title: Triumph Motor Company

text: Triumph manufactured its first car in 1923. The company was acquired by Leyland Motors in 1960, ultimately becoming part of the giant conglomerate British Leyland (BL) in 1968, where the Triumph brand was absorbed into BL's "Specialist Division" alongside former Leyland stablemates Rover and Jaguar. Triumph-badged vehicles were produced by BL until 1984 when the Triumph marque was retired, where it remained dormant under the auspices of BL's successor company Rover Group. The rights to the Triumph marque are currently owned by BMW, who purchased the Rover Group in 1994.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: The company was renamed the Triumph Cycle Co. Ltd. in 1897. In 1902 they began producing Triumph motorcycles at their works in Coventry on Much Park Street. At first, they used engines purchased from another company, but the business prospered and they soon started making their own engines. In 1907 they purchased the premises of a spinning mill on Priory Street to develop a new factory. Major orders for the 550 cc Model H were placed by the British Army during the First World War; by 1918 Triumph had become Britain's largest manufacturer of motorcycles.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: In 1921 Bettmann was persuaded by his general manager Claude Holbrook (1886–1979), who had joined the company in 1919, to acquire the assets and Clay Lane premises of the Dawson Car Company and start producing a car and 1.4-litre engine type named the Triumph 10/20 designed for them by Lea-Francis, to whom they paid a royalty for every car sold. Production of this car and its immediate successors was moderate, but this changed with the introduction in 1927 of the Triumph Super 7, which sold in large numbers until 1934.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: In 1930 the company's name was changed to Triumph Motor Company. Holbrook realised he could not compete with the larger car companies for the mass market, so he decided to produce expensive cars, and introduced the models "Southern Cross" and Gloria. At first they used engines made by Triumph but designed by Coventry Climax, but in 1937 Triumph started to produce engines to their own designs by Donald Healey, who had become the company's experimental manager in 1934.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: The company encountered financial problems however, and in 1936 the Triumph bicycle and motorcycle businesses were sold, the latter to Jack Sangster of Ariel to become Triumph Engineering Co Ltd. Healey purchased an Alfa Romeo 8C 2300 and developed a new car model with an Alfa inspired straight-8 engine type named the Triumph Dolomite. Three of these cars were made in 1934, one of which was used in competition and destroyed in an accident. The Dolomites manufactured from 1937 to 1940 were unrelated to these prototypes.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: In July 1939 the Triumph Motor Company went into receivership and the factory, equipment and goodwill were offered for sale. The Thos. W. Ward scrapping company purchased Triumph, and placed Healey in charge as general manager, but the effects of the Second World War again stopped the production of cars; the Holbrook Lane works were completely destroyed by bombing in 1940.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: In November 1944 what was left of the Triumph Motor Company and the Triumph trade name were bought by the Standard Motor Company and a subsidiary "Triumph Motor Company (1945) Limited" was formed with production transferred to Standard's factory at Canley, on the outskirts of Coventry. Triumph's new owners had been supplying engines to Jaguar and its predecessor company since 1938. After an argument between Standard-Triumph managing director, Sir John Black, and William Lyons, the creator and owner of Jaguar, Black's objective in acquiring the rights to the name and the remnants of the bankrupt Triumph business was to build a car to compete with the soon to be launched post-war Jaguars.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: The pre-war Triumph models were not revived and in 1946 a new range of Triumphs was announced, starting with the Triumph Roadster. The Roadster had an aluminium body because steel was in short supply and surplus aluminium from aircraft production was plentiful. The same engine was used for the 1800 Town and Country saloon, later named the Triumph Renown, which was notable for the styling chosen by Standard-Triumph's managing director Sir John Black. A similar style was also used for the subsequent Triumph Mayflower light saloon. All three of these models prominently sported the "globe" badge that had been used on pre-war models. When Sir John was forced to retire from the company this range of cars was discontinued without being replaced directly, sheet aluminium having by now become a prohibitively expensive alternative to sheet steel for most auto-industry purposes.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: In the early 1950s it was decided to use the Triumph name for sporting cars and the Standard name for saloons and in 1953 the Triumph TR2 was initiated, the first of the TR series of sports cars that were produced until 1981. Curiously, the TR2 had a Standard badge on its front and the Triumph globe on its hubcaps.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: Standard had been making a range of small saloons named the Standard Eight and Ten, and had been working on their replacements. The success of the TR range meant that Triumph was considered a more marketable name than Standard, and the new car was introduced in 1959 as the Triumph Herald. The last Standard car to be made in the UK was replaced in 1963 by the Triumph 2000.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: Standard-Triumph was bought by Leyland Motors Ltd. in December 1960; Donald Stokes became chairman of the Standard-Triumph division in 1963. In 1967 Leyland Motor Corporation bought the Rover company and in 1968 Leyland Motor Corporation merged with British Motor Holdings (created out of the merger of the British Motor Corporation and Jaguar two years earlier) which resulted in the formation of British Leyland Motor Corporation.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: Triumph set up an assembly facility in Speke, Liverpool in 1960, gradually increasing the size of the company's most modern factory to the point that it could produce 100,000 cars per year. However, only a maximum of 30,000 cars was ever produced as the plant was never put into full production use, being used largely as an assembly plant. During the 1960s and '70s Triumph sold a succession of Michelotti-styled saloons and sports cars, including the advanced Dolomite Sprint, which, in 1973, already had a 16-valve four-cylinder engine. It is alleged that many Triumphs of this era were unreliable, especially the 2.5 PI (petrol injection) with its fuel injection problems. In Australia, the summer heat caused petrol in the electric fuel pump to vapourise, resulting in frequent malfunctions. Although the injection system had proven itself in international competition, it lacked altitude compensation to adjust the fuel mixture at altitudes greater than above sea level. The Lucas system proved unpopular: Lucas did not want to develop it further, and Standard-Triumph dealers were reluctant to attend the associated factory and field-based training courses.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: For most of its time under Leyland or BL ownership the Triumph marque belonged in the Specialist Division of the company, which went by the names of "Rover Triumph" and later "Jaguar Rover Triumph", except for a brief period during the mid-1970s when all BL's car marques or brands were grouped together under the name of Leyland Cars.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: The only all-new Triumph model initiated as "Rover Triumph" was the TR7, which was in production successively at three factories that were closed: Speke, the poorly run Leyland-era Standard-Triumph works in Liverpool, the original Standard works at Canley, Coventry and finally the Rover works in Solihull. Plans for an extended range based on the TR7, including a fastback variant codenamed "Lynx", were ended when the Speke factory closed. The four-cylinder TR7 and its short-lived eight-cylindered derivative the TR8 were terminated when the road car section of the Solihull plant was closed (the plant continued to build Land Rovers.)


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: The last Triumph model was the Acclaim, introduced in 1981 and essentially a rebadged Honda Ballade built under licence from the Japanese carmaker Honda, at the former Morris Motors works in Cowley, Oxford. The Triumph name disappeared over the summer of 1984, when the Acclaim was replaced by the Rover 200, a rebadged version of Honda's next generation Civic/Ballade model. This was the first phase of a rebranding of the Rover Group which would also see the Austin and Morris brands disappear by the end of the 1980s and the Rover brand dominate most of the company's products.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: The BL car division had by then been named the Austin Rover Group, which also retired the Morris marque in 1984 as well as the Triumph brand.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: The trademark is owned currently by BMW, which acquired Triumph when it bought the Rover Group in 1994. When it sold Rover, it kept the Triumph marque. The Phoenix Consortium, which bought Rover, tried to buy the Triumph brand, but BMW refused, saying that if Phoenix insisted, it would break the deal. The Standard marque was transferred to British Motor Heritage Limited. The Standard marque is still retained by British Motor Heritage, who also have the licence to use the Triumph marque in relation to the sale of spares and service of the existing 'park' of Triumph cars.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: In late 2007, the magazine "Auto Express", after continued rumours that Triumph might be revived with BMW ownership, featured a story showing an image of what a new version of the TR4 might look like. BMW did not comment officially on this.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: Pre-war Triumphs carried a stylised Globe badge, usually on the radiator grille, and this was also used on the first three models produced under Standard's control.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: Standard had introduced a new badge in 1947 for their own models, first seen on the Vanguard, a highly stylised motif based on the wings of a Griffin. With the introduction of the TR2, a version of this badge appeared for the first time on the bonnet of a production Triumph, while the Globe continued to appear on the hubcaps. This same double-badging also appeared on the TR3 and TR4, the 2000 and the 1300.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: However, the original Herald, Spitfire, Vitesse and GT6 models all carried only the Griffin badge on their bonnets/radiator grilles, with unadorned hubcaps.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: The TR4A appeared with a Globe badge on the bonnet, apparently signifying a return to the original Triumph badging. This was short-lived, as a policy of Leylandisation mean that neither Globe nor Griffin appeared on subsequent models from the TR5 onwards, or on later versions of the Spitfire, GT6 and 2000.


