title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: Many samplers work as described above: the keymapping system "spread out" a sample over a certain range of keys. This has side-effects that may be desirable in some contexts, such as speeding up or slowing down drum loops. However, the higher and lower-pitched parts of such a keymap may sound unnatural. For example, if a harpsichord is sampled in its lower register and then the samples are moved up to very high pitches, the high notes may not sound natural and authentic. When arranging a pitched instrument over several keymaps, the transition from one to another may be too noticeable for realistic imitation of the instrument – the art is to make transitions as smooth as possible.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: Some phrase samplers are more optimised for triggering single "one-shot" sounds such as drum hits. Each keymap spans only a single key, requiring a large number of zones (61 on a five-octave keyboard), each with its own settings. "Phrase sampling" aims to simplify this, particularly on interfaces such as the 16 pads on the Akai MPC series: the fact that each pad is actually a note is hidden from the user. The sampling engine does not re-pitch samples, it only plays them back. The user interface is simplified. Phrase samplers often have a groovebox format, which makes them lightweight, easy to operate and light to carry.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: Computer Music Inc. was started in New Jersey United States in 1972 by Harry Mendell and Dan Coren. The company was established to develop and market musical instruments based on computer software. The Melodian, developed in 1976, was based on Digital Equipment Corporation's PDP-8 computer. It included hand-wired digital-to-analog and analog-to-digital conversion functions, as well as tracking anti-aliasing filters. The Melodian was first used by Stevie Wonder on his album "Stevie Wonder's Journey Through "The Secret Life of Plants"" (1979).


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: The Melodian was a monophonic synthesizer with 12-bit analog-to-digital sampling at rates up to 22 kHz. It was designed to be compatible with analog synthesizers and had a feature allowing it to synchronize to the pitch of an analog synthesizer, such as an ARP 2600. This meant that the Melodian captured all frequency modulation effects, including those produced through the ARP's touch ribbon control. It also could trigger off the ARPs keyboard, thus functioning somewhat as a hybrid of sampler and analog synthesizer and making the most of the technology available at the time.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: The Synclavier System was an early digital synthesizer and sampler, manufactured by New England Digital. First released in 1977, it proved to be highly influential among both music producers and electronic musicians, due to its versatility, its cutting-edge technology and distinctive sound. Synclavier Systems were expensive – the highest price ever paid for one was about $500,000, although average systems were closer to about $200,000 – $300,000. Although this made it inaccessible for most musicians, it found widespread use among producers and professional recording studios, and it competed in this market with other high-end production systems, such as the Fairlight CMI. Though scarce, the Synclavier remains in use in many studios to this day.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: Fairlight Instruments was started in Sydney, in 1975 by Peter Vogel and Kim Ryrie. The company was originally established as a manufacturer and retailer of video special effects equipment.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: The Fairlight CMI or Computer Music Instrument, released in 1979, started life as the Qasar M8. The M8 was handwired and legend has it that it took two hours to boot up. The CMI was the first commercially available polyphonic digital sampling instrument. The original Fairlight CMI sampled using a resolution of 8 bits per sample, at a rate of 24 kHz, and used two 8-bit Motorola 6800 processors (later upgraded to the more powerful 16/32-bit Motorola 68000). It was equipped with two six-octave keyboards, an alphanumeric keyboard, and an interactive video display unit (VDU) where soundwaves could be edited or even drawn from scratch using a light pen. Software allowed for editing, looping, and mixing of sounds which could then be played back via the keyboard or the software-based sequencer. It retailed for around US$25,000.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: Fairlight later released the Series IIx, which increased the sampling rate to 32 kHz and was the first to feature basic MIDI functionality. In 1985, the Series III was released with two significant upgrades: bit rate and sampling rate were increased to CD quality (16 bit/44.1 kHz) and SMPTE time code was now supported. Notable users of the Fairlight CMI include Peter Gabriel, Herbie Hancock, Trevor Horn, Art of Noise, Yello, Pet Shop Boys, Jean Michel Jarre, Duran Duran and Kate Bush. Horn, considered the "Man who invented the eighties", first used his well-known sampling techniques on the album "Adventures in Modern Recording", the second studio album released under the name of his project The Buggles. Saying that he was "quite fascinated by Fairlight brass and all of those kind of things that Geoffrey and I had started messing around with before he went off to join Asia", the sampling techniques on "Adventures" would later be used for records Horn produced like "Slave to the Rhythm" by Grace Jones, Art of Noise's "The Seduction of Claude Debussy" and Frankie Goes To Hollywood's "Welcome to the Pleasuredome".


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: E-mu Emulator (1981) was E-mu Systems' initial foray into sampling, and saved the company from financial disaster after the complete failure of the Audity due to a price tag of $70,000. The name 'Emulator' came as the result of leafing through a thesaurus and matched the name of the company perfectly. The Emulator came in 2-, 4-, and 8-note polyphonic versions, the 2-note being dropped due to limited interest, and featured a maximum sampling rate of 27.7 kHz, a four-octave keyboard and 128 kB of memory.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: E-mu Emulator II (1984) was designed to bridge the gap between the Fairlight CMI and Synclavier and the Ensoniq Mirage. It featured 8 notes polyphony, 8-bit sampling, 512kb of RAM (1mb in the EII+ though only accessible as two independent 512kb banks), an 8-track sequencer, and analog filtering. With the addition of the hard disk option, the Emulator II was comparable to samplers released 5 years later.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: E-mu Emulator III (1987) was a 16-bit stereo digital sampler with 16-note polyphony, 44.1 kHz maximum sample rate and had up to 8 MB of memory. It featured a 16 channel sequencer, SMPTE and a 40 MB hard disk.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: E-mu SP-1200 (1987) was, and still is, one of the most highly regarded samplers for use in hip-hop related production. Its 12-bit sampling engine gave a desirable warmth to instruments and a gritty punch to drums. It featured 10 seconds of sample time spread across four 2.5-second sections.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: E-mu ESI-32 (1994) was a stripped down, far cheaper, and simplified EIIIx, and could use the same samples. The unit could accommodate up to 32 MB RAM, 32 note polyphony and sounds could be routed internally to one of four polyphonic outputs. Via optional SCSI interface, the ESI-32 could access external CD-ROM, Zip-100, and hard drives.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: Akai entered the electronic musical instrument world in 1984 when Roger Linn, the creator of the Linn LM-1, the Linn 9000, and the LinnDrum, partnered with the Japanese/Singaporean Akai Corporation to create samplers similar to the ones created at Linn's own company, Linn Electronics. With this came the first in a series of affordable samplers, the S612, a 12 bit digital sampler module. The S612 was superseded in 1986 by the S900.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: The Akai S900 (1986) was the first truly affordable digital sampler. It was 8-note polyphonic and featured 12-bit sampling with a frequency range up to 40 kHz and up to 750 kB of memory that allowed for just under 12 seconds at the best sampling rate. It could store a maximum of 32 samples in memory. The operating system was software based and allowed for upgrades that had to be booted each time the sampler was switched on.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: The Akai MPC60 Digital Sampler/Drum Machine and MIDI Sequencer (1988) was the first non-rack mounted model released. It is also the first time a sampler with touch sensitive trigger pads was produced by AKAI, giving birth to the popular MPC series of sampler sequencers.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: The Akai S950 (1988) was an improved version of the S900, with a maximum sample frequency of 48 kHz and some of the editing features of the contemporary S1000.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: The Akai S1000 (1988) was possibly the most popular 16-bit 44.1 kHz stereo sampler of its time. It featured 16-voices, up to 32 MB of memory, and 24-bit internal processing, including a digital filter (18 dB/octave), an LFO, and two ADSR envelope generators (for amplitude and filtering). The S1000 also offered up to 8 different loop points. Additional functions included Autolooping, Crossfade Looping, Loop in Release (which cycles through the loop as the sound decays), Loop Until Release (which cycles through the loop until the note begins its decay), Reverse and Time Stretch (version 1.3 and higher).


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: Other samplers released by AKAI include the S01, S20, S700, S2000, S2800, S3000, S3000XL, S3200, S5000, S6000, MPC500, MPC1000, MPC2000, MPC2000XL, MPC2500, MPC3000, MPC3000XL, MPC3000LE, MPC4000, MPC5000, Z4 and Z8.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: Roland Corporation manufactured the S series. These were true samplers that provide all of the features described above, including sampling, sample editing, pitch transposition, and keyzone mapping:


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: More recently, Roland introduced the "Groove Sampler" concept. These devices are renowned for their ease of use, but a few lack the pitch transposition and keyzone mapping capabilities that most samplers have. Some have limits to rendering loops or sound effects samples that are played back at the same pitch they were recorded. Although these machines are equipped with a wide range of built-in effects, a few lack pitch transposition and keyzone mapping that diminishes their utility significantly. The Roland "Groove Sampler" line includes the following:


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: Being a division of the Roland Corporation, Boss also contributed to the "Groove Sampler/Groove Box" concept with several samplers.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: Most older samplers use SCSI as the protocol for getting sample data in and out of the machine. SCSI interfaces were either standard on the sampler or offered as an option. SCSI provides the ability to move large quantities of data in and out of a sampler in reasonable times. Hard drives, CDROM drives, Zip drives and removable cartridge drives such as Syquest and Iomega Jaz drives are the most popular SCSI devices used with samplers. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses, with hard drives being the fastest devices. Modern (after 2000) samplers use solid-state memory cards (such as compact Flash or SmartMedia) for sample storage and transfer.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: In the 1990s and 2000s the increases in computer power and memory capacity have made it possible to develop software applications that provide the same capabilities as hardware-based units. These are typically produced as plug-in instruments – for example, using the VST system. Some such samplers provide relatively simple sample playback facilities, requiring the user to turn to other software for such tasks as sample editing, sample recording, and DSP effects, while others provide features beyond those offered by rack-mounted units.


