title: Lake Bonneville

text: In his monograph on Lake Bonneville, G.K. Gilbert called the offshore deposits of Lake Bonneville the “White Marl.” Although the name “White Marl” has not been used by the geologic community in a formal sense, the informal term “white marl” (or “Bonneville marl”) is frequently employed. The Bonneville marl at locations far from sources of clastic sediment (gravel, sand, and silt), such as river deltas or active wave zones, is dominated by clay-sized particles of calcium carbonate that precipitated chemically from the lake water. Most of this calcium carbonate is in the form of the mineral calcite, but aragonite is common in Bonneville marl in the Sevier basin and in the lower part of the Bonneville marl stratigraphic section in the main body. Aragonite is the dominant carbonate mineral in sediments of post-Bonneville Great Salt Lake. Dropstones, probably mostly derived from shore ice, but possibly also from floating root balls, are common in the marl, and consist of granule- to boulder-sized clasts.


title: Lake Bonneville

text: The Bonneville flood had catastrophic effects along the Snake River in what is now Idaho, but the influence of the flood can also be detected within the lake basin where a distinctive layer of sediment was deposited. The Bonneville flood bed can be identified in many surface exposures below the Provo shoreline and in sediment cores. The flood bed is characterized by an abrupt contact at its base between massive marl, which was deposited in the deepest water of Lake Bonneville, and finely laminated or ripple-laminated sandy marl, which was deposited by bottom currents during the flood. In places the Bonneville flood bed is composed of reworked ostracode shells. The contact at the top of the flood bed is transitional to massive marl that was deposited in the lake floor during Provo time. The flood bed is best developed and most obvious in straits between partially submerged mountain ranges or in places where bottom currents were strong as lake water flowed toward its outlet at Red Rock Pass. Because the Bonneville flood bed was deposited in less than a year, it is useful as a well-dated (~18,000 years ago) stratigraphic marker within the Bonneville deposits.


title: Lake Bonneville

text: Previous publications, regarded the “Gilbert shoreline” as one of the prominent shorelines in the Bonneville basin, but this interpretation has been revised. The “Gilbert shoreline” consists of a line on a map that connects lacustrine shoreline features, such as barrier beaches, but there is no evidence that all the barriers formed at the same time. It is now clear that some of those barrier beaches are transgressive-phase Bonneville in age and some are regressive-phase Bonneville in age. The Gilbert episode was a rise of Great Salt Lake about higher than modern average levels, which culminated 11,600 years ago. But a mappable shoreline of the Gilbert episode has not been recognized.


title: Lake Bonneville

text: The shorelines of Lake Bonneville have been warped by isostatic processes, as was recognized by Gilbert and extensively studied since Gilbert's day. Earth's crust subsided beneath the weight of the water while the lake existed, but when the lake evaporated and the water load was considerably reduced, the crust beneath the lake basin rebounded. As a result, the elevation of the Bonneville shoreline is higher in the Lakeside Mountains, elevation , west of the Great Salt Lake near the center of the Lake Bonneville water load, than at Red Rock Pass, , where the lake was very shallow. As an example of isostatic deformation of the shorelines, the elevation of the Bonneville shoreline near Salt Lake City is , but on Antelope Island in the Great Salt Lake, the elevation of the same shoreline is .


title: Lake Bonneville

text: In addition to the abundant geological features produced by Lake Bonneville, such as shorelines and sediments, fossilized fish bones and scales reveal information about the physical and chemical characteristics of the paleolake. Pollen from plants that lived in the Bonneville basin is abundant in Bonneville marl. Invertebrate fossils in Lake Bonneville deposits include mollusks and ostracodes, and bones of extinct mammals are found in Pleistocene deposits in the Bonneville basin. Volcanic ashes in sediments of Lake Bonneville help with correlations and aid in deciphering lake history. Lake Bonneville shorelines, and those of other paleolakes on Earth, are good analogs for shorelines on other planets, such as Mars.


title: Lake Bonneville

text: Lake Bonneville rose to its high stand during the final 20,000 years of the Pleistocene epoch, corresponding with the glacial maximum of the Laurentide and Cordillera Ice Sheets. This colder and wetter period in conjunction with lake-effect snows from the expanding Lake Bonneville resulted in glaciers in the Wasatch. At its maximum the glacier in Little Cottonwood canyon extended to the mouth of the canyon and was calving ice bergs into the lake.


title: Lake Bonneville

text: Lake Bonneville shoreline and strata evidence suggests that the lake experienced several dramatic short-term level oscillations during its life. A long-standing and well-accepted theory attributes these level fluctuations to climate oscillations.


title: Lake Bonneville

text: The Wasatch Fault runs along the eastern edge of the Lake Bonneville basin and was submerged when the lake was at its high stand (see figure). The fault naturally divides into segments and since the time of Lake Bonneville these segments have appeared to have slipped (failed) independently (e.g. an earthquake in the Salt Lake valley has not tended to occur at the same time as one in Weber or in Provo).


title: Lake Bonneville

text: A 2020 paper presented at the Geological Society of America Annual Meeting reported evidence of massive earthquake-induced surging in Lake Bonneville at the time of the Bonneville Flood. The proposal in that presentation was that a multi-segment failure on the Wasatch Fault resulted in lake surging within the Bonneville Basin and, as that surge moved up into the Cache Valley towards Red Rock Pass and the Zenda Threshold, the topography concentrated the energy into a wall of water which overtopped and broke the natural dam resulting in the Bonneville Flood.


title: Lake Bonneville

text: In 2021 additional evidence was presented in support of that theory. In that same body of work, arguments were presented that the Lake Bonneville level oscillations previously attributed to climate episodes were instead due to multi-segment earthquake events on the Wasatch Fault which resulted in surging in the lake. The known and suspected earthquake-induced lake level oscillations are: the Hansel Valley event, the Stansbury Oscillation, U1, U2, the Keg Mountain Oscillation, and the Provo Level Oscillation. (see figure).


title: Lake Bonneville

text: Shoreline evidence in the western deserts and a newly identified surge-debris boulder deposit in Little Cottonwood Canyon in the Wasatch Mountains (see photo) indicate that the lake surging at the eastern and western extremes was over 42 m (~140’) high for at least two of these events, including the one that corresponded with the Bonneville Flood.


title: Lake Bonneville

text: A more recent level fluctuation corresponding with the Gilbert shoreline was during the Younger Dryas and was a likely result of that climate event rather than earthquake-induced surging.


title: Lake Bonneville

text: In the 2021 study, a correlation was hypothesized between basalt ash eruptions which formed deposits in the lake sediments and the earthquakes which resulted in at least three of these lake surging events (Stansbury, Keg Mountain and Provo).


title: Lake Bonneville

text: The outstanding question from these new findings is: were the multi-segment earthquake events a product of crust depression (isostasy) due to the weight of Lake Bonneville, or is there a longer-term cycle of multi-segment events on the Wasatch Fault which might place the Wasatch front communities at a higher risk today?


title: Vedanta Resources

text: Vedanta Resources Limited is an Indian diversified mining company headquartered in London, United Kingdom. It is the largest mining and non-ferrous metals company in India and has mining operations in Australia and Zambia and oil and gas operations in three countries. Its main products are Zinc, Lead, Silver, Oil & Gas, Iron Ore, Steel, Aluminium and Power. It has also developed commercial power stations in India in Odisha (2,400 MW) and Punjab (1,980 MW).


title: Vedanta Resources

text: The company with 20,000 employees is primarily owned by the family of Anil Agarwal through "Volcan Investments", a holding vehicle with a 61.7% stake in the business. Vedanta limited (formerly Sesa Goa / Sterlite) is one of the many Indian subsidiaries of Vedanta resources and operates iron ore mines in Goa.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: Vedanta was listed on the London Stock Exchange and was a constituent of the FTSE 250 Index until chairman, Anil Agarwal's offer to take the company private went unconditional in September 2018.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: The company was founded in Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1976 by Anil Agarwal, as a scrap-metal dealership. In 1979, he acquired the Shamsher Sterling Corporation (subsequently renamed Sterlite Industries), a manufacturer of power and control cables.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: The company acquired a majority stake in Balco, the Indian state aluminium business, in 2001. It was first listed on the London Stock Exchange in 2003 when, as Vedanta Resources, it raised through an initial public offering.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: In 2006, Vedanta acquired Sterlite Gold, a gold mining business, and in 2007, Vedanta Resources bought a 51% stake in Sesa Goa, India's largest producer-exporter of iron ore, and the company became listed on NYSE with a ADS issue.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: In 2008, Vedanta bought certain of the assets of Asarco, a copper mining business, out of Chapter 11 for . and in 2010, it acquired Anglo-American's portfolio of Zinc assets in South Africa, Namibia and Ireland.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: In 2011, Vedanta acquired 58.5% controlling stake in Cairn India, the India's largest private sector Oil & Gas company and in 2013, Sterlite Industries and Sesa Goa announced a merger. The merger took place in August 2013 and the consolidated group was then called Sesa Sterlite Ltd (now Vedanta Limited). In June 2018, Vedanta acquired 90% stake in Electrosteel Steels, a steel producer.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: In September 2018, the company announced that Anil Agarwal would be taking Vedanta Resources private on 1 October 2018.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: Sterlite Industries (India): Sterlite is registered office headquartered in Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu, India. Sterlite has been a public listed company in India since 1988, and its equity shares are listed and traded on the NSE and the BSE, and are also listed and traded on the NYSE in the form of ADSs. Vedanta owns 53.9% of Sterlite and has management control of the company. Protest by Public of Tuticorin started for not following Environmental Clearance Issues. The Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB) accused the factory of releasing noxious gas in the air. It said sulphur-di-oxide levels had gone off the charts on the night of 23 March in the year 2013. It showed a reading of 2939.55 mg/cubic metre against the prescribed limit of 1250 mg/ cubic metre more people where affected by cancer and other breathing disorders but the Indian government did not take any action.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: Konkola Copper Mines: Vedanta owns 79.4% of KCM's share capital and have management control of the company. KCM's other shareholder is ZCCM Investment Holdings plc. The government of Zambia has a controlling stake in ZCCM Investment Holdings plc.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: Copper Mines of Tasmania: CMT is headquartered in Queenstown, Tasmania. Sterlite owns 100.0% of CMT and has management control of the company.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: Hindustan Zinc: HZL is headquartered in Udaipur in the state of Rajasthan. HZL's equity shares are listed and traded on the NSE and BSE. Sterlite owns 64.9% of the share capital in HZL and has management control. Sterlite has a call option to acquire the government of India's remaining ownership interest.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: Vedanta's iron ore mining operations in India are operated under the umbrella of Vedanta Limited, a company headquartered in Panaji, India. It has mining operations in Goa and Karnataka. Originally founded as Sesa Goa, a Portuguese company, Sesa Goa was purchased by Vedanta (then known as Sterlite industries) in the 1990s. As of 30 June 2018, the company is owned 50% by the promoters (under the names of 12 members of the Agarwal family) and 50% by the public. This includes ownership by and "Westglobe limited", "Twinstar holdings", Finsider international and mutual funds (ICICI Prudential), foreign portfolio investors (17%), LIC India (6%) and Citibank New York (4%).