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: Leyland's corporate badge, a design based on the spokes of a wheel, appeared on the hubcaps of the 1500FWD, and next to the Triumph name on the metal identification labels fitted to the bootlids of various models. It was also used for the oil filler cap on the Dolomite Sprint engine. However it was never used as a bonnet badge, with models of that era such as the TR6 and the second generation 2000 carrying a badge simply stating the name "Triumph".


title: Triumph Motor Company

text: The last versions of the TR7 and Dolomite ranges received an all-new badge with the word Triumph surrounded by laurel wreaths, and this was also used for the Acclaim. It was carried on the bonnet and the steering wheel boss.


title: Biomechanics

text: Biomechanics is the study of the structure, function and motion of the mechanical aspects of biological systems, at any level from whole organisms to organs, cells and cell organelles, using the methods of mechanics. Biomechanics is a branch of biophysics.


title: Biomechanics

text: In 2022, computational mechanics goes far beyond pure mechanics, and involves other physical actions: chemistry, heat and mass transfer, electric and magnetic stimuli and many others.


title: Biomechanics

text: The word "biomechanics" (1899) and the related "biomechanical" (1856) come from the Ancient Greek βίος "bios" "life" and μηχανική, "mēchanikē" "mechanics", to refer to the study of the mechanical principles of living organisms, particularly their movement and structure.


title: Biomechanics

text: Biological fluid mechanics, or biofluid mechanics, is the study of both gas and liquid fluid flows in or around biological organisms. An often studied liquid biofluid problem is that of blood flow in the human cardiovascular system. Under certain mathematical circumstances, blood flow can be modeled by the Navier–Stokes equations. "In vivo" whole blood is assumed to be an incompressible Newtonian fluid. However, this assumption fails when considering forward flow within arterioles. At the microscopic scale, the effects of individual red blood cells become significant, and whole blood can no longer be modeled as a continuum. When the diameter of the blood vessel is just slightly larger than the diameter of the red blood cell the Fahraeus–Lindquist effect occurs and there is a decrease in wall shear stress. However, as the diameter of the blood vessel decreases further, the red blood cells have to squeeze through the vessel and often can only pass in a single file. In this case, the inverse Fahraeus–Lindquist effect occurs and the wall shear stress increases.


title: Biomechanics

text: An example of a gaseous biofluids problem is that of human respiration. Recently, respiratory systems in insects have been studied for bioinspiration for designing improved microfluidic devices.


title: Biomechanics

text: Biotribology is the study of friction, wear and lubrication of biological systems especially human joints such as hips and knees. In general, these processes are studied in the context of contact mechanics and tribology.


title: Biomechanics

text: Additional aspects of biotribology include analysis of subsurface damage resulting from two surfaces coming in contact during motion, i.e. rubbing against each other, such as in the evaluation of tissue-engineered cartilage.


title: Biomechanics

text: Comparative biomechanics is the application of biomechanics to non-human organisms, whether used to gain greater insights into humans (as in physical anthropology) or into the functions, ecology and adaptations of the organisms themselves. Common areas of investigation are Animal locomotion and feeding, as these have strong connections to the organism's fitness and impose high mechanical demands. Animal locomotion, has many manifestations, including running, jumping and flying. Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction, drag, inertia, and gravity, though which factor predominates varies with environment.


title: Biomechanics

text: Comparative biomechanics overlaps strongly with many other fields, including ecology, neurobiology, developmental biology, ethology, and paleontology, to the extent of commonly publishing papers in the journals of these other fields. Comparative biomechanics is often applied in medicine (with regards to common model organisms such as mice and rats) as well as in biomimetics, which looks to nature for solutions to engineering problems.


title: Biomechanics

text: Computational biomechanics is the application of engineering computational tools, such as the Finite element method to study the mechanics of biological systems. Computational models and simulations are used to predict the relationship between parameters that are otherwise challenging to test experimentally, or used to design more relevant experiments reducing the time and costs of experiments. Mechanical modeling using finite element analysis has been used to interpret the experimental observation of plant cell growth to understand how they differentiate, for instance. In medicine, over the past decade, the Finite element method has become an established alternative to in vivo surgical assessment. One of the main advantages of computational biomechanics lies in its ability to determine the endo-anatomical response of an anatomy, without being subject to ethical restrictions. This has led FE modeling (or other discretization techniques) to the point of becoming ubiquitous in several fields of Biomechanics while several projects have even adopted an open source philosophy (e.g. BioSpine) and SOniCS, as well as the SOFA, FEniCS frameworks and FEBio.


title: Biomechanics

text: Computational biomechanics is an essential ingredient in surgical simulation, which is used for surgical planning, assistance and training. In this case, numerical (discretization) methods are used to compute, as fast as possible, the response of a system to boundary conditions such as forces, heat and mass transfer, electrical and magnetic stimuli.


title: Biomechanics

text: The mechanical analysis of biomaterials and biofluids is usually carried forth with the concepts of continuum mechanics. This assumption breaks down when the length scales of interest approach the order of the micro structural details of the material. One of the most remarkable characteristic of biomaterials is their hierarchical structure. In other words, the mechanical characteristics of these materials rely on physical phenomena occurring in multiple levels, from the molecular all the way up to the tissue and organ levels.


title: Biomechanics

text: Biomaterials are classified in two groups, hard and soft tissues. Mechanical deformation of hard tissues (like wood, shell and bone) may be analysed with the theory of linear elasticity. On the other hand, soft tissues (like skin, tendon, muscle and cartilage) usually undergo large deformations and thus their analysis rely on the finite strain theory and computer simulations. The interest in continuum biomechanics is spurred by the need for realism in the development of medical simulation.


title: Biomechanics

text: The application of biomechanical principles to plants, plant organs and cells has developed into the subfield of plant biomechanics. Application of biomechanics for plants ranges from studying the resilience of crops to environmental stress to development and morphogenesis at cell and tissue scale, overlapping with mechanobiology.


title: Biomechanics

text: In sports biomechanics, the laws of mechanics are applied to human movement in order to gain a greater understanding of athletic performance and to reduce sport injuries as well. It focuses on the application of the scientific principles of mechanical physics to understand movements of action of human bodies and sports implements such as cricket bat, hockey stick and javelin etc. Elements of mechanical engineering (e.g., strain gauges), electrical engineering (e.g., digital filtering), computer science (e.g., numerical methods), gait analysis (e.g., force platforms), and clinical neurophysiology (e.g., surface EMG) are common methods used in sports biomechanics.


title: Biomechanics

text: Biomechanics in sports can be stated as the muscular, joint and skeletal actions of the body during the execution of a given task, skill and/or technique. Proper understanding of biomechanics relating to sports skill has the greatest implications on: sport's performance, rehabilitation and injury prevention, along with sport mastery. As noted by Doctor Michael Yessis, one could say that best athlete is the one that executes his or her skill the best.


title: Biomechanics

text: The main topics of the vascular biomechanics is the description of the mechanical behaviour of vascular tissues.


title: Biomechanics

text: It is well known that cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death wordlwide. Vascular system in the human body is the main component that is supposed to maintain pressure and allow for blood flow and chemical exchanges. Studying the mechanical properties of this complex tissues improves the possibility to better understanding cardiovascular diseases and drastically improve personalized medicine.


title: Biomechanics

text: Vascular tissues are inhomogenous with a strongly non linear behaviour. Generally this study involves complex geometry with intricate load conditions and material properties. The correct description of these mechanisms is based on the study of physiology and biological interaction. Therefore is necessary to study wall mechanics and hemodinamics with their interaction.


title: Biomechanics

text: It is also necessary to premise that the vascular wall is a dynamic structure in continuous evolution. This evolution directly follows the chemical and mechanical environment in which the tissues are immersed like Wall Shear Stress or biochemical signaling.


title: Biomechanics

text: Aristotle, a student of Plato can be considered the first bio-mechanic, because of his work with animal anatomy. Aristotle wrote the first book on the motion of animals, "De Motu Animalium", or On the Movement of Animals. He not only saw animal's bodies as mechanical systems, but pursued questions such as the physiological difference between imagining performing an action and actually doing it. In another work, "On the Parts of Animals", he provided an accurate description of how the ureter uses peristalsis to carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.


title: Biomechanics

text: With the rise of the Roman Empire, technology became more popular than philosophy and the next bio-mechanic arose. Galen (129 AD-210 AD), physician to Marcus Aurelius, wrote his famous work, On the Function of the Parts (about the human body). This would be the world's standard medical book for the next 1,400 years.


title: Biomechanics

text: The next major biomechanic would not be around until 1452, with the birth of Leonardo da Vinci. Da Vinci was an artist and mechanic and engineer. He contributed to mechanics and military and civil engineering projects. He had a great understanding of science and mechanics and studied anatomy in a mechanics context. He analyzed muscle forces and movements and studied joint functions. These studies could be considered studies in the realm of biomechanics. Leonardo da Vinci studied anatomy in the context of mechanics. He analyzed muscle forces as acting along lines connecting origins and insertions, and studied joint function. Da Vinci tended to mimic some animal features in his machines. For example, he studied the flight of birds to find means by which humans could fly; and because horses were the principal source of mechanical power in that time, he studied their muscular systems to design machines that would better benefit from the forces applied by this animal.


title: Biomechanics

text: In 1543, Galen's work, On the Function of the Parts was challenged by Andreas Vesalius at the age of 29. Vesalius published his own work called, On the Structure of the Human Body. In this work, Vesalius corrected many errors made by Galen, which would not be globally accepted for many centuries. With the death of Copernicus came a new desire to understand and learn about the world around people and how it works. On his deathbed, he published his work, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. This work not only revolutionized science and physics, but also the development of mechanics and later bio-mechanics.


title: Biomechanics

text: Galileo Galilei, the father of mechanics and part time biomechanic was born 21 years after the death of Copernicus. Galileo spent many years in medical school and often questioned everything his professors taught. He found that the professors could not prove what they taught so he moved onto mathematics where everything had to be proven. Then, at the age of 25, he went to Pisa and taught mathematics. He was a very good lecturer and students would leave their other instructors to hear him speak, so he was forced to resign. He then became a professor at an even more prestigious school in Padua. His spirit and teachings would lead the world once again in the direction of science. Over his years of science, Galileo made a lot of biomechanical aspects known. For example, he discovered that  "animals' masses increase disproportionately to their size, and their bones must consequently also disproportionately increase in girth, adapting to loadbearing rather than mere size. The bending strength of a tubular structure such as a bone is increased relative to its weight by making it hollow and increasing its diameter. Marine animals can be larger than terrestrial animals because the water's buoyancy relieves their tissues of weight."


