of the thicker A-beta mechanoreceptors. This allows surgical procedures to be performed with no painful sensation to the person undergoing the procedure.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Some sedation is sometimes provided to help the patient relax and pass the time during the procedure, but with a successful spinal anaesthetic the surgery can be performed with the patient wide awake.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: In spinal anesthesia, the needle is placed past the dura mater in subarachnoid space and between lumbar vertebrae. In order to reach this space, the needle must pierce through several layers of tissue and ligaments which include the supraspinous ligament, interspinous ligament, and ligamentum flavum. Because the spinal cord (conus medullaris) is typically at the L1 or L2 level of the spine, the needle should be inserted below this between L3 and L4 space or L4 and L5 space in order to avoid injury to the spinal cord.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Patient positioning is essential to the success of the procedure and can affect how the anesthetic spreads following administration. There are 3 different positions which are used: sitting, lateral decubitus, and prone. The sitting and lateral decubitus positions are the most common.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Sitting- The patient sits upright at the edge of the exam table with their back facing the provider and their legs hanging off the end of the table and feet resting on a stool. Patients should roll their shoulders and upper back forward.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Lateral decubitus- In this position, the patient lays on their side with their back at the edge of the bed and facing the provider. The patient should curl their shoulder and legs and arch out their lower back.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Spinal anaesthetics are typically limited to procedures involving most structures below the upper abdomen. To administer a spinal anaesthetic to higher levels may affect the ability to breathe by paralysing the intercostal respiratory muscles, or even the diaphragm in extreme cases (called a "high spinal", or a "total spinal", with which consciousness is lost), as well as the body's ability to control the heart rate via the cardiac accelerator fibres. Also, injection of spinal anaesthesia higher than the level of L1 can cause damage to the spinal cord, and is therefore usually not done.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Epidural anaesthesia is a technique whereby a local anaesthetic drug is injected through a catheter placed into the epidural space. This technique is similar to spinal anaesthesia as both are neuraxial, and the two techniques may be easily confused with each other. Differences include:


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Bupivacaine (Marcaine) is the local anaesthetic most commonly used, although lidocaine (lignocaine), tetracaine, procaine, ropivacaine, levobupivicaine, prilocaine, or cinchocaine may also be used. Commonly opioids are added to improve the block and provide post-operative pain relief, examples include morphine, fentanyl, diamorphine, and buprenorphine. Non-opioids like clonidine or epinephrine may also be added to prolong the duration of analgesia (although Clonidine may cause hypotension). In the United Kingdom, since 2004 the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommends that spinal anaesthesia for Caesarean section is supplemented with intrathecal diamorphine and this combination is now the modal form of anaesthesia for this indication in that country. In the United States Morphine is used for cesareans for the same purpose since diamorphine (heroin) is not used in clinical practice in the US.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Baricity refers to the density of a substance compared to the density of human cerebrospinal fluid. Baricity is used in anaesthesia to determine the manner in which a particular drug will spread in the intrathecal space. Usually, the hyperbaric, (for example, hyperbaric bupivacaine) is chosen, as its spread can be effectively and predictably controlled by the Anaesthesiologist, by tilting the patient. Hyperbaric solutions are made more dense by adding glucose to the mixture.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: Baricity is one factor that determines the spread of a spinal anaesthetic but the effect of adding a solute to a solvent, i.e. solvation or dissolution, also has an effect on the spread of the spinal anaesthetic. In tetracaine spinal anaesthesia, it was discovered that the rate of onset of analgesia was faster and the maximum level of analgesia was higher with a 10% glucose solution than with a 5% glucose spinal anaesthetic solution. Also, the amount of ephedrine required was less in the patients who received the 5% glucose solution. In another study this time with 0.5% bupivacaine the mean maximum extent of sensory block was significantly higher with 8% glucose (T3.6) than with 0.83% glucose (T7.2) or 0.33% glucose (T9.5). Also the rate of onset of sensory block to T12 was fastest with solutions containing 8% glucose.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: The first spinal analgesia was administered in 1885 by James Leonard Corning (1855–1923), a neurologist in New York. He was experimenting with cocaine on the spinal nerves of a dog when he accidentally pierced the dura mater.


title: Spinal anaesthesia

text: The first planned spinal anaesthesia for surgery on a human was administered by August Bier (1861–1949) on 16 August 1898, in Kiel, when he injected 3 ml of 0.5% cocaine solution into a 34-year-old labourer. After using it on 6 patients, he and his assistant each injected cocaine into the other's spine. They recommended it for surgeries of legs, but gave it up due to the toxicity of cocaine.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Peer-to-peer file sharing is the distribution and sharing of digital media using peer-to-peer (P2P) networking technology. P2P file sharing allows users to access media files such as books, music, movies, and games using a P2P software program that searches for other connected computers on a P2P network to locate the desired content. The nodes (peers) of such networks are end-user computers and distribution servers (not required).


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: The early days of file-sharing were done predominantly by client-server transfers from web pages, FTP and IRC before Napster popularised a windows application that allowed users to both upload and download with a freemium style service. Record companies and artists called for its shutdown and FBI raids followed. Napster Had been incredibly popular at its peak, spurning a grass-roots movement following from the mixtape scene of the 80's and left a significant gap in music availability with its followers. After much discussion on forums and in chat-rooms, it was decided that Napster had been vulnerable due to its reliance on centralised servers and their physical location and thus competing groups raced to build a decentralised peer-to-peer system.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Peer-to-peer file sharing technology has evolved through several design stages from the early networks like Gnutella, which popularized the technology in several iterations that used various front ends such as Kazza,Limewire and WinMX before Edonkey then on to later models like the BitTorrent protocol. Microsoft uses it for Update distribution (Windows 10) and online playing games (e.g. the mmorpg "Skyforge") use it as their content distribution network for downloading large amounts of data without incurring the dramatic costs for bandwidth inherent when providing just a single source.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Several factors contributed to the widespread adoption and facilitation of peer-to-peer file sharing. These included increasing Internet bandwidth, the widespread digitization of physical media, and the increasing capabilities of residential personal computers. Users are able to transfer one or more files from one computer to another across the Internet through various file transfer systems and other file-sharing networks.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Peer-to-peer file sharing became popular after the introduction of Napster, a file sharing application and a set of central servers that linked people who had files with those who requested files(not P2P). The central index server indexed the users and their shared content. When someone searched for a file, the server searched all available copies of that file and presented them to the user. The files would be transferred directly between private computers (peers/nodes). A limitation was that only music files could be shared. Because this process occurred on a central server, however, Napster was held liable for copyright infringement and shut down in July 2001. It later reopened as a pay service.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: After Napster was shut down, peer-to-peer services were invented such as Gnutella and Kazaa. These services also allowed users to download files other than music, such as movies and games.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Napster and eDonkey2000 both used a central server-based model. These systems relied on the operation of the respective central servers, and thus were susceptible to centralized shutdown. Their demise led to the rise of networks like Limewire, Kazaa, Morpheus, Gnutella, and Gnutella2, which are able to operate without any central servers, eliminated the central vulnerability by connecting users remotely to each other. However, these networks still relied on specific, centrally distributed client programs, so they could be crippled by taking legal action against a sufficiently large number of publishers of the client programs. Sharman Networks, the publisher of Kazaa, has been inactive since 2006. StreamCast Networks, the publisher of Morpheus, shut down on April 22, 2008. Limewire LLC was shut down in late 2010 or early 2011. This cleared the way for the dominance of the Bittorrent protocol, which differs from its predecessors in two major ways. The first is that no individual, group, or company owns the protocol or the terms "Torrent" or "Bittorrent", meaning that anyone can write and distribute client software that works with the network. The second is that Bittorrent clients have no search functionality of their own. Instead, users must rely on third-party websites like Isohunt or The Pirate Bay to find "torrent" files, which function like maps that tell the client how to find and download the files that the user actually wants. These two characteristics combined offer a level of decentralization that makes Bittorrent practically impossible to shut down. File-sharing networks are sometimes organized into three "generations" based on these different levels of decentralization.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: So-called darknets, including networks like Freenet, are sometimes considered to be third-generation file-sharing networks. Soulseek is a first-generation file-sharing network that has escaped legal trouble and continues to operate in the third-generation era.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Peer-to-peer file sharing is also efficient in terms of cost. The system administration overhead is smaller because the user is the provider and usually the provider is the administrator as well. Hence each network can be monitored by the users themselves. At the same time, large servers sometimes require more storage and this increases the cost since the storage has to be rented or bought exclusively for a server. However, usually peer-to-peer file sharing does not require a dedicated server.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: There is still ongoing discussion about the economic impact of P2P file sharing. Norbert Michel, a policy analyst at the Heritage Foundation, said that because of "econometric and data issues, studies thus far have produced disparate estimates of file sharing's impact on album sales."