title: Vedanta Resources

text: Sterlite Energy: Sterlite Energy is headquartered in Mumbai. Sterlite owns 100.0% of Sterlite Energy and has management control of the company.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: In 1992, Anil Agarwal created the Vedanta Foundation as the vehicle through which the group companies would carry out their philanthropic programs and activities. In the financial year 2013–14, the Vedanta group companies and the Vedanta foundation invested US$49.0 million in building hospitals, schools and infrastructure, conserving the environment and funding community programs that improve health, education and livelihood of over 4.1 million people. The initiatives were undertaken in partnership with the government and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Among his inspirations, Agarwal counts Andrew Carnegie and David Rockefeller who built public works with their fortunes, and Bill Gates. The activities funded by his philanthropy are focused on child welfare, women empowerment and education.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: Anil Agarwal was ranked second in Hurun India Philanthropy List 2014 for his personal donation of ₹1,796 crore (about US$36 million). He was ranked 25th in the Hurun India Rich List with a personal fortune of ₹12,316 crore.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: In 2015, the Vedanta group in partnership with Ministry for Women and Child development inaugurated the first "Nand Ghar" or modern anganwadi, of the 4,000 planned to set up. Agarwal has pledged to donate 75% of his family's wealth to charity, saying he was inspired by Bill Gates.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: Vedanta has been criticised by human rights and activist groups, including Survival International, Amnesty International and Niyamgiri Surakshya Samiti because of the company's operations in Niyamgiri hills in Odisha, India that are said to threaten the lives of the Dongria Kondh people who populate this region. The Niyamgiri hills are also claimed to be an important wildlife habitat in Eastern Ghats of India as per a report by the Wildlife Institute of India as well as independent reports/studies carried out by civil society groups. In January 2009, thousands of locals formed a human chain around the hill in protest at the plans to start bauxite mining in the area. The Union Environment Ministry in August 2010 rejected earlier clearances granted to a joint venture led by the Vedanta Group company Sterlite Industries for mining bauxite from Niyamgiri hills.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: Vedanta's Alumina Refinery in Lanjigarh was criticised by the Orissa State Pollution Control Board (the statutory environmental regulation body) for air pollution and water pollution in the area. According to Amnesty International, local people reported dust, allegedly from the plant, settling on clothes, crops and food. Vedanta officials claimed there was no dust pollution from the plant at all. An environmental inspection of the plant reported water pollution by the plant including a small increase of the pH value of the river Vamshadhara below the refinery and a high level of SPM in the stack emissions.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: In October 2009 it was reported that the British government has criticised Vedanta for its treatment of the Dongria Kondh tribe in Orissa, India. The company refused to co-operate with the British government and with an OECD investigation. It has rejected charges of environmental damage, saying it may be related to the increased use of fertiliser by farmers.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: It was reported in August 2015 that villagers in Chingola, Zambia can smell and taste toxic pollution/leaks from the largest copper mine in Africa owned by KCM.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: Vedanta Resources was ranked as "the worst of the 12 biggest diversified miners at reducing emissions and planning for climate change", according to the Digging Deep report (CDP).


title: Vedanta Resources

text: Unsafe mining operations led to 18 deaths and 1,256 injuries involving own employees and contractors in 2007.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: A chimney under construction by Gannon Dunkerley & Company at the Balco smelter in Korba, Chhattisgarh collapsed on 23 September 2009, killing at least 40 workers. Balco and GDCL management have been accused of negligence in the incident.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: In respect of bauxite mines at Lanjigarh, Orissa, public interest litigations were filed in 2004 by Indian non-government organisations led by the People's Union for Civil Liberties to the supreme court sub-committee regarding the potential environmental impact of the mines. The Ministry of Environment and Forests received reports from expert organisations and has submitted its recommendations to the supreme court. The sub-committee has found "blatant violations" of environmental regulations and grave concerns about the impact of the Niyamgiri mine on both the environment and the local tribal population. The committee recommended to the court that mining in such an ecologically sensitive area should not be permitted.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: The Director of Survival International, Stephen Corry, said, "The Church’s unprecedented and very welcome decision sends a strong signal to companies that trample on tribal peoples' rights: we will not bankroll your abuses. Anybody that has shares in Vedanta should sell them today if they care about human rights."


title: Vedanta Resources

text: Vedanta responded by expressing disappointment at the church's actions, and that it is "fully committed to pursuing its investments in a responsible manner, respecting the environment and human rights".


title: Vedanta Resources

text: The NGO Amnesty International has also criticised the company's record on human rights. It has said, "[I]t is clear that Vedanta Resources and its subsidiaries [...] have failed to respect the human rights of the people of Lanjigarh and the Niyamgiri Hills" adding, "The proposed bauxite mine [...] threatens the survival of a protected Indigenous community [...] However, these risks have been largely ignored and consultation with and disclosure of information to affected communities have been almost non-existent."


title: Vedanta Resources

text: Several shareholders sold their shares because of human rights concerns. This includes the Joseph Rowntree Charitable Trust, the Marlborough Ethical Fund, Millfield House Foundation and PGGM. "The Economic Times" criticised the project in an editorial, stating that if the mine goes ahead it will "impoverish a defenceless populace, perhaps to extinction." In July 2010, the Chief Secretary of the Indian state of Orissa ordered a new investigation into the rights of the Dongria Kondh tribe affected by Vedanta Resources' bauxite mine, in what Survival International characterised as the "...third major blow to Vedanta in a month".


title: Vedanta Resources

text: A four-member panel set up by the government of India in the Ministry of Environment and Forests investigated the bauxite mining proposal over Niyamgiri near Lanjigarh in the districts of Kalahandi and Rayagada in Orissa. The area has been the traditional habitat of two particularly vulnerable tribal groups, the Dongria Kondh and the Kutia Kondh. The committee submitted its report on 16 August 2010, saying "The Vedanta Company has consistently violated the Forest Conservation Act [FCA], the Forest Rights Act [FRA], the Environment Protection Act [EPA] and the Orissa Forest Act in active collusion with the State officials. Allowing mining by depriving two primitive tribal groups of their rights over the proposed mining site to benefit a private company would shake the faith of the tribal people in the laws of the land ". Based on a panel report, the government of India has served a show cause notice on the company on why its Stage I environment clearance should not be cancelled.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: In October 2017, London's Court of Appeal ruled that nearly 2,000 Zambians can sue Vedanta in English courts over alleged pollution of their village.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: In 2019, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom held that in the case of "Lungowe v Vedanta Resources plc" Vedanta Resources plc could be sued in England concerning business liability for human rights violations and environmental damage.


title: Vedanta Resources

text: In July 2010, Sterlite Industries, a subsidiary of Vedanta Group, received a tax notice of about , and was charged with violating several rules by the excise department in India. Excise officials charged Sterlite Industries with misdeclaration because the company is alleged to have tried shipping out copper waste for the purpose of separating gold and silver when the waste also contained other precious metals like platinum and palladium. Vendanta also owes the Income Tax Department ₹10,247 crore as retrospective tax as of January 2014.


title: The Fan (1996 film)

text: The Fan is a 1996 American sports psychological thriller film directed by Tony Scott, and starring Robert De Niro and Wesley Snipes, based on the 1995 novel by Peter Abrahams. The film received generally negative reviews from critics and was a box office flop. Over time, the direction, the performances and the soundtrack were praised.


title: The Fan (1996 film)

text: Gil Renard is a troubled baseball fan whose favorite team, the San Francisco Giants, have just signed a $40 million contract with his favorite player, Bobby Rayburn. His ex-wife Ellen obtains a restraining order to keep him away from herself and their son after Gil left his son to attend a sales meeting, but finds his client is at a baseball game. Gil is fired from his job as a knife salesman when he threatens a prospective customer.


title: The Fan (1996 film)

text: Gil begins obsessing over Rayburn. When Rayburn suffers a chest injury that causes fans to be upset by his underperformance, Gil antagonizes fans that jeer him. Rayburn has also been in an open conflict with teammate Juan Primo due to both men using jersey number 11, and neither wanting to give it up, due to their long histories and connections to the number. Rayburn was instead given number 33, and harshly protested it. This culminates in a fight in the restroom of a bar. Gil, thinking that Primo is to blame for Rayburn's performance, confronts him in a hotel sauna in an attempt to persuade him to let Rayburn have the number. Primo reveals his shoulder, branded with the number 11, and says that it is his number. This eventually leads to a struggle, and Gil stabs Primo to death. Although Rayburn is suspected of the murder, his performance improves, and Gil believes that what he did benefited Rayburn and the team. After feeling guilty about Primo's death, Rayburn starts playing well again.


title: The Fan (1996 film)

text: Thinking that Rayburn does not acknowledge his fans, Gil goes to Rayburn's beach house and saves his son Sean from drowning. Gil persuades Rayburn to play a friendly game of catch on the beach. Rayburn says he stopped caring about the game after Primo's death, because he felt there were more important things in life. He mistakenly tells Gil that he has lost respect for the fans, remarking on their fickle nature — when he's hitting, they love him, but when he's not, they hate him. An angered Gil almost hits Rayburn with a fastball and launches into a diatribe. Rayburn is disturbed, especially when Gil takes off his jacket to reveal Rayburn's uniform underneath and wonders if Rayburn is happy that Primo's not around.