title: Biomechanics

text: Galileo Galilei was interested in the strength of bones and suggested that bones are hollow because this affords maximum strength with minimum weight. He noted that animals' bone masses increased disproportionately to their size. Consequently, bones must also increase disproportionately in girth rather than mere size. This is because the bending strength of a tubular structure (such as a bone) is much more efficient relative to its weight. Mason suggests that this insight was one of the first grasps of the principles of biological optimization.


title: Biomechanics

text: In the 17th century, Descartes suggested a philosophic system whereby all living systems, including the human body (but not the soul), are simply machines ruled by the same mechanical laws, an idea that did much to promote and sustain biomechanical study.


title: Biomechanics

text: The next major bio-mechanic, Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, embraced Descartes' mechanical philosophy and studied walking, running, jumping, the flight of birds, the swimming of fish, and even the piston action of the heart within a mechanical framework. He could determine the position of the human center of gravity, calculate and measure inspired and expired air volumes, and he showed that inspiration is muscle-driven and expiration is due to tissue elasticity.


title: Biomechanics

text: Borelli was the first to understand that "the levers of the musculature system magnify motion rather than force, so that muscles must produce much larger forces than those resisting the motion". Influenced by the work of Galileo, whom he personally knew, he had an intuitive understanding of static equilibrium in various joints of the human body well before Newton published the laws of motion. His work is often considered the most important in the history of bio-mechanics because he made so many new discoveries that opened the way for the future generations to continue his work and studies.


title: Biomechanics

text: It was many years after Borelli before the field of bio-mechanics made any major leaps. After that time, more and more scientists took to learning about the human body and its functions. There are not many notable scientists from the 19th or 20th century in bio-mechanics because the field is far too vast now to attribute one thing to one person. However, the field is continuing to grow every year and continues to make advances in discovering more about the human body. Because the field became so popular, many institutions and labs have opened over the last century and people continue doing research. With the Creation of the American Society of Bio-mechanics in 1977, the field continues to grow and make many new discoveries.


title: Biomechanics

text: In the 19th century Étienne-Jules Marey used cinematography to scientifically investigate locomotion. He opened the field of modern 'motion analysis' by being the first to correlate ground reaction forces with movement. In Germany, the brothers Ernst Heinrich Weber and Wilhelm Eduard Weber hypothesized a great deal about human gait, but it was Christian Wilhelm Braune who significantly advanced the science using recent advances in engineering mechanics. During the same period, the engineering mechanics of materials began to flourish in France and Germany under the demands of the industrial revolution. This led to the rebirth of bone biomechanics when the railroad engineer Karl Culmann and the anatomist Hermann von Meyer compared the stress patterns in a human femur with those in a similarly shaped crane. Inspired by this finding Julius Wolff proposed the famous Wolff's law of bone remodeling.


title: Biomechanics

text: The study of biomechanics ranges from the inner workings of a cell to the movement and development of limbs, to the mechanical properties of soft tissue, and bones. Some simple examples of biomechanics research include the investigation of the forces that act on limbs, the aerodynamics of bird and insect flight, the hydrodynamics of swimming in fish, and locomotion in general across all forms of life, from individual cells to whole organisms. With growing understanding of the physiological behavior of living tissues, researchers are able to advance the field of tissue engineering, as well as develop improved treatments for a wide array of pathologies including cancer.


title: Biomechanics

text: Biomechanics is also applied to studying human musculoskeletal systems. Such research utilizes force platforms to study human ground reaction forces and infrared videography to capture the trajectories of markers attached to the human body to study human 3D motion. Research also applies electromyography to study muscle activation, investigating muscle responses to external forces and perturbations.


title: Biomechanics

text: Biomechanics is widely used in orthopedic industry to design orthopedic implants for human joints, dental parts, external fixations and other medical purposes. Biotribology is a very important part of it. It is a study of the performance and function of biomaterials used for orthopedic implants. It plays a vital role to improve the design and produce successful biomaterials for medical and clinical purposes. One such example is in tissue engineered cartilage. The dynamic loading of joints considered as impact is discussed in detail by Emanuel Willert.


title: Biomechanics

text: It is also tied to the field of engineering, because it often uses traditional engineering sciences to analyze biological systems. Some simple applications of Newtonian mechanics and/or materials sciences can supply correct approximations to the mechanics of many biological systems. Applied mechanics, most notably mechanical engineering disciplines such as continuum mechanics, mechanism analysis, structural analysis, kinematics and dynamics play prominent roles in the study of biomechanics.


title: Biomechanics

text: Usually biological systems are much more complex than man-built systems. Numerical methods are hence applied in almost every biomechanical study. Research is done in an iterative process of hypothesis and verification, including several steps of modeling, computer simulation and experimental measurements.


title: Khanate

text: A khaganate or khanate was a polity ruled by a khan, khagan, khatun, or khanum. That political territory was typically found on the Eurasian Steppe and could be equivalent in status to tribal chiefdom, principality, kingdom or empire.


title: Khanate

text: After Genghis Khan established appanages for his family in the Mongol Empire during his rule (1206–1227), his sons, daughters, and grandsons inherited separate sections of the empire. The Mongol Empire and Mongolian khanates that emerged from those appanages are listed below.


title: Khanate

text: In 1226, the second son of Genghis Khan, Chagatai Khan established the Chagatai Khanate. At its height in the late 13th century, the khanate extended from the Amu Darya south of the Aral Sea to the Altai Mountains in the border of modern-day Mongolia and China, roughly corresponding to the defunct Qara Khitai Empire. Initially the rulers of the Chagatai Khanate recognized the supremacy of the Great Khan, but by the reign of Kublai Khan, Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq no longer obeyed the emperor's orders.


title: Khanate

text: In 1256, Il-Khanate was established by the grandson of Genghis Khan, Hulagu Khan. Its core territory lies in what is now part of the countries of Iran, Azerbaijan, and Turkey. At its greatest extent, the Ilkhanate also included parts of modern Iraq, Syria, Armenia, Georgia, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Pakistan, part of modern Dagestan, and part of modern Tajikistan. Later Ilkhanate rulers, beginning with Ghazan in 1295, converted to Islam. In the 1330s, the Ilkhanate was ravaged by the Black Death. Its last khan Abu Sa'id died in 1335, after which the khanate disintegrated. The Ilkhanid rulers, although of non-Iranian origin, tried to advertise their authority by tying themselves to the Iranian past, and they recruited historians in order to present the Mongols as heirs to the Sasanians (224–651 AD) of pre-Islamic Iran.


title: Mark Martin

text: Mark Anthony Martin (born January 9, 1959) is a retired American stock car racing driver. He has the second most wins all time in what is now the Xfinity Series with 49. He scored 40 Cup Series wins. He finished second in the NASCAR Cup Series standings five times, third in the NASCAR Cup Series standings four times, and has been described by ESPN as "The best driver to never win a championship." Martin, with five IROC Championships, has more than any other driver. Also, during the 2005 season, Martin took over the all-time record for IROC wins, with 13.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin was born in Batesville, Arkansas. He began his racing career as a young man on the dirt tracks of Arkansas. He moved on to asphalt racing and joined the ASA racing series. During his ASA career, Martin raced against Dick Trickle, Jim Sauter, Joe Shear, and Bobby Allison. He won 1977 ASA National Tour Rookie of the Year. Martin won twenty-two ASA races and four championships, in 1978, 1979, 1980, and 1986.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin had a tumultuous beginning in NASCAR, driving for six different teams from 1981 to 1987. He made five starts in 1981 driving for a team owned by Bud Reeder, earning two pole positions at Nashville and Richmond and finishing third in his final race at Martinsville.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin competed full-time in 1982 with the team, competing for Rookie of the Year. The team struggled for consistency, posting just eight top tens compared to 12 DNFs in 30 starts, including a string of five DNFs in six races. Completing just 73.7 percent of the laps and leading only four laps all season led to Martin finishing 14th in the final standings and finishing second to Geoff Bodine for Rookie of the Year. Despite finishing strongly, with two top tens in the final two races, including a fifth-place finish at Riverside, Martin and Reeder parted ways after the season. He remains the only driver to run more than six races for a team owned or co-owned by Reeder. At the end of the season Martin sold off the team, having signed with Jim Stacy to race in 1983.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin started 1983 running for Jim Stacy. The two parted ways after just seven races, posting three top 11s while having four races finishing 24th or worse. Following a two race-stint driving for D. K. Ulrich and one for Emanuel Zervakis, he landed a ride with Morgan-McClure Motorsports for six races, becoming the organization's first driver. While with MMM, Martin posted four finishes inside the top 20, including a 10th at Talladega.


title: Mark Martin

text: Unable to secure a ride for 1984, Martin went back to driving in the American Speed Association. Jimmy Fennig came aboard as crew chief in 1985 and the two would go on to win the ASA championship the next season, Martin's fourth series championship.


title: Mark Martin

text: His success in his three-year stint in ASA landed Martin a part-time ride driving for Jerry Gunderman. In five starts, he posted two top 15 finishes and started on the outside pole at Atlanta.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin's success from the previous three seasons landed him a full-time ride driving for Bruce Lawmaster in the Busch Series. The season started strong as he posted two wins, three poles, nine top tens, and was fourth in the standings after 15 races. After just one DNF in the first 15 races, Martin had seven DNFs in the final 12 races, including six due to mechanical failure and four blown engines. Despite finishing in the top ten in the other five races, the team's failure to finish towards the end dropped Martin from fourth to eight place in the final standings.