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: In the book "The Wealth of Networks", Yochai Benkler states that peer-to-peer file sharing is economically efficient and that the users pay the full transaction cost and marginal cost of such sharing even if it "throws a monkey wrench into the particular way in which our society has chosen to pay musicians and re-cording executives. This trades off efficiency for longer-term incentive effects for the recording industry. However, it is efficient within the normal meaning of the term in economics in a way that it would not have been had Jack and Jane used subsidized computers or network connections".


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: As peer-to-peer file sharing can be used to exchange files for which the distribution right was granted (e.g. public domain, Creative Commons, Copyleft licenses, online games, updates, ...).


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Especially startups can save massive amounts of money compared with other means of content delivery networks.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: The economic effect of copyright infringement through peer-to-peer file sharing on music revenue has been controversial and difficult to determine. Unofficial studies found that file sharing had a negative impact on record sales. It has proven difficult to untangle the cause and effect relationships among a number of different trends, including an increase in legal online purchases of music; illegal file-sharing; drops in the prices of CDs; and the extinction of many independent music stores with a concomitant shift to sales by big-box retailers.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Also many independent artists choose a peer-to-peer file sharing method named BitTorrent Bundle for distribution.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: The MPAA reported that American studios lost $2.373 billion to Internet piracy in 2005, representing approximately one third of the total cost of film piracy in the United States. The MPAA's estimate was doubted by commentators since it was based on the assumption that one download was equivalent to one lost sale, and downloaders might not purchase the movie if illegal downloading was not an option. Due to the private nature of the study, the figures could not be publicly checked for methodology or validity, and on January 22, 2008, as the MPAA was lobbying for a bill which would compel universities to crack down on piracy, it was admitted by MPAA that its figures on piracy in colleges had been inflated by up to 300%.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: A 2010 study, commissioned by the International Chamber of Commerce and conducted by independent Paris-based economics firm TERA, estimated that unlawful downloading of music, film and software cost Europe's creative industries several billion dollars in revenue each year. Furthermore, the TERA study entitled "Building a Digital Economy: The Importance of Saving Jobs in the EU's Creative Industries" predicted losses due to piracy reaching as much as 1.2 million jobs and €240 billion in retail revenue by 2015 if the trend continued. Researchers applied a substitution rate of ten percent to the volume of copyright infringements per year. This rate corresponded to the number of units potentially traded if unlawful file sharing were eliminated and did not occur. Piracy rates of one-quarter or more for popular software and operating systems have been common, even in countries and regions with strong intellectual property enforcement, such as the United States or the EU.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: In 2004, an estimated 70 million people participated in online file sharing. According to a CBS News poll, nearly 70 percent of 18- to 29-year-olds thought file sharing was acceptable in some circumstances and 58 percent of all Americans who followed the file sharing issue considered it acceptable in at least some circumstances.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: In January 2006, 32 million Americans over the age of 12 had downloaded at least one feature-length movie from the Internet, 80 percent of whom had done so exclusively over P2P. Of the population sampled, 60 percent felt that downloading copyrighted movies off the Internet did not constitute a very serious offense, however 78 percent believed taking a DVD from a store without paying for it constituted a very serious offense.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: In July 2008, 20 percent of Europeans used file sharing networks to obtain music, while 10 percent used paid-for digital music services such as iTunes.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: In February 2009, a Tiscali UK survey found that 75 percent of the English public polled were aware of what was legal and illegal in relation to file sharing, but there was a divide as to where they felt the legal burden should be placed: 49 percent of people believed P2P companies should be held responsible for illegal file sharing on their networks, 18 percent viewed individual file sharers as the culprits, while 18 percent either didn't know or chose not to answer.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: According to an earlier poll, 75 percent of young voters in Sweden (18-20) supported file sharing when presented with the statement: "I think it is OK to download files from the Net, even if it is illegal." Of the respondents, 38 percent said they "adamantly agreed" while 39 percent said they "partly agreed". An academic study among American and European college students found that users of file-sharing technologies were relatively anti-copyright and that copyright enforcement created backlash, hardening pro-file sharing beliefs among users of these technologies.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Communities have a prominent role in many peer to peer networks and applications, such as BitTorrent, Gnutella and DC++. There are different elements that contribute to the formation, development and the stability of these communities, which include interests, user attributes, cost reduction, user motivation and the dimension of the community.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Peer communities are formed on the basis of common interests. For Khambatti, Ryu and Dasgupta common interests can be labelled as attributes "which are used to determine the peer communities in which a particular peer can participate". There are two ways in which these attributes can be classified: explicit and implicit attributes.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Explicit values are information that peers provide about themselves to a specific community, such as their interest in a subject or their taste in music. With implicit values, users do not directly express information about themselves, albeit, it is still possible to find information about that specific user by uncovering his or her past queries and research carried out in a P2P network.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Khambatti, Ryu and Dasgupta divide these interests further into three classes: personal, claimed and group attributes.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: A full set of attributes (common interests) of a specific peer is defined as personal attributes, and is a collection of information a peer has about him or herself. Peers may decide not to disclose information about themselves to maintain their privacy and online security. It is for this reason that the authors specify that "a subset of...attributes is explicitly claimed public by a peer", and they define such attributes as "claimed attributes". The third category of interests is group attributes, defined as "location or affiliation oriented" and are needed to form a...basis for communities", an example being the "domain name of an internet connection" which acts as an online location and group identifier for certain users.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Cost reduction influences the sharing component of P2P communities. Users who share do so to attempt "to reduce...costs" as made clear by Cunningham, Alexander and Adilov. In their work "Peer-to-peer File Sharing Communities", they explain that "the act of sharing is costly since any download from a sharer implies that the sharer is sacrificing bandwidth". As sharing represents the basis of P2P communities, such as Napster, and without it "the network collapses", users share despite its costs in order to attempt to lower their own costs, particularly those associated with searching, and with the congestion of internet servers.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: User motivation and the size of the P2P community contribute to its sustainability and activity. In her work Motivating Participation in Peer to Peer Communities, Vassileva studies these two aspects through an experiment carried out in the University of Saskatchewan (Canada), where a P2P application (COMUTELLA) was created and distributed among students. In her view, motivation is "a crucial factor" in encouraging users to participate in an online P2P community, particularly because the "lack of a critical mass of active users" in the form of a community will not allow for a P2P sharing to function properly.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Usefulness is a valued aspect by users when joining a P2P community. The specific P2P system must be perceived as "useful" by the user and must be able to fulfil his or her needs and pursue his or her interests. Consequently, the "size of the community of users defines the level of usefulness" and "the value of the system determines the number of users". This two way process is defined by Vassileva as a feedback loop, and has allowed for the birth of file-sharing systems like Napster and KaZaA. However, in her research Vassileva has also found that "incentives are needed for the users in the beginning", particularly for motivating and getting users into the habit of staying online. This can be done, for example, by providing the system with a wide amount of resources or by having an experienced user provide assistance to a less experienced one.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Users participating in P2P systems can be classified in different ways. According to Vassileva, users can be classified depending on their participation in the P2P system. There are five types of users to be found: users who create services, users who allow services, users who facilitate search, users who allow communication, users who are uncooperative and free ride.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: In the first instance, the user creates new resources or services and offers them to the community. In the second, the user provides the community with disk space "to store files for downloads" or with "computing resources" to facilitate a service provided by another users. In the third, the user provides a list of relationships to help other users find specific files or services. In the fourth, the user participates actively in the "protocol of the network", contributing to keeping the network together. In the last situation, the user does not contribute to the network, downloads what he or she needs but goes immediately offline once the service is not needed anymore, thus free-riding on the network and community resources.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Corporations continue to combat the use of the internet as a tool to illegally copy and share various files, especially that of copyrighted music. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) has been active in leading campaigns against infringers. Lawsuits have been launched against individuals as well as programs such as Napster in order to "protect" copyright owners. One effort of the RIAA has been to implant decoy users to monitor the use of copyrighted material from a firsthand perspective.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: In early June 2002, Researcher Nathaniel Good at HP Labs demonstrated that user interface design issues could contribute to users inadvertently sharing personal and confidential information over P2P networks.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: In 2003, Congressional hearings before the House Committee of Government Reform ("Overexposed: The Threats to Privacy & Security on File Sharing Networks") and the Senate Judiciary Committee ("The Dark Side of a Bright Idea: Could Personal and National Security Risks Compromise the Potential of P2P File-Sharing Networks?") were convened to address and discuss the issue of inadvertent sharing on peer-to-peer networks and its consequences to consumer and national security.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Researchers have examined potential security risks including the release of personal information, bundled spyware, and viruses downloaded from the network. Some proprietary file sharing clients have been known to bundle malware, though open source programs typically have not. Some open source file sharing packages have even provided integrated anti-virus scanning.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Since approximately 2004 the threat of identity theft had become more prevalent, and in July 2008 there was another inadvertent revealing of vast amounts of personal information through P2P sites. The "names, dates of birth, and Social Security numbers of about 2,000 of (an investment) firm's clients" were exposed, "including [those of] Supreme Court Justice Stephen Breyer." A drastic increase in inadvertent P2P file sharing of personal and sensitive information became evident in 2009 at the beginning of President Obama's administration when the blueprints to the helicopter Marine One were made available to the public through a breach in security via a P2P file sharing site. Access to this information has the potential of being detrimental to US security. Furthermore, shortly before this security breach, the "Today" show had reported that more than 150,000 tax returns, 25,800 student loan applications and 626,000 credit reports had been inadvertently made available through file sharing.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: The United States government then attempted to make users more aware of the potential risks involved with P2P file sharing programs through legislation such as H.R. 1319, the Informed P2P User Act, in 2009. According to this act, it would be mandatory for individuals to be aware of the risks associated with peer-to-peer file sharing before purchasing software with informed consent of the user required prior to use of such programs. In addition, the act would allow users to block and remove P2P file sharing software from their computers at any time, with the Federal Trade Commission enforcing regulations. US-CERT also warns of the potential risks.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: Nevertheless, in 2010, researchers discovered thousands of documents containing sensitive patient information on popular peer-to-peer (P2P) networks, including insurance details, personally identifying information, physician names and diagnosis codes on more than 28,000 individuals. Many of the documents contained sensitive patient communications, treatment data, medical diagnoses and psychiatric evaluations.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: The act of file sharing is not illegal per se and peer-to-peer networks are also used for legitimate purposes. The legal issues in file sharing involve violating the laws of copyrighted material. Most discussions about the legality of file sharing are implied to be about solely copyright material. Many countries have fair use exceptions that permit limited use of copyrighted material without acquiring permission from the rights holders. Such documents include commentary, news reporting, research and scholarship. Copyright laws are territorial- they do not extend beyond the territory of a specific state unless that state is a party to an international agreement. Most countries today are parties to at least one such agreement.