title: Sampler (musical instrument)

text: In the 1980s, users on Home computers invented Trackers. Sequencers are software samplers as the real-time resampling is a required capability for the Tracker concept. Since the 1980s, Trackers were able to perform 4-channel resampling in realtime under usage of the Paula Chip on the Amiga. Since the early 1990s Trackers performed on PCs multi-track resampling in realtime as pure software solution. This was possible under the usage of highly optimized assembly code, an early example is the "InertiaPlayer" released in 1993. A recent PC Tracker with good sampler capabilities is for instance the "Renoise" Tracker.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: Maheshinte Prathikaaram () is a 2016 Indian Malayalam-language comedy drama film directed by Dileesh Pothan, in his directorial debut and produced by Aashiq Abu. The film stars Fahadh Faasil in the titular role alongside a supporting cast including Aparna Balamurali, Anusree, Alencier Ley Lopez and Soubin Shahir. Written by Syam Pushkaran, the story is based on an incident in the life of Thampan Purushan from Thuravoor, Cherthala. Shyju Khalid was the film's cinematographer, and the music was composed by Bijibal.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: "Maheshinte Prathikaaram" development began in 2013, when Pothan was working as an associate director for Abu (who was directing "Idukki Gold", co-written by Pushkaran). Pushkaran suggested a story idea to Pothan which was based on an incident in his native village. At Pothan's insistence, Pushkaran wrote the screenplay that year and Abu later became interested in producing the film. Production was scheduled to commence from December 2014 after completing the casting process but, due to scheduling conflicts, it was postponed to August 2015. Principal photography began in early August in Idukki and nearby locations, where it was predominantly filmed. Shooting was completed in late October.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: "Maheshinte Prathikaaram" was released in Kerala on 5 February 2016, in the rest of India on 12 February and globally on 26 February. The film was a commercial success, grossing 17.35 crore (173.5 million) at the Kerala box office on a budget of 3.50 crore (35 million). It received critical acclaim with praise going to the performances of its cast especially that of Fahadh Faasil's as one of his career best performances, humour, music, cinematography, editing and screenplay. At the 64th National Film Awards, it won the Best Original Screenplay and Best Feature Film in Malayalam, and at the 47th Kerala State Film Awards, it won the Best Original Screenplay and Best Film with Popular Appeal and Aesthetic Value. The film was remade into Tamil as "Nimir" (2018) and into Telugu as "Uma Maheswara Ugra Roopasya" (2020). Maheshinte Prathikaram is widely regarded as one of the defining movies of the Malayalam New Wave.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: Mahesh Bhavana is a small-time photographer who lives with his father, Vincent Bhavana. They run the digital photography Bhavana Studio in the Prakash region of Idukki district in Kerala. Next to the studio is a flex-board printing shop owned by Mahesh's good friend, Baby. His assistant Crispin is a Photoshop expert who designs the flex-boards. Mahesh is in a relationship with Soumya, his high-school sweetheart.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: Baby becomes involved in a trivial argument with a loafer in the centre of the village. The dispute escalates, but passersby calm them down. However, Crispin appears and attacks the man who had argued with Baby. The man, joined by Jimson Augustine, jumps on Crispin in retaliation. Noticing the commotion, Mahesh tries to calm everyone down but Jimson, furious at Mahesh's authoritative stance, beats him up. Vincent breaks up the fight. Embarrassed, Mahesh vows to get back at Jimson and pledges that he will wear slippers only after he has avenged his humiliation.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: Soumya is forced to end her relationship with Mahesh and marry a nurse residing in Canada. He learns about Jimson's whereabouts from Crispin and visits the garage where he apparently works as a welder. Its owner tells him that Jimson left for a better job in Dubai. Despite Baby's advice that he should forget the incident, Mahesh resolves to wait for Jimson's return; several weeks later, he enrolls in a kung fu course.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: Jimsy Augustine, a young college student, goes to Bhavana Studio. She tells Mahesh that she wants to participate in "Vanitha" cover competition and asks him to make her look as good as possible. Perplexed at the unusual request, Mahesh conducts the photo shoot. Jimsy's photograph turns out to be dull and unimpressive, and her irritation makes Mahesh question his skill as a photographer. Upset, he turns to his father for advice. Vincent explains photography as an art to his son. Mahesh goes through his father's photograph collection, finally understanding their angles and lighting, and gets an idea.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: Instead of his familiar still photography, Mahesh photographs Jimsy in motion and sends the best photo to the magazine. Shortly afterward, Jimsy goes to Mahesh's house with the magazine containing her photo. Although she rebukes him for photographing her without permission, she also praises the photo. They become interested in each other, and soon fall in love. Jimsy realises this first, and calls Mahesh to talk about their future. She tells him that she is Jimson's younger sister, but his agitation is overshadowed by love and he decides to continue their relationship.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: Several weeks later, Jimson is fired from his job for slapping his manager and is deported back to India. The following day, Mahesh and Baby challenge him to a hand-to-hand combat. After a few minutes of fighting, Mahesh pins down Jimson and Baby declares him the winner. Mahesh visits Jimson in a hospital on the next day and introduces himself to his mother in front of Jimsy. He admits his love for Jimsy and asks Jimson if he agrees to the relationship. Later in the credits it shows that Mahesh and Jimsy are together now.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: "Maheshinte Prathikaaram" is based on an incident in screenwriter Syam Pushkaran native village. During the filming of Aashiq Abu "Idukki Gold" (2013), Pushkaran discussed it with Abu's associate-director Dileesh Pothan, who decided to make his directorial debut with it. The idea for a film was developed; it was decided to set and shoot it in Idukki, since they believed it was a good location for a story about people living in the countryside. In August 2014, Fahadh Faasil was reported to star in the film, with Abu bankrolling it through his production house OPM Dream Mill Cinemas. It was Faasil's second film for Abu after "22 Female Kottayam" (2012). Bijibal was signed as the film's composer and Shyju Khalid as its cinematographer. Filming was planned to start in the first week of December 2014. "Maheshinte Prathikaaram" was Pushkaran's first independent screenplay. In September 2014, Faasil was reported to join the project after completing Anwar Rasheed's "Maniyarayile Jinnu". Because of Faasil's scheduling conflicts, production was postponed until early June 2015. It was postponed again when the actor was unavailable due to a conflict with "Naale" and "Ayal Njanalla". "Maheshinte Prathikaaram" began production in early August 2015 for a planned Christmas release.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: The character of Mahesh was based on Kuriyachira Purushan (popularly known as Thampan Purushan), Pushkaran's neighbour in their native Thuravoor, Alappuzha. Purushan was publicly beaten and humiliated when he tried to break up a fight, and vowed to wear his slippers only after he avenged the man who embarrassed him. His "enemy" went to Dubai, and he had to wait three years for revenge. As a child, Pushkaran heard about the incident from Purushan and discussed it with Pothan as an idea for a screenplay. Pushkaran began writing, setting the story in Pothan's native Kottayam; it was later changed to Idukki. He studied Idukki's culture and characteristics in his two-month stay during the filming of "Idukki Gold", and found it an ideal backdrop. Pushkaran added a fictional romance to the story. The film paid tribute to Purushan (who died in December 2015 while the film was in post-production) in a title card.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: Despite "Maheshinte Prathikaaram" title, Pothan intended it to be a comedy: "I enjoy humour with a poignant touch. This was a narrative that had the potential to be a thriller but we wanted that element of realism to shine through". He and Pushkaran worked on the screenplay for nearly three years. With a few assistant directors, they honed it for about three months in Prakash City, a mountain village near Kattappana in Idukki (where the film is set). The screenplay was based on their observations of the village near the "kavala" (junction), which generated a detailed backstory for each of the film's characters. Pothan took note of the mannerisms of the shopkeepers in the "kavala" whom he considered a "witness to many of the incidents that unfold in the village, real and reel".


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: According to Pushkaran, he observed the strengths of both Pothan and Faasil and incorporated into the screenplay. The screenplay was revised several times between pre-production and filming, with Pushkaran preparing its first draft in mid-2013. In the meanwhile, he completed scripts for three other films. According to the writer, its creation was unhurried; the film was about village life, with which he was familiar (Thampan Purushan, on whom the story is based, was his father's friend). Pushkaran added that the screenplay had "less research but more observation". A revised screenplay was prepared after completing the casting, and it underwent several more revisions as filming progressed. Pushkaran, Pothan and Khalid discussed the screenplay every night after filming. Pushkaran said that there were changes to every scene in the film, based on suggestions by the director and cast.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: According to Pothan, the film had the "perfect casting, despite the fact that several of them were newcomers". He first discussed the film with Fahadh Faasil during the filming of "Iyobinte Pusthakam" in 2014, in which the director played a minor role. Faasil, enthusiastic about the project, agreed to appear in the film after fulfilling his other commitments. Pothan described Mahesh as a simpleton with a multi-layered character and wanted an actor who would provide much finesse and subtlety to the portrayal. He added that Faasil was chosen for the "natural and spontaneous" actor in him. Pothan and Pushkaran cast Soubin Shahir as Crispin early in the screenwriting process. The director summoned Sujith Shanker, who debuted in "Njan Steve Lopez" (2015), for a script-briefing section as a possible Jimson. Although Shanker liked the story, he was uncertain whether he would fit in the role; however, Pothan had confidence in him.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: Pushkaran's wife Unnimaya was the casting director and also acted and served as an assistant director in the film. She along with Pothan appeared in minor rolesSarah and Eldho, a couple settled in the United States. In May 2015, Anusree was cast as Soumya, a nurse who is Mahesh's childhood sweetheart. Aparna Balamurali, who had appeared in "Oru Second Class Yathra" (2015), was encouraged by Pushkaran's wife (who is her university instructor) to audition for the role of Jimsy. Balamurali was briefed about her character only two days before filming began. Faasil suggested Alencier Ley Lopez, with whom he had worked in "Annayum Rasoolum" (2013), for Baby's role. Newcomer Lijimol Jose was chosen for the role of Soniyamol after she answered a casting call. Theatrical couple K. L. Antony Kochi and Leena Antony made their film debuts as Vincent Bhavana and Jimsy's mother, respectively. Pothan also hired local people to appear in the film in "whatever clothes they turned up in"; he believed that if he cast only actors, "the reality would have been compromised". The director wanted to "feel each frame of the film, be it the rustic ambiance, the clothes or the accent".