title: The Fan (1996 film)

text: Rayburn soon discovers that Gil has kidnapped Sean and left the piece of Primo's branded shoulder in the freezer. Disillusioned with Rayburn's disrespect toward the fans, Gil spirals further into insanity and acts as though Sean is his own son. He drives to see an old friend, Coop, a catcher that Gil spoke often of playing baseball with in his past. Coop tries to help Sean escape, and reveals that the only time he and Gil ever played together was in Little League. Gil then beats Coop to death with a baseball bat and takes Sean to a baseball field, hiding him there.


title: The Fan (1996 film)

text: Gil contacts Rayburn to make one demand: hit a home run in the upcoming game and dedicate it to Gil, or he will kill his son. With the police on high alert, Gil enters Candlestick Park in the midst of an on-and-off thunderstorm. Rayburn struggles with his emotions while at bat. After several pitches, he finally hits the ball deep into the outfield but not over the fence. Rayburn attempts to score an inside-the-park home run. He is called out, even though he is obviously safe. Rayburn argues with the umpire, who turns out to be Gil in disguise.


title: The Fan (1996 film)

text: Rayburn knocks Gil to the ground. Dozens of cops and Giants players swarm onto the field and confront Gil. Before the cops arrive, Gil stabs another player, Lanz, who tries to tackle him. Despite warnings from the police, Gil goes into an exaggerated pitching motion with a knife in hand. He asks Rayburn if he cares about baseball, then assumes that he cares "just a little bit." Gil is shot dead as he is about to throw the knife. Police discover Sean at the Little League field, where Gil once played in his childhood. They uncover his obsession with Rayburn, as hundreds of newspaper clippings adorn the deranged fan's hideout. A picture on the wall shows Gil in his past glory, playing Little League baseball and winning a game.


title: The Fan (1996 film)

text: The Fan is the soundtrack to the 1996 film, "The Fan". It was released on August 20, 1996 through TVT Records and was a combination of electronic and hip hop music.


title: The Fan (1996 film)

text: The film brought in $18,626,419 in the United States and Canada. The opening weekend brought in $6,271,406 and then dropped down 47.2% the subsequent weekend.


title: The Fan (1996 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 37% based on reviews from 30 critics. The website's critics' consensus states: "Tony Scott's visceral flash proves to be an ill fit for "The Fan", a queasy tale of obsession that succeeds at making audiences uncomfortable, but strikes out when it comes to delivering the thrills." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 32 out of 100 based on reviews from 16 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews." Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "B−" on scale of A+ to F.


title: Cuthred of Wessex

text: Cuthred or Cuþræd was the King of Wessex from 740 (739 according to Simeon of Durham, 741 according to John of Worcester) until 756. He succeeded Æthelheard, his relative and possibly his brother.


title: Cuthred of Wessex

text: Cuthred inherited the kingdom while Mercia was at its peak. The two kingdoms often fought in Cuthred's first three years, but it appears that Æthelbald of Mercia was Wessex's overlord and that Æthelbald compelled Cuthred to join him in fighting the Welsh in 743. This alliance would not last long.


title: Cuthred of Wessex

text: Cuthred's reign was a troubled time. In 748, the Ætheling Cynric, son of Cuthred, attempted to depose his father but he was killed. According to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", Æthelbald may have encouraged Cynric to rebel.


title: Cuthred of Wessex

text: In 750, the ealdorman Æthelhun led an unsuccessful rebellion he was winning until he was severely injured.


title: Cuthred of Wessex

text: In 752, Cuthred, assisted by the now faithful Æthelhun, led a successful rebellion against Æthelbald at Battle Edge in Burford and secured independence from Mercia for the rest of his reign. He is also said to have fought the Cornish in 753.


title: Cuthred of Wessex

text: Cuthred died in 756, but he left a stronger and more independent Wessex. He was succeeded by Sigeberht who is identified as his distant relative.


title: Chowdhury

text: Chowdhury is a title of honour, usually hereditary, originating from the Indian subcontinent. It is an adaption from Sanskrit. During the Mughal rule, it was a title awarded to eminent people, while during British rule, the term was associated with zamindars and social leaders. The common female equivalent was Chowdhurani. Many landlords under the Permanent Settlement carried this surname. Land reforms after the partition of India abolished the permanent settlement. In modern times, the term is a common South Asian surname for both males and females.


title: Chowdhury

text: "Chowdhury" is a term adapted from the Sanskrit word "caturdhara", literally "holder of four" (four denoting a measure of land, from "chatur" ("four") and "dhara" ("holder" or "possessor")). The name is a Sanskrit term denoting the head of a community or caste. It was a title awarded to persons of eminence, including both Muslims and Hindus, during the Mughal Empire. It was also used as a title by military commanders responsible for four separate forces, including the cavalry, navy, infantry and elephant corps. These people belonged to the zamindar families in British India.


title: Chowdhury

text: In the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the titular "Rajas" of the Bohmong Circle and Mong Circle have the surname Chowdhury.


title: Chowdhury

text: The Bengali Muslim Mirashdars living in the former Kachari Kingdom were given titles by the Kachari Raja, which in modern-day acts as a surname for them.


title: Chowdhury

text: In Bihar, the Pasi are also known as the "Chaudhary", a community traditionally connected with toddy tapping.


title: Chowdhury

text: Its alternate spellings include: Chaudhary, Chaudri, Choudhary, Chaudhry, Chowdary, Chowdhary, Chaudry, Choudary, Choudhry, Chaudhuri, Chaudhari, Chudhry, Choudhari, Choudhury, Chowdhuri and Chowdury. The female equivalent is Chaudhurani and alternate spellings include: Choudhurani, Chowdhurani, Chowdhrani, Choudhrani, Chaudhrani.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: An amalgam is an alloy of mercury with another metal. It may be a liquid, a soft paste or a solid, depending upon the proportion of mercury. These alloys are formed through metallic bonding, with the electrostatic attractive force of the conduction electrons working to bind all the positively charged metal ions together into a crystal lattice structure. Almost all metals can form amalgams with mercury, the notable exceptions being iron, platinum, tungsten, and tantalum. Silver-mercury amalgams are important in dentistry, and gold-mercury amalgam is used in the extraction of gold from ore. Dentistry has used alloys of mercury with metals such as silver, copper, indium, tin and zinc.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: It is the reducing agent in the Jones reductor, used in analytical chemistry. Formerly the zinc plates of dry batteries were amalgamated with a small amount of mercury to prevent deterioration in storage. It is a binary solution (liquid-solid) of mercury and zinc.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: For the alkali metals, amalgamation is exothermic, and distinct chemical forms can be identified, such as KHg and KHg. KHg is a gold-coloured compound with a melting point of 178 °C, and KHg a silver-coloured compound with a melting point of 278 °C. These amalgams are very sensitive to air and water, but can be worked with under dry nitrogen. The Hg-Hg distance is around 300 picometres, Hg-K around 358 pm.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: Phases KHg and KHg are also known; rubidium, strontium and barium undecamercurides are known and isostructural. Sodium amalgam (NaHg) has a different structure, with the mercury atoms forming hexagonal layers, and the sodium atoms a linear chain which fits into the holes in the hexagonal layers, but the potassium atom is too large for this structure to work in KHg.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: Sodium amalgam is produced as a byproduct of the chloralkali process and used as an important reducing agent in organic and inorganic chemistry. With water, it decomposes into concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, hydrogen and mercury, which can then return to the chloralkali process anew. If absolutely water-free alcohol is used instead of water, an alkoxide of sodium is produced instead of the alkali solution.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: Aluminium can form an amalgam through a reaction with mercury. Aluminium amalgam may be prepared by either grinding aluminium pellets or wire in mercury, or by allowing aluminium wire or foil to react with a solution of mercuric chloride. This amalgam is used as a reagent to reduce compounds, such as the reduction of imines to amines. The aluminium is the ultimate electron donor, and the mercury serves to mediate the electron transfer.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: The reaction itself and the waste from it contain mercury, so special safety precautions and disposal methods are needed. As an environmentally friendlier alternative, hydrides or other reducing agents can often be used to accomplish the same synthetic result. Another environmentally friendly alternative is an alloy of aluminium and gallium which similarly renders the aluminium more reactive by preventing it from forming an oxide layer.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: Dentistry has used alloys of mercury with metals such as silver, copper, indium, tin and zinc. Amalgam is an "excellent and versatile restorative material" and is used in dentistry for a number of reasons. It is inexpensive and relatively easy to use and manipulate during placement; it remains soft for a short time so it can be packed to fill any irregular volume, and then forms a hard compound. Amalgam possesses greater longevity when compared to other direct restorative materials, such as composite. However, this difference has decreased with continual development of composite resins.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: Amalgam is typically compared to resin-based composites because many applications are similar and many physical properties and costs are comparable.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: Dental amalgam has been studied and is generally considered to be safe for humans, though the validity of some studies and their conclusions have been questioned.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: In July 2018 the EU, in consideration of the persistent pollution and environmental toxicity of amalgam's mercury, prohibited amalgam for dental treatment of children under 15 years and of pregnant or breastfeeding women.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: Mercury has been used in gold and silver mining because of the convenience and the ease with which mercury and the precious metals will amalgamate. In gold placer mining, in which minute specks of gold are washed from sand or gravel deposits, mercury was often used to separate the gold from other heavy minerals.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: After all of the practical metal had been taken out from the ore, the mercury was dispensed down a long copper trough, which formed a thin coating of mercury on the exterior. The waste ore was then transferred down the trough, and gold in the waste amalgamated with the mercury. This coating would then be scraped off and refined by evaporation to get rid of the mercury, leaving behind somewhat high-purity gold.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: Mercury amalgamation was first used on silver ores with the development of the patio process in Mexico in 1557. There were also additional amalgamation processes that were created for processing silver ores, including pan amalgamation and the Washoe process.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: Gold amalgam has proved effective where gold fines ("flour gold") would not be extractable from ore using hydro-mechanical methods. Large amounts of mercury were used in "placer mining", where deposits composed largely of decomposed granite slurry were separated in long runs of "riffle boxes", with mercury dumped in at the head of the run. The amalgam formed is a heavy solid mass of dull gray color. (The use of mercury in 19th century placer mining in California, now prohibited, has caused extensive pollution problems in riverine and estuarine environments, ongoing to this day.) Sometimes substantial slugs of amalgam are found in downstream river and creek bottoms by amateur wet-suited miners seeking gold nuggets with the aid of an engine-powered water vacuum/dredge mounted on a float.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: Where stamp mills were used to crush gold-bearing ore to fines, a part of the extraction process involved the use of mercury-wetted copper plates, over which the crushed fines were washed. A periodic scraping and re-mercurizing of the plate resulted in amalgam for further processing.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: Amalgam obtained by either process was then heated in a distillation retort, recovering the mercury for reuse and leaving behind the gold. As this released mercury vapors to the atmosphere, the process could induce adverse health effects and long term pollution.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: Today, mercury amalgamation has been replaced by other methods to recuperate gold and silver from ore in developed nations. Hazards of mercurial toxic waste have played a major role in the phasing out of the mercury amalgamation processes. However, mercury amalgamation is still regularly used by small-scale gold placer miners (often illegally), particularly in developing countries.