title: Peer-to-peer file sharing

text: In the area of privacy, recent court rulings seem to indicate that there can be no expectation of privacy in data exposed over peer-to-peer file-sharing networks. In a 39-page ruling released November 8, 2013, US District Court Judge Christina Reiss denied the motion to suppress evidence gathered by authorities without a search warrant through an automated peer-to-peer search tool.


title: Treadmill

text: A treadmill is a device generally used for walking, running, or climbing while staying in the same place. Treadmills were introduced before the development of powered machines to harness the power of animals or humans to do work, often a type of mill operated by a person or animal treading the steps of a treadwheel to grind grain. In later times, treadmills were used as punishment devices for people sentenced to hard labor in prisons. The terms "treadmill" and "treadwheel" were used interchangeably for the power and punishment mechanisms.


title: Treadmill

text: More recently, treadmills have instead been used as exercise machines for running or walking in one place. Rather than the user powering a mill, the device provides a moving platform with a wide conveyor belt driven by an electric motor or a flywheel. The belt moves to the rear, requiring the user to walk or run at a speed matching the belt. The rate at which the belt moves is the rate of walking or running. Thus, the speed of running may be controlled and measured. The more expensive, heavy-duty versions are motor-driven (usually by an electric motor). The simpler, lighter, and less expensive versions passively resist the motion, moving only when walkers push the belt with their feet. The latter are known as manual treadmills.


title: Treadmill

text: Treadmills continue to be the biggest selling exercise equipment category by a large margin. As a result, the treadmill industry has hundreds of manufacturers throughout the world.


title: Treadmill

text: William Staub, a mechanical engineer, developed the first consumer treadmill for home use. Staub developed his treadmill after reading the 1968 book, "Aerobics" by Kenneth H. Cooper. Cooper's book noted that individuals who ran for eight minutes four to five times a week would be in better physical condition. Staub noticed that there were no affordable household treadmills at the time and decided to develop one for his own use during the late 1960s. He called his first treadmill the PaceMaster 600. Once finished, Staub sent his prototype treadmill to Cooper, who found the machine's first customers, including sellers of fitness equipment.


title: Treadmill

text: Staub began producing the first home treadmills at his plant in Clifton, New Jersey, before moving production to Little Falls, New Jersey.


title: Treadmill

text: Treadmills as power sources originated in antiquity. These ancient machines had three major types of design. The first was a horizontal bar jutting out of a vertical shaft. It rotated around a vertical axis, driven by an ox or other animal walking in a circle and pushing the bar. Humans were also used to power these. The second design was a vertical wheel, a treadwheel, that was powered by climbing in place instead of walking in circles. This is similar to what we know today as the hamster wheel. The third design also required climbing but used a sloped, moving platform instead.


title: Treadmill

text: Treadmills as muscle powered engines originated roughly 4000 years ago. Their primary use was to lift buckets of water. This same technology was later adapted to create rotary grain mills and the treadwheel crane. It was also used to pump water and power dough-kneading machines and bellows.


title: Treadmill

text: Treadmills for punishment were introduced in 1818 by an English engineer named Sir William Cubitt, who was the son of a miller. Noting idle prisoners at Bury St Edmunds gaol, he proposed using their muscle power to both cure their idleness and produce useful work.