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: Ajayan Chalissery was "Maheshinte Prathikaaram" art director. Chalissery designed the set for Mahesh's Bhavana Studio and nearby buildings, including a footwear shop which was built in a vacant area. "Each and every property used for the movie, from the steel plates used in kitchen to the photos and frames hung on the walls, the windows and doors, everything was intentionally used to reflect a house of Idduki natives", said Ajayan. Designer Sameera Saneesh was in charge of the film's costumes. All clothes worn by the cast were secondhands, bartered from local residents in exchange for new clothes, since Pothan believed that "Maheshinte Prathikaaram" details should appear realistic. Martial artist and trainer "Kung-fu" Sajith was the film's stunt coordinator.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: Filming began in early August 2015, during the wet season, in the Idukki district of Kerala. Major portions of the film were shot in Thopramkudy, near Kattappana. In September, while filming in Cheruthoni, Faasil sustained a leg injury while performing a stunt with co-star Sujith Shanker. Although a two-day rest was advised, he decided to press on because of the tight shooting schedule. The filming in Idukki, which took 45 days, was wrapped up in late October.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: There were two fight scenes in the film. For realism, the actors fought without rehearsing. Although the first scene utilised music and other technical enhancements, Pothan wanted the climactic fight to look more natural: "I felt it would be better to film it without its cinematic nature. To be able to relate to the scene, it had to look natural. Fahadh and Sujith had a tough time while shooting". The scene was filmed in four days on muddy grounds near the Cheruthoni and Idukki Dams. The film's "appooppan thadi" (milkweeds) were artificial; about 1,000 were made from lightweight materials. In a scene where Crispin cuts them down, most blew upward like real milkweeds and the scene had to be re-shot several times. The film was made on a budget of 45.0 million.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: Cellador Productions of Bangalore worked on the film's sound design; Nixon George and Rajeesh K. R. designed its soundscape. Since "Maheshinte Prathikaram" was set in Prakash City in Idukki, it required natural sounds which blended with the dialogue and music instead of dominating them. George and Rajeesh recorded in all the locations and found it of great help during the final editing process. Creating sound effects for the climactic fight was difficult: "We used a big piece of meat to produce the sound effects of punches and kicks. It took a long time and a lot of trial and error". Editor Saiju Sreedharan was the film's colourist, correcting the colour grading and developing its digital intermediate.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: "Maheshinte Prathikaaram", which uses rain as a metaphor, was filmed during the monsoon. Pothan cited K. G. George's 1982 film, "Yavanika", as influencing him to use rain as part of the director's storytelling. The first half of the film was shot in the rain or immediately afterward, when the clouds were gone. Mahesh weeps during a downpour after attending his ex-girlfriend's wedding; the rain becomes a metaphor to "wash away the dreams Mahesh had built, essentially, giving him a new lease of life". It was the film's only use of a rain unit.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: According to Sreehari Nair of Rediff.com, "Maheshinte Prathikaaram" has the key qualities of a great short story; he found it closer to the creative non-fiction style specialised by the writers of "Esquire" magazine in 1960s in terms of rhythm and pacing. Nair noted strong left-wing ideology in the film due to Pothan's political philosophy, with the director indirectly using the idea of equality inherent in his characters' belief system: "A game one can play on every subsequent viewing of the movie is to note how a major character in one scene had appeared as a minor character in some scene before". Each of the film's characters was unique. Pushkaran later clarified that the film did not reflect his personal or political views.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: In an interview for "The Hindu", Fahadh called "Maheshinte Prathikaaram" a "serious comedy". Despite its title, the film differed from earlier Malayalam revenge-centred films. It begins with Mahesh bathing in a pond, humming a popular song from 2000's "Narasimham" (a cult action film). It also alludes to the doomed character Sethumadhavan's vengeance in "Kireedam" (1989) and "Chenkol" (1993). In his review for "The Times of India", Sanjith Sidhardhan called the film the "sweetest tale of revenge"; it "is not a regular revenge thriller; it has a heavy dose of rib-tickling comedy that stems from the actions of its rustic characters and their sensibilities".


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: The film's four-song soundtrack and score were composed by Bijibal, who also sang two songs. Lyrics were by Rafeeq Ahammed and Santhosh Varma; Varma wrote the final song, ""Cherupunjiri"". Bijibal, Vijay Yesudas, Sudeep Kumar, Sangeetha Sreekanth, Aparna Balamurali and Nikhil Mathew contributed vocals to the soundtrack. The film's songs were released by Muzik 247 on 1 January 2016.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: The music was composed after the lyrics were written; Ahammed wrote the song "Idukki" as a poem in one day. According to Bijibal, it was easy to compose ""Idukki"" because it had such "motivati[ng] lyrics". He originally recorded the song with a small orchestra, singing it himself. The composer later recorded another version with a lush orchestra; however, Pothan thought it lacked the beauty of the original and used the first version in the film. In addition to her role as Jimsy, Balamurali sang ""Mounangal"" with Yesudas. Balamurali stated that she was made to sing on the sets frequently and opined that it influenced them at a later stage. A song titled ""Ethetho"" written by M. R. Jayageetha was initially recorded but never included in the film. Later the song was used with Telugu lyrics in Uma Maheswara Ugra Roopasya, Telugu remake of the film. The original version was released in August 2020 on Bijibal's official YouTube channel.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: "Maheshinte Prathikaaram" release plans were announced in January 2016. The film was released in 67 theatres in Kerala on 5 February. It was released in the rest of India on 12 February, and internationally two weeks later. The film was distributed in India by OPM Dream Mill Cinemas, opening outside Kerala in Bangalore, Mysore, Mangalore, Manipal, Chennai, Coimbatore, Hyderabad and Vizag. On 19 February 2016, it was released in Mumbai, Pune, Gujarat, Delhi and Madhya Pradesh.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: The film was released on DVD and VCD by SAINA Video Vision on 10 May 2016. The film's television broadcasting right was purchased by Mazhavil Manorama, it premiered on TV on 14 September 2016, during the festival time of Onam in Kerala.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: By March, the film's producers released a number of "dialogue posters" on social networking sites with popular lines from its characters. After "Maheshinte Prathikaaram" release, Pothan, Abu, Faasil and Shahir visited theatres across Kerala to analyse audience reaction to the film; Faasil made a surprise appearance at a Payyanur theatre's ticket counter. In March, the crew (including Abu, Faasil, Jaffer Idukki and Bijibal) spoke with students at the Al Azhar College of Arts and Science in Thodupuzha in conjunction with the Mahatma Gandhi University Art Fest. For Vishu on 14 April, the producers released a three-minute behind-the-scenes video featuring auditions and the filming of several scenes.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: After witnessing a low opening in the morning shows at the Kerala box office, the film's earnings picked up from the evening shows due to positive response from the audience. Favourable word of mouth helped the film, with its screen count in Kerala increasing from 67 to 88 in one week. The film performed steadily in Kerala during its third week, earning a total of 1 crore (10 million) over the weekend. After three weeks, its total earnings exceeded 10 crore (100 million). By the end of its run, it had earned 17.35 crore (173.5 million) in Kerala and was the highest-grossing film at the January June box office. It had a run of over 125 days in some Kerala theatres, and ran for more than 50 days in Chennai.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: "Maheshinte Prathikaram" was the highest earning Malayalam film at the United States box office over its third weekend (1113 March), grossing $16,819 on 17 screens and outperforming "Action Hero Biju" and "Vettah". It earned a total of $70,238 in three weeks. Earnings dropped to $9,750 over the fourth weekend (1820 March) from 13 screens. It maintained the top position over its sixth weekend (13 April) grossing $5,086 from seven screens for a six-week total of $92,596. It was the highest earning Malayalam film at the United Kingdom-Ireland box office during its second weekend (1113 March), grossing £5,274 from 29 screens for a two-week total of £32,437. The film earned a total of £35,055 after its fourth weekend in the United Kingdom and Ireland.


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: S. R. Praveen of "The Hindu" gave a positive review: "Syam Pushkaran, in writing the revenge story, takes away the usual ingredients of hate and anger, and replaces it with lots of humour, arriving as a torrent in one-liners, in situations and even in the minute gestures of the characters ... "Maheshinte Prathikaram" provides clean entertainment, treading new paths in that endeavour. If revenge comes like this, let's have more of it". He praised Pothan's direction and Faasil's performance. Sify also had a positive review: "It's not often that you come across such an intelligent comedy that is extremely funny, thoroughly gripping and brilliantly packaged". The reviewer praised the performances: "One of the best things about this one is the performance of every artiste, both in main roles and also those who are there even in a scene or so". Also praising the screenplay, cinematography, and music, the review concluded: "Maheshinte Prathikaram is one of the finest comedies to have happened in Malayalam during recent years".


