title: EuropaCorp

text: The company was created by Luc Besson in 1992 under the name Leeloo Productions, but it only fully began producing and co-producing feature films many years later, with the release of "Taxi" and "The Dancer". The company was renamed EuropaCorp in 2000. Luc Besson had also created a smaller production company called "Les Films du Dauphin" in 1990 that has existed outside of Leeloo Productions / EuropaCorp. Pierre-Ange Le Pogam, old associate of Besson from Gaumont, the production company behind many earlier Besson's directed films, joined EuropaCorp in 2000. He had worked with Besson since 1985 first as a Distribution Director and from 1997 as a Deputy Chief Executive Officer at Gaumont. He became known as the right-hand man of Besson at EuropaCorp. He left the company in 2011 over disagreements with Besson.


title: EuropaCorp

text: In July 2007 EuropaCorp successfully managed its IPO on Euronext Paris. In May 2008, the CSA, French authority for media regulation, selected the EuropaCorp TV project in its invitation to apply for a mobile TV channel in France. In 2013 Lisa Ellzey, hitherto producer for Lionsgate and 20th Century Fox, was appointed as executive vice president of U.S. Motion Picture Production of EuropaCorp.


title: EuropaCorp

text: In 2018, Besson was accused of rape by an actress who wishes to remain anonymous. EuropaCorp stocks dropped 17% to just €2.31 ($2.70) after the rape allegation. Later the same year, EuropaCorp sold its French television division to Mediawan and renamed into Storia Television. EuropaCorp also agreed to sell the Roissy Films library to Gaumont. Five more women made similar statements against Besson.


title: EuropaCorp

text: In May 2019 EuropaCorp was granted a six-month debt waiver from a French commercial court and placed under court protection. A week later the studio filed for bankruptcy protection in the United States. Its stock value had fallen to €0.67. It had no films in production. In December 2019 the company was $182 million in debt and it had been in long bailout negotiations with "Vine Alternative Investments".


title: EuropaCorp

text: In 2007 EuropaCorp was owned at 62% by Luc Besson through his company Frontline and at 8.06% by Pierre-Ange Le Pogam; 23% was public.


title: EuropaCorp

text: Besson was appointed the chairman of EuropaCorp's board of directors. Jean-Julien Baronnet was the chief executive officer of EuropaCorp until November 2008. Christophe Lambert was CEO from 2010 to 2016. Marc Shmuger was appointed as CEO in 2016.


title: EuropaCorp

text: Digital Factory is related to EuropaCorp via Luc Besson. The handling of post-production sound is performed chiefly at its Normandy site, while the visual effects are done in Paris.


title: EuropaCorp

text: In September 2016 it was announced that Chinese film company Fundamental Films had acquired a stake of 27.9% in EuropaCorp, becoming the second-largest shareholder in the company.


title: EuropaCorp

text: In June 2017, EuropaCorp signed a music publishing deal with Sony/ATV Music Publishing. And later that month, the studio posted a loss of 120 million euros (US$135 million).


title: EuropaCorp

text: EuropaCorp has produced the world box-office hits "Taken" ($224 million at world box-office), "Arthur and the Invisibles" ($107 million), "Transporter 3" ($106 million) and "Hitman" ($100 million).


title: EuropaCorp

text: Two EuropaCorp productions have been topping the US box-office: "Transporter 2" by summer 2005 and "Taken" at spring 2009.


title: EuropaCorp

text: Many international film stars have appeared in EuropaCorp productions: Jim Carrey, Penélope Cruz, Robert De Niro, David Duchovny, Morgan Freeman, Salma Hayek, Tommy Lee Jones, Jet Li, John Malkovich, Jason Statham, Brittany Murphy, Liam Neeson, Madonna, Freddie Highmore, Ewan McGregor, Lou Reed, and others. Consequently, the films are usually shot in English.


title: EuropaCorp

text: EuropaCorp Japan, a subsidiary of EuropaCorp based in Tokyo, has for core business the distribution of feature films in Japan. It is a joint-venture with three Japanese companies: Asmik Ace, Sumitomo Corporation and Kadokawa.


title: EuropaCorp

text: In 2012, EuropaCorp struck a three-year output deal with Chinese film distributor Fundamental Films for 15 feature films. Fundamental Films agreed to co-produce three of these films.