title: Treadmill

text: Cubitt's treadmills for punishment usually rotated around a horizontal axis, requiring the user to step upwards, like walking up an endless staircase. Those punished walked around the outside of the wheel holding a horizontal handrail for stability. By the Prison Act of 1865 every male prisoner over 16, sentenced to hard labour, had to spend three months at least of his sentence in labour of the first class, which consisted primarily of the treadmill.


title: Treadmill

text: Punishment treadmills remained in use until the second half of the 19th century; they were typically twenty-foot (0,6 m) long paddle wheels with twenty-four steps around a six-foot (1,82 m) cylinder. Several prisoners stood side-by-side on a wheel, and had to work six or more hours a day, effectively climbing 5,000 to 14,000 vertical feet (1500 to 4000 m). While the purpose was mainly punitive, the most infamous mill at Brixton Prison was installed in 1821 and used to grind grain to supplement an existing windmill which Cubitt had previously installed nearby. It gained notoriety for the cruelty with which it was used, which then became a popular satirical metaphor for early-19th century prisons.


title: Treadmill

text: The forerunner of the exercise treadmill was designed to diagnose heart and lung diseases, and was invented by Robert Bruce and Wayne Quinton at the University of Washington in 1952. Kenneth H. Cooper's research on the benefits of aerobic exercise, published in 1968, provided a medical argument to support the commercial development of the home treadmill and exercise bike.


title: Treadmill

text: Among users of treadmills today are medical facilities (hospitals, rehabilitation centers, medical and physiotherapy clinics, institutes of higher education), sports clubs, biomechanics institutes, orthopedic shoe shops, running shops, Olympic training centers, universities, fire-training centers, NASA, test facilities, police forces and armies, gyms and even home users.


title: Treadmill

text: Treadmill ergometers are now mainly motor driven. Most treadmills have a running deck with a rotating belt. Before and after the running deck, there are two shafts. The belt is stretched between the shafts and the running deck. Safety standards for treadmills are IEC EN 957-1 and IEC EN 957-6.


title: Treadmill

text: For medical treadmills applicable norms, standards and guidelines include the Medical Device Directive (MDD), European Guideline 93/42 EEC, European Guideline 2007/47 EEC, IEC EN 60601-1, EN 62304, EN 14971 and the machinery directive 2006/42/EC.


title: Treadmill

text: Medical treadmills are class IIb active therapeutic devices and also active devices for diagnosis. With their very powerful (e.g. 3.3 kW = 4.5 HP) electric motor powered drive system, treadmills deliver mechanical energy to the human body through the moving running belt of the treadmill. The subject does not change their horizontal position and is passively moved and forced to catch up with the running belt underneath their feet. The subject can also be attached in a safety harness, unweighting system, various supports or even fixed in and moved with a robotic orthotic system utilizing the treadmill.


title: Treadmill

text: Medical treadmills are also active measuring devices. When connected through an interface with ECG, ergospirometry, blood pressure monitor (BPM), or EMG, they become a new medical system (e.g., stress test system or cardiopulmonary rehabilitation system) and can also be equipped to measure VO₂ max and various other vital functions.


title: Treadmill

text: Most treadmills have a "cardio mode", where a target heart rate is defined and the speed and elevation (load) is controlled automatically until the subject is in "heart rate steady state". So the treadmill is delivering mechanical energy to the human body based on the vital function (heart rate) of the subject.


title: Treadmill

text: A medical treadmill which is also used for ergometry and cardiopulmonary stress test as well as performance diagnostics is always a class IIb medical device either when used as stand-alone device in a medical environment or when used in connection with an ECG, EMG, ergospirometry, or blood pressure monitoring device.


title: Treadmill

text: On the running deck the subject moves, adapting to the adjustable speed of the belt. The running deck is usually mounted on damping elements, so the running deck has shock absorbing characteristics. A lifting element raises the entire frame including the running deck, and simulating a pitch angle for uphill running. Some treadmills can also reverse the running belt to simulate downhill loads. Most treadmills for professional use in the fitness area have table sizes of about long and width, a speed range of about and slope angle of 0-20%.


title: Treadmill

text: For athletes, larger and more stable treadmills are necessary. With some weight relief, sprinters reach temporary speeds of up to and must therefore run on a large deck of up to in length and up to in width. With high physical exertion and an increased risk of falling, a fall stop unit is required to prevent the subject or patient from falling. This fall stop device usually takes the form of a safety arch to which a line is attached to an electrical switch. A harness bears the subject, preventing them from falling and shutting down the running belt if necessary.


title: Treadmill

text: In some offices, employees are provided with treadmill desks so that employees can walk while working on a computer or speaking on the phone.


title: Treadmill

text: In treatment centers, treadmills are used with built-in seats left and right for therapists, for example, so the therapists can move the legs of a stroke patient in order to simulate walking movements and help them learn to walk again. This is called manual locomotion therapy.


title: Treadmill

text: Oversized treadmills are also used for cycling at speeds up to , for wheelchair users and in special applications with sturdy running belts for cross-country skiing and biathlon, where athletes perform training and testing exercises with roller skis on a running deck of up to .


title: Treadmill

text: A treadmill can lose its speed and performance if not maintained from time to time. Starting from positioning of the treadmill to regular oil checks, a treadmill's longevity is determined by how it is maintained.


title: Treadmill

text: Ideally, a treadmill should be placed on a leveled floor in order to ensure the belt and motor have a proper balanced movement. In case of uneven floors, the elevation of either of the legs (rear or front legs) should be leveled out using a wood block or a brick.


title: Treadmill

text: Dirt that gets accumulated on a treadmill can also cause malfunction. Dirt on the belt or the deck is cleared by wiping the belt and the sides of the treadmill once or twice a month using a cloth or a wet sponge.


title: Treadmill

text: The conveyor belt is an important part that is responsible for the functioning of the treadmill. Regular maintenance for the belt includes:


title: Treadmill

text: As it is basically a conveyor belt, the treadmill can be used for activities other than running. If horses are being tested (especially in jockey racing) they will be put on a specially constructed treadmill. Large treadmills can also accommodate cars. Treadmills can also be used to exercise dogs that are accustomed to running on a conveyor; however, tying the leash to the treadmill should be avoided as it can cause serious injury.


title: Treadmill

text: Underwater treadmills are a type of treadmill encased in glass or plastic and filled with water to a point where the occupant is partially submerged. They are used for both humans and animals, often for physical therapy.


title: Treadmill

text: Dog/pet and underwater pet treatment treadmills are available for both home and clinical use. A variety of makes and models are available, but key features of treadmills designed for pet use include a longer running surface, open front and back entries and side rails to prevent the pet from falling off the treadmill. None are designed to be used without human supervision. Many veterinary and animal rehabilitation clinics also offer underwater treadmill therapy as part of their services provided to clients' pets.


title: Treadmill

text: Advanced applications are so called omnidirectional treadmills. They are designed to move in two dimensions and are intended as the base for a "holodeck". Several solutions have been proposed, but research continues as some issues remain unsolved, such as large size, noise and vibration. Parallel developments are being conducted by researchers working on projects sponsored by the US Department of Veterans Affairs to create virtual reality environments for a wheelchair trainer in order to promote therapeutic exercise.


title: Demonte Colony

text: Demonte Colony is a 2015 Indian Tamil-language horror thriller film written and directed by R Ajay Gnanamuthu. The film stars Arulnithi. Also starring Ramesh Thilak, Sananth and Abishek Joseph George, the film is a fictional story set at the Demonte Colony in Alwarpet, Chennai. "Demonte Colony" features cinematography by Aravinnd singh, songs composed by guitarist Keba Jeremiah, and an original score by S. Chinna.