title: Amalgam (chemistry)

text: Mercury salts are, compared to mercury metal and amalgams, highly toxic due to their solubility in water. The presence of these salts in water can be detected with a probe that uses the readiness of mercury ions to form an amalgam with copper. A nitric acid solution of salts under investigation is applied to a piece of copper foil, and any mercury ions present will leave spots of silvery-coloured amalgam. Silver ions leave similar spots but are easily washed away, making this a means of distinguishing silver from mercury.


title: Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys

text: Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys (, formerly known as the Estadi Olímpic de Montjuïc and Estadio de Montjuic) is a stadium in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. Originally built in 1927 for the 1929 International Exposition in the city (and Barcelona's bid for the 1936 Summer Olympics, which were awarded to Berlin), it was renovated in 1989 to be the main stadium for the 1992 Summer Olympics and 1992 Summer Paralympics.


title: Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys

text: With its current capacity of 55,926 seats (67,007 during the 1992 Olympics), Estadi Lluís Companys is the 6th largest stadium in Spain and the 2nd largest in Catalonia.


title: Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys

text: The stadium is located in the Anella Olímpica, in Montjuïc, a large hill to the southwest of the city which overlooks the harbor.


title: Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys

text: Designed by architect Pere Domènech i Roura for the 1929 Expo, the stadium was officially opened on 20 May 1929. The opening ceremonies included Spain's first official rugby international game against Italy, and a friendly football match between the Catalan national team and Bolton, which the Catalan team won by a shocking score of 4-0 with goals from Josep Samitier(2), Martí Ventolrà and Manuel Parera.


title: Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys

text: It was meant to host the People's Olympiad in 1936, a protest event against the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, but the event had to be canceled due to the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War.


title: Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys

text: In the fifties, the stadium was the centerpiece of the 1955 Mediterranean Games, and in 1957 it hosted the only national football cup Final between FC Barcelona and RCD Espanyol, the two local clubs.


title: Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys

text: In the seventies the stadium was disused, and the stands deteriorated. When the Spanish Grand Prix and other races were held at the Montjuïc racing circuit, the stadium was used as a paddock for the teams. Due to safety concerns, the 1975 F1 race was nearly boycotted by drivers.


title: Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys

text: During the Barcelona's bid for the 1992 Summer Olympics , the stadium was totally renovated with the involvement of Italian architect Vittorio Gregotti. The stadium was gutted, preserving parts of the original facades, and new grandstands were built. In 1989 the venue was re-inaugurated for the World Cup in Athletics, and three years later it hosted the opening and closing ceremonies and all the athletics competitions of the Olympic Games and also the same functions during the Paralympics.


title: Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys

text: The stadium served as the home of football club RCD Espanyol from 1997 until 2009. The Estadi Olímpic made its final La Liga appearance during the 2008–2009 season, as Espanyol moved to the newly constructed RCDE Stadium.


title: Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys

text: It also served as the home of the Barcelona Dragons American football team until 2002. Because the size of the playing surface was slightly shorter than the regulation American Football length, the stadium only had 7-yard end zones, three yards shorter than regulation NFL size in 1991 and 1992. They were later lengthened to the standard 10 yards. The stadium also played host to the National Football League's American Bowl in 1993 and in 1994. The San Francisco 49ers played the Pittsburgh Steelers on 1 August 1993. The second game was played on 31 July 1994 between the Los Angeles Raiders and the Denver Broncos.


title: Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys

text: In 2001, the stadium was renamed after the former president of the Generalitat de Catalunya Lluís Companys, who was executed at the nearby Montjuïc Castle in 1940 by the Franco regime. In 2010, the stadium hosted the 20th European Athletics Championships.


title: Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys

text: In the 2023/24 season, the stadium will serve as the home ground for FC Barcelona due to Camp Nou redevelopments which are estimated to be completed by the 2025/26 season.


title: Georgie Stone

text: Georgie Robertson Stone is an Australian actress, writer and transgender rights advocate. At the age of 10, Stone was the youngest person to receive hormone blockers in Australia, which set a precedent that eventually changed the law that compelled transgender children and their families to apply to the Family Court of Australia to access stage one treatment. She continues to advocate for transgender children, and is one of the most visible transgender people in Australia.


title: Georgie Stone

text: Georgie Stone was born to parents Greg Stone and Rebekah Robertson. Stone began studying a Bachelor of Arts at The University of Melbourne in 2019.


title: Georgie Stone

text: In 2014, Stone appeared on "Four Corners", talking about her experiences in court and changing the law surrounding stage one treatment. In February 2016, Stone and a number of other families of transgender kids travelled to Canberra to speak with politicians about changing the law. Stone and her mother were interviewed on "The Project" in response to the controversy surrounding the "Safe Schools Coalition" and the importance of the program. Later that year, Stone and her family appeared on "Australian Story", telling their story.


title: Georgie Stone

text: Stone started a petition on change.org in August 2016, rallying support for law reform. Stone has also spoken out in support of transgender kids being allowed to use the bathroom of their choice, the importance of the Safe Schools Coalition, and the Pride Centre located in St Kilda.


title: Georgie Stone

text: Stone was announced as a judge at the 2017 GLOBE Community Awards. Stone also featured in the ABC Me television series, "Advice to My 12-Year-Old-Self", which aired on 11 October in celebration of the United Nation's International Day of the Girl. The show consists of 37 interviews, all lasting two minutes in length, of prominent Australian women. In late 2017, Stone was made the official ambassador for the Royal Children's Hospital Gender Service in Melbourne.


title: Georgie Stone

text: In 2018, Stone became the ambassador for the Human Rights Arts and Film Festival, Wear it Purple Day and the AFL Pride Game. In 2019, Stone was named an Ambassador for The Pinnacle Foundation.


title: Georgie Stone

text: In June 2022, a 28-minute documentary about her own life, titled "The Dreamlife of Georgie Stone", written by Stone and directed by Maya Newell, had its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival in New York City and then its Australian premiere at Sydney Film Festival. The film was co-produced by Stone, Newell, Sophie Hyde, and others. It was released worldwide on Netflix on 22 September 2022.


title: Georgie Stone

text: In March 2019, Stone joined Australian television soap opera "Neighbours" in the guest role of Mackenzie Hargreaves. She plays the first ever transgender character on the show, having pitched the role to the show's producers a year earlier. Stone began filming her scenes in June, with the episodes to be aired later in the year. Stone described Mackenzie as "a bit world weary, a bit cynical, a bit hardened by her experiences". She also described her as "sweet, compassionate and lovely" when she opens up to other people.


title: Georgie Stone

text: In September 2019, it was announced that Stone would appear in a spin-off titled "", reprising her role from the main show. The series was released on My5 and 10 Play in November, and comprised five episodes that "explore issues universally troubling teens today – bullying, mental illness, sexuality, cultural diversity, parental and peer pressure, and teacher-student relationships". On 19 October 2019, it was announced that Stone would be promoted to the regular cast in early 2020. She co-wrote an episode of "Neighbours" with executive producer Jason Herbison, which aired in July 2020.


title: Georgie Stone

text: Stone lives in Melbourne, Australia. She has a twin brother. Stone commenced taking puberty blocking treatment in 2011, the youngest in Australia to commence stage-one treatment (she was 10 at the time). In 2015, she commenced hormone replacement therapy, at age 15. Since 2014, Stone has been public about her gender identity.


title: Conrad Hall

text: Conrad Lafcadio Hall, (June 21, 1926 – January 4, 2003) was a French Polynesian-born American cinematographer. Named after writers Joseph Conrad and Lafcadio Hearn, he was best known for photographing such films as "In Cold Blood", "Cool Hand Luke", "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid", "American Beauty", and "Road to Perdition". For his work he garnered a number of awards, including three Academy Awards and three BAFTA Awards.


title: Conrad Hall

text: In 2003, Hall was judged to be one of history's ten most influential cinematographers in a survey of the members of the International Cinematographers Guild. He has been given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.


title: Conrad Hall

text: Conrad L Hall was born on June 21, 1926 in Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia. His father was James Norman Hall, an ace pilot and captain in the Lafayette Escadrille that fought for France in World War I. James also co-wrote the 1932 novel "Mutiny on the Bounty." His mother was Sarah ("Lala") Winchester Hall, who was half Polynesian. Growing up during the relative infancy of cinema, Hall never was around cameras, and the idea of going to the movies was a foreign concept. In his early-mid teens, Hall attended Cate School, a boarding preparatory school near Santa Barbara, California.


title: Conrad Hall

text: After graduating, Hall was told by his father to find his path in life. Hall attended the University of Southern California, intending to study journalism, but ended up doing poorly and instead went to USC's School of Cinema-Television (now the USC School of Cinematic Arts). He wasn't sure this was the right decision, but that since this was a new art form it would be interesting to start from the bottom. Hall attended the School of Cinema at a time when Slavko Vorkapić was the head of the program; Hall later recalled that “He taught me that film-making was a new visual language. He taught the principles, and left the rest up to us”. After creating his first shots in school he fell in love with the art and wanted to continue telling his stories through imagery. A few people that visited the school during his education included John Huston and Orson Welles. After graduation in 1949, Hall expected to get a job right out of college. At the time, however, Hollywood only allowed the camera crew to be filled with people that were on the International Photographers Guild roster.