title: EuropaCorp

text: EuropaCorp relocated to the Cité du Cinéma in 2012. This movie studio complex, located in Saint-Denis in the close outskirts of Paris, at build out will have a total of nine film stages, with another 12,000 square metres of space devoted to technical units and 2200 square metres for screening and reception rooms.


title: EuropaCorp

text: EuropaCorp signed a lease with the Nef Lumière, owner of the tertiary complex, for space for its permanent staff and the film crews, with extra space for potential new activities. This tertiary complex is financed by both the Caisse des Dépôt and Vinci.


title: EuropaCorp

text: EuropaCorp is a minority shareholder in the company operating the studios, joining Euro Media Group, Quinta Communications and Frontline. The Euro Media Group, which owns several film studios throughout Europe, will provide management of daily operations of these studios of Paris.


title: Bruce Lansbury

text: William Bruce Mageean Lansbury (12 January 1930 – 13 February 2017) was a British-born Irish-American television producer, television writer and screenwriter. His career spanned over 30 years, from the 1960s to the 1990s, and included work on a number of American television series.


title: Bruce Lansbury

text: Born in London in 1930, Lansbury was the son of Belfast-born actress Moyna Macgill and Edgar Lansbury, a British politician and businessman, and grandson of future Labour Party leader George Lansbury. He was the younger brother of actress Angela Lansbury and the twin brother of theatre, film, and television producer Edgar Lansbury. Both brothers became United States citizens in 1954. Lansbury was a graduate of UCLA and married his first wife, Mary Hassalevris in 1951. The couple had two daughters and remained together until Mary's death in 1996. In 1998, he married Gail England.


title: Bruce Lansbury

text: Lansbury served as producer of 69 episodes of "The Wild Wild West", from 1966 to 1969, and 38 episodes of "", from 1969 to 1972, and among his work on other television series and TV movies, Lansbury served as producer of "Wonder Woman", "Knight Rider", "Buck Rogers in the 25th Century" and executive producer for the science fiction series "The Fantastic Journey".


title: Bruce Lansbury

text: His name appears in the closing credits of "The Brady Bunch", "Happy Days" and "The Odd Couple" as "Vice President of Creative Affairs" for Paramount Television.


title: Bruce Lansbury

text: Lansbury's most notable position was serving as producer of 88 episodes of "Murder, She Wrote", starring his sister, Angela. He was also a writer for 15 episodes of the show.


title: Bruce Lansbury

text: Bruce Lansbury died on 13 February 2017, at the age of 87 in La Quinta, California, after battling Alzheimer's disease.


title: Pukar (2000 film)

text: Pukar () is a 2000 Indian action thriller film co-written and directed by Rajkumar Santoshi and Cinematography by Ashok Mehta, Santosh Sivan, Baba Azmi and Chota K. Naidu. It stars Anil Kapoor, Madhuri Dixit, Namrata Shirodkar, Danny Denzongpa, Shivaji Satam and Om Puri. The score and soundtrack were composed by A. R. Rahman.


title: Pukar (2000 film)

text: "Pukar" released on 4 February 2000, and received critical acclaim, but did average business at the box office.


title: Pukar (2000 film)

text: At the 48th National Film Awards, "Pukar" won 2 National Film Awards – Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration and Best Actor (Kapoor). At the 46th Filmfare Awards, "Pukar" received 2 nominations – Best Actor (Kapoor) and Best Actress (Dixit).


title: Pukar (2000 film)

text: Para SF officer Major Jaidev "Jai" Rajvansh and his fellow officer manage to rescue a leading politician as well as capture his kidnapper, Pakistani Terrorist Abhrush. The terrorist has been wanted for years and he is finally captured by the two officers. Jai returns to a joyous welcome and is declared a national hero. His senior offers him to take leave for a week, Jai accepts it and returns to his hometown. There he meets his childhood friend Anjali who has always harboured love for Jai. Anjali wants to make most of Jai's holiday and tries to get close to him and spend time with him as much as she can.


title: Pukar (2000 film)

text: At a party, he meets Miss India, Pooja Mallapa. As they spend time together, they begin to fall in love. As Jai's parents are arranging his marriage to Anjali, Jai admits his love for Pooja and that he always thought of Anjali as a close friend. Heartbroken and jealous, Anjali wants revenge for Jai’s rejection. Realizing her frustration with Jai, Abhrush takes advantage (via the said "kidnapped" politician who is hand in glove with Abhrush) and together they plot to destroy Jai's reputation and life.