title: Demonte Colony

text: The film was released on 22nd May 2015 to critical acclaim and became an blockbuster at the box office. In 2022, director Ajay Gnanamuthu confirmed a sequel to Demonte Colony with Arulnithi reprising his role.


title: Demonte Colony

text: Raghavan, Sajith, Vimal and Srinivasan "Srini" are four friends. Out of false bravado, they decide to visit a dilapidated mansion in De Monte Colony, which is rumoured to be haunted. They sneak into the house and get separated in the darkness and have a chilling experience, although all of them manage to come out seemingly unscathed.


title: Demonte Colony

text: The next day, the four men go to an astrologer. Three of them get their thumb prints and their future predictions done whereas Sajith is told the astrologer will predict his future later, as he does not have the corresponding paraphernalia. They return home, and everything seems to be normal and Sajith goes to bed. But while Srini is driving his bike, he gets a phone call from the astrologer, who wants to discuss an important matter, but Srini is unable to hear the details, and the call gets dropped. When Srini reaches the astrologer's residence, he finds him dead.


title: Demonte Colony

text: Some time later, the friends are curious to know the story behind De Monte Colony, so Raghavan narrates the story. Years ago, the area was a colony of the Portuguese business tycoon Lord John De Monte, who owned almost half of Chennai. He wishes to gift his wife, so he orders a special necklace as a gift for his wife's birthday. Soon after his wife becomes mentally ill. He informs the situation to his son via mail, and consequently learns about the death of his son. A depressed De Monte wants to return to Portugal and travels to Calcutta to sell his properties in India before leaving.


title: Demonte Colony

text: When De Monte returns after five months, he learns that some orderly working in the house has raped his wife, leaving her pregnant. He further requests a doctor to treat his wife within the confines of the house, but the doctor refuses, citing hospital laws. Taking this as a mark of disrespect, De Monte kills the doctor and all his servants over lingering doubts as to who had raped his wife. Angered by this, the locals set fire to the house and a disturbed De Monte shoots barrels filled with gunpowder; the ensuing explosion kills everyone within the house including De Monte. Seemingly, a curse is set on the diamond necklace such that whoever tries to steal it will be killed, and the stolen necklace will return to De Monte's house in any way.


title: Demonte Colony

text: Raghavan reveals that he had stolen the necklace so that it could be sold for money. Eerie things begin to happen in their room – the TV does not switch off and, instead of the DVD that they had inserted, plays their own conversations where the death scenes were played. The power goes off, Srini contacts the electricity board for power help. Srini then adds about what happened to the astrologer. They play the call record, in which the astrologer reveals that Sajith has already died the last night. They all turn towards Sajith who is still sleeping.


title: Demonte Colony

text: The windows and doors do not open; the friends' cries for help are never heard outside. They take an ouija and ask some dreadful questions, then realises that no-one will return alive. Srini asks to burn the ouija, then it starts burning, then they sees "Sajith" waking up, drinking water from the fridge, not seeing anything what is happening and goes back to sleep. They get scared upon seeing him. Then Srini tells them to go back and sit at the same place where they sat to use the ouija board. They realise that the arrow pointed at Raghavan and Srini and Vimal couldn't hear what Raghavan is saying. Then they realise that he is haunted by the spirit. Raghavan writes on the TV that De Monte is going to kill them all and he dies in the same way how Vimal died in the TV. Srini tells Vimal that they don't know anything about De Monte's house and they will return alive. He reveals that if the same thing which happened in TV is going happen now a thing has happened in the TV: after Vimal and Raghavan died he managed to escape from home by opening the main door but as it didn't open there is a way to escape. Then Srini gets haunted by the spirit and Vimal couldn't hear what Srini was saying and then he kills Vimal. Srini feels bad and sorry for killing his friend. His room starts to freeze.


title: Demonte Colony

text: When Srini sees a portion of the room where god was there did not freeze, he goes there and remembers the DVD which it showed after crossing some point, Raghava was haunted by the spirit. Srini discovers a window can be opened in the portion of the room. "Sajith" tries to stop Srini from escaping the room, but he remembers what the astrologer said, Sajith died last night, he immediately steps back, he escapes and runs towards a nearby tea shop, only to find that no-one can hear him; he realises he has become a ghost after dying when he attempted to jump out of the flat. Later, he witness the necklace being carried by "Sajith", returning to the De Monte Colony House.


title: Demonte Colony

text: The New Indian Express wrote, "Brilliantly written and executed, gripping and refreshing, "Demonte Colony" is a must watch for lovers of the genre". Sify wrote, ""Demonte Colony" does sincere attempt to scare us and seriously it is one of the well written, superbly executed horror thrillers in recent times that keep us engaged throughout its crisp running time of 116 minutes". "Deccan Chronicle" wrote, "what really shines are the foundations and technical execution of the film: writing, narration, pacing (although first half drags a bit), lighting, cameras, and sound", calling the film "a scary and entertaining affair that promises to surprise and amuse you".


title: Demonte Colony

text: "The Times of India" gave the film 3 stars out of 5 and wrote, "R Ajay Gnanamuthu's "Demonte Colony" is a refreshing change – it is a pure horror film with no frills attached...and this alone makes us want to appreciate the director...But despite the visual flair, "Demonte Colony" at times gets bogged down by predictability and the lack of a genuine sense of dread". Rediff.com gave the same rating, stating, "Almost entirely shot in a single room with no gruesome ghosts or unnecessary build up, the director has skilfully created the eerie atmosphere, with incessant rain, a subtle aura of menace, unsophisticated characters and underlying hint of truth. The film is undoubtedly a fine attempt by the debutant director.".


title: Demonte Colony

text: "The Hindu" wrote, "you could make a case for "Demonte Colony" being a brave debut for R Ajay Gnanamuthu...He wants to shake you up and leave you walking out nervously, petrified of the dark and the dead. But he needed something more: new ideas to show the horrors unleashed by the evil spirit. The ones he uses aren’t enough".


title: Demonte Colony

text: "Demonte Colony" opened at the number one position at the Chennai box office, with an opening weekend gross of ₹6401,000, described by "International Business Times" as an "appreciable feat for a movie that does not feature an A-list star". The film collected nearly .


title: Dniester

text: The Dniester ( ,) is a transboundary river in Eastern Europe. It runs first through Ukraine and then through Moldova (from which it more or less separates the breakaway territory of Transnistria), finally discharging into the Black Sea on Ukrainian territory again.


title: Dniester

text: The name "Dniester" derives from Sarmatian "dānu nazdya" "the close river." (The Dnieper, also of Sarmatian origin, derives from the opposite meaning, "the river on the far side".) Alternatively, according to Vasily Abaev "Dniester" would be a blend of Scythian "dānu" "river" and Thracian "Ister", the previous name of the river, literally Dān-Ister (River Ister). The Ancient Greek name of Dniester, "Tyras" (Τύρας), is from Scythian "tūra", meaning "rapid."


title: Dniester

text: The names of the Don and Danube are also from the same Indo-Iranian word "*dānu" "river". Classical authors have also referred to it as "Danaster." These early forms, without -"i"- but with -"a"-, contradict Abaev's hypothesis. Edward Gibbon refers to the river both as the Niester and Dniester in his "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire".


title: Dniester

text: In Ukrainian, it is known as (translit. "Dnister"), and in Romanian as . In Russian, it is known as (translit. "Dnestr"), in Yiddish: "Nester" נעסטער; in Turkish, "Turla"; and in Lithuanian as "Dniestras".