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: Mythily Ramachandran of "Gulf News" praised the film's humour and performances: "The anger and hatred one often associates with a revenge tale is missing"; humour takes over, and the film "busts the notion that revenge tales must be laden with gore and violence". According to Deepa Gauri of the "Khaleej Times", "Maheshinte Prathikaram" is a boon for a Malayalam cinema with an "identity crisis". She praised the film's screenplay and direction: "Every frame shows the minute detailing, which gives ["Maheshinte Prathikaaram"] its real heart. Charming you with wit, underlining humour and with characters who behave without any cinematic hangover". Raj Vikram of Metromatinee.com also gave a positive review: "There is not a single scene in the film which appears cooked up ... He [Pothan] must be commended for being sure-footed about what he intended to portray". Vikram praised the performances by Faasil and the supporting cast, the "magnificent camera" and the "songs which seamlessly and melodiously merge with the narrative", concluding that it "is a movie that is true to itself. It surprises with its all pervading simplicity and makes even revenge look like a stroll in the park".


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: Anu James of the "International Business Times" gave the film four out of five stars and called it "a simple movie with the right amount of romance, comedy, action and revenge". Appreciating its casting and performances, James also praised the film's technical aspects: its cinematography, "crisp editing", direction, music, screenplay, costume design and art direction. Litty Simon of "Malayala Manorama" rated "Maheshinte Prathikaram" 3.75 out of 5: "Dileesh [Pothan] has managed to give a realistic and emotional drama. Humour blends well with the storyline in a subtle and spontaneous manner [with a] well-crafted script". Simon praised the performances of Faasil and others in the cast and the film's music and cinematography: "With its simplicity and realistic approach, the two-and-a-half-hour-long movie is refreshing and belongs to the 'neat' entertainer category".


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: Sanjith Sidhardhan of "The Times of India" rated the film 3.5 out of 5: ""Maheshinte Prathikaaram" is a movie that has many feel-good moments and something everybody can relate to. This tale of sweet revenge is a rare genial comedy". He appreciated its casting and screenplay, cinematography, editing and music, praising the performances of Faasil and other cast members and calling the film "visually appealing". Paresh C. Palicha of Rediff.com gave the film three out of five stars, praising Faasil's performance and its narrative style: "The plot is driven by characters and their reactions to a particular situation, and there is no solid form of story where we see a growth in characters or logical progression in the story".


title: Maheshinte Prathikaaram

text: The film was remade into Tamil as "Nimir" (2018), directed by Priyadarshan. He stated that he had improvised the screenplay to suit the Tamil speaking audience. The film was also remade into Telugu as "Uma Maheswara Ugra Roopasya" (2020).


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: Last Man Standing is a 1996 American action film written and directed by Walter Hill and starring Bruce Willis, Christopher Walken, and Bruce Dern. It is a credited remake of Akira Kurosawa's "Yojimbo".


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: In Prohibition-era Texas, a wanderer named John Smith (Bruce Willis) drives his Ford Model A Coupe into the small bordertown of Jericho. As he arrives, a young woman named Felina (Karina Lombard) crosses the street, catching Smith's eye. Moments later, a group of Irish mobsters, led by Finn (Patrick Kilpatrick), surround Smith's car. They warn him against staring at "Doyle's property" and smash up his car.


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: Stranded and with no money to get his car fixed, Smith goes to see Sheriff Ed Galt (Bruce Dern); the cowardly Galt refuses to help him. Instead, Smith walks to the town hotel, run by Joe Monday (William Sanderson), gets a drink and a room, and arms himself. He then goes to Doyle's headquarters and challenges Finn to a duel, which Smith wins with alarming speed. Smith departs and returns to the hotel bar, much to the surprise of Jericho's residents.


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: Learning of Finn's death, Fredo Strozzi (Ned Eisenberg), the head of Jericho's Italian gang, offers Smith a job in his outfit. Strozzi is eager to wipe out his rivals, and is hiring anyone who can fight to build up his gang. Smith agrees to his offer and meets Giorgio Carmonte (Michael Imperioli), son of a prominent Chicago mobster who is monitoring Strozzi's activities in Jericho. Carmonte expresses his immediate distrust and dislike of Smith, who leaves, and meets and seduces Strozzi's mistress, Lucy (Alexandra Powers).


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: Smith accompanies Strozzi and his men to a backcountry road, where they meet Ramirez, a corrupt Mexican police official on Doyle's payroll. The gang ambushes and kills Doyle's men and seizes a caravan of illicit liquor. Carmonte travels to Mexico to cut more deals with Ramirez, while Doyle (David Patrick Kelly) and his chief enforcer, Hickey (Christopher Walken) return to Jericho and are informed of Finn's death and the loss of the shipment. Smith defects to Doyle's side and reveals Ramirez's betrayal. Hickey travels to Mexico, kills Ramirez and a corrupt Border Patrol officer involved in the liquor trade, and kidnaps Carmonte. Doyle contacts Strozzi and demands a large ransom for Carmonte, as well as the return of his trucks. Strozzi in turn kidnaps Felina and offers to trade her instead. The two gangs make the exchange and return to their respective empires.


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: Smith is summoned by Sheriff Galt and meets Captain Tom Pickett (Ken Jenkins) of the Texas Rangers, who has been sent to investigate the Patrol officer's death. He warns Smith that he can tolerate one gang in Jericho, but not two, and intends to bring a company of Rangers in ten days to wipe out both sides if one isn't destroyed. As Smith leaves, Pickett warns him that if he finds him there after ten days, he'll kill him as well.


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: Lucy comes to Smith and reveals that Strozzi had her ear cut off for sleeping with him. Smith gives her some money and puts her on a bus out of Jericho. The next day, Smith relays a false rumor that Strozzi is bringing in more soldiers. Playing on Doyle's obsession with Felina, he convinces Doyle that Strozzi will try to kidnap her again to learn where Felina is being kept. Smith kills the men guarding Felina and gives her one of Doyle's cars and some money. The next day, Smith is waiting at the safehouse when Doyle arrives, and claims that he arrived too late to keep Strozzi from kidnapping Felina. Doyle's henchman Jack McCool (R. D. Call) believes Smith's story, but Hickey does not. Doyle goes berserk and declares all-out war on Strozzi and his gang.


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: Smith's plan goes awry when Hickey ambushes him, having received word that Felina was spotted heading towards Mexico. Doyle imprisons Smith and has him tortured, demanding to know where Felina is. Despite the heavy torture inflicted on him, Smith refuses to talk. Later that night, he overpowers his guards and escapes with Monday and Sheriff Galt. As they are driving out of town, they see Hickey and his men slaughtering Strozzi's gang at a roadhouse. Strozzi and Carmonte try to surrender, but are gunned down without mercy.


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: Smith takes refuge at a remote church where Felina went to pray. Two days later, Sheriff Galt arrives and informs Smith that Monday was caught smuggling food and water to the church and that Doyle will probably torture him to death. He then hands Smith his pistols, saying that's all the help he's willing to offer. Smith returns to town, kills McCool and the rest of Doyle's men, and rescues Monday. Doyle and Hickey are absent, having gone down to Mexico in a desperate search for Felina. Smith lures Doyle to his location, and lets Monday take revenge by shooting the gangster with his revolver. Hickey pretends to surrender and tries to kill Smith, who outdraws and shoots him dead.


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: Walter Hill was approached by producer Arthur Sarkassian to remake the Japanese film "Yojimbo" (1961), which Akira Kurosawa not only directed but also co-wrote with Ryūzō Kikushima. Hill says, "It took me a long time to be persuaded to do it. I thought the very idea of adapting Mr. Kurosawa was insanity for the obvious reasons. The first movie was very, very good and in addition I would be in the long shadow of Mr. Kurosawa who is probably our most revered filmmaker."


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: When he learned that Kurosawa was supportive of an American remake, Hill agreed to write and direct—but on the condition that the film not be a Western (there had already been an unauthorized European remake, the Spaghetti Western "A Fistful of Dollars", which had been the subject of litigation). He decided to do it as a 1930s gangster film using techniques of 1940s film noir.


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: "This is the story of a bad man, who as soon as he arrives begins pushing buttons and doing things only for himself", said Hill. "But we also discover that this man is at a point of spiritual crisis with himself and his own past. And this man decides that maybe he should do one good deed, even if it goes against all the rules of his life as he understands it ... The action and the violence must be organic to the story being told. I think this is obviously by its nature a very dark and very hard movie, so I think it would be dishonest to tell the story and present the physicality in a softer way. Besides, I don't think this is the most brutal film imaginable. There's actually very little blood other than in the sequence where Bruce gets beaten up."


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: He admitted the film was not realistic. "I don't think anything akin to the social realism movies of the 1930s is being attempted", he said. "We're into a 'once upon a time' mythic-poetic situation."


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: Hill signed to make the project in 1994. The film was green lit by New Line Cinema's head of production Michael De Luca who allocated a $40 million budget. The film was known by several titles including "Gundown", then "Gangster", then "Welcome to Jericho."


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: Hill later said that he and Bruce Willis "were not close when we did the film" but "I liked working with him. It was impersonal. Classic, 'I know what you mean. You want me to be a Bogart, Mitchum kind of guy' and I said 'Exactly. Let it happen.' He then took that and gave what I thought was a very good performance. I always sensed there was a kind of core resentment that Bruce felt he should be more appreciated for his talents. At the same time I think there is a limitation, that he does certain things better than others, and he hasn't always chosen so wisely."