title: Conrad Hall

text: After graduation Hall collaborated with his classmates, Marvin R. Weinstein and Jack C. Couffer, to create Canyon Films in 1949. In the beginning they made advertising commercials and documentaries and did pickup shots for features. In 1956 Canyon Films acquired a short film, "My Brother Down There," which allowed Hall to enter into the cameraman position and become part of the International Photographers Guild. However, the Guild made Canyon Films hire an established Guild Cameraman for "My Brother Down There", denying Hall credit, even though he shot the entire film. Instead he was credited as the visual consultant, after United Artists released the film under the new title "Running Target".


title: Conrad Hall

text: Once "Running Target" was finished Canyon Films dissolved, and its members went off on their own paths. Since Hall was part of the Guild, he was able to work as an assistant cameraman at the side of many influential cinematographers such as Hall Mohr, Ernie Haller, Burnie Guffey and Ted McCord, who were all part of the ASC. Following a year of working as an assistant cameraman, he was awarded the chance to be the camera operator on the television series "Stoney Burke". In 1963, he began filming another television series called "The Outer Limits". Then, in 1964, he shot his first feature-length black and white film, "Wild Seed", which was made in roughly 24 days with producer Albert S. Ruddy.


title: Conrad Hall

text: Hall's breakthrough came with "Morituri" in 1965, for which he received his first Oscar nomination. In the following year Hall shot "Incubus", "The Professionals," and "Harper", which was his first color film. His first collaboration with director Richard Brooks on "The Professionals" was put in motion by assistant director Tom Shaw, who worked with Hall on "Wild Seed" and recommended him to Brooks; the work resulted in his second Oscar nomination.


title: Conrad Hall

text: Their second collaboration, 1967's "In Cold Blood", resulted in yet another Oscar nomination. It is notable for the documentary feel and location shots, which were rare at the time. In that same year, Hall shot "Cool Hand Luke" and "Divorce American Style". "Cool Hand Luke" is known for being shot in Panavision, which contributed to its lush color palette. In 1968, Hall filmed "Hell in the Pacific" for director John Boorman, which was not a box-office success but has since become a cult classic.


title: Conrad Hall

text: In 1969, Hall received his first Oscar for "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid". To make "Butch Cassidy" visually compatible with the time period, he used experimental techniques, such as overexposing the negatives in order to mute the primary colors when printing it back (Hunter, 2003). The result was considered an innovative success. He made two other films that year, "The Happy Ending" and "Tell them Willie Boy is Here." In 1972, Hall shot "Fat City," with director John Huston. "Fat City" was known for its grainy texture to reflect the harsh reality of the storyline. In 1973 he shot the police thriller "Electra Glide in Blue", followed by "Smile" and "The Day of the Locust" in 1975, the latter of which earned him his fifth Oscar nomination. In 1976 he shot "Marathon Man" with director John Schlesinger which was one of the first to use the Steadicam technique (although it was not the first to be released).


title: Conrad Hall

text: After shooting 18 films in 12 years, Hall took an 11-year break. Around the same time he teamed up with noted cinematographer Haskell Wexler to make a commercial production company (Vinson, 1987). This allowed him to not only be the cameraman on his own work, but also the director. The break for him was about understanding and learning from others about their unique techniques. As Hall stated: "At heart I am more than a cinematographer. I'm a filmmaker." This led to his exploration of writing, such as an adaptation of the novel "The Wild Palms".


title: Conrad Hall

text: Hall returned to the film industry in 1987 to shoot "Black Widow". In 1988 Hall became part of the union crew for "Tequila Sunrise" after a few complications. His work resulted in a sixth Oscar nomination. Also in 1988, the ASC gave Hall an outstanding achievement award. After his work on "Tequila Sunrise," he picked up his old pace, making "Class Action" (1991), "Jennifer 8" (1992), "Searching for Bobby Fischer" (1993) and "Love Affair" (1994) one after the other. "Searching for Bobby Fischer" received an Oscar nomination for cinematography, his seventh.


title: Conrad Hall

text: In 1994, Hall was honored with the lifetime achievement award from the American Society of Cinematographers. In 1998 he shot "Without Limits" and was Oscar nominated for "A Civil Action", followed by his second win for "American Beauty" in 1999. "American Beauty", his first collaboration with director Sam Mendes, highlighted his "unique use of the hand-held camera to capture the film's heightened reality and almost dream-like atmosphere". His final film was "Road to Perdition" in 2002, a second collaboration with Mendes, for which he was posthumously awarded another Academy Award. In total, he won three Oscars throughout his 50-year career.


title: Conrad Hall

text: Hall married Virginia Schwartz in 1952. They had three children, Conrad W. Hall, Kate Hall-Feist and Naia Hall-West, before they divorced in 1969. Hall met actress Katharine Ross on the set of "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid" and became her third of five husbands in 1969. Hall and Ross separated in 1973, finalizing their divorce in 1975 so that she could marry her fourth husband. His third marriage was to costume designer Susan Kowarsh-Hall, whom he worked with on "Road to Perdition" (2002), from an unknown date until his death.


title: Conrad Hall

text: Hall died from bladder cancer at Santa Monica Hospital on January 4, 2003, at the age of 76. His Oscar for "Road to Perdition" (2002), which is dedicated to Hall, was posthumously accepted by his son Conrad W. Hall, also a cinematographer.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: The Grandmaster (En Dwi Gast) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character first appeared in "The Avengers" #69. The Grandmaster is one of the ageless Elders of the Universe and has mastered most civilizations' games of skill and chance. Different media appearances depict him as the Collector's brother.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: Jeff Goldblum portrays the character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe film "" (2017) and in a cameo during the closing credits of "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2" (2017). Additionally, Goldblum voices alternate universe versions in the animated series "What If...?" (2021).