title: Dniester

text: The Dniester rises in Ukraine, near the city of Drohobych, close to the border with Poland, and flows toward the Black Sea. Its course marks part of the border of Ukraine and Moldova, after which it flows through Moldova for , separating the main territory of Moldova from its breakaway region Transnistria. It later forms an additional part of the Moldova-Ukraine border, then flows through Ukraine to the Black Sea, where its estuary forms the Dniester Liman.


title: Dniester

text: Along the lower half of the Dniester, the western bank is high and hilly while the eastern one is low and flat. The river represents the "de facto" end of the Eurasian Steppe. Its most important tributaries are Răut and Bîc.


title: Dniester

text: During the Neolithic, the Dniester River was the centre of one of the most advanced civilizations on earth at the time. The Cucuteni–Trypillian culture flourished in this area from roughly 5300 to 2600 BC, leaving behind thousands of archeological sites. Their settlements had up to 15,000 inhabitants, making them among the first large farming communities in the world.


title: Dniester

text: In antiquity, the river was considered one of the principal rivers of European Sarmatia, and it was mentioned by many Classical geographers and historians. According to Herodotus (iv.51) it rose in a large lake, whilst Ptolemy (iii.5.17, 8.1 &c.) places its sources in Mount Carpates (the modern Carpathian Mountains), and Strabo (ii) says that they are unknown. It ran in an easterly direction parallel with the Ister (lower Danube), and formed part of the boundary between Dacia and Sarmatia. It fell into the Pontus Euxinus to the northeast of the mouth of the Ister, the distance between them being 900 stadia – approximately  – according to Strabo (vii.), while (from the "Pseudostoma") according to Pliny (iv. 12. s. 26). Scymnus (Fr. 51) describes it as of easy navigation, and abounding in fish. Ovid ("ex Pont." iv.10.50) speaks of its rapid course.


title: Dniester

text: Greek authors referred to the river as "Tyras" (). At a later period it obtained the name of "Danastris" or "Danastus", whence its modern name of Dniester (Niester), though the Turks still called it "Turla" during the 19th century. The form is sometimes found.


title: Dniester

text: According to Constantine VII, the Varangians used boats on their trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, along Dniester and Dnieper and along the Black Sea shore. The navigation near the western shore of Black Sea contained stops at Aspron (at the mouth of Dniester), then Conopa, Constantia (localities today in Romania) and Messembria (today in Bulgaria).


title: Dniester

text: From the 14th century to 1812, part of the Dniester formed the eastern boundary of the Principality of Moldavia.


title: Dniester

text: Between the World Wars, the Dniester formed part of the boundary between Romania and the Soviet Union. In 1919, on Easter Sunday, the bridge was blown up by the French Army to protect Bender from the Bolsheviks. During World War II, German and Romanian forces battled Soviet troops on the western bank of the river.


title: Dniester

text: After the Republic of Moldova declared its independence in 1991, the small area to the east of the Dniester that had been part of the Moldavian SSR refused to participate and declared itself the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, or Transnistria, with its capital at Tiraspol on the river.


title: Dniester

text: From source to mouth, right tributaries, i.e. on the southwest side, are the Stryi (), (), (), Bystrytsia (101 km), Răut (), (), Bîc (), and Botna ().


title: Dniester

text: Left tributaries, on the northeast side, are the Strwiąż (), Zubra, Hnyla Lypa (), Zolota Lypa (), (), Strypa (), Seret (), Zbruch (), Smotrych (), (), (), (), Murafa (), (), (), and Kuchurhan ().


title: Jane Toppan

text: Jane Toppan (March 31, 1854 – August 17, 1938), born Honora Kelley, was an American serial killer, nicknamed "Jolly Jane". After her arrest in 1901, she confessed to 31 murders, but only 12 were confirmed. Toppan is quoted as saying that her ambition was "to have killed more people—helpless people—than any other man or woman who ever lived".


title: Jane Toppan

text: Toppan worked as a nurse from around 1885 to 1902. Her victims consisted of her patients and their family members.


title: Jane Toppan

text: Jane Toppan was born Honora Kelley on March 31, 1854, the daughter of Irish immigrants. Her mother, Bridget Kelley, died of tuberculosis when she was very young. Her father, Peter Kelley, was well known as an eccentric and abusive alcoholic, nicknamed by those who knew him "Kelley the Crack" (as in "crackpot"). In later years, Peter Kelley was said to have sewn his own eyelids closed while working as a tailor.


title: Jane Toppan

text: In 1860, only a few years after his wife's death, Kelley took his two youngest children, eight-year-old Delia Josephine and six-year-old Honora, to the Boston Female Asylum, an orphanage for indigent female children. Kelley surrendered the two girls, never to see them again. Documents from the asylum note that they were "rescued from a very miserable home". No records exist of Delia and Honora's experiences during their time in the asylum, but reportedly, Delia became a prostitute while their older sister Nellie (who was not committed to the orphanage) was committed to an insane asylum.


title: Jane Toppan

text: In November 1862, less than two years after being abandoned by her father, Honora Kelley was placed as an indentured servant in the home of Mrs. Ann C. Toppan of Lowell, Massachusetts. Though never formally adopted by the Toppans, Honora took on the surname of her benefactors and eventually became known as Toppan. The original Toppan family already had a daughter, Elizabeth, with whom Honora was on good terms.


title: Jane Toppan

text: In 1885, Toppan began training to be a nurse at Cambridge Hospital. Unlike her early years, where she was described as brilliant and terrible, at the hospital she was well-liked, bright, and friendly, evoking the nickname "Jolly Jane". Once Toppan became close with the patients, she picked her favorite ones. The patients were normally elderly and very sick. During her residency, Toppan used her patients as guinea pigs in experiments with morphine and atropine; she altered their prescribed dosages to see what it did to their nervous systems. However, she spent considerable time alone with patients, making up fake charts and medicating them to drift in and out of consciousness and even getting into bed with them.


title: Jane Toppan

text: Toppan was recommended for the prestigious Massachusetts General Hospital in 1889; there, she claimed several more victims before being fired the following year. She briefly returned to Cambridge but was soon dismissed for administering opiates recklessly. Toppan then began a career as a private nurse and flourished despite complaints of petty theft.


title: Jane Toppan

text: Toppan began her poisoning spree in earnest in 1895 by killing her landlord, Israel Dunham, and his wife. In 1899, she killed her foster sister Elizabeth with a dose of strychnine. In 1901, Toppan moved in with the elderly Alden Davis and his family in Cataumet to take care of him after the death of his wife, Mattie (whom Toppan had murdered). Within weeks, she killed Davis, his sister Edna, and two of his daughters, Minnie and Genevieve.


title: Jane Toppan

text: The surviving members of the Davis family ordered a toxicology exam on Alden Davis' youngest daughter, Minnie. The report found that she had been poisoned, and local authorities assigned a police detail on Toppan to watch her. On October 29, 1901, she was arrested for murder. By 1902, she had confessed to thirty-one murders.


title: Jane Toppan

text: Soon after the trial, one of William Randolph Hearst's newspapers, the "New York Journal", printed what was purported to be Toppan's confession to her lawyer, claiming that she had killed more than thirty-one people, and that she wanted the jury to find her sane so she could eventually have a chance at being released. Toppan insisted upon her own sanity in court, claiming that she could not be insane if she knew what she was doing and knew that it was wrong, but nonetheless she was declared insane and committed. On June 23 1902, in the Barnstable County Courthouse, she was found not guilty by reason of insanity and committed for life in the Taunton Insane Hospital.


title: Jane Toppan

text: An article in the "Hoosier State Chronicles". published shortly after Toppan's arrest, reported that she would fondle her victims as they died and attempt to see the inner workings of their souls through their eyes. Under questioning, Toppan stated she derived a sexual thrill from patients being near death, coming back to life and then dying again. Toppan administered a drug mixture to the patients she chose as her victims, lay with them, and held them close as they died.