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: Hill's original cut of the movie was over two hours long. Before Hill edited the final theatrical version his rough cut was used to edit the trailers for the movie, which is why there is lot of alternate/deleted footage shown in them, including many alternate takes, different edits of some scenes, extended versions of scenes, some extra lines of dialogue, shots and parts of deleted scenes including additional shootout sequence between two gangs and alternate ending in which Hickey is killed by Smith in a different way. Some promotional stills and pictures also show several deleted scenes.


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: The film was a box office bomb, grossing only a total $18,127,448 domestically by December 22, 1996, and brought in $47,267,001 worldwide.


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a 39% approval rating based on 31 reviews. The site's consensus states: ""Last Man Standing"'s brooding atmosphere and bursts of artfully arranged action prove intriguing yet ultimately insufficient substitutes for a consistently compelling story." Common recurring complaints address the oppressive and depressing atmosphere of the film; the flat, almost monotonous personality of Willis' character between gunfights; and the film's Pyrrhic victory finale. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Last Man Standing (1996 film)

text: "Last Man Standing" is such a desperately cheerless film, so dry and laconic and wrung out, that you wonder if the filmmakers ever thought that in any way it could be ... fun. It contains elements that are often found in entertainments — things like guns, gangs and spectacular displays of death — but here they crouch on the screen and growl at the audience. Even the movie's hero is bad company. ... The victory at the end is downbeat, and there is an indifference to it. This is such a sad, lonely movie.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Foundations of mathematics is the study of the philosophical and logical and/or algorithmic basis of mathematics, or, in a broader sense, the mathematical investigation of what underlies the philosophical theories concerning the nature of mathematics. In this latter sense, the distinction between foundations of mathematics and philosophy of mathematics turns out to be quite vague.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Foundations of mathematics can be conceived as the study of the basic mathematical concepts (set, function, geometrical figure, number, etc.) and how they form hierarchies of more complex structures and concepts, especially the fundamentally important structures that form the language of mathematics (formulas, theories and their models giving a meaning to formulas, definitions, proofs, algorithms, etc.) also called metamathematical concepts, with an eye to the philosophical aspects and the unity of mathematics. The search for foundations of mathematics is a central question of the philosophy of mathematics; the abstract nature of mathematical objects presents special philosophical challenges.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The foundations of mathematics as a whole does not aim to contain the foundations of every mathematical topic.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Generally, the "foundations" of a field of study refers to a more-or-less systematic analysis of its most basic or fundamental concepts, its conceptual unity and its natural ordering or hierarchy of concepts, which may help to connect it with the rest of human knowledge. The development, emergence, and clarification of the foundations can come late in the history of a field, and might not be viewed by everyone as its most interesting part.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Mathematics always played a special role in scientific thought, serving since ancient times as a model of truth and rigor for rational inquiry, and giving tools or even a foundation for other sciences (especially physics). Mathematics' many developments towards higher abstractions in the 19th century brought new challenges and paradoxes, urging for a deeper and more systematic examination of the nature and criteria of mathematical truth, as well as a unification of the diverse branches of mathematics into a coherent whole.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The systematic search for the foundations of mathematics started at the end of the 19th century and formed a new mathematical discipline called mathematical logic, which later had strong links to theoretical computer science.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: It went through a series of crises with paradoxical results, until the discoveries stabilized during the 20th century as a large and coherent body of mathematical knowledge with several aspects or components (set theory, model theory, proof theory, etc.), whose detailed properties and possible variants are still an active research field.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Its high level of technical sophistication inspired many philosophers to conjecture that it can serve as a model or pattern for the foundations of other sciences.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: While the practice of mathematics had previously developed in other civilizations, special interest in its theoretical and foundational aspects was clearly evident in the work of the Ancient Greeks.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Zeno of Elea (490 c. 430 BC) produced four paradoxes that seem to show the impossibility of change. The Pythagorean school of mathematics originally insisted that only natural and rational numbers exist. The discovery of the irrationality of , the ratio of the diagonal of a square to its side (around 5th century BC), was a shock to them which they only reluctantly accepted. The discrepancy between rationals and reals was finally resolved by Eudoxus of Cnidus (408–355 BC), a student of Plato, who reduced the comparison of two irrational ratios to comparisons of multiples of the magnitudes involved. His method anticipated that of the Dedekind cut in the modern definition of real numbers by Richard Dedekind (1831–1916).


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: In the "Posterior Analytics", Aristotle (384–322 BC) laid down the axiomatic method for organizing a field of knowledge logically by means of primitive concepts, axioms, postulates, definitions, and theorems. Aristotle took a majority of his examples for this from arithmetic and from geometry.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: This method reached its high point with Euclid's "Elements" (300 BC), a treatise on mathematics structured with very high standards of rigor: Euclid justifies each proposition by a demonstration in the form of chains of syllogisms (though they do not always conform strictly to Aristotelian templates).


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Aristotle's syllogistic logic, together with the axiomatic method exemplified by Euclid's "Elements", are recognized as scientific achievements of ancient Greece.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Starting from the end of the 19th century, a Platonist view of mathematics became common among practicing mathematicians.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The "concepts" or, as Platonists would have it, the "objects" of mathematics are abstract and remote from everyday perceptual experience: geometrical figures are conceived as idealities to be distinguished from effective drawings and shapes of objects, and numbers are not confused with the counting of concrete objects. Their existence and nature present special philosophical challenges: How do mathematical objects differ from their concrete representation? Are they located in their representation, or in our minds, or somewhere else? How can we know them?


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The ancient Greek philosophers took such questions very seriously. Indeed, many of their general philosophical discussions were carried on with extensive reference to geometry and arithmetic. Plato (424/423 BC 348/347 BC) insisted that mathematical objects, like other platonic "Ideas" (forms or essences), must be perfectly abstract and have a separate, non-material kind of existence, in a world of mathematical objects independent of humans. He believed that the truths about these objects also exist independently of the human mind, but is "discovered" by humans. In the "Meno" Plato's teacher Socrates asserts that it is possible to come to know this truth by a process akin to memory retrieval.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Above the gateway to Plato's academy appeared a famous inscription: "Let no one who is ignorant of geometry enter here". In this way Plato indicated his high opinion of geometry. He regarded geometry as "the first essential in the training of philosophers", because of its abstract character.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: This philosophy of "Platonist mathematical realism" is shared by many mathematicians. Some authors argue that Platonism somehow comes as a necessary assumption underlying any mathematical work.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: In this view, the laws of nature and the laws of mathematics have a similar status, and the effectiveness ceases to be unreasonable. Not our axioms, but the very real world of mathematical objects forms the foundation.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Aristotle dissected and rejected this view in his Metaphysics. These questions provide much fuel for philosophical analysis and debate.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: For over 2,000 years, Euclid's Elements stood as a perfectly solid foundation for mathematics, as its methodology of rational exploration guided mathematicians, philosophers, and scientists well into the 19th century.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The Middle Ages saw a dispute over the ontological status of the universals (platonic Ideas): Realism asserted their existence independently of perception; conceptualism asserted their existence within the mind only; nominalism denied either, only seeing universals as names of collections of individual objects (following older speculations that they are words, ""logoi"").


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: René Descartes published "La Géométrie" (1637), aimed at reducing geometry to algebra by means of coordinate systems, giving algebra a more foundational role (while the Greeks used lengths to define the numbers that are presently called real numbers). Descartes' book became famous after 1649 and paved the way to infinitesimal calculus.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Isaac Newton (1642–1727) in England and Leibniz (1646–1716) in Germany independently developed the infinitesimal calculus on a basis that required new foundations. In particular, Leibniz described infinitesimals as numbers that are infinitely close to zero, a concept that does not fit in previous foundational framework of mathematics, and was not formalized before the 20th century. The strong implications of infinitesimal calculus on foundations of mathematics is illustrated by a pamphlet of the Protestant philosopher George Berkeley (1685–1753), who wrote "[Infinitesimals] are neither finite quantities, nor quantities infinitely small, nor yet nothing. May we not call them the ghosts of departed quantities?". Leibniz also worked on logic but most of his writings on it remained unpublished until 1903.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: In the 19th century, mathematics became increasingly abstract. Concerns about logical gaps and inconsistencies in different fields led to the development of axiomatic systems.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Cauchy (1789–1857) started the project of formulating and proving the theorems of infinitesimal calculus in a rigorous manner, rejecting the heuristic principle of the generality of algebra exploited by earlier authors. In his 1821 work "Cours d'Analyse" he defines infinitely small quantities in terms of decreasing sequences that converge to 0, which he then used to define continuity. But he did not formalize his notion of convergence.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The modern (ε, δ)-definition of limit and continuous functions was first developed by Bolzano in 1817, but remained relatively unknown. It gives a rigorous foundation of infinitesimal calculus based on the set of real numbers, arguably resolving the Zeno paradoxes and Berkeley's arguments.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Mathematicians such as Karl Weierstrass (1815–1897) discovered pathological functions such as continuous, nowhere-differentiable functions. Previous conceptions of a function as a rule for computation, or a smooth graph, were no longer adequate. Weierstrass began to advocate the arithmetization of analysis, to axiomatize analysis using properties of the natural numbers.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: In 1858, Dedekind proposed a definition of the real numbers as cuts of rational numbers. This reduction of real numbers and continuous functions in terms of rational numbers, and thus of natural numbers, was later integrated by Cantor in his set theory, and axiomatized in terms of second order arithmetic by Hilbert and Bernays.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: For the first time, the limits of mathematics were explored. Niels Henrik Abel (1802–1829), a Norwegian, and Évariste Galois, (1811–1832) a Frenchman, investigated the solutions of various polynomial equations, and proved that there is no general algebraic solution to equations of degree greater than four (Abel–Ruffini theorem). With these concepts, Pierre Wantzel (1837) proved that straightedge and compass alone cannot trisect an arbitrary angle nor double a cube. In 1882, Lindemann building on the work of Hermite showed that a straightedge and compass quadrature of the circle (construction of a square equal in area to a given circle) was also impossible by proving that is a transcendental number. Mathematicians had attempted to solve all of these problems in vain since the time of the ancient Greeks.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Abel and Galois's works opened the way for the developments of group theory (which would later be used to study symmetry in physics and other fields), and abstract algebra. Concepts of vector spaces emerged from the conception of barycentric coordinates by Möbius in 1827, to the modern definition of vector spaces and linear maps by Peano in 1888. Geometry was no more limited to three dimensions.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: These concepts did not generalize numbers but combined notions of functions and sets which were not yet formalized, breaking away from familiar mathematical objects.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: After many failed attempts to derive the parallel postulate from other axioms, the study of the still hypothetical hyperbolic geometry by Johann Heinrich Lambert (1728–1777) led him to introduce the hyperbolic functions and compute the area of a hyperbolic triangle (where the sum of angles is less than 180°). Then the Russian mathematician Nikolai Lobachevsky (1792–1856) established in 1826 (and published in 1829) the coherence of this geometry (thus the independence of the parallel postulate), in parallel with the Hungarian mathematician János Bolyai (1802–1860) in 1832, and with Gauss.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Later in the 19th century, the German mathematician Bernhard Riemann developed Elliptic geometry, another non-Euclidean geometry where no parallel can be found and the sum of angles in a triangle is more than 180°. It was proved consistent by defining point to mean a pair of antipodal points on a fixed sphere and line to mean a great circle on the sphere. At that time, the main method for proving the consistency of a set of axioms was to provide a model for it.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: One of the traps in a deductive system is circular reasoning, a problem that seemed to befall projective geometry until it was resolved by Karl von Staudt. As explained by Russian historians:


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The purely geometric approach of von Staudt was based on the complete quadrilateral to express the relation of projective harmonic conjugates. Then he created a means of expressing the familiar numeric properties with his Algebra of Throws. English language versions of this process of deducing the properties of a field can be found in either the book by Oswald Veblen and John Young, "Projective Geometry" (1938), or more recently in John Stillwell's "Four Pillars of Geometry" (2005). Stillwell writes on page 120


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The algebra of throws is commonly seen as a feature of cross-ratios since students ordinarily rely upon numbers without worry about their basis. However, cross-ratio calculations use metric features of geometry, features not admitted by purists. For instance, in 1961 Coxeter wrote "Introduction to Geometry" without mention of cross-ratio.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Attempts of formal treatment of mathematics had started with Leibniz and Lambert (1728–1777), and continued with works by algebraists such as George Peacock (1791–1858).


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Systematic mathematical treatments of logic came with the British mathematician George Boole (1847) who devised an algebra that soon evolved into what is now called Boolean algebra, in which the only numbers were 0 and 1 and logical combinations (conjunction, disjunction, implication and negation) are operations similar to the addition and multiplication of integers. Additionally, De Morgan published his laws in 1847. Logic thus became a branch of mathematics. Boolean algebra is the starting point of mathematical logic and has important applications in computer science.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Charles Sanders Peirce built upon the work of Boole to develop a logical system for relations and quantifiers, which he published in several papers from 1870 to 1885.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The German mathematician Gottlob Frege (1848–1925) presented an independent development of logic with quantifiers in his Begriffsschrift (formula language) published in 1879, a work generally considered as marking a turning point in the history of logic. He exposed deficiencies in Aristotle's "Logic", and pointed out the three expected properties of a mathematical theory


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: He then showed in "Grundgesetze der Arithmetik (Basic Laws of Arithmetic)" how arithmetic could be formalised in his new logic.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Frege's work was popularized by Bertrand Russell near the turn of the century. But Frege's two-dimensional notation had no success. Popular notations were (x) for universal and (∃x) for existential quantifiers, coming from Giuseppe Peano and William Ernest Johnson until the ∀ symbol was introduced by Gerhard Gentzen in 1935 and became canonical in the 1960s.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: From 1890 to 1905, Ernst Schröder published "Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik" in three volumes. This work summarized and extended the work of Boole, De Morgan, and Peirce, and was a comprehensive reference to symbolic logic as it was understood at the end of the 19th century.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The formalization of arithmetic (the theory of natural numbers) as an axiomatic theory started with Peirce in 1881 and continued with Richard Dedekind and Giuseppe Peano in 1888. This was still a second-order axiomatization (expressing induction in terms of arbitrary subsets, thus with an implicit use of set theory) as concerns for expressing theories in first-order logic were not yet understood. In Dedekind's work, this approach appears as completely characterizing natural numbers and providing recursive definitions of addition and multiplication from the successor function and mathematical induction.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The foundational crisis of mathematics (in German "Grundlagenkrise der Mathematik") was the early 20th century's term for the search for proper foundations for mathematics.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Several schools of the philosophy of mathematics ran into difficulties one after the other in the 20th century, as the assumption that mathematics had any foundation that could be consistently stated within mathematics itself was heavily challenged by the discovery of various paradoxes (such as Russell's paradox).


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The name ""paradox"" should not be confused with "contradiction". A contradiction in a formal theory is a formal proof of an absurdity inside the theory (such as ), showing that this theory is inconsistent and must be rejected. But a paradox may be either a surprising but true result in a given formal theory, or an informal argument leading to a contradiction, so that a candidate theory, if it is to be formalized, must disallow at least one of its steps; in this case the problem is to find a satisfying theory without contradiction. Both meanings may apply if the formalized version of the argument forms the proof of a surprising truth. For instance, Russell's paradox may be expressed as "there is no set of all sets" (except in some marginal axiomatic set theories).


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Various schools of thought opposed each other. The leading school was that of the formalists, of which David Hilbert was the foremost proponent, culminating in what is known as Hilbert's program, intending to ground mathematics on a small basis of a logical system proved sound by metamathematical finitistic means. The main opponent of the formalist school was the intuitionist school, led by L. E. J. Brouwer, which resolutely discarded formalism as a meaningless game with symbols. The fight was acrimonious. In 1920 Hilbert succeeded in having Brouwer, whom he considered a threat to mathematics, removed from the editorial board of "Mathematische Annalen", the leading mathematical journal of the time.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, three schools of philosophy of mathematics opposed each other: Formalism, Intuitionism and Logicism. The Second Conference on the Epistemology of the Exact Sciences held in Königsberg in 1930 gave space to these three schools.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: It has been claimed that formalists, such as David Hilbert (1862–1943), hold that mathematics is only a language and a series of games. Indeed, he used the words "formula game" in his 1927 response to L. E. J. Brouwer's criticisms:


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Thus Hilbert is insisting that mathematics is not an "arbitrary" game with "arbitrary" rules; rather it must agree with how our thinking, and then our speaking and writing, proceeds.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The foundational philosophy of formalism, as exemplified by David Hilbert, is a response to the paradoxes of set theory, and is based on formal logic. Virtually all mathematical theorems today can be formulated as theorems of set theory. The truth of a mathematical statement, in this view, is represented by the fact that the statement can be derived from the axioms of set theory using the rules of formal logic.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Merely the use of formalism alone does not explain several issues: why we should use the axioms we do and not some others, why we should employ the logical rules we do and not some others, why do "true" mathematical statements (e.g., the laws of arithmetic) appear to be true, and so on. Hermann Weyl would ask these very questions of Hilbert:


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: In some cases these questions may be sufficiently answered through the study of formal theories, in disciplines such as reverse mathematics and computational complexity theory. As noted by Weyl, formal logical systems also run the risk of inconsistency; in Peano arithmetic, this arguably has already been settled with several proofs of consistency, but there is debate over whether or not they are sufficiently finitary to be meaningful. Gödel's second incompleteness theorem establishes that logical systems of arithmetic can never contain a valid proof of their own consistency. What Hilbert wanted to do was prove a logical system "S" was consistent, based on principles "P" that only made up a small part of "S". But Gödel proved that the principles "P" could not even prove "P" to be consistent, let alone "S".


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Intuitionists, such as L. E. J. Brouwer (1882–1966), hold that mathematics is a creation of the human mind. Numbers, like fairy tale characters, are merely mental entities, which would not exist if there were never any human minds to think about them.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The foundational philosophy of "intuitionism" or "constructivism", as exemplified in the extreme by Brouwer and Stephen Kleene, requires proofs to be "constructive" in nature the existence of an object must be demonstrated rather than inferred from a demonstration of the impossibility of its non-existence. For example, as a consequence of this the form of proof known as reductio ad absurdum is suspect.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Some modern theories in the philosophy of mathematics deny the existence of foundations in the original sense. Some theories tend to focus on mathematical practice, and aim to describe and analyze the actual working of mathematicians as a social group. Others try to create a cognitive science of mathematics, focusing on human cognition as the origin of the reliability of mathematics when applied to the real world. These theories would propose to find foundations only in human thought, not in any objective outside construct. The matter remains controversial.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Logicism is a school of thought, and research programme, in the philosophy of mathematics, based on the thesis that mathematics is an extension of a logic or that some or all mathematics may be derived in a suitable formal system whose axioms and rules of inference are 'logical' in nature. Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead championed this theory initiated by Gottlob Frege and influenced by Richard Dedekind.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Many researchers in axiomatic set theory have subscribed to what is known as set-theoretic Platonism, exemplified by Kurt Gödel.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Several set theorists followed this approach and actively searched for axioms that may be considered as true for heuristic reasons and that would decide the continuum hypothesis. Many large cardinal axioms were studied, but the hypothesis always remained independent from them and it is now considered unlikely that CH can be resolved by a new large cardinal axiom. Other types of axioms were considered, but none of them has reached consensus on the continuum hypothesis yet. Recent work by Hamkins proposes a more flexible alternative: a set-theoretic multiverse allowing free passage between set-theoretic universes that satisfy the continuum hypothesis and other universes that do not.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Few mathematicians are typically concerned on a daily, working basis over logicism, formalism or any other philosophical position. Instead, their primary concern is that the mathematical enterprise as a whole always remains productive. Typically, they see this as ensured by remaining open-minded, practical and busy; as potentially threatened by becoming overly-ideological, fanatically reductionistic or lazy.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Weinberg believed that any undecidability in mathematics, such as the continuum hypothesis, could be potentially resolved despite the incompleteness theorem, by finding suitable further axioms to add to set theory.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Gödel's completeness theorem establishes an equivalence in first-order logic between the formal provability of a formula and its truth in all possible models. Precisely, for any consistent first-order theory it gives an "explicit construction" of a model described by the theory; this model will be countable if the language of the theory is countable. However this "explicit construction" is not algorithmic. It is based on an iterative process of completion of the theory, where each step of the iteration consists in adding a formula to the axioms if it keeps the theory consistent; but this consistency question is only semi-decidable (an algorithm is available to find any contradiction but if there is none this consistency fact can remain unprovable).