title: Pukar (2000 film)

text: Anjali manages to steal confidential documents detailing plans for Abhrush's movement from prison to prison. The following events lead to Jai being court-martialed and declared a traitor to the country. Pooja leaves him due to family pressure. Jai, determined to prove his innocence and redeem himself, decides to pursue Abhrush alone. Ultimately Anjali comes to her senses and realizes her mistake. To atone for it, she single-handedly tries to thwart Abhrush's plans and help Jai prove his innocence. Jai overpowers Abhrush. Finally, Jai expresses his love for Anjali and forgives her and both unite to live happily.


title: Pukar (2000 film)

text: The music is given by A. R. Rahman, while the lyrics were written by Majrooh and Javed Akhtar. The song Kay Sera Sera is based on "Kadhal Niagara" from "En Swasa Kaatre". Rahman reused the song "Oh Bosnia" as "Ek Tu Hi Bharosa". The song was composed and performed by Rahman in his Malaysian concert in 1996 that was in aid of Bosnian victims. The piano was played by Rahman himself. "Hai Jaana" has two parts within the film version and soundtrack version. The song "Sunta Hai Mera Khuda" was shot at Arches National Park in Utah, United States. The song " Kismat Se Tum Humko Mile Ho" was shot at Mount Marcus Baker in Alaska, United States.


title: Need to Know (Doja Cat song)

text: "Need to Know" is a song by American rapper and singer Doja Cat, from her third studio album, "Planet Her" (2021). Written by Doja Cat and producer Dr. Luke, the song was initially released through Kemosabe and RCA Records on June 11, 2021, as the sole promotional single from the album, and impacted American rhythmic contemporary radio stations on August 31, as the third single. A melodic trap-pop song characterized by raunchy lyrics and atmospheric instrumentation, it received critical acclaim for Doja Cat's versatility in her vocal delivery.


title: Need to Know (Doja Cat song)

text: "Need to Know" was nominated for Best Melodic Rap Performance at the 64th Annual Grammy Awards. Commercially, the song reached the top 10 in eight countries, including the United States and Australia, where it has been awarded triple platinum certifications from both the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). The accompanying music video explores the futuristic environment of the fictional "Planet Her" and features cameo appearances from Grimes and Ryan Destiny.


title: Need to Know (Doja Cat song)

text: In April 2021, the song was confirmed after being mentioned during a cover story interview with "Billboard". On June 9, 2021, Doja Cat officially announced the release of "Need to Know" via a futuristic teaser on her Instagram, with the faint melody of the song briefly heard in the short clip. Shortly after the teaser was published, Doja Cat noted in a tweet that the song "isn't even the next single" and it was "just some shit before the next more important single comes out for you to enjoy". The song was officially released to streaming platforms at midnight local time on June 11, 2021. Shortly before the song's release, Doja Cat had officially announced the release of the parent album "Planet Her", and revealed its track listing and album art. In August 2021, she performed the song in a pre-recorded video for Vevo. "Need to Know" impacted rhythmic contemporary radio in the United States, as the album's third single on August 31, 2021.


title: Need to Know (Doja Cat song)

text: "Need to Know" is a trap-pop song with elements of bass-heavy R&B, and disco. Written by Doja Cat and its producer Dr. Luke, the song was described as a "grinding sex jam", driven by a "crisp" rhythm of "trap snares", and "sharp" drums, over "a hard-knocking bass" and atmospheric, "neon-lit", futuristic synthesizers. Doja Cat delivers her "usual blend of ethereal vocals and melodically harsh raps", as well as "shrill" background vocals. Lyrically, she explores her pursuit of a new love interest or sexual partner whilst trying to determine if they have mutual agreement and understanding. A celebration of sexuality, Doja Cat fantasizes about her sexual desires. She recalled to have been inebriated while writing the song in studio.


title: Need to Know (Doja Cat song)

text: The song was considered distinguishable by its "raunchy" lyrics in which the rapper describes her "bedroom antics". Some critics described the track as "seductive" and "fiery", noting that Doja Cat "turns up the heat" and "takes it to the bedroom". Paris Close of iHeartRadio commented that she delivers "a salvo of erotic verses nonstop, only stopping to catch her breath in soft, sensual whispers and climactic coos". Jon Blistein of "Rolling Stone" noted that Doja Cat's rap verses "lean into delightfully lurid punchlines". Imogen Lawlor of "Vinyl Chapters" wrote that her "triplet flow is layered over... disco production, segueing seamlessly into a[n]... electronic UFO melody".