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: The Grandmaster first appeared in "The Avengers" #69 (Oct. 1969). The character was created by Roy Thomas and Sal Buscema.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: Although his exact origin is unknown, he is one of the oldest living beings in the universe, coming from one of the first intelligent races to evolve after the Big Bang. He once possessed the Mind Gem, one of the six Infinity Gems, but he lost it to Thanos. He is a cosmic game player whose preferred game is pitting two opposing teams against each other. He has used the Squadron Sinister, Daredevil, the Defenders, the East and West Coast Avengers, Malibu Comics's Ultraforce, and DC Comics' Justice League of America.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: In his first appearance, the Grandmaster played a game against Kang the Conqueror for the power to resurrect Ravonna or destroy Kang's planet, using the Avengers and Squadron Sinister as pawns. However, Kang's efforts failed due to the intervention of the Black Knight meaning that the Avengers did not technically win their fight, causing Kang to sacrifice the power to resurrect Ravonna for the power to kill the Avengers, with this attempt failing again when the Grandmaster's gift literally gave Kang the power to kill only the "Avengers" rather than the currently-unaffiliated Black Knight. He next used the Defenders as pawns in a game against the Prime Mover.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: The Grandmaster later challenged Death to a game of strategy, with the power to resurrect his fellow Elder the Collector as prize. A large collection of Earth heroes were used as pawns by both sides of the game; the Grandmaster promised that, if he won, he would never again use Earth's heroes as his pawns. The Grandmaster won, only to learn the resurrection power could only be used if someone else died in the resurrectee's place. Nonetheless, the Grandmaster felt the game would be incomplete unless the power was used, noting "Never, in a thousand games on a thousand worlds, have I quit the table ere the game was through!" Death suggested he use the heroes' lives instead, but, unwilling to break his promise to never again manipulate them, he instead sacrificed his own life to resurrect the Collector.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: The Grandmaster returned from beyond his grave to plague the East and West Coast Avengers during one of their annual games of baseball, reasoning that, since he was dead, he was free from his vow to leave Earth's heroes in peace. After he and the Collector tricked the teams into battling each other, the Grandmaster succeeded in his true plan: to capture Lady Death and usurp her powers. He forced the Avengers to participate in a competition with the Legion of the Unliving in order to stop a series of powerful bombs, the fate being all of creation. Captain America and Hawkeye were the only two heroes to survive; the rest of the Avengers were slain, only to instantly join the Legion. As the Grandmaster was preparing to force the pair to fight the Legion again, Hawkeye convinced him to lay it all on the line with one last game of pure chance. Hawkeye held one arrow in each fist, the tips hidden in his hands. Grandmaster would win if he chose the one with Hawkeye's last arrowhead. The one he picked was headless (Hawkeye admits to Captain America that he had cheated: he quickly snapped off the arrowhead as the Grandmaster chose the correct arrow), and his distraction allowed Lady Death to escape her bonds and banish the Grandmaster from her realm — in other words, making them effectively immortal. As a reward, she returned the deceased Avengers to life. This incident is what led Death to ban the Elders from dying, confirmed by the Grandmaster in the issue's final panels, just before he expresses interest in the Avengers' renewed baseball game.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: He and a group of ten other Elders then conspired to kill Galactus and restart the universe; they felt that being banned from Death's realm would make them the sole survivors to continue their obsessions in a whole new universe. The Grandmaster battled Galactus and the Silver Surfer, and was one of the five Elders captured and consumed by Galactus. The devoured Elders caused Galactus "cosmic indigestion" from within until they were forced out of him by Master Order and Lord Chaos. When the Silver Surfer asked the five Elders to aid them in helping Galactus to defeat the In-Betweener the Grandmaster refused because it would nullify a solemn wager the Elders had made so the Champion physically restrained him until the battle was over. Moments later, the five Elders used their Infinity Gems to instantaneously travel very far away from Galactus and his vengeance.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: The Grandmaster traveled to the Ultraverse to collect the Infinity Gems that were in Loki's possession. Both decide to make a competition for the possession of gems, pitting the Avengers against Ultraforce. However both lost the gems to the entity Nemesis.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: In 2004 the Grandmaster organized the meeting of the Avengers and the Justice League in an attempt to save the Marvel Universe from the DC Comics villain Krona, when Krona came to the Marvel Universe seeking answers about the origin of creation. In an attempt to save his universe, Grandmaster challenged Krona to a game for the identity of a being in the Marvel Universe who had lived through the Big Bang by pitting the Avengers and the JLA against each other in a 'scavenger hunt' for twelve items of power- with Krona choosing the Avengers as his team-, only for Krona to turn on the Grandmaster when he lost due to Captain America helping Batman gain the Cosmic Cube. Although Krona's anti-energy powers were able to easily defeat both the Grandmaster and Galactus, the Grandmaster revealed the game was a trick and was able to use the items gathered to merge the two universes and trap Krona in their 'junction point'. However Krona accelerated the process, with the intention of destroying both universes and learning their secrets. The Phantom Stranger guided the two teams to the Grandmaster, who showed them the truth of reality, then died. However the Grandmaster was restored to life when reality was returned to normal, and it was revealed he had been playing a game with the New God Metron.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: The Grandmaster later recreated his Squadron Sinister, with new incarnations of members Doctor Spectrum and Hyperion, to contend against Baron Helmut Zemo's Thunderbolts. He has been using this Squadron to destroy several sources of extra-dimensional energy, known collectively as the "Universal Wellspring", apparently to prevent Zemo from controlling them. The Grandmaster was dispersed by Zemo in a battle for the final Wellspring. In "Thunderbolts" #108 he was restored and battled Zemo for control of Earth, however using all the power of Earth that had been loaned to him by Earth's superhumans, Zemo was able to take his powers away. Zemo then shot the Grandmaster in the head seemingly killing him.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: The Grandmaster returns, promising the Hulk the revival of his long-lost love, Jarella (though this has been thought in the past to be beyond his powers), if he participates in a battle to the death with a team of his choice. The Hulk chooses Doctor Strange, Namor, and the Silver Surfer. However, the Grandmaster takes them from different points in time (specifically, moments when their greatest loves were lost to them), and sets them against a team gathered by the Collector called the Offenders (which is composed of Red Hulk, Baron Mordo, Tiger Shark, and Terrax). This again causes conflict with Galactus. Upon the conclusion of this battle the Grandmaster is apparently slain by the Red Hulk, and the Collector quits, simply leaving Hulk with Jarella's lifeless body.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: The Grandmaster returns, with a more childish attitude. He has developed romantic feelings towards the X-Man heroine Dazzler. To that end, he stages a roller derby pitting her and two friends against dozens of super-villains. This angers Dazzler, because romance does not involve putting the person you care about in seemingly deadly danger.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: Eight months after the "Secret Wars" storyline as part of the "All-New, All-Different Marvel," the Grandmaster competes against Collector on Battlerealm (a location which is made up of what's left of Battleworld) in a new Contest of Champions with the prize being an artifact called the Iso-Sphere.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: During the "No Surrender" arc, Grandmaster forms his version of the Lethal Legion to go up against Challenger's Black Order in a contest that involves Pyramoids. It is later revealed that Voyager is Grandmaster's daughter who he used in his plans to claim the Pyramoids. His plan was finally defeated when Living Lightning confronted the Grandmaster and provoked him into a game of poker, with Santos subsequently raising the stakes of the game until he reached a point where the stakes were that the loser would have all memory of their accomplishments wiped from the memories of all who knew of them. Faced with this potential loss, the Grandmaster folded despite his ignorance of Santos's hand, as he could not bear to lose everything like that, whereas Santos accepted that being an Avenger meant doing the right thing because it was the right thing to do rather than because you would be remembered for it.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: During the "Empyre" storyline, Grandmaster is revealed to have a sister called the Profiteer, another Elder of the Universe.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: The Grandmaster has been described as manipulating the so-called "power primordial", radiation left over from the Big Bang, and is one of the most powerful Elders of the Universe. However, his power is considerably below that of Galactus and the In-Betweener. It has been implied that the Grandmaster can, and in some cases has, used highly advanced technology to augment his abilities and perform feats that might be normally beyond him. While the extent of this is unknown, it is known that the Grandmaster has access and mastery of technology far beyond human comprehension.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: The Grandmaster possesses a cosmic life force which renders him virtually immortal, including immunity to aging, disease, poison, and imperviousness to conventional injury through regeneration of any damage. He can survive and travel in space unaided and without food, drink, or air. He can utilize his cosmic life force for a variety of effects, including levitation, the projection of blasts of cosmic energy, teleportation across space and time and alternate dimensions, adjusting his size, control time to interact with beings moving at superhuman speed, or transformation and rearrangement of matter on a planetary scale. Perhaps his most fearsome ability is his power over life and death. The Grandmaster can "will" the death of another being. It is unknown if he can will the death of another virtual immortal being. He can also "resurrect" another being no matter how badly injured or heal a person on the verge of death. He cannot resurrect another virtually immortal being powered by "cosmic life force" like himself or anyone who has died past a certain time point. Lastly, he can temporarily bestow these powers upon another being. Currently, due to his machinations against Death, he and the other Elders cannot die.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: He has a highly developed superhuman intellect, with vast knowledge and comprehension of games and game theory far beyond present-day Earth, as well as encyclopedic knowledge of thousands of exotic games played throughout the universe. He can calculate diverse low information probabilities within a tenth of a second and remember countless rules and data. He also possesses certain extra-sensory abilities of mental perception beyond those currently known which enable him to sense things about his surroundings not detectable by normal senses, and maintains a psychic link with the highly advanced computers of his base world, which extend and enhance his mental abilities.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: The Grandmaster has access to various exotic extraterrestrial devices as needed, including starships.


title: Grandmaster (Marvel Comics)

text: The Grandmaster appears in media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), portrayed by Jeff Goldblum. This version is the ruler of the planet Sakaar. Unlike his appearance in the comics, he does not have blue skin; instead having a silvery blue stripe running down the center of his lower lip and chin similar to one sported by the MCU version of the Collector. According to "Thor: Ragnarok" director Taika Waititi, the character's skin was not made blue overall to not detract from Goldblum's personality by concealing his appearance and because Goldblum had already played a blue-colored character in the film "Earth Girls Are Easy".


title: Kevin Harlan

text: Kevin Harlan (born June 21, 1960) is an American television and radio sports announcer. The son of former Green Bay Packers executive Bob Harlan, he broadcasts NFL and college basketball games on CBS and the NBA for TNT.


title: Kevin Harlan

text: 2022 will be his 38th consecutive season doing NFL play by play, and 2022-23 will be his 37th year broadcasting the NBA. He is a two time National Sportscaster of the Year. Overall he is third all time in the total number of network sports broadcasts doing play by play of one of the four major sports.


title: Kevin Harlan

text: Until 2008, Harlan was the voice of Westwood One Radio's Final Four coverage. In 2010, he began serving as Westwood One's lead announcer for "Monday Night Football", calling his first Super Bowl in Super Bowl XLV. He has broadcast 12 consecutive Super Bowls for Westwood One, Super Bowls XLV-LVI. Twelve is the most consecutively in radio, and television, network history (Jack Buck broadcast nine straight). Harlan also broadcast the CBS HD feed of Super Bowl XXXV in 2001. He also calls the preseason games of his hometown Packers for the team's statewide television network since 2003. In 2017 and 2019, he was voted the National Sportscaster of the Year by his peers. In total, Harlan has broadcast 13 Super Bowls and five Final Fours. He is one of three broadcasters to have more than 3000 national network broadcasts in his career, along with Dick Stockton and Marv Albert, of the four major sports.


title: Kevin Harlan

text: Harlan began broadcasting as a teenager for his alma mater Our Lady of Premontre High School's high school radio station, WGBP-FM, calling play-by-play for the school's boys' basketball, football and ice hockey teams. He was recently inducted into the school's Hall of Fame. He was a ball boy with the Green Bay Packers in his teens during the time that his father, Bob Harlan, was a Packers executive in the front office. He had originally pursued attending either the University of Wisconsin–Madison or the University of Notre Dame in pursuit of his communications/mass media degree, but a personal recommendation from broadcaster Gary Bender to his dad Bob led Kevin to instead attend the University of Kansas and its School of Journalism and Mass Communications. Harlan was introduced to the Jayhawks' primary basketball play-by-play announcer at the time, Tom Hedrick, who noted Harlan's zeal for sports broadcasting and immediately considered him a protege in the making. Hedrick gave Harlan a sideline position his freshman year, eventually deeming him as his understudy and fill-in announcer on days where he had other commitments. Harlan graduated in 1982 with a broadcast journalism degree.


title: Kevin Harlan

text: In 1982, right out of college, at age 22, Harlan became the TV and radio voice of the NBA's Kansas City Kings (now the Sacramento Kings). He was then a basketball announcer for his alma mater, the University of Kansas, for one year, then went on to call games for the NFL's Kansas City Chiefs from 1985–93 after several years hosting and producing surrounding pre-game and post-game programming while still in college. Harlan also split time with the University of Missouri (1986–89) calling football and basketball games, and worked as the play-by-play voice of the NBA's Minnesota Timberwolves for nine seasons (1989–98). On the network level, Harlan called NFL football for NBC in 1991, college football for ESPN in 1992–93, NFL for Fox from 1994–97, and joined Turner Sports in 1996 to broadcast NBA playoff games (he would begin calling games throughout the entire season in 1997, which he continues to do to this day). Harlan broadcast his first NBA All Star game for TNT in 2022, as well the Western Conference Finals. He began working for CBS in 1998 after four years at FOX..


title: Kevin Harlan

text: In addition, Harlan has called Jacksonville Jaguars, Chicago Bears, and Green Bay Packers preseason games; boxing for Mike Tyson vs. Buster Mathis Jr. in 1995; basketball games during the now-defunct Goodwill Games, which were owned by Time Warner; college sports on ESPN; and several bowl games during college football seasons. Harlan has also lent his voice on the "NBA 2K" video game series since 2005.


title: Kevin Harlan

text: In 2017, Harlan was voted by his peers as National Sportscaster of the Year by the NSMA. He again was voted National Sportscaster of the Year by the NSMA in 2019. He was also named 2019 National Sportscaster of the Year by The Athletic. In September 2019 Harlan was inducted into the Notre Dame Academy High School Hall of Fame (the former Premontre HS he attended in Green Bay, Wisconsin).