title: Mark Martin

text: Though the late season collapse ended Martin's chance at winning the championship, the success he had in 1987 caught the eye of Jack Roush, who tapped Martin to drive for him in the Winston Cup Series for 1988. He finished 1987 with three wins, six poles, 13 top tens, and an eight place finish in the standings.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin came aboard newly formed Roush Racing, with crew chief Steve Hmiel, for the first of 19 seasons in 1988 driving the No. 6 Ford Thunderbird. Martin showed both signs of struggle and potential in its inaugural NASCAR Winston Cup Series season, recording three top fives and ten top tens along with winning the pole at Dover. He finished a season-high second-place at Bristol early in the season. Consistency proved to be crucial in that ten DNFs prevented Martin from cracking the top ten in points the entire season. He finished his comeback season fifteenth in the standings. Martin also competed in the Busch Series on a limited basis for Bill Davis Racing from 1988 to 1991.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin's 1989 season began a lot like his 1988 season with a DNF in the Daytona 500. After his first 4 races he was 18th in the standings but went on to continue the season with 4 poles and finishing sixth or better in the next 7 starts. He spent much of the season bouncing around from second to fifth in the standings. With three races to go, he won his first Winston Cup race at Rockingham, beating eventual series champion Rusty Wallace by three seconds. It was the first win for Roush as an owner. An engine failure in the season finale at Atlanta relegated him to a third-place finish in the standings. Martin led the series with a 5.3 average starting position, posting six poles and twenty-six top ten starting positions in twenty-nine races. He also posted fourteen top fives, eighteen top tens, and cut down his DNF total from ten to four.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin entered the 1990 season as a favorite to winning the Winston Cup championship. He started the season with a 21st-place finish in the Daytona 500, his first finish in the big race in six attempts. His team was met with controversy following his second career win at Richmond. During post-race inspection it was determined he had raced with an illegal carburetor spacer. Ironically, had the spacer been welded instead of bolted on, it would not have been considered illegal. The consensus among Mark's fellow competitors was that this was not a performance advantage, but also was not strictly within the "letter of the law" with regards to the NASCAR rulebook. As a result, Martin was penalized 46 championship points and crew chief Robin Pemberton was fined $40,000.


title: Mark Martin

text: Following a DNF the next race, Martin finished no worse than fourteenth over the final twenty-six races. He gained the championship points lead one-third into the season and held onto it for sixteen races before dropping it to Dale Earnhardt with two races to go. Despite having three wins, sixteen top fives, twenty-three top tens, and three poles, Martin lost to Earnhardt by twenty-six points in the final standings. Had the 46-point penalty never occurred, he theoretically would have won the championship over Earnhardt by twenty points instead.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin's 1991 season was disappointing compared to the previous season, as he entered with expectations to win the series championship. Though he ran well, he never achieved the points lead through the course of the season and was winless entering the season finale in Atlanta, a race in which he won. He also came close to winning at Charlotte three races prior, leading 198 of the first 212 laps before engine failure ended his race. Along with his win at Atlanta, Martin finished the season with 14 Top 5s, 17 Top 10s, five poles, and a sixth-place finish in the standings.


title: Mark Martin

text: Mark entered the 1992 season's final race, the Hooters 500 in Atlanta, as one of six drivers in contention to winning the championship; but an engine failure on lap 160 ended his championship hopes. He finished the season with wins at Martinsville and Charlotte, along with ten top fives, seventeen top tens, one pole, and a second consecutive sixth-place finish in the standings.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin began 1993 with a sixth-place finish in the 1993 Daytona 500, his first top twenty finish in the big race. In the second half of the season, he became the sixth driver in NASCAR's modern era to win four consecutive races, winning at Watkins Glen, Michigan, Bristol, and Darlington. Along with a win at Phoenix, Martin finished with five wins, twelve top fives, nineteen top tens, and five poles en route to a third-place finish in the standings, 376 points behind Dale Earnhardt, and 296 points behind points runner-up Rusty Wallace. It was his first top five in the standings since his near championship win three years earlier.


title: Mark Martin

text: Despite having eight DNFs, Martin finished second to Dale Earnhardt in the 1994 standings, 444 points behind. He posted two wins, including winning from the pole at Watkins Glen for the second consecutive year and the season finale in Atlanta. Martin scored fifteen top fives and twenty top tens during the season, his most since 1990. Other than the season opener in Daytona, Martin was never outside the top five in the standings. Among the highlights of Martin's 1994 season was a spectacular and frightening crash at the spring Talladega race: on Lap 103, Todd Bodine, Greg Sacks and Jeff Gordon got together in the tri-oval, collecting an additional eight cars, including Martin. Martin's car lost its brakes, ran through the infield grass, smashed the inside wall, and plowed through a guardrail, a chain-link fence, and lastly another guardrail protecting the infield road course, coming to rest only feet from a spectator area.


title: Mark Martin

text: In 1994 Martin raced in the Busch Series. That year he became known for a mistake he made at Bristol. Martin would lead the field to a white and caution flag to win. When coming back by, Martin went down pit road thinking it was over but he did not take the checkered flag. David Green took the win, and in victory circle Green would say "I feel bad for him. A tough way for me to win, but I will take it." Martin finished in 11th; afterwards he stated "I can't believe anybody else would be that stupid" and that the mistake was "the stupidest thing I've ever done".


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin won four races in 1995, including his third consecutive win from the pole at Watkins Glen and at Talladega, his first restrictor plate win. He also finished with 13 top fives and 22 top tens. Though he had only one DNF, he had five finishes of 28th or worse, which earned him fourth place in the standings. Martin was one of three drivers, the others being Dale Earnhardt and Sterling Marlin, to be ranked in the top five for all 31 races; none of them won the championship. For the Busch Series in 1995, Martin won 3 races, including the controversial Detroit Gasket 200 where Dale Jarrett won before being disqualified, handing victory to Martin.


title: Mark Martin

text: In 1996, Martin was winless for the first time in eight seasons. Other than his lack of wins, his season was very similar to 1995 with 14 top fives, 22 top tens, and four poles. He finished a season-high second four times, including at Michigan when he was passed by winner Dale Jarrett with eight laps to go. He finished the season fifth in the standings.


title: Mark Martin

text: In 1997 Martin would rebound scoring four wins at Sonoma, Talladega, Michigan, and Dover and finished third in the final standings, 29 points behind champion Jeff Gordon and 15 points behind runner up Dale Jarrett.


title: Mark Martin

text: In 1998 Martin had his best season as he scored 7 wins, 22 top fives, 26 top tens, and 3 poles with an average finish of 8.64. But once again, Martin would rank runner-up in the standings to Jeff Gordon by 364 points.


title: Mark Martin

text: Although he scored just 2 wins in 1999 Martin scored 26 top tens for the second consecutive season and finished third in points.


title: Mark Martin

text: in 2000 Mark won just once that season at the spring Martinsville race and finished 8th in points. His first outside the top five since 1992.


title: Mark Martin

text: His struggles continued into 2001 as he went winless for the first time since 1996 and finished 12th in points.


title: Mark Martin

text: In 2002 Martin would get a new crew chief in Ben Leslie as Fennig moved to second year driver Kurt Busch. The move would pay off for both sides as Martin would win one race that season at the Coca-Cola 600 and was a championship contender all season and even lead the standings at one point but a late season penalty at Rockingham arguably costed him the championship as he came home second again this time to Tony Stewart.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin struggled again in 2003 going winless and finishing 17th in points. Ben Leslie was re-assigned to the #21 Wood Brothers Racing car with two races remaining in 2003. Subsequently, Pat Tryson was brought on as the new crew chief for the 6 team. With Tryson, Martin returned to victory lane in the 2004 spring Dover race and finished 4th in points.


title: Mark Martin

text: Overall with Roush Racing, Martin won 35 career NASCAR Cup Series races and finished second in the Cup Series point standings four times (1990, 1994, 1998, and 2002). While racing for Roush in 1990, Martin came his closest to winning a championship. A 46-point penalty at Richmond, for using an illegal (but non-performance enhancing) carburetor spacer, caused him to lose to Dale Earnhardt by 26 points in the final standings. During this time, Martin also won five IROC titles (1994, 1996, 1997, 1998, and 2005) and 13 races, both records for that series.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin announced he would cut back from 'full-time' Cup Series racing after the 2005 season, dubbing the season the "Salute to You" tour as a thank you to his fans. Martin won the Nextel Challenge in a 'Retro 93' paint scheme, picked up his final win with Roush at Kansas and again made the Chase for the Cup with a ninth-place in the standings at the end of the year. In a tribute to Martin's career at Roush, the team ran four throwback retro schemes in 2005, that celebrated paint schemes from 1981, 1988–89, 1990–91, and 1993.


title: Mark Martin

text: In June 2005, it was announced that Jamie McMurray would replace Martin in the No. 6 car in 2006. However, after the departure of Kurt Busch in 2005, Roush was left without a driver for the No. 6 car in 2006. Martin later agreed to come back and drive for the 2006 season. Ultimately, it was announced that McMurray would be released from his contract at Chip Ganassi Racing one year early and would take over for Busch, who was dismissed from the Roush organization prior to the end of the 2005 season. David Ragan was announced as Martin's replacement in the No. 6 for 2007.


title: Mark Martin

text: In 2006, Martin competed in 14 of 25 races in the Truck Series. He won 6 times, including the opener at Daytona, and recorded 12 top-ten finishes.


title: Mark Martin

text: On October 6, 2006, it was announced that Martin would split time with current Busch Series driver Regan Smith in the Ginn Racing No. 01 Chevrolet in 2007. Roush Racing announced that due to team limits imposed by NASCAR, they could not field a team for Martin for all 20 races he wanted to race in 2007, forcing him to move on, at least in the Nextel Cup Series. However, Martin drove two races for Roush Fenway Racing in the Busch Series, and also drove in three races for Hendrick Motorsports, sharing the No. 5 with Kyle Busch.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin finished second in the 2007 Daytona 500, only 0.020 seconds behind Kevin Harvick in one of the most controversial finishes in the races' history. Martin led going into the final lap before Harvick stormed from seventh to win on the outside. There has been much controversy over whether or not the caution flag should have come out as a result of a large multi-car crash behind them, which could have affected the outcome of the race. Normally, the caution flag is shown as soon as one or more cars make contact with the wall. Despite the controversy, Martin was graceful over his defeat, saying, "I didn't get the job done."