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: This can be seen as giving a sort of justification to the Platonist view that the objects of our mathematical theories are real. More precisely, it shows that the mere assumption of the existence of the set of natural numbers as a totality (an actual infinity) suffices to imply the existence of a model (a world of objects) of any consistent theory. However several difficulties remain:


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Another consequence of the completeness theorem is that it justifies the conception of infinitesimals as actual infinitely small nonzero quantities, based on the existence of non-standard models as equally legitimate to standard ones. This idea was formalized by Abraham Robinson into the theory of nonstandard analysis.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The following lists some notable results in metamathematics. Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory is the most widely studied axiomatization of set theory. It is abbreviated ZFC when it includes the axiom of choice and ZF when the axiom of choice is excluded.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: Starting in 1935, the Bourbaki group of French mathematicians started publishing a series of books to formalize many areas of mathematics on the new foundation of set theory.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The intuitionistic school did not attract many adherents, and it was not until Bishop's work in 1967 that constructive mathematics was placed on a sounder footing.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: One may consider that Hilbert's program has been partially completed, so that the crisis is essentially resolved, satisfying ourselves with lower requirements than Hilbert's original ambitions. His ambitions were expressed in a time when nothing was clear: it was not clear whether mathematics could have a rigorous foundation at all.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: There are many possible variants of set theory, which differ in consistency strength, where stronger versions (postulating higher types of infinities) contain formal proofs of the consistency of weaker versions, but none contains a formal proof of its own consistency. Thus the only thing we don't have is a formal proof of consistency of whatever version of set theory we may prefer, such as ZF.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: In practice, most mathematicians either do not work from axiomatic systems, or if they do, do not doubt the consistency of ZFC, generally their preferred axiomatic system. In most of mathematics as it is practiced, the incompleteness and paradoxes of the underlying formal theories never played a role anyway, and in those branches in which they do or whose formalization attempts would run the risk of forming inconsistent theories (such as logic and category theory), they may be treated carefully.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: The development of category theory in the middle of the 20th century showed the usefulness of set theories guaranteeing the existence of larger classes than does ZFC, such as Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory or Tarski–Grothendieck set theory, albeit that in very many cases the use of large cardinal axioms or Grothendieck universes is formally eliminable.


title: Foundations of mathematics

text: One goal of the reverse mathematics program is to identify whether there are areas of "core mathematics" in which foundational issues may again provoke a crisis.


title: Nilsson Schmilsson

text: Nilsson Schmilsson is the seventh studio album by American singer Harry Nilsson, released by RCA Records in November 1971. It was Nilsson's most commercially successful work, producing three of his best-known songs. Among these was the number 1 hit "Without You", written by Pete Ham and Tom Evans of the group Badfinger. The album was the first of two Nilsson albums recorded in London and produced by Richard Perry.


title: Nilsson Schmilsson

text: "Jump into the Fire" and "Coconut", both written by Nilsson, also became hits. The album performed well at the 1973 Grammy Awards, earning a nomination for Album of the Year, while "Without You" won the Grammy for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance. In 2006, "Nilsson Schmilsson" was ranked number 84 on Pitchfork's "Top 100 Albums of the 1970s". The album was ranked #281 in the 2020 revision of "Rolling Stone"'s 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list.


title: Green chemistry

text: Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry, is an area of chemistry and chemical engineering focused on the design of products and processes that minimize or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances. While environmental chemistry focuses on the effects of polluting chemicals on nature, green chemistry focuses on the environmental impact of chemistry, including lowering consumption of nonrenewable resources and technological approaches for preventing pollution.


title: Green chemistry

text: The overarching goals of green chemistry—namely, more resource-efficient and inherently safer design of molecules, materials, products, and processes—can be pursued in a wide range of contexts.


title: Green chemistry

text: Green chemistry emerged from a variety of existing ideas and research efforts (such as atom economy and catalysis) in the period leading up to the 1990s, in the context of increasing attention to problems of chemical pollution and resource depletion. The development of green chemistry in Europe and the United States was linked to a shift in environmental problem-solving strategies: a movement from command and control regulation and mandated lowering of industrial emissions at the "end of the pipe," toward the active prevention of pollution through the innovative design of production technologies themselves. The set of concepts now recognized as green chemistry coalesced in the mid- to late-1990s, along with broader adoption of the term (which prevailed over competing terms such as "clean" and "sustainable" chemistry).


title: Green chemistry

text: In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency played a significant early role in fostering green chemistry through its pollution prevention programs, funding, and professional coordination. At the same time in the United Kingdom, researchers at the University of York contributed to the establishment of the Green Chemistry Network within the Royal Society of Chemistry, and the launch of the journal "Green Chemistry".


title: Green chemistry

text: In 1998, Paul Anastas (who then directed the Green Chemistry Program at the US EPA) and John C. Warner (then of Polaroid Corporation) published a set of principles to guide the practice of green chemistry. The twelve principles address a range of ways to lower the environmental and health impacts of chemical production, and also indicate research priorities for the development of green chemistry technologies.


title: Green chemistry

text: Attempts are being made not only to quantify the "greenness" of a chemical process but also to factor in other variables such as chemical yield, the price of reaction components, safety in handling chemicals, hardware demands, energy profile and ease of product workup and purification. In one quantitative study, the reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline receives 64 points out of 100 marking it as an acceptable synthesis overall whereas a synthesis of an amide using HMDS is only described as adequate with a combined 32 points.


title: Green chemistry

text: Green chemistry is increasingly seen as a powerful tool that researchers must use to evaluate the environmental impact of nanotechnology. As nano materials are developed, the environmental and human health impacts of both the products themselves and the processes to make them must be considered to ensure their long-term economic viability. There is a trend of nano material technology in the practice, however, people ignored the potential nanotoxicity. Therefore, people need to address further consideration on legal, ethical, safety, and regulatory issues associated with nanomaterials,


title: Green chemistry

text: The major application of solvents in human activities is in paints and coatings (46% of usage). Smaller volume applications include cleaning, de-greasing, adhesives, and in chemical synthesis. Traditional solvents are often toxic or are chlorinated. Green solvents, on the other hand, are generally less harmful to health and the environment and preferably more sustainable. Ideally, solvents would be derived from renewable resources and biodegrade to innocuous, often a naturally occurring product. However, the manufacture of solvents from biomass can be more harmful to the environment than making the same solvents from fossil fuels. Thus the environmental impact of solvent manufacture must be considered when a solvent is being selected for a product or process. Another factor to consider is the fate of the solvent after use. If the solvent is being used in an enclosed situation where solvent collection and recycling is feasible, then the energy cost and environmental harm associated with recycling should be considered; in such a situation water, which is energy-intensive to purify, may not be the greenest choice. On the other hand, a solvent contained in a consumer product is likely to be released into the environment upon use, and therefore the environmental impact of the solvent itself is more important than the energy cost and impact of solvent recycling; in such a case water is very likely to be a green choice. In short, the impact of the entire lifetime of the solvent, from cradle to grave (or cradle to cradle if recycled) must be considered. Thus the most comprehensive definition of a green solvent is the following: ""a green solvent is the solvent that makes a product or process have the least environmental impact over its entire life cycle.""


title: Green chemistry

text: By definition, then, a solvent might be green for one application (because it results in less environmental harm than any other solvent that could be used for that application) and yet not be a green solvent for a different application. A classic example is water, which is a very green solvent for consumer products such as toilet bowl cleaner but is not a green solvent for the manufacture of polytetrafluoroethylene. For the production of that polymer, the use of water as solvent requires the addition of perfluorinated surfactants which are highly persistent. Instead, supercritical carbon dioxide seems to be the greenest solvent for that application because it performs well without any surfactant. In summary, no solvent can be declared to be a "green solvent" unless the declaration is limited to a specific application.


title: Green chemistry

text: Novel or enhanced synthetic techniques can often provide improved environmental performance or enable better adherence to the principles of green chemistry. For example, the 2005 Nobel Prize for Chemistry was awarded to Yves Chauvin, Robert H. Grubbs and Richard R. Schrock, for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis, with explicit reference to its contribution to green chemistry and "smarter production." A 2005 review identified three key developments in green chemistry in the field of organic synthesis: use of supercritical carbon dioxide as green solvent, aqueous hydrogen peroxide for clean oxidations and the use of hydrogen in asymmetric synthesis. Some further examples of applied green chemistry are supercritical water oxidation, on water reactions, and dry media reactions.