title: Jane Toppan

text: Toppan is often considered an "angel of mercy", a type of serial killer who takes on a caretaker role and attacks the vulnerable and dependent, though she also murdered for seemingly more personal reasons, such as in the case of the Davis family. It is possible Toppan was also motivated by jealousy, in the case of the murder of her foster sister. She later described her motivation as a paralysis of thought and reason, a strong urge to poison.


title: Jane Toppan

text: Toppan used poison for more than just murder, reportedly poisoning a housekeeper just enough so that she appeared drunk in order to steal her job and kill the family. She even poisoned herself to evoke the sympathy of men who courted her.


title: Jock Stein

text: John "Jock" Stein (5 October 1922 – 10 September 1985) was a Scottish football player and manager. He was the first manager of a British side to win the European Cup, with Celtic in 1967. Stein also guided Celtic to nine successive Scottish League championships between 1966 and 1974.


title: Jock Stein

text: Stein worked as a coalminer while playing football part-time for Blantyre Victoria and then Albion Rovers. He became a full-time professional football player with Welsh club Llanelli Town, but returned to Scotland with Celtic in 1951. He enjoyed some success with Celtic, winning the Coronation Cup in 1953 and a Scottish league and Scottish Cup double in 1954. Ankle injuries forced Stein to retire from playing football in 1957.


title: Jock Stein

text: Celtic appointed Stein to coach their reserve team after he retired as a player. Stein started his managerial career in 1960 with Dunfermline, where he won the Scottish Cup in 1961 and achieved some notable results in European football. After a brief but successful spell at Hibernian, Stein returned to Celtic as manager in March 1965. In thirteen years at Celtic, Stein won the European Cup, ten Scottish league championships, eight Scottish Cups and six Scottish League Cups. After a brief stint with Leeds United, Stein managed Scotland from 1978 until his death in 1985.


title: Jock Stein

text: Born in Burnbank, Lanarkshire, Stein saw football as his escape from the Lanarkshire coal mines. In 1937 he left Greenfield school in Hamilton and after a short time working in a carpet factory went down the pits to become a miner. In 1940, Stein agreed to sign for Burnbank Athletic, but his father vehemently objected. Soon afterwards, he instead joined Blantyre Victoria, another local junior club.


title: Jock Stein

text: Stein first played for senior club Albion Rovers as a trialist in a 4–4 draw against Celtic on 14 November 1942. Three weeks later, manager Webber Lees signed Stein for the Coatbridge club. He continued to work as a miner during the week, which was a reserved occupation during the Second World War. This allowed Stein to play regularly, as many of their other players were serving in the Armed Forces. He had a brief loan spell with Dundee United in 1943. Rovers won promotion to the First Division in 1947–48, for only the fourth time in the club's history. During the 1948–49 season, Rovers conceded 105 goals, won only three league games out of 30 and were relegated back to the Second Division.


title: Jock Stein

text: In 1950, having been approached by former Albion Rovers teammate Dougie Wallace, Stein signed for non-league Welsh club Llanelli. For the first time in his career, he became a full-time professional footballer, earning £12 per week. Llanelli had gained promotion to the Southern League in 1950 and signed several Scottish professionals. In 1951, the club's application to join the Football League was rejected and there were rumours of financial problems. All but two of the Scottish professionals left.


title: Jock Stein

text: Stein initially left his wife Jean and young daughter Ray in Scotland when he moved to Llanelli. His family moved down soon afterwards, but his council house in Hamilton was burgled about eight weeks after they moved. Jean wanted to return to Scotland, and Stein accepted her desire in light of his own disillusionment with the problems at the club. When asked what he would do by the Llanelli manager, Stein said he would probably quit football and become a miner again.


title: Jock Stein

text: In December 1951, on the recommendation of reserve team trainer Jimmy Gribben, Celtic bought him for £1,200. He was signed as a reserve but injuries incurred by first team players resulted in him being elevated to the first team. In 1952 he was appointed vice-captain; when captain Sean Fallon suffered a broken arm, the captaincy was passed to Stein.


title: Jock Stein

text: Celtic finished eighth in the Scottish League during 1952–53 and were only invited to the pan-British Coronation Cup tournament due to their large support base. Celtic beat Arsenal, Manchester United and Hibernian to win the trophy. This success was built upon in 1953–54, as Stein captained the side that won a League and Scottish Cup double. It was their first League championship since 1938 and first League and Scottish Cup double since 1914. As a reward for their achievement, the club paid for all of the players to attend the 1954 FIFA World Cup in Switzerland. Celtic had also sent their players to watch the England v Hungary match in 1953. Stein was influenced by Scotland's poor preparation and the impressive performance of Hungary. Stein received his only international recognition in 1954, when he was selected for the Scottish Football League XI. It was not a happy experience for Stein, as his direct opponent, Bedford Jezzard, scored two goals as The Football League XI won 4–0 at Stamford Bridge.


title: Jock Stein

text: In 1954–55, Celtic finished second in the league and lost the 1955 Scottish Cup Final to Clyde. Stein was forced to retire from football after suffering persistent ankle injuries during the 1955–56 season. While playing in a friendly in Coleraine in May 1956, he landed awkwardly and rolled over on the ankle. Two weeks later he had an operation to remove a bone nodule, after which he was ordered to rest until fully recuperated. While on a holiday in Blackpool, the ankle irritated Stein, who found that it had become septic. He was no longer able to flex the joint and had to stop playing, officially retiring on 29 January 1957.


title: Jock Stein

text: In July 1957, Stein was given the job of coaching the Celtic reserve team. His squad included a number of young players who would later play under him in the first team, including Billy McNeill, Bobby Murdoch and John Clark. In his first season as a coach, Stein won the Reserve Cup with an 8–2 aggregate triumph over Rangers. Despite this success, according to football journalist Archie MacPherson, Stein was told by club chairman Robert Kelly he would not progress further at Celtic due to his Protestant faith; Celtic had only previously appointed Catholics as manager, though one of these, Willie Maley had spent 50 years at the club and Stein was only the fourth person to be appointed Celtic manager, after Maley, Jimmy McStay and Jimmy McGrory, who was manager for 20 years. It was later suggested that Stein was allowed to leave Celtic temporarily with the intention of later appointing him manager, but MacPherson found no evidence for this.


title: Jock Stein

text: On 14 March 1960, Stein was appointed manager of Dunfermline. When Stein was appointed, the team were only two points above last place and mired in a battle against relegation. The team had not won in four months, but then won their first six matches managed by Stein. To build upon this initial success, Stein signed Willie Cunningham and Tommy McDonald from Leicester City. Dunfermline became a powerful force and Stein guided them to their first Scottish Cup victory in 1961, winning 2–0 in a replayed Final against Celtic. This success prompted job offers from Newcastle United and Hibernian, both of which were rejected by Stein.


title: Jock Stein

text: In the 1961–62 season, Dunfermline progressed to the quarter-final of the 1961–62 European Cup Winners' Cup and finished in fourth place in the league. Their league position earned a place in the Fairs Cup after a Greek club withdrew. Dunfermline defeated Everton in the 1962–63 Fairs Cup and retrieved a four-goal deficit against Valencia, but then lost in a play-off game. Towards the end of the 1963–64 season, it became apparent that Hibs wanted to replace their manager, Walter Galbraith. It was reported in the media on 27 February that Stein would leave Dunfermline at the end of the season. A fortnight later, amid speculation that Stein would move to Hibernian, Galbraith left the Edinburgh club. On 28 March, Dunfermline lost in a Scottish Cup semi-final against Rangers. It was announced two days later that Stein would leave Dunfermline with immediate effect, allowing him to take charge at Hibernian.