title: Mark Martin

text: 2007 was Martin's first season to start with three consecutive Top 5 finishes. Martin is the only part-time driver in NASCAR history to not win the opening race but still be leading the points standings. It was also the first time he has had three consecutive Top 5 finishes since 2002. Martin is also the oldest driver in the modern era to lead the Nextel Cup points for more than one week. Martin led the Nextel Cup points from the second race of the season, the Auto Club 500, through the fourth race of the season, the Kobalt Tools 500. Martin did not compete in the Food City 500, becoming the first driver since Cale Yarborough to sit out a race as the points leader.


title: Mark Martin

text: On July 25, 2007, Dale Earnhardt, Inc. announced it had acquired Ginn Racing, and Martin joined Dale Earnhardt Jr., Martin Truex Jr., and Paul Menard as a driver for DEI starting at the 2007 Allstate 400 at the Brickyard. He shared the No. 01 car with Aric Almirola for the rest of the season.


title: Mark Martin

text: On September 8, 2007, it was announced that Martin would share the No. 8 car with Aric Almirola in the 2008 Sprint Cup Series.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin made his 700th career start at the 2008 Auto Club 500. On March 1, 2008, Martin won the 2008 Sam's Town 300 driving the No. 5 Delphi Chevrolet for JR Motorsports. It was Martin's 48th career Nationwide Series victory and JR Motorsports' 1st win. Martin finished out 2008 with 11 top-10s in 21 starts.


title: Mark Martin

text: During the weekend of the 2008 Toyota/Save Mart 350, ESPN reported that Martin was leaving Dale Earnhardt, Inc. following the 2008 season. It was announced that Aric Almirola who shared the No. 8 car with Martin would drive the car full-time in 2009.


title: Mark Martin

text: On July 4, 2008, Hendrick Motorsports owner Rick Hendrick and Martin announced that he would replace Casey Mears in the No. 5 car for the 2009 season, running a full-time schedule for the first time since 2006. Martin signed a two-year contract with Hendrick, with a full-time schedule for 2009 and 2010. Martin grabbed his first pole since 2001 at the Kobalt Tools 500 at Atlanta, and followed up with back-to-back poles in the following week at Bristol.


title: Mark Martin

text: On April 18, 2009, Martin became the fourth driver to win a Cup race in NASCAR after turning 50, winning the 2009 Subway Fresh Fit 500 at Phoenix from the pole position. The other three were Bobby Allison, Morgan Shepherd (twice), and Harry Gant (8 times, last in 1992). His win snapped a 97-race winless streak going back to 2005. After the victory, he did a Polish Victory Lap as a tribute to his late friend Alan Kulwicki, at the place where Kulwicki did his first Polish Victory Lap. At Darlington, it was announced after the Richmond race that Martin would drive full-time again in 2010; Martin would go on to win the Southern 500. It was his first multiple-win season since 1999. In the 2009 LifeLock 400, Martin won his third race of the season when Jimmie Johnson and Greg Biffle ran out of fuel in the last two laps while Martin had strategically conserved fuel and stayed back in third waiting for the leaders to run out. Martin added a series-leading fourth win at the LifeLock.com 400 at Chicagoland in July, holding off a charging Jeff Gordon. Because he and teammate Gordon also finished 1–2 at the LifeLock 400 at Michigan in June, LifeLock will pay a $1 million bonus to a family in Colorado. Despite his series-leading four wins, due to some early season troubles, including two engine failures, a blown tire, and getting caught up in multi-car wrecks at Talladega and Daytona, Martin had struggled to get into the top 12, moving up two spots to 11th place with the win at Chicagoland Speedway. Martin also got his fifth pole of the 2009 season at Bristol Motor Speedway for the Sharpie 500.


title: Mark Martin

text: After being on the Chase bubble for most of the season, Martin qualified for the 2009 Chase, as he was in sixth place in the standings following the Chevy Rock & Roll 400. Because he led the Chase drivers in wins, with four, the Chase reseeding process moved him up five places and made him the points leader.


title: Mark Martin

text: On September 20, he won his 40th and final career victory in Cup competition by taking the Sylvania 300 at New Hampshire in the first race of the Chase. The win broke Martin's tie with Kyle Busch for the series wins lead and marked the third and final time in his career that he had won at least five times in a season (1993 and 1998). Martin extended his lead to 35 points over Jimmie Johnson and Denny Hamlin, who were tied for second in the standings.


title: Mark Martin

text: At the end of the 2009 AMP Energy 500 at Talladega, Martin was involved in a frightening crash in the last laps when he turned after contact with Martin Truex Jr. and Juan Pablo Montoya, and flipped over one and a half times. It was the second time Martin had ever been upside down in his racing career. Once righted, Martin managed to drive his car back to pit road. The wreck essentially ended his championship hopes according to experts.


title: Mark Martin

text: Entering the season finale at Homestead-Miami Speedway, Martin and Johnson were the only drivers still able to win the 2009 Sprint Cup championship. Martin finished 12th in the race, which was not enough to overcome Johnson's lead. Martin again finished second in the standings, for the fifth and final time in his career.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin ran well in the Bud Shootout, but was caught up in the "big one" during a green-white-checker finish and finished 21st. Martin started the Daytona 500 well, leading the majority of the first 30 laps, but after being stuck in the middle line of the racing pack, he dropped down as low as 33rd and had to pick his way through the rest of the day, eventually finishing 12th.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin ran well at California and Las Vegas, scoring back-to-back 4th-place finishes, and advancing as high as 3rd in the points standings, only 49 points out of the lead. However, he was less successful in his next three races. He got caught up in wrecks at both Atlanta and Bristol, finishing 33rd and 35th, respectively. At Martinsville, Martin was leading the field and running top-5 during most of the day, until a flat tire relegated him to 21st. During this stretch of bad luck, Martin fell from 3rd to 17th in the points standings, 214 points behind the leader.


title: Mark Martin

text: The next three races of the 2010 season saw Martin rally back. With a 4th-place finish at Phoenix, 6th-place finish at Texas, and a 5th-place finish at Talladega, Martin jumped from 17th in the points standings to 6th, 169 points behind the leader.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin's bad luck struck again in the following three races, as he struggled to get a handle on his race cars. A 25th-place finish at Richmond, 16th-place finish at Darlington, and 15th-place finish at Dover caused Martin to fall to 11th in the points standings, 293 points behind the leader.


title: Mark Martin

text: In the Sprint All-Star race, qualifying was rained out. The field was set in the order the drivers drew. Martin started 15th and finished the first 50-lap segment in 15th. He used a two-tire pit stop to gain position and finished the second 20-lap segment in 3rd. He held his position in the third 20-lap segment and finish third. Martin lost a spot during the mandatory 4-tire pit stop before the start of the final 10-lap shootout for the $1 million. However, as the field took the green, Martin was hit by another car and crashed, finishing 17th.


title: Mark Martin

text: A week later, Martin returned to Charlotte Motor Speedway for the Coca-Cola 600. Martin qualified 11th and struggled much of the race with handling issues. However, during a caution with 20 laps to go, most of the field pitted, and Martin opted to stay out. He restarted 2nd and finished the race in 4th.


title: Mark Martin

text: Mark Martin had a season best finish of second at the 2010 TUMS Fast Relief 500. Martin crashed with 275 laps to go, but managed to work his way up 15 spots with bent fenders and no rear end.


title: Mark Martin

text: In 2011, he began the season with an accident in the Budweiser Shootout. During the following race, he was involved in a multiple-car accident. In the Subway Fresh Fit 500, he managed to finish in the 13th position. One week later, Martin participated in the Nationwide Series Sam's Town 300 at Las Vegas Motor Speedway, where he was able to win his 49th race in the series. He finished the Sprint Cup season 22nd in points. Martin parted ways with Hendrick Motorsports at the end of the 2011 season, with Kasey Kahne taking over the No. 5 Chevrolet.


title: Mark Martin

text: On November 4, 2011, Michael Waltrip Racing announced that Martin would replace David Reutimann in 2012, signing him to a two-year deal to drive the No. 55. He was signed to drive 25 races in both 2012 and 2013, sharing the car with Michael Waltrip and Brian Vickers. Martin finished the year with 4 top 5s and 10 top 10s. He led the most laps after winning the pole at the 2012 Pure Michigan 400, but was involved in a bizarre accident around lap 64. Martin was about to lap Bobby Labonte and Juan Pablo Montoya when Labonte's car got loose, collecting Martin and Kasey Kahne. Martin's car skidded down pit road and the car was penetrated on the opening in the pit wall right behind the driver's compartment, breaching the car's oil tank, and sending Kahne's pit crew scrambling for cover.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin's 2013 season started with a third-place finish in the Daytona 500. He backed up his strong Daytona finish by winning the pole for the Subway Fresh Fit 500 at Phoenix International Raceway, becoming the second-oldest driver to win a pole in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. He finished 21st at Phoenix, followed by a 14th-place finish at Las Vegas. Martin skipped Bristol, where Brian Vickers drove the car. When Martin returned at Fontana, he finished 37th after spinning on the back straightaway late race, collecting David Gilliland. Martin did not drive the no. 55 at the STP Gas Booster 500 because he drove for Joe Gibbs Racing's no. 11. Martin returned to the no. 55 at the NRA 500. Following two top 15 finishes in his original car in the next two races, Martin qualified 10th at Richmond, but finished 38th after an accident on lap 348. At the Coca-Cola 600, on lap 324, Martin was involved in a crash with Jeff Gordon and Aric Almirola, which brought out the red flag.