title: Green chemistry

text: Bioengineering is also seen as a promising technique for achieving green chemistry goals. A number of important process chemicals can be synthesized in engineered organisms, such as shikimate, a Tamiflu precursor which is fermented by Roche in bacteria. Click chemistry is often cited as a style of chemical synthesis that is consistent with the goals of green chemistry. The concept of 'green pharmacy' has recently been articulated based on similar principles.


title: Green chemistry

text: In 1996, Dow Chemical won the 1996 Greener Reaction Conditions award for their 100% carbon dioxide blowing agent for polystyrene foam production. Polystyrene foam is a common material used in packing and food transportation. Seven hundred million pounds are produced each year in the United States alone. Traditionally, CFC and other ozone-depleting chemicals were used in the production process of the foam sheets, presenting a serious environmental hazard. Flammable, explosive, and, in some cases toxic hydrocarbons have also been used as CFC replacements, but they present their own problems. Dow Chemical discovered that supercritical carbon dioxide works equally as well as a blowing agent, without the need for hazardous substances, allowing the polystyrene to be more easily recycled. The CO used in the process is reused from other industries, so the net carbon released from the process is zero.


title: Green chemistry

text: Addressing principle #2 is the peroxide process for producing hydrazine without cogenerating salt. Hydrazine is traditionally produced by the Olin Raschig process from sodium hypochlorite (the active ingredient in many bleaches) and ammonia. The net reaction produces one equivalent of sodium chloride for every equivalent of the targeted product hydrazine:


title: Green chemistry

text: In the greener peroxide process hydrogen peroxide is employed as the oxidant and the side product is water. The net conversion follows:


title: Green chemistry

text: Addressing principle #4, this process does not require auxiliary extracting solvents. Methyl ethyl ketone is used as a carrier for the hydrazine, the intermediate ketazine phase separates from the reaction mixture, facilitating workup without the need of an extracting solvent.


title: Green chemistry

text: Addressing principle #7 is a green route to 1,3-propanediol, which is traditionally generated from petrochemical precursors. It can be produced from renewable precursors via the bioseparation of 1,3-propanediol using a genetically modified strain of "E. coli". This diol is used to make new polyesters for the manufacture of carpets.


title: Green chemistry

text: In 2002, Cargill Dow (now NatureWorks) won the Greener Reaction Conditions Award for their improved method for polymerization of polylactic acid . Unfortunately, lactide-base polymers do not perform well and the project was discontinued by Dow soon after the award. Lactic acid is produced by fermenting corn and converted to lactide, the cyclic dimer ester of lactic acid using an efficient, tin-catalyzed cyclization. The L,L-lactide enantiomer is isolated by distillation and polymerized in the melt to make a crystallizable polymer, which has some applications including textiles and apparel, cutlery, and food packaging. Wal-Mart has announced that it is using/will use PLA for its produce packaging. The NatureWorks PLA process substitutes renewable materials for petroleum feedstocks, doesn't require the use of hazardous organic solvents typical in other PLA processes, and results in a high-quality polymer that is recyclable and compostable.


title: Green chemistry

text: In 2003 Shaw Industries selected a combination of polyolefin resins as the base polymer of choice for EcoWorx due to the low toxicity of its feedstocks, superior adhesion properties, dimensional stability, and its ability to be recycled. The EcoWorx compound also had to be designed to be compatible with nylon carpet fiber. Although EcoWorx may be recovered from any fiber type, nylon-6 provides a significant advantage. Polyolefins are compatible with known nylon-6 depolymerization methods. PVC interferes with those processes. Nylon-6 chemistry is well-known and not addressed in first-generation production. From its inception, EcoWorx met all of the design criteria necessary to satisfy the needs of the marketplace from a performance, health, and environmental standpoint. Research indicated that separation of the fiber and backing through elutriation, grinding, and air separation proved to be the best way to recover the face and backing components, but an infrastructure for returning postconsumer EcoWorx to the elutriation process was necessary. Research also indicated that the postconsumer carpet tile had a positive economic value at the end of its useful life. EcoWorx is recognized by MBDC as a certified cradle-to-cradle design.


title: Green chemistry

text: In 2005, Archer Daniels Midland (ADM) and Novozymes won the Greener Synthetic Pathways Award for their enzyme interesterification process. In response to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) mandated labeling of "trans"-fats on nutritional information by January 1, 2006, Novozymes and ADM worked together to develop a clean, enzymatic process for the interesterification of oils and fats by interchanging saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. The result is commercially viable products without "trans"-fats. In addition to the human health benefits of eliminating "trans"-fats, the process has reduced the use of toxic chemicals and water, prevents vast amounts of byproducts, and reduces the amount of fats and oils wasted.


title: Green chemistry

text: In 2011, the Outstanding Green Chemistry Accomplishments by a Small Business Award went to BioAmber Inc. for integrated production and downstream applications of bio-based succinic acid. Succinic acid is a platform chemical that is an important starting material in the formulations of everyday products. Traditionally, succinic acid is produced from petroleum-based feedstocks. BioAmber has developed process and technology that produces succinic acid from the fermentation of renewable feedstocks at a lower cost and lower energy expenditure than the petroleum equivalent while sequestering CO rather than emitting it. However, lower prices of oil precipitated the company into bankruptcy and bio-sourced succinic acid is now barely made.


title: Green chemistry

text: Several laboratory chemicals are controversial from the perspective of Green chemistry. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology created a "Green" Alternatives Wizard to help identify alternatives. Ethidium bromide, xylene, mercury, and formaldehyde have been identified as "worst offenders" which have alternatives. Solvents in particular make a large contribution to the environmental impact of chemical manufacturing and there is a growing focus on introducing Greener solvents into the earliest stage of development of these processes: laboratory-scale reaction and purification methods. In the Pharmaceutical Industry, both GSK and Pfizer have published Solvent Selection Guides for their Drug Discovery chemists.


title: Green chemistry

text: In 2007, The EU put into place the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) program, which requires companies to provide data showing that their products are safe. This regulation (1907/2006) ensures not only the assessment of the chemicals' hazards as well as risks during their uses but also includes measures for banning or restricting/authorising uses of specific substances. ECHA, the EU Chemicals Agency in Helsinki, is implementing the regulation whereas the enforcement lies with the EU member states.


title: Green chemistry

text: The United States formed the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970 to protect human and environmental health by creating and enforcing environmental regulation. Green chemistry builds on the EPA’s goals by encouraging chemists and engineers to design chemicals, processes, and products that avoid the creation of toxins and waste.


title: Green chemistry

text: The U.S. law that governs the majority of industrial chemicals (excluding pesticides, foods, and pharmaceuticals) is the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) of 1976. Examining the role of regulatory programs in shaping the development of green chemistry in the United States, analysts have revealed structural flaws and long-standing weaknesses in TSCA; for example, a 2006 report to the California Legislature concludes that TSCA has produced a domestic chemicals market that discounts the hazardous properties of chemicals relative to their function, price, and performance. Scholars have argued that such market conditions represent a key barrier to the scientific, technical, and commercial success of green chemistry in the U.S., and fundamental policy changes are needed to correct these weaknesses.


title: Green chemistry

text: Passed in 1990, the Pollution Prevention Act helped foster new approaches for dealing with pollution by preventing environmental problems before they happen.


title: Green chemistry

text: Green chemistry grew in popularity in the United States after the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 was passed. This Act declared that pollution should be lowered by improving designs and products rather than treatment and disposal. These regulations encouraged chemists to reimagine pollution and research ways to limit the toxins in the atmosphere. In 1991, the EPA Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics created a research grant program encouraging the research and recreation of chemical products and processes to limit the impact on the environment and human health. The EPA hosts The Green Chemistry Challenge each year to incentivize the economic and environmental benefits of developing and utilizing green chemistry.


title: Green chemistry

text: In 2008, the State of California approved two laws aiming to encourage green chemistry, launching the California Green Chemistry Initiative. One of these statutes required California's Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC) to develop new regulations to prioritize "chemicals of concern" and promote the substitution of hazardous chemicals with safer alternatives. The resulting regulations took effect in 2013, initiating DTSC's "Safer Consumer Products Program".


title: Green chemistry

text: Many institutions offer courses and degrees on Green Chemistry. Examples from across the globe are Denmark's Technical University, and several in the US, e.g. at the Universities of Massachusetts-Boston, Michigan, and Oregon. Masters and doctoral level courses in Green Technology has been introduced by the Institute of Chemical Technology, India. In the UK at the University of York University of Leicester, Department of Chemistry and MRes in Green Chemistry at Imperial College London. In Spain different universities like the Universitat Jaume I or the Universidad de Navarra, offer Green Chemistry master courses. There are also websites focusing on green chemistry, such as the Michigan Green Chemistry Clearinghouse.


title: Green chemistry

text: Apart from its Green Chemistry Master courses the Zurich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW presents an exposition and web page "Making chemistry green" for a broader public, illustrating the 12 principles.


title: Green chemistry

text: There are ambiguities in the definition of green chemistry, and in how it is understood among broader science, policy, and business communities. Even within chemistry, researchers have used the term "green chemistry" to describe a range of work independently of the framework put forward by Anastas and Warner (i.e., the 12 principles). While not all uses of the term are legitimate (see greenwashing), many are, and the authoritative status of any single definition is uncertain. More broadly, the idea of green chemistry can easily be linked (or confused) with related concepts like green engineering, environmental design, or sustainability in general. The complexity and multifaceted nature of green chemistry makes it difficult to devise clear and simple metrics. As a result, "what is green" is often open to debate.