title: Kevin Harlan

text: Harlan has a history of injecting humor into situations during games whenever he can, in addition to being able to dramatize even mundane moments not related to the game itself. These include:


title: Kevin Harlan

text: May 12, 2008 – Harlan was calling the 2008 Eastern Conference Semifinals featuring the Boston Celtics and the Cleveland Cavaliers, when Cavaliers superstar LeBron James drove to the basket and dunked as Celtics forward Kevin Garnett was rotating unsuccessfully to help on the drive. Harlan's call of the play:


title: Kevin Harlan

text: Harlan: Garnett comes out on LeBron. Now they switch and here's Pierce again...a Smith screen. Posey will defend...OHHHHHH! LEBRON JAMES WITH "NO REGARD" FOR HUMAN LIFE!


title: Kevin Harlan

text: September 12, 2016 – Harlan was the radio play-by-play man for Westwood One's coverage of the "Monday Night Football" game between the San Francisco 49ers and the Los Angeles Rams, where a fan ran onto the field. Harlan then proceeded to give a play-by-play of security chasing the man. Deadspin referred to the call as an "All Timer"."Hey somebody has run out on the field. Some goofball in a hat and a red shirt. Now he takes off the shirt! He’s running down the middle by the "50", he’s at the "30"! He’s bare-chested and... BANGING HIS CHEST?! Now he runs the opposite way! He runs to the "50", he runs to the "40", the guy is "DRUNK"! But there he "goes"! The 20 — they’re chasing him, but they’re not going to get him! "Waving his arms, bare-chested"; "Somebody stop that man!" "[Referring to the security]" "Oh", they got him, they’re coming from the left — Oh and they "tackle" him at the 40-yard line! "[Pause] Whew," that was the most exciting thing to happen tonight."


title: Kevin Harlan

text: January 14, 2018 – Harlan called the NFC Divisional Match-up between the New Orleans Saints and Minnesota Vikings for Westwood One Radio, where Stefon Diggs scored on a 61 yard touchdown pass from Case Keenum as time expired, now known as the Minneapolis Miracle. It's third down and 10. Keenum is in the gun from his own 39. Four man front, six in the secondary. Shotgun snap. He moves up, he moves up, he throws a long line drive on the near side, leaping to and catch made! It's made by – oh my goodness, it's gonna go in for the touchdown! Grabbed by Diggs! He broke a tackle! 61 yard touchdown throw! THE VIKINGS HAVE WON! THE MINNESOTA VIKINGS HAVE WON!


title: Kevin Harlan

text: May 12, 2019 – Harlan called Game 7 of the 2019 NBA Eastern Conference Semifinals with analyst Greg Anthony, where Kawhi Leonard hit a shot at the buzzer that bounced four times before falling in to win the game and advance the Toronto Raptors to the Eastern Conference Finals. Harlan's call of the play:Harlan: It's off to Leonard, defended by Simmons. Is this the dagger?


title: Kevin Harlan

text: November 4, 2019 – Harlan was the radio play-by-play for Westwood One's coverage of a Monday Night Football game between the Dallas Cowboys and New York Giants where a black cat ran onto the field midway in the second quarter.


title: Kevin Harlan

text: "Oh, there's a cat, a black cat has taken the field. A black cat is running from the 20 to the nearside, the 10, from the 39 of Dallas here is a short throw down the middle caught by Engram. Caught at the 35 to the 30, now the cat running the other way and so is Engram at the 25 near the 24 yard line of the Dallas Cowboys. It's a catch-run of 15. Now the cat is stopped at the 50. ("Kurt Warner: So is it bad luck for the Giants, or bad luck for the Cowboys?") I don't know, I don't know but they've stopped play, and the players with hands on hips are watching the cat run and zig zag all over the field. The black cat is on the other end of the field. He's at the eight! ("Warner: The cat doesn't know that it was last Thursday that was Halloween, Thursday Night Football, not Monday Night Football.") He's a little bit late. ("Warner chuckles") Now he is sitting, and looking, now he's at the five... ("Warner: Who brought the cat?") He's walking to the three, he's at the two... and the cat is in the CDW Red Zone, CDW, people who get it- Now a policeman, state troopers come on the field- AND THE CAT RUNS IN THE END ZONE! THAT IS A TOUCHDOWN! And the cat is elusive, kind of like Barkley and Elliott, but he didn’t know where to go! Look at it, they're trying to corner him, and they got him in the end zone. There are state troopers all around this cat which now climbs up into the stands, and the fans are running for their li- Now it goes back on the field again and it's running in the back of the end zone, and it runs up the tunnel.”


title: Kevin Harlan

text: November 10, 2019 – The following Sunday, Harlan was the play-by-play announcer for a game between the Baltimore Ravens and Cincinnati Bengals. With Baltimore up 28–13 against Cincinnati, Ravens quarterback and MVP favorite Lamar Jackson used a spin move to elude several Bengals defenders for a 47-yard touchdown run in the third quarter, putting the game out of reach.


title: Kevin Harlan

text: "Here's a second down and 3, Jackson takes it himself. Look at him dart back and forth- OHHHHHH! HE BROKE HIS ANKLES! NOW HE'S GOT AN ENTOURAGE! And he's got a touchdown! HE IS HOUDINI! What a play! 47-yard touchdown run by the magical quarterback Lamar Jackson! WOW!"


title: Kevin Harlan

text: December 29, 2019 – Harlan was the television play-by-play commentator for the Los Angeles Chargers at the Kansas City Chiefs when he began calling the Miami Dolphins at the New England Patriots game in the Chargers vs Chiefs feed; with a New England loss, the Chiefs would claim the #2 seed in the playoffs and a bye week.


title: Kevin Harlan

text: Meanwhile, Miami has first and goal down by four. And they're at the New England four yard line, first and goal. 29 seconds left. Here (in Kansas City) Butker kicks the extra point. And Fitzpatrick throws in the end zone, touchdown Miami! The Dolphins have just scored! Gesicki, the tight end, got a laser in the back of the end zone on a goal-to-go touchdown pass by Miami quarterback Ryan Fitzpatrick to take a lead with 24 seconds to go! The extra point coming up for Miami, leading New England 26 to 24. And the crowd (in Kansas City) now knows it.


title: Kevin Harlan

text: ... What a throw by Fitzpatrick, what a touchdown run by Williams, on the last weekend of the regular season in the NFL!


title: Kevin Harlan

text: Rich Gannon, the analyst in the booth with Harlan, asked Harlan ""I'm getting confused, what game are you calling?"", to which Harlan responded with a very enthusiastic ""I'M CALLING "BOTH" GAMES!""


title: Kevin Harlan

text: February 7, 2021 – During Super Bowl LV between the Kansas City Chiefs and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Harlan was the radio play-by-play announcer when, in the closing minutes of the game, a streaker ran onto the field. The streaker was a man dressed in an undersized women's pink one-piece thong-style swimsuit and a pair of dark athletic shorts.


title: Kevin Harlan

text: "Someone has run on the field... some guy with a bra! And now, he's not being chased he's running down the middle the 40. Arms in the air in a victory salute. He's pulling down his pants PUT UP YOUR PANTS MY MAN! PUT UP THOSE PANTS!" He's being chased to the 30, he breaks a tackle from a security guard, the 20, down the middle the ten, the five, he slides at the one... and they converge on him at the goal line! (pause) Pull up your pants, take off the bra and "be a man!" And the players with hands on hips at the other end of the field are looking at him and shaking their head, and saying, 'Why, oh, why is this taking place in a Super Bowl?'"


title: Kevin Harlan

text: Harlan has been married to his wife Ann for 35 years, and together they have four children and three grandchildren. Their daughter, Olivia, is a sideline reporter for ESPN and is married to NBA player Sam Dekker, also born in Wisconsin (in Sheboygan).


title: Speed limit

text: Speed limits on road traffic, as used in most countries, set the legal maximum speed at which vehicles may travel on a given stretch of road. Speed limits are generally indicated on a traffic sign reflecting the maximum permitted speed - expressed as kilometres per hour (km/h) and/or miles per hour (mph). Speed limits are commonly set by the legislative bodies of national or provincial governments and enforced by national or regional police and judicial authorities. Speed limits may also be variable, or in some places nonexistent, such as on most of the Autobahnen in Germany.


title: Speed limit

text: The first numeric speed limit for automobiles was the limit introduced in the United Kingdom in 1861.


title: Speed limit

text: There are several reasons to regulate speed on roads. It is often done in an attempt to improve road traffic safety and to reduce the number of casualties from traffic collisions. The World Health Organization (WHO) identified speed control as one of a number of steps that can be taken to reduce road casualties. As of 2021, the WHO estimates that approximately 1.3 million people die of road traffic crashes each year.


title: Speed limit

text: Authorities may also set speed limits to reduce the environmental impact of road traffic (vehicle noise, vibration, emissions) or to enhance the safety of pedestrians, cyclists, and other road-users. For example, a draft proposal from Germany's National Platform on the Future of Mobility task force recommended a blanket 130 km/h (81 mph) speed limit across the Autobahnen to curb fuel consumption and carbon emissions. Some cities have reduced limits to as little as for both safety and efficiency reasons. However, some research indicates that changes in the speed limit may not always alter average vehicle speed.


title: Speed limit

text: In western cultures, speed limits predate the use of motorized vehicles. In 1652, the American colony of New Amsterdam passed a law stating, "No wagons, carts or sleighs shall be run, rode or driven at a gallop." The punishment for breaking the law was "two pounds Flemish," the equivalent of US $50 in 2019. The "1832" "Stage Carriage Act" introduced the offense of endangering the safety of a passenger or person by "furious driving" in the United Kingdom (UK).


title: Speed limit

text: A series of Locomotive Acts (in 1861, 1865 and 1878) created the first numeric speed limits for mechanically propelled vehicles in the UK; the 1861 Act introduced a UK speed limit of on open roads in town, which was reduced to in towns and in rural areas by the 1865 "Red Flag Act." The Locomotives on Highways Act 1896, which raised the speed limit to is celebrated by the annual London to Brighton Veteran Car Run.


title: Speed limit

text: On 28 January 1896, the first person to be convicted of speeding is believed to be Walter Arnold of East Peckham, Kent, UK, who was fined 1 shilling plus costs for speeding at .


title: Speed limit

text: In 1901, Connecticut was the first state in the United States to impose a numerical speed limit for motor vehicles, setting the maximum legal speed to 12 mph in cities and 15 mph on rural roads. Speed limits then propagated across the United States; by 1930 all but 12 states had established numerical limits.