title: Need to Know (Doja Cat song)

text: "Need to Know" was released to widespread critical acclaim. "Vulture" crowned "Need to Know" as the best song of 2021 and deemed it "the best showcase of all the talents [Doja Cat]'s possessed for years", praising her "vocal contortionism" and "overflowing charisma". In an album review for Uproxx, Bianca Gracie crowned "Need to Know" as the best song on "Planet Her" and described it as "an otherworldly joyride driven by the mad scientist that is Doja Cat", whom she proclaimed was "in true alien form" as she simultaneously channeled "a raunchy freak, cooing baby, helium sucker, and frantic spitter over a galaxy of ice-cold trap melodies." Meaghan Garvey of "Billboard" said that the song celebrates Doja Cat's femininity and revels in her sense of humor. Writing for the same magazine, Jason Lipshutz noted that "Need to Know" is "rife with thinly veiled innuendos and sexual demands" and it "features one of Doja Cat's most liberated vocal performances -- singing, rapping, pleading, crooning, remaining singular in her delivery and utterly fearless on the microphone". In "Billboard"'s review of the album, "Billboard" staff deemed the song "a prime example of how Doja doesn't ... rely on ... shock value ... to make her songs click ... her delivery and vocal performances ... carry this song".


title: Need to Know (Doja Cat song)

text: In 2021, "Need to Know" was nominated for the MTV Video Music Award for Song of the Summer. The following year, the song received a nomination at the 64th Annual Grammy Awards for Best Melodic Rap Performance.


title: Need to Know (Doja Cat song)

text: As a promotional single, "Need to Know" debuted at number 38 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, falling 17 spots to number 66 the following week. In November 2021, the song rose to the top 10 of the Hot 100 for the first time, reaching number 9 and giving Doja Cat her fourth top 10. It peaked at number eight the following week, re-peaking again at that position on the chart dated January 18, 2022. That month, the song also became Doja Cat's fourth song to top "Billboard"'s Rhythmic radio chart in 2021, surpassing Drake as the artist with the most number ones that year. It also topped the Pop Airplay chart in February 2022. In July 2022, the song was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for amassing 3,000,000 certified units in the US.


title: Need to Know (Doja Cat song)

text: Elsewhere, "Need to Know" peaked at number nine in the ARIA Singles Chart in Australia, where it is certified triple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). In the United Kingdom, "Need to Know" debuted at number 37 on the UK Singles Chart in its opening week, becoming her seventh top 40 hit. The song peaked at number 11 and had sold over 278,618 units in the country by October 2021, and later earned a platinum certification in the country from the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) in November 2022.


title: Need to Know (Doja Cat song)

text: Having been teased in the prior social media announcement, the accompanying music video was uploaded to YouTube soon after the song was released on streaming platforms at midnight local time on June 11, 2021. It was recorded over the course of a day and was directed by duo Miles Cable & AJ Favicchio with support from their production company SixTwentySix Productions. The video takes place in the futuristic city environment of the fictional "Planet Her", and follows a blue-tinted alien Doja Cat alongside a group of female alien friends played by actresses Jazelle Straka-Braxton and Josephine Pearl Leewhich, with cameo appearances from Canadian musician Grimes and American actress Ryan Destiny. Ana Diaz of "Polygon" compared Doja Cat's alien persona to Aayla Secura from the "Star Wars" franchise.


title: Need to Know (Doja Cat song)

text: The video opens with the camera flying through a 3D-animated, futuristic cityscape, before settling on a scenic shot of Doja Cat playing video games on a PlayStation 5 in her underwear while drinking and lounging around with her group of friends in a 1970s-inspired apartment. The scene then changes to the group inside a flying "self-driving convertible pod" Uber. They arrive at a private, underground club hosting a variety of cyborgs and aliens, where the group dances and take shots of smoky vapor-like alcohol. Doja Cat begins to flirt with a man whom she shares a dance with before giving him a lap dance in a private room. While later parting ways outside the club at the end of the video, she whispers something into his ear which makes his eyes light up. Heran Mamo from "Billboard" begged the question, "Is he an alien? Or is he human?", to which Doja Cat indirectly responded on Twitter that he was a cyborg pretending to be human.