title: Mark Martin

text: In early August, it was announced that Brian Vickers would drive the No. 55 full-time starting in 2014; thus, Martin's future status with MWR was left uncertain.


title: Mark Martin

text: A few days after the Auto Club 400 Joe Gibbs hired Martin to drive Denny Hamlin's No. 11 FedEx Toyota at Martinsville after Hamlin suffered a compression fracture of a vertebra in his lower back after being involved in a crash with Joey Logano on the last lap of the Fontana race. In his one appearance in the No. 11, Martin was involved in a melee on lap 180, taking damage, and later had a miscue on a pit stop that caused him to be penalized a lap, but he managed to finish 10th.


title: Mark Martin

text: After the 2013 Pure Michigan 400 at Michigan International Speedway, which Martin nearly won before running out of fuel with three laps remaining, it was announced that Martin would be given an early release from MWR, and would be joining Stewart-Haas Racing to drive the No. 14 Chevrolet beginning with the 2013 Irwin Tools Night Race at Bristol Motor Speedway, driving in all but one race for the remainder of the season as a substitute driver for the injured Tony Stewart; Austin Dillon would drive the No. 14 at Talladega Superspeedway.


title: Mark Martin

text: On November 8, 2013, Martin announced that he would not race in 2014, but was not yet ready to use the word "retirement". Martin worked with Stewart-Haas Racing in a consultant role (including testing).


title: Mark Martin

text: Tony Stewart underwent multiple surgeries following the broken leg from the sprint car crash, and Martin remained in the No. 14 Chevrolet for all off-season testing activities. If Stewart had not been cleared by NASCAR to start the 2014 season, Martin was expected to race the No. 14 during such time, including the Sprint Unlimited. However, Stewart was able to recover in time to start the season.


title: Mark Martin

text: On February 6, 2015, Martin tweeted, in response to a fan's question, that he was no longer a driver coach at Roush. Martin has now retired from racing himself but does work with a dirt racing team in the Lucas Oil Late Model Dirt Series, where his Mark Martin Automotive group co-sponsors driver Jared Landers.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin owns a family of automobile dealerships in Arkansas under the umbrella of Mark Martin Automotive, based in Batesville, Arkansas, with dealerships selling Ford, Kia, Chevrolet, GMC, and Buick vehicles. He also owns Mark Martin Powersports in Batesville, Arkansas, selling boats, motorcycles, ATVs, and UTVs, by manufacturers like AlumaCraft, Mercury Outboards, Tohatsu, Excel, Honda, Kawasaki, and Yamaha.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin resided in Jamestown, North Carolina, followed by a move to Daytona Beach, Florida, with his wife Arlene throughout his racing career. He has five children (four of whom are from his wife's first marriage). His son Matt raced for a time in lower series but quit after 2008. Martin's father, stepmother and half-sister died in a plane crash on August 8, 1998 in Nevada near Great Basin National Park. He won at Bristol two weeks after the incident and fought back tears as he dedicated the win to his family. He also currently owns five car dealerships in Arkansas, representing the Hyundai Motor Group (Kia in Batesville), General Motors (Chevrolet in Melbourne and a Chevrolet, Buick, and GMC dealership in Ash Flat), Ford Motor Company (Batesville), and Fiat Automobili S.p.A. (Melbourne).


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin was regarded as one of the first drivers in the US to adopt a personal fitness and nutrition regimen, which he credited for allowing him to race at a high level into his 50s. He was well known around the NASCAR paddock for sometimes lifting thousands of pounds every day except race days. During the 1990s he co-authored a book entitled "Strength Training for Performance Driving", outlining workouts useful for adapting to the rigors of auto racing.


title: Mark Martin

text: Martin and his wife, Arlene, currently reside in his hometown of Batesville, Arkansas and visits the local state park of Petit Jean Mountain frequently in Morrilton.


title: Mark Martin

text: Mark spends most of his time now on the road touring the country in his RV. He is a fan of rap music, citing rapper Gucci Mane as his favorite; Martin recounts what got him into rap music was at a test at Charlotte where crew chief Ben Leslie was playing Dr. Dre in the transporter. He is an avid watcher of Anime, specifically Mobile Suit Gundam.


title: Flare

text: A flare, also sometimes called a fusée, fusee, or bengala in some Latin-speaking countries, is a type of pyrotechnic that produces a bright light or intense heat without an explosion. Flares are used for distress signaling, illumination, or defensive countermeasures in civilian and military applications. Flares may be ground pyrotechnics, projectile pyrotechnics, or parachute-suspended to provide maximum illumination time over a large area. Projectile pyrotechnics may be dropped from aircraft, fired from rocket or artillery, or deployed by flare guns or handheld percussive tubes.


title: Flare

text: The earliest recorded use of gunpowder for signaling purposes was the 'signal bomb' used by the Chinese Song Dynasty (960–1279) as the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) besieged Yangzhou in 1276. These soft-shelled bombs, timed to explode in midair, were used to send messages to a detachment of troops far in the distance. Another mention of the signal bomb appears in a text dating from 1293 requesting their collection from those still stored in Zhejiang. A signal gun appears in Korea by 1600. The "Wu I Thu Phu Thung Chih" or "Illustrated Military Encyclopedia", written in 1791, depicts a signal gun in an illustration.


title: Flare

text: In the civilian world, flares are commonly used as signals, and may be ignited on the ground, fired as an aerial signal from a pistol-like flare gun, or launched from a self-contained tube. Flares are commonly found in marine survival kits.


title: Flare

text: Red flares, either sent as a rocket or held in the hand, are widely recognized as a maritime distress signal.


title: Flare

text: The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) has standards for visual signals, including both handheld and aerial flares. Handheld flares must burn for at least one minute at an average luminosity of 15,000 candelas, while aerial flares must burn for at least 40 seconds with a 30,000-candela average luminosity. Both should burn in a bright red color. Nations that are members of SOLAS require vessels to carry visual signals on board.


title: Flare

text: Another type of flare is the "fusee", which burns for 5–60 minutes with a bright red light. Fusees are commonly used to indicate obstacles or advise caution on roadways at night; in this usage they are also called "highway flares", "road flares", or "ground flares". They are commonly found in roadside emergency kits.


title: Flare

text: Fusees are also known as "railroad flares" and are commonly used to perform hand signals in rail transport applications. Since they can be used only once, fusees nowadays are usually intended for emergency use (as opposed to the lanterns typically used during normal operating conditions). However, in the days before train radio communications, fusees were used to keep trains apart in dark territory. A railroad fusee was timed to burn for 10 minutes, and quantities were dropped behind a train to ensure a safe spacing. If a following train encountered a burning fusee, it was not to pass until the fusee burned out. Fusees made specifically for railroad use can be distinguished from highway fusees by a sharp steel spike at one end, used to embed the fusee upright in a wooden railroad tie.


title: Flare

text: In forestry and firefighting, fusees are sometimes used in wildfire suppression and in the ignition of controlled burns. They ignite at and burn as hot as . They are especially effective in igniting burnouts or backburns in very dry conditions, but not so effective when fuel conditions are moist. Since controlled burns are often done during relatively high humidity levels (on the grounds that they could not be safely contained during periods of very low humidity), the driptorch is more effective and more often used. Fusees are also commonly carried by wildland firefighters for emergency use, to ignite an escape fire in surrounding fuels in case of being overrun by a fire if no other escape routes are available.


title: Flare

text: Calcium phosphide is often used in naval flares, as in contact with water it liberates phosphine which self ignites in contact with air; it is often used together with calcium carbide which releases acetylene.


title: Flare

text: Law enforcement also may use flares (either propped on a biped or laid flat) to signal traffic hazards or that a road is blocked, often as a more visible replacement for traffic cones. Law enforcement in the United States usually use magnesium-based flares that last from 15–30 minutes.


title: Flare

text: In 1859, Martha Coston patented the Coston flare based on early work by her deceased husband Benjamin Franklin Coston. It was used extensively by the US Navy during the Civil War and by the United States Life-Saving Service (the precursor to the US Coast Guard) to signal to other ships and to shore.


title: Flare

text: In 1922, a "landing flare" was an aerial candle attached to a parachute and used for landing an airplane in the dark. The flare burned for less than four minutes and the candlepower was about 40,000 lumens.


title: Flare

text: A special variety of flares is used in military aircraft as a defensive countermeasure against heat-seeking missiles. These flares are usually discharged individually or in salvos by the pilot or automatically by tail-warning devices, and are accompanied by vigorous evasive maneuvering. Since they are intended to deceive infrared missiles, these flares burn at temperatures of thousands of degrees, incandescing in the visible spectrum as well.


title: Flare

text: Flares connected to tripwires are used to guard an area against infiltration. The flare begins burning when the tripwire is triggered, providing both alarm and illumination.


title: Flare

text: Several U.S. states, including California and Massachusetts, have begun regulating levels of potassium perchlorate, which can be unsafe at certain levels in drinking water. Contaminated drinking water can lead to such symptoms as gastric irritation, nausea, vomiting, fever, skin rashes, and even fatal aplastic anemia (a reduction in all types of blood cells).


title: Flare

text: Flares produce their light through the combustion of a pyrotechnic composition. The ingredients are varied, but often based on strontium nitrate, potassium nitrate, or potassium perchlorate and mixed with a fuel such as charcoal, sulfur, sawdust, aluminium, magnesium, or a suitable polymeric resin. Flares may be colored by the inclusion of pyrotechnic colorants. Calcium flares are used underwater to illuminate submerged objects.


title: Flare

text: Many in-service colored signal flares and spectrally balanced decoy flares contain perchlorate oxidizers. Perchlorate, a type of salt in its solid form, dissolves and moves rapidly in groundwater and surface water. Even in low concentrations in drinking water supplies, perchlorate is known to inhibit the uptake of iodine by the thyroid gland. While there are currently no US federal drinking water standards for perchlorate, some states have established public health goals or action levels, and some are in the process of establishing state maximum contaminant levels. For example, the US Environmental Protection Agency has studied the impacts of perchlorate on the environment as well as drinking water. California has also issued guidance regarding perchlorate use.