title: Jock Stein

text: Stein was appointed manager of Hibernian in March 1964. Although Hibs had a bigger support base than Dunfermline and had enjoyed success in the 1950s, the club was struggling. Hibs had narrowly avoided relegation in 1963 and were sitting in 12th place when Stein was appointed. The players noticed an immediate difference from previous managers as Stein took an active part in practice sessions. Stein built his defence around John McNamee, who had been discarded by Celtic, and Pat Stanton. In midfield he had Pat Quinn and Willie Hamilton, who were talented players but had under-achieved. Hamilton had problems with drinking and gambling, but he produced his best performances under Stein's guidance. Stein led Hibs to victory in the Summer Cup, their first trophy in ten years. Neil Martin scored regularly and was capped for Scotland under Stein.


title: Jock Stein

text: The 1964–65 league season started with an Edinburgh derby defeat by Hearts, but Hibs managed to recover from this setback. Stein invited Real Madrid for a friendly game in Edinburgh, which Hibernian won 2–0 in front of a crowd of 32,000, further boosting his prestige. Wolves asked Stein if he wanted to replace Stan Cullis as their manager. Stein then approached Celtic chairman Bob Kelly, ostensibly to ask his advice about the offer from Wolves, but in the hope that he would be offered the Celtic job instead. Kelly first offered Stein the position of assistant manager (to Sean Fallon), which Stein rejected. Kelly then offered Stein the chance to be joint manager with Fallon, but this was also rejected by Stein, who suggested he would rather go to Wolves if Celtic would not offer full control. Billy McNeill believed that Kelly's initial reluctance was due to Stein's religion. Kelly eventually agreed to offer Stein full powers over team selection. Hibs tried to convince Stein to stay, even attempting to persuade his wife Jean, but becoming Celtic manager had been his long-held ambition. While Stein was still Hibs manager, he arranged for Celtic to sign Bertie Auld from Birmingham City and allowed Hibs goalkeeper Ronnie Simpson to join Celtic. Some people claimed with hindsight that he had deliberately allowed Simpson to join Celtic before moving himself, but in fact it was due to a wage dispute.


title: Jock Stein

text: It was announced on 31 January that Stein would leave Hibs for Celtic at the end of the 1964–65 season. Stein left Hibs in early March, after he had arranged for Dundee manager Bob Shankly to take the Hibs job. When Stein left, Hibs were near the top of the league and in the semi-finals of the 1964–65 Scottish Cup. Hibs had defeated Rangers in the quarter-final, in his last game as Hibs manager. They failed to win either competition, however, and Stein later admitted that "leaving Hibs at that time was probably my most embarrassing experience in football". Stein was statistically the best ever manager of Hibs, with a win rate of 62%.


title: Jock Stein

text: He returned to Celtic in March 1965, becoming the club's first Protestant manager and the fourth manager in club history. Celtic were struggling in the league and continued to have mixed results, winning his first game 6–0 at Airdrie, but then losing 4–2 to Hibs and 6–2 to Falkirk. In the period between the announcement of Stein's move to Celtic and his arrival, Celtic had progressed to the semi-finals of the 1964–65 Scottish Cup. Celtic were drawn against Motherwell, who had dangerous forwards such as Joe McBride and Willie Hunter. Stein prepared the Celtic players with tactical advice, which they had never received before. Celtic came from behind twice against Motherwell to force a replay, which they won 3–0. This set up a final against Dunfermline, who had beaten Hibs in the other semi-final. Celtic again came from behind twice before Billy McNeill scored the winning goal, giving Celtic their first Scottish Cup since 1954.


title: Jock Stein

text: For the 1965–66 season, Stein made one major signing, Joe McBride from Motherwell. McBride rewarded Stein with 43 goals that season. Celtic lost the first Old Firm derby that season, but gained revenge by winning the League Cup final against Rangers. Celtic reached the semi-finals of the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, but were beaten 2–1 on aggregate by Liverpool. Five minutes before the end of the second leg at Anfield, Bobby Lennox appeared to score a goal that would have put Celtic through on the away goals rule, but it was controversially disallowed for offside. Celtic were involved in a tight Scottish league championship race with Rangers, who they also played in the 1966 Scottish Cup Final. The final was lost after a replay, to a goal by Kai Johansen. Stein blamed John Hughes for failing to mark Johansen. Celtic won the league championship, however, for the first time in 12 years.


title: Jock Stein

text: Stein was very confident entering the 1966–67 season, saying to his players that he believed "we could win everything". Celtic won the first Old Firm game of the season 2–0, scoring both goals in the first five minutes. The team went on a long unbeaten run that was finally ended by a 3–2 defeat by Dundee United on 31 December. Stein surprised some observers by signing forward Willie Wallace from Hearts in December, when the team was already scoring freely and had strikers Stevie Chalmers and Joe McBride at his disposal. As it happened, McBride soon afterwards suffered a knee injury that required surgery.


title: Jock Stein

text: In the 1966–67 European Cup, Celtic progressed through the first two rounds with relatively comfortable wins against Zurich and Nantes. Celtic then faced Yugoslav side Vojvodina, who Chalmers later described as "the best team we played in the whole tournament". A miss-kick by Tommy Gemmell allowed Vojvodina to score the only goal of the first leg, played in Yugoslavia. In the return game, Celtic drew the aggregate score level with a goal by Chalmers in the 58th minute. Stein was agitated during the game, frequently glancing at his watch. Near the end, he remarked to Sean Fallon that "it looks like bloody Rotterdam!", citing where a play-off match would have been held if the tie had finished level. Instead, McNeill headed in a tie-winning goal from a corner kick during injury time. Celtic then defeated Dukla Prague 3–1 in the first (home) leg of the semi-final, with Wallace scoring twice. In the return game, Celtic sustained heavy pressure but held out for a goalless draw. It became a common belief that Stein had abandoned his attacking principles for that game, but Bobby Lennox, McNeill and Chalmers all later said that Stein had not set out defensive tactics beforehand.


title: Jock Stein

text: Four days after the second leg against Dukla, Celtic defeated Aberdeen 2–0 in the 1967 Scottish Cup Final. Celtic were involved in a close race with Rangers for the Scottish league championship, decided by an Old Firm game at Ibrox on the final day of the league season. Celtic needed a point to clinch the championship. Archie Macpherson wrote in his biography of Stein that it was one of the best Old Firm games he had seen, as both sides played without a fear of losing: Rangers needed the victory to win the championship, while Stein believed Celtic's best chances lay in attacking their opponents. Rangers took the lead in the 40th minute, but Celtic equalised within a minute thanks to a "scrambled effort" by Jimmy Johnstone. Celtic went 2–1 ahead with 15 minutes remaining, when Johnstone beat some opponents then fired a left-footed shot high into the net. Roger Hynd scored an equalising goal for Rangers, but the match finished in a 2–2 draw and Celtic won the championship.


title: Jock Stein

text: With the 3–1 aggregate victory against Dukla, Celtic progressed to the 1967 European Cup Final. The other finalist was Italian giants Inter Milan, a previous winner of the competition. Despite initially falling behind to an Italian penalty, his team triumphed 2–1, winning much admiration for the positive attacking quality of their football. In winning club football's most prestigious trophy, Stein became the first man not only to guide a Scottish club to champions of Europe, but also the first to achieve this honour with a British club. He also became the first manager in history to win all competitions entered. The feat was done with a team all born within 30 miles of Glasgow. In a conversation with Bill Shankly shortly afterwards, Shankly famously told him "John, you're immortal now".