title: Need to Know (Doja Cat song)

text: Miles & AJ revealed that Doja Cat and her team came up with the concept for the video and maintained creative control. Referring to Grimes, "The A.V. Club" noted that "given the futuristic nature of the music video, it only makes sense to bring in an artist who seems like they're from another planet". Grimes revealed that she agreed to take part in the video without even asking what it was beforehand, writing that the shoot was "insanely fun". Doja Cat and her directors used "Blade Runner" (1982) and "The Fifth Element" (1997) as reference points while creating the music video. The set for the music video was built by production designer Jonathan Chu, as opposed to the conventional usage of a green screen. Doja Cat's creative team hired Melissa Stearn as part of a team of approximately twenty artists to handle prosthetics for the video, while the animators led by visual effects artist Daichi Sakane used Unreal Engine 4.26 to render the cityscape sequences. The art direction team for the practical scenes was led by John Richoux, with assistance from production designer Jonathan Chu.


title: Darlene Zschech

text: Darlene Joyce Zschech (; née Steinhardt on 8 September 1965) is an Australian Pentecostal Christian worship leader and singer-songwriter who primarily writes praise and worship songs. Described as a pioneer of the modern worship movement, she is the former worship pastor of Hillsong Church and currently a member of Compassionart, a charity founded by Martin Smith.


title: Darlene Zschech

text: Zschech starred on television at the age of ten, as part of an Australian children's show, "Happy Go Round". When she was 13, her parents divorced and the emotional stress of being on television and her parents' divorce resulted in her having bulimia for about four years.


title: Darlene Zschech

text: In 1980, when Zschech was 15, her father rededicated his life to Christ and began taking her to church, where she also became a committed Christian and met her future husband, Mark Zschech. When they married, her husband suggested that they move from Brisbane to Sydney, which was confirmed at a small church they were visiting one Sunday when the guest speaker said in the middle of his sermon, "This doesn't happen to me very often, but whatever it is you two prayed last night, God says to do it now." They began attending Hills Christian Life Centre, which would become Hillsong Church.


title: Darlene Zschech

text: Zschech sang jingles for several international companies including McDonald's, KFC and Coca-Cola. She released "Make the Choice" in 1987 and "Pearls & Gold" in 1993. She eventually joined the staff of Hillsong Church after penning "Shout to the Lord" in 1993. When she presented it to Hillsong's then-worship pastor, Geoff Bullock, she was so embarrassed that she requested he face away from her as she played and sang. It was first recorded on "People Just Like Us" and has appeared on more than 200 different albums by numerous artists in multiple languages. It is also the title track for the first live album co-produced with Integrity Music featuring Zschech as a worship leader. It was Integrity Music's first album to feature a female worship leader. The album was nominated for Praise & Worship Album of the Year at the 1997 Dove Awards. The song was nominated in the 1998 Dove Awards' Song of the Year category. It has been performed for the Pope at the Vatican and for the President of the United States. The song has become one of the most well-known modern worship songs, being sung by an estimated 25–30 million churchgoers every Sunday since the song's release. She wrote the song during a time of personal struggle.


title: Darlene Zschech

text: "Shout to the Lord", the album, was nominated as Album of the Year for the 1997 Dove Awards and Song of the Year for the 1998 Dove Awards. In 2000, Zschech received a Dove Award nomination for Songwriter of the Year and received the International Award for influence in praise and worship.


title: Darlene Zschech

text: Zschech was the worship pastor of Hillsong Church from 1996 to 2007, during which time she served as producer, vocal producer or executive producer for more than 20 albums under the Hillsong Music label and wrote more than 80 published worship songs. Under Zschech's leadership, the album "People Just Like Us" (1994) was the first Christian album in Australia to be certified gold and platinum, and the album "For All You've Done" (2004) debuted at No. 1 on the Australian Record Industry Association album charts.


title: Darlene Zschech

text: In 2003, Zschech released her first official solo album, "Kiss of Heaven". "Change Your World" followed in 2005. She has since released two albums, in 2011, called "Simply Darlene" and "You Are Love". In addition to writing songs, she has written five books: "Worship" (1996), "Extravagant Worship" (2002), "The Kiss of Heaven" (2003), "The Great Generational Transition" (2009) and "Revealing Jesus: A 365-Day Devotional" (2013).


title: Darlene Zschech

text: On 11 December 2013, Zschech announced that she had been diagnosed with breast cancer. In a blog dated 30 November 2014, she wrote that she has been healed of cancer, which her doctor called miraculous.