title: Flare

text: US courts have taken action regarding the use of perchlorate in manufacturing pyrotechnic devices such as flares. For example, in 2003, a federal district court in California found that the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) applied because perchlorate is ignitable and therefore a “characteristic” hazardous waste.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Cultural imperialism (sometimes referred to as cultural colonialism) comprises the cultural dimensions of imperialism. The word "imperialism" often describes practices in which a social entity engages culture (including language, traditions, rituals, political and economic structures, and ways of life) to create and maintain unequal relationships between social groups. Cultural Imperialism often uses violence as a method of implementation, and the system is often part of the legitimization process of conquest.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Cultural imperialism may take various forms, such as an attitude, a formal policy, or military action - insofar as each of these reinforces cultural hegemony. Research on the topic occurs scholarly disciplines, and is especially prevalent in communication and media studies, education, foreign policy, history, international relations, linguistics, literature, post-colonialism, science, sociology, social theory, environmentalism, and sports.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Although the "Oxford English Dictionary" has a 1921 reference to the "cultural imperialism of the Russians", John Tomlinson, in his book on the subject, writes that the term emerged in the 1960s and has been a focus of research since at least the 1970s. Terms such as "media imperialism", "structural imperialism", "cultural dependency and domination", "cultural synchronization", "electronic colonialism", "ideological imperialism", and "economic imperialism" have all been used to describe the same basic notion of cultural imperialism.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: The term refers largely to the exercise of power in a cultural relationship in which the principles, ideas, practices, and values of a powerful, invading society are imposed upon indigenous cultures in the occupied areas. The process is often used to describe examples of when the compulsory practices of the cultural traditions of the imperial social group are implemented upon a conquered social group.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Cultural imperialism has been called a process that intends to transition the “cultural symbols of the invading communities from ‘foreign’ to ‘natural,’‘domestic,’” comments Jeffrey Herlihy-Mera. The process of Cultural Conquest often involves three discrete and sequential phases:


title: Cultural imperialism

text: While the third phase continues "in perpetuity," cultural imperialism tends to be “gradual, contested (and continues to be contested), and is by nature incomplete. The partial and imperfect configuration of this ontology takes an implicit conceptualization of reality and attempts—and often fails—to elide other forms of collective existence.” In order to achieve that end, cultural engineering projects strive to “isolate residents within constructed spheres of symbols” such that they (eventually, in some cases after several generations) abandon other cultures and identify with the new symbols. “The broader intended outcome of these interventions might be described as a common recognition of "possession" of the land itself (on behalf of the organizations publishing and financing the images).”


title: Cultural imperialism

text: For Herbert Schiller, cultural imperialism refers to the American Empire's "coercive and persuasive agencies, and their capacity to promote and universalize an American ‘way of life’ in other countries without any reciprocation of influence." According to Schiller, cultural imperialism “pressured, forced and bribed” societies to integrate with the U.S.’s expansive capitalist model but also incorporated them with attraction and persuasion by winning “the mutual consent, even solicitation of the indigenous rulers.” He continues remarks that it is:the sum processes by which a society is brought into the modern [U.S.-centered] world system and how its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating centres of the system. The public media are the foremost example of operating enterprises that are used in the penetrative process. For penetration on a significant scale the media themselves must be captured by the dominating/penetrating power. This occurs largely through the commercialization of broadcasting.The historical contexts, iterations, complexities, and politics of Schiller's foundational and substantive theorization of cultural imperialism in international communication and media studies are discussed in detail by political economy of communication researchers Richard Maxwell, Vincent Mosco, Graham Murdock, and Tanner Mirrlees.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Downing and Sreberny-Mohammadi state: "Cultural imperialism signifies the dimensions of the process that go beyond economic exploitation or military force. In the history of colonialism, (i.e., the form of imperialism in which the government of the colony is run directly by foreigners), the educational and media systems of many Third World countries have been set up as replicas of those in Britain, France, or the United States and carry their values. Western advertising has made further inroads, as have architectural and fashion styles. Subtly but powerfully, the message has often been insinuated that Western cultures are superior to the cultures of the Third World."


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Within the realm of poststructuralist and postcolonial theory, "cultural imperialism" can be seen as the cultural legacy of Western colonialism, or forms of social action contributing to the continuation of Western hegemony. To some outside of the realm of this discourse, the term is critiqued as being unclear, unfocused, and/or contradictory in nature.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: The work of French philosopher and social theorist Michel Foucault has heavily influenced use of the term "cultural imperialism," particularly his philosophical interpretation of power and his concept of governmentality. Following an interpretation of power similar to that of Machiavelli, Foucault defines power as immaterial, as a "certain type of relation between individuals" that has to do with complex strategic social positions that relate to the subject's ability to control its environment and influence those around itself. According to Foucault, power is intimately tied with his conception of truth. "Truth", as he defines it, is a "system of ordered procedures for the production, regulation, distribution, circulation, and operation of statements" which has a "circular relation" with systems of power. Therefore, inherent in systems of power, is always "truth", which is culturally specific, inseparable from ideology which often coincides with various forms of hegemony. "Cultural imperialism" may be an example of this.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Foucault's interpretation of governance is also very important in constructing theories of transnational power structure. In his lectures at the Collège de France, Foucault often defines governmentality as the broad art of "governing", which goes beyond the traditional conception of governance in terms of state mandates, and into other realms such as governing "a household, souls, children, a province, a convent, a religious order, a family". This relates directly back to Machiavelli's treatise on how to retain political power at any cost, "The Prince", and Foucault's aforementioned conceptions of truth and power. (i.e. various subjectivities are created through power relations that are culturally specific, which lead to various forms of culturally specific governmentality such as neoliberal governmentality.)


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Edward Saïd is a founding figure of postcolonialism, established with the book "Orientalism" (1978), a humanist critique of The Enlightenment, which criticises Western knowledge of "The East"—specifically the English and the French constructions of what is and what is not "Oriental". Whereby said "knowledge" then led to cultural tendencies towards a binary opposition of the Orient vs. the Occident, wherein one concept is defined in opposition to the other concept, and from which they emerge as of unequal value. In "Culture and Imperialism" (1993), the sequel to "Orientalism", Saïd proposes that, despite the formal end of the "age of empire" after the Second World War (1939–45), colonial imperialism left a cultural legacy to the (previously) colonised peoples, which remains in their contemporary civilisations; and that said American "cultural imperialism" is very influential in the international systems of power.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: In "Can the Subaltern Speak?" Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak critiques common representations in the West of the Sati, as being controlled by authors other than the participants (specifically English colonizers and Hindu leaders). Because of this, Spivak argues that the subaltern, referring to the communities that participate in the Sati, are not able to represent themselves through their own voice. Spivak says that cultural imperialism has the power to disqualify or erase the knowledge and mode of education of certain populations that are low on the social hierarchy.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: In "A Critique of Postcolonial Reason", Spivak argues that Western philosophy has a history of not only exclusion of the subaltern from discourse, but also does not allow them to occupy the space of a fully human subject.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: "Cultural imperialism" can refer to either the forced acculturation of a subject population, or to the voluntary embracing of a foreign culture by individuals who do so of their own free will. Since these are two very different referents, the validity of the term has been called into question.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Cultural influence can be seen by the "receiving" culture as either a threat to or an enrichment of its cultural identity. It seems therefore useful to distinguish between cultural imperialism as an (active or passive) attitude of superiority, and the position of a culture or group that seeks to complement its own cultural production, considered partly deficient, with imported products.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: The imported products or services can themselves represent, or be associated with, certain values (such as consumerism). According to one argument, the "receiving" culture does not necessarily perceive this link, but instead absorbs the foreign culture passively through the use of the foreign goods and services. Due to its somewhat concealed, but very potent nature, this hypothetical idea is described by some experts as ""banal imperialism"." For example, it is argued that while "American companies are accused of wanting to control 95 percent of the world's consumers", "cultural imperialism involves much more than simple consumer goods; it involved the dissemination of American principles such as freedom and democracy", a process which "may sound appealing" but which "masks a frightening truth: many cultures around the world are disappearing due to the overwhelming influence of corporate and cultural America".