title: Speed limit

text: In 1903, in the UK, the national speed limit was raised to ; however, as this was difficult to enforce due to the lack of speedometers, the 1930 "Road Traffic Act" abolished speed limits entirely. In 1934, a new limit of was imposed in urban centers, and in July 1967, a national speed limit was introduced.


title: Speed limit

text: In Australia, during the early 20th century, there were people reported for "furious driving" offenses. One conviction in 1905 cited a vehicle furiously driving when passing a tram traveling at half that speed.


title: Speed limit

text: In the 1960s, in continental Europe, some speed limits were established based on the V85 speed, (so that 85% of drivers respect this speed).


title: Speed limit

text: In 1974, Australian speed limits underwent metrication: the urban speed limit of was converted to 60 km/h; the rural speed limits of and were changed to and respectively.


title: Speed limit

text: In 2010, Sweden defined the "Vision Zero" program, a multi-national road traffic safety project that aims to achieve a highway system with no fatalities or serious injuries involving road traffic.


title: Speed limit

text: Most countries use the metric speed unit of kilometers per hour, while others, including the United States, United Kingdom, and Liberia, use speed limits given in miles per hour. Although there have been discussions about a switch to using metric units in countries' other systems (see Metrication in the United Kingdom and Metrication in the United States), there are currently no proposals to change these laws.


title: Speed limit

text: In countries bound by the Vienna Conventions on Road Traffic (1968 & 1977), Article 13 defines a basic rule for speed and distance between vehicles:


title: Speed limit

text: Most legal systems expect drivers to drive at a safe speed for the conditions at hand, regardless of posted limits.


title: Speed limit

text: The German Highway Code ("Straßenverkehrs-Ordnung") section on speed begins with the statement (translated to English):


title: Speed limit

text: Any person driving a vehicle may only drive so fast that the car is under control. Speeds must be adapted to the road, traffic, visibility and weather conditions as well as the personal skills and characteristics of the vehicle and load.


title: Speed limit

text: In France, the law clarifies that even if the speed is limited by law and by local authority, the driver assumes the responsibility to control a vehicle's speed, and to reduce that speed in various circumstances (such as when overtaking a pedestrian or bicycle, individually or in a group; when overtaking a stopped convoy; when passing a transportation vehicle loading or unloading people or children; when the road does not appear clear, or risky; when visibility is low; when the road descends rapidly; when road sections are small, busy, or residential in nature; when approaching the top of a hill; when nearing a crossing where visibility is uncertain; when specific lights are used; or when overtaking animals. If drivers do not master their speed, or do not reduce it in such cases, they can be penalized. Other qualifying conditions include driving through fog, heavy rain, ice, snow, gravel, or when drivers encounter sharp corners, a blinding glare, darkness, crossing traffic, or when there is an obstructed view of orthogonal traffic—such as by road curvature, parked cars, vegetation, or snow banks—thus limiting the Assured Clear Distance Ahead (ACDA).


title: Speed limit

text: In the United States, this requirement is referred to as the basic rule, as outlined by US federal government law (49 CFR 392.14), which applies in all states as permitted under the commerce clause and due process clause. The basic speed law is almost always supplemented by specific maximum or minimum limits but applies regardless. In California, for instance, Vehicle Code section 22350 states that "No person shall drive a vehicle upon a highway at speed greater than is reasonable ... and in no event at a speed which endangers the safety of persons or property". The reasonable speed may be different than the posted speed limit. "Basic rule" speed laws are statutory reinforcements of the centuries-old common law negligence doctrine as specifically applied to vehicular speed. Citations for violations of the basic speed law without a crash have sometimes been ruled unfairly vague or arbitrary, hence a violation of the due process of law, at least in the State of Montana. Even within states, differing jurisdictions (counties and cities) choose to prosecute similar cases with differing approaches.


title: Speed limit

text: Consequential results of basic law violations are often categorized as "excessive speed" crashes; for example, the leading cause of crashes on German autobahns in 2012 fell into that category: 6,587 so-called "speed related" crashes claimed the lives of 179 people, which represented almost half (46.3%) of 387 autobahn fatalities in 2012. However, "excessive speed" does not necessarily mean the speed limit was exceeded, rather that police determined at least one party traveled too fast for existing conditions. Examples of conditions where drivers may find themselves driving too fast include wet roadways (due to rain, snow, or ice), reduced visibility (due to fog or "white out" snow), uneven roads, construction zones, curves, intersections, gravel roads, and heavy traffic. Per distance traveled, consequences of inappropriate speed are more frequent on lower speed, lower quality roads; in the United States, for example, the "speeding fatality rate for local roads is three times that for Interstates".


title: Speed limit

text: For speed management a distinction can exist between "excess speed" which consists of driving in excess of the speed limit, and "inappropriate speed" which consists of going too fast for the conditions.


title: Speed limit

text: Most countries have a legally assigned numerical maximum speed limit which applies on all roads when no other speed limit indications are present; lower speed limits are often shown on a sign at the start of the restricted section, although the presence of streetlights or the physical arrangement of the road may sometimes also be used instead. A posted speed limit may only apply to that road or to all roads beyond the sign that defines them depending on local laws.


title: Speed limit

text: The speed limit is commonly set at or below the 85th percentile operating speed (being the speed which no more than 15% of traffic exceeds), and in the US is frequently set below that speed. Thus, if the 85th percentile operating speed as measured by a "Traffic and Engineering Survey" exceeds the design speed, legal protection is given to motorists traveling at such speeds (design speed is "based on conservative assumptions about the driver, the vehicle, and roadway characteristics"). The theory behind the 85th percentile rules is that, as a policy, most citizens should be deemed reasonable and prudent, and limits must be practical to enforce. However, there are some circumstances where motorists do not tend to process all the risks involved, and as a mass, choose a poor 85th percentile speed. This rule, in practice, is a process for "voting the speed limit" by driving, in contrast to delegating the speed limit to an engineering expert.


title: Speed limit

text: The maximum speed permitted by statute, as posted, is normally based on ideal driving conditions and the basic speed rule always applies. Violation of the statute generally raises a rebuttable presumption of negligence.


title: Speed limit

text: Some roads also have minimum speed limits, usually where slow speeds can impede traffic flow or be dangerous. The use of minimum speed limits is not as common as maximum speed limits, since the risks of speed are less common at lower speeds. In some jurisdictions, laws requiring a minimum speed are primarily centered around red-light districts or similar areas, where they may colloquially be referred to as "kerb crawling laws".


title: Speed limit

text: Traffic rules limiting only middle speeds are rare. One such example exists on the ice roads in Estonia, where it is advised to avoid driving at the speed of 25–40 km/h (16–25 mph) as the vehicle may create resonance that may in turn induce the breaking of ice. This means that two sets of speeds are allowed: under and between 40–70 km/h (25–43 mph).


title: Speed limit

text: In Germany, the first known experiments with variable speed limit signs took place in 1965 on a 30 kilometer stretch of German motorway, the A8 between Munich and the border city of Salzburg, Austria. Mechanically variable message signs could display speeds of 60, 80 and 100 km/h, as well as text indicating a "danger zone" or "accident". Personnel monitored traffic using video technology and manually controlled the signage. Beginning in the 1970s, additional advanced traffic control systems were put into service. Modern motorway control systems can work without human intervention using various types of sensors to measure traffic flow and weather conditions. In 2009, 1,300 kilometers (810 miles) of German motorways were equipped with such systems.


title: Speed limit

text: In the United States, heavily traveled portions of the New Jersey Turnpike began using variable speed limit signs in combination with variable message signs in the late 1960s. Officials can adjust the speed limit according to weather, traffic conditions, and construction. More typically, variable speed limits are used on remote stretches of highway in the United States in areas with extreme changes in driving conditions. For example, variable limits were introduced in October 2010 on a stretch of Interstate 80 in Wyoming, replacing the winter season speed reduction from that had been in place since 2008. This Variable Speed Limit system has been proven effective in terms of reducing crash frequency and road closures. Similarly, Interstate 90 at Snoqualmie Pass and other mountain passes in Washington State have variable speed limits as to slow traffic in severe winter weather. As a response to fog-induced chain-reaction collisions involving 99 vehicles in 1990, a variable speed limit system covering of Interstate 75 in Tennessee was implemented in fog-prone areas around the Hiwassee River. The Georgia Department of Transportation installed variable speed limits on part of Interstate 285 around Atlanta in 2014. These speeds can be as low as but are generally set to . In 2016, the Oregon Department of Transportation installed a variable speed zone on a 30-mile stretch of Interstate 84 between Baker City and Ladd Canyon. The new electronic signs collect data regarding temperature, skid resistance, and average motorist speed to determine the most effective speed limit for the area before presenting the limit on the sign. This speed zone was scheduled to be activated November 2016. Ohio established variable speed limits on three highways in 2017, then in 2019 granted the authority to the Ohio Department of Transportation to establish variable limits on any of its highways.


title: Speed limit

text: In the United Kingdom, a variable speed limit was introduced on part of the M25 motorway in 1995, on the busiest section from junction 10 to 16. Initial results suggested savings in journey times, smoother-flowing traffic, and a decrease in the number of crashes; the scheme was made permanent in 1997. However, a 2004 National Audit Organisation report noted that the business case was unproved; conditions at the site of the Variable Speed Limits trial were not stable before or during the trial, and the study was deemed neither properly controlled nor reliable. Since December 2008 the upgraded section of the M1 between the M25 and Luton has had the capability for variable speed limits. In January 2010 temporary variable speed cameras on the M1 between J25 and J28 were made permanent.


title: Speed limit

text: New Zealand introduced variable speed limits in February 2001. The first installation was on the Ngauranga Gorge section of the dual carriageway on State Highway 1, characterized by steep terrain, numerous bends, high traffic volumes, and a higher than average accident rate. The speed limit is normally .


title: Speed limit

text: Austria undertook a short-term experiment in 2006, with a variable limit configuration that could increase statutory limits under the most favorable conditions, as well as reduce them. In June 2006, a stretch of motorway was configured with variable speed limits that could increase the general Austrian motorway limit of . Then Austrian Transport Minister Hubert Gorbach called the experiment "a milestone in European transport policy-despite all predictions to the contrary"; however, the experiment was discontinued.