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Some believe that the newly globalised economy of the late 20th and early 21st century has facilitated this process through the use of new information technology. This kind of cultural imperialism is derived from what is called "soft power". The theory of electronic colonialism extends the issue to global cultural issues and the impact of major multi-media conglomerates, ranging from Paramount, WarnerMedia, AT&T, Disney, News Corp, to Google and Microsoft with the focus on the hegemonic power of these mainly United States-based communication giants.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: One of the reasons often given for opposing any form of cultural imperialism, voluntary or otherwise, is the preservation of cultural diversity, a goal seen by some as analogous to the preservation of ecological diversity. Proponents of this idea argue either that such diversity is valuable in itself, to preserve human historical heritage and knowledge, or instrumentally valuable because it makes available more ways of solving problems and responding to catastrophes, natural or otherwise.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Of all the areas of the world that scholars have claimed to be adversely affected by imperialism, Africa is probably the most notable. In the expansive "age of imperialism" of the nineteenth century, scholars have argued that European colonisation in Africa has led to the elimination of many various cultures, worldviews, and epistemologies, particularly through neocolonisation of public education. This, arguably has led to uneven development, and further informal forms of social control having to do with culture and imperialism. A variety of factors, scholars argue, lead to the elimination of cultures, worldviews, and epistemologies, such as "de-linguicization" (replacing native African languages with European ones), devaluing ontologies that are not explicitly individualistic, and at times going as far as to not only define Western culture itself as science, but that non-Western approaches to science, the Arts, indigenous culture, etc. are not even knowledge. One scholar, Ali A. Abdi, claims that imperialism inherently "involve[s] extensively interactive regimes and heavy contexts of identity deformation, misrecognition, loss of self-esteem, and individual and social doubt in self-efficacy." Therefore, all imperialism would always, already be cultural.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Neoliberalism is often critiqued by sociologists, anthropologists, and cultural studies scholars as being culturally imperialistic. Critics of neoliberalism, at times, claim that it is the newly predominant form of imperialism. Other scholars, such as Elizabeth Dunn and Julia Elyachar have claimed that neoliberalism requires and creates its own form of governmentality.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: In Dunn's work, "Privatizing Poland", she argues that the expansion of the multinational corporation, Gerber, into Poland in the 1990s imposed Western, neoliberal governmentality, ideologies, and epistemologies upon the post-soviet persons hired. Cultural conflicts occurred most notably the company's inherent individualistic policies, such as promoting competition among workers rather than cooperation, and in its strong opposition to what the company owners claimed was bribery.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: In Elyachar's work, "Markets of Dispossession", she focuses on ways in which, in Cairo, NGOs along with INGOs and the state promoted neoliberal governmentality through schemas of economic development that relied upon "youth microentrepreneurs." Youth microentrepreneurs would receive small loans to build their own businesses, similar to the way that microfinance supposedly operates. Elyachar argues though, that these programs not only were a failure, but that they shifted cultural opinions of value (personal and cultural) in a way that favoured Western ways of thinking and being.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Often, methods of promoting development and social justice are critiqued as being imperialistic in a cultural sense. For example, Chandra Mohanty has critiqued Western feminism, claiming that it has created a misrepresentation of the "third world woman" as being completely powerless, unable to resist male dominance. Thus, this leads to the often critiqued narrative of the "white man" saving the "brown woman" from the "brown man." Other, more radical critiques of development studies, have to do with the field of study itself. Some scholars even question the intentions of those developing the field of study, claiming that efforts to "develop" the Global South were never about the South itself. Instead, these efforts, it is argued, were made in order to advance Western development and reinforce Western hegemony.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: The core of cultural imperialism thesis is integrated with the political-economy traditional approach in media effects research. Critics of cultural imperialism commonly claim that non-Western cultures, particularly from the Third World, will forsake their traditional values and lose their cultural identities when they are solely exposed to Western media. Nonetheless, Michael B. Salwen, in his book "Critical Studies in Mass Communication" (1991), claims that cross-consideration and integration of empirical findings on cultural imperialist influences is very critical in terms of understanding mass media in the international sphere. He recognises both of contradictory contexts on cultural imperialist impacts.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: The first context is where cultural imperialism imposes socio-political disruptions on developing nations. Western media can distort images of foreign cultures and provoke personal and social conflicts to developing nations in some cases.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Another context is that peoples in developing nations resist to foreign media and preserve their cultural attitudes. Although he admits that outward manifestations of Western culture may be adopted, but the fundamental values and behaviours remain still. Furthermore, positive effects might occur when male-dominated cultures adopt the "liberation" of women with exposure to Western media and it stimulates ample exchange of cultural exchange.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Critics of scholars who discuss cultural imperialism have a number of critiques. "Cultural imperialism" is a term that is only used in discussions where cultural relativism and constructivism are generally taken as true. (One cannot critique promoting Western values if one believes that said values are absolutely correct. Similarly, one cannot argue that Western epistemology is unjustly promoted in non-Western societies if one believes that those epistemologies are absolutely correct.) Therefore, those who disagree with cultural relativism and/or constructivism may critique the employment of the term, "cultural imperialism" on those terms.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: John Tomlinson provides a critique of cultural imperialism theory and reveals major problems in the way in which the idea of cultural, as opposed to economic or political, imperialism is formulated. In his book "Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction", he delves into the much debated "media imperialism" theory. Summarizing research on the Third World's reception of American television shows, he challenges the cultural imperialism argument, conveying his doubts about the degree to which US shows in developing nations actually carry US values and improve the profits of US companies. Tomlinson suggests that cultural imperialism is growing in some respects, but local transformation and interpretations of imported media products propose that cultural diversification is not at an end in global society. He explains that one of the fundamental conceptual mistakes of cultural imperialism is to take for granted that the distribution of cultural goods can be considered as cultural dominance. He thus supports his argument highly criticising the concept that Americanization is occurring through global overflow of American television products. He points to a myriad of examples of television networks who have managed to dominate their domestic markets and that domestic programs generally top the ratings. He also doubts the concept that cultural agents are passive receivers of information. He states that movement between cultural/geographical areas always involves translation, mutation, adaptation, and the creation of hybridity.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Other key critiques are that the term is not defined well, and employs further terms that are not defined well, and therefore lacks explanatory power, that "cultural imperialism" is hard to measure, and that the theory of a legacy of colonialism is not always true.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: David Rothkopf, managing director of Kissinger Associates and an adjunct professor of international affairs at Columbia University (who also served as a senior U.S. Commerce Department official in the Clinton Administration), wrote about cultural imperialism in his provocatively titled "In Praise of Cultural Imperialism?" in the summer 1997 issue of "Foreign Policy" magazine. Rothkopf says that the United States should embrace "cultural imperialism" as in its self-interest. But his definition of cultural imperialism stresses spreading the values of tolerance and openness to cultural change in order to avoid war and conflict between cultures as well as expanding accepted technological and legal standards to provide free traders with enough security to do business with more countries. Rothkopf's definition almost exclusively involves allowing individuals in other nations to accept or reject foreign cultural influences. He also mentions, but only in passing, the use of the English language and consumption of news and popular music and film as cultural dominance that he supports. Rothkopf additionally makes the point that globalisation and the Internet are accelerating the process of cultural influence.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Culture is sometimes used by the organisers of society—politicians, theologians, academics, and families—to impose and ensure order, the rudiments of which change over time as need dictates. One need only look at the 20th century's genocides. In each one, leaders used culture as a political front to fuel the passions of their armies and other minions and to justify their actions among their people.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Rothkopf then cites genocide and s in Armenia, Russia, the Holocaust, Cambodia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Rwanda and East Timor as examples of culture (in some cases expressed in the ideology of "political culture" or religion) being misused to justify violence. He also acknowledges that cultural imperialism in the past has been guilty of forcefully eliminating the cultures of natives in the Americas and in Africa, or through use of the Inquisition, ""and during the expansion of virtually every empire."".The most important way to deal with cultural influence in any nation, according to Rothkopf, is to promote tolerance and allow, or even promote, cultural diversities that are compatible with tolerance and to eliminate those cultural differences that cause violent conflict:


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Cultural dominance can also be seen in the 1930s in Australia where the Aboriginal Assimilation Policy acted as an attempt to wipe out the Native Australian people. The British settlers tried to biologically alter the skin colour of the Australian Aboriginal people through mixed breeding with white people. The policy also made attempts to forcefully conform the Aborigines to western ideas of dress and education.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Although the term was popularised in the 1960s, and was used by its original proponents to refer to cultural hegemonies in a post-colonial world, cultural imperialism has also been used to refer to times further in the past.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: The Ancient Greeks are known for spreading their culture around the Mediterranean and Near East through trade and conquest. During the Archaic Period, the burgeoning Greek city-states established settlements and colonies across the Mediterranean Sea, especially in Sicily and southern Italy, influencing the Etruscan and Roman peoples of the region. In the late fourth century BC, Alexander the Great conquered Persian and Indian territories all the way to the Indus River Valley and Punjab, spreading Greek pagan religion, art, and science along the way. This resulted in the rise of Hellenistic kingdoms and cities across Egypt, the Near East, Central Asia, and Northwest India where Greek culture fused with the cultures of the indigenous peoples. The Greek influence prevailed even longer in science and literature, where medieval Muslim scholars in the Middle East studied the writings of Aristotle for scientific learning.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Early Rome, in its conquest of Italy, assimilated the people of Etruria by replacing the Etruscan language with Latin, which led to the demise of that language and many aspects of Etruscan civilisation.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: Cultural Romanization was imposed on many parts of Rome's empire by "many regions receiving Roman culture unwillingly, as a form of cultural imperialism." For example, when Greece was conquered by the Roman armies, Rome set about altering the culture of Greece to conform with Roman ideals. For instance, the Greek habit of stripping naked, in public, for exercise, was looked on askance by Roman writers, who considered the practice to be a cause of the Greeks' effeminacy and enslavement. The Roman example has been linked to modern instances of European imperialism in African countries, bridging the two instances with Slavoj Zizek's discussions of 'empty signifiers'.


title: Cultural imperialism

text: The Pax Romana was secured in the empire, in part, by the "forced acculturation of the culturally diverse populations that Rome had conquered."


title: Cultural imperialism

text: British worldwide expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries was an economic and political phenomenon. However, "there was also a strong social and cultural dimension to it, which Rudyard Kipling termed the 'white man's burden'." One of the ways this was carried out was by religious proselytising, by, amongst others, the London Missionary Society, which was "an agent of British cultural imperialism." Another way, was by the imposition of educational material on the colonies for an "imperial curriculum". Robin A. Butlin writes, "The promotion of empire through books, illustrative materials, and educational syllabuses was widespread, part of an education policy geared to cultural imperialism". This was also true of science and technology in the empire. Douglas M. Peers and Nandini Gooptu note that "Most scholars of colonial science in India now prefer to stress the ways in which science and technology worked in the service of colonialism, as both a 'tool of empire' in the practical sense and as a vehicle for cultural imperialism. In other words, science developed in India in ways that reflected colonial priorities, tending to benefit Europeans at the expense of Indians, while remaining dependent on and subservient to scientific authorities in the colonial metropolis."