title: Darlene Zschech

text: The following is a list by year of albums or single tracks which feature Zschech as a prominent vocalist or worship leader.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Coral bleaching is the process when corals become white due to various stressors, such as changes in temperature, light, or nutrients. Bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel the zooxanthellae (dinoflagellates that are commonly referred to as algae) that live inside their tissue, causing the coral to turn white. The zooxanthellae are photosynthetic, and as the water temperature rises, they begin to produce reactive oxygen species. This is toxic to the coral, so the coral expels the zooxanthellae. Since the zooxanthellae produce the majority of coral colouration, the coral tissue becomes transparent, revealing the coral skeleton made of calcium carbonate. Most bleached corals appear bright white, but some are blue, yellow, or pink due to pigment proteins in the coral.


title: Coral bleaching

text: The leading cause of coral bleaching is rising ocean temperature due to climate change. A temperature about 1 °C (or 2 °F) above average can cause bleaching. According to the United Nations Environment Programme, between 2014 and 2016, the longest recorded global bleaching events killed coral on an unprecedented scale. In 2016, bleaching of coral on the Great Barrier Reef killed between 29 and 50 percent of the reef's coral. In 2017, the bleaching extended into the central region of the reef. The average interval between bleaching events has halved between 1980 and 2016. The world's most bleaching tolerant corals can be found in the southern Persian/Arabian Gulf. Some of these corals bleach only when water temperatures exceed ~35 °C.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Bleached corals continue to live, but they are more vulnerable to disease and starvation. Zooxanthellae provide up to 90 percent of the coral's energy, so corals are deprived of nutrients when zooxanthellae are expelled. Some corals recover if conditions return to normal, and some corals can feed themselves. However, the majority of coral without zooxanthellae starve.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Normally, coral polyps live in an endosymbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae. This relationship is crucial for the health of the coral and the reef, which provide shelter for approximately 25% of all marine life. In this relationship, the coral provides the zooxanthellae with shelter. In return, the zooxanthellae provide compounds that give energy to the coral through photosynthesis. This relationship has allowed coral to survive for at least 210 million years in nutrient-poor environments. Coral bleaching is caused by the breakdown of this relationship.


title: Coral bleaching

text: The corals that form the great reef ecosystems of tropical seas depend upon a symbiotic relationship with algae-like single-celled flagellate protozoa called zooxanthellae that live within their tissues and give the coral its coloration. The zooxanthellae provide the coral with nutrients through photosynthesis, a crucial factor in the clear and nutrient-poor tropical waters. In exchange, the coral provides the zooxanthellae with the carbon dioxide and ammonium needed for photosynthesis. Negative environmental conditions, such as abnormally warm or cool temperatures, high light, and even some microbial diseases, can lead to the breakdown of the coral/zooxanthellae symbiosis. To ensure short-term survival, the coral-polyp then consumes or expels the zooxanthellae. This leads to a lighter or completely white appearance, hence the term "bleached". Under mild stress conditions, some corals may appear bright blue, pink, purple, or yellow instead of white, due to the continued or increased presence of the coral cells' intrinsic pigment molecules, a phenomenon known as "colourful bleaching". As the zooxanthellae provide up to 90 percent of the coral's energy needs through products of photosynthesis, after expelling, the coral may begin to starve.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Coral can survive short-term disturbances, but if the conditions that lead to the expulsion of the zooxanthellae persist, the coral's chances of survival diminish. In order to recover from bleaching, the zooxanthellae have to re-enter the tissues of the coral polyps and restart photosynthesis to sustain the coral as a whole and the ecosystem that depends on it.


title: Coral bleaching

text: If the coral polyps die of starvation after bleaching, they will decay. The hard coral species will then leave behind their calcium carbonate skeletons, which will be taken over by algae, effectively blocking coral re-growth. Eventually, the coral skeletons will erode, causing the reef structure to collapse.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Coral bleaching may be caused by a number of factors. While localized triggers lead to localized bleaching, the large scale coral bleaching events of the recent years have been triggered by global warming. Under increased carbon dioxide concentration expected in the 21st century, corals are expected to becoming increasingly rare on reef systems. Coral reefs located in warm, shallow water with low water flow have been more affected than reefs located in areas with higher water flow.


title: Coral bleaching

text: The warming ocean surface waters can lead to bleaching of corals which can cause serious damage and coral death. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report in 2022 found that: "Since the early 1980s, the frequency and severity of mass coral bleaching events have increased sharply worldwide". Coral reefs, as well as other shelf-sea ecosystems, such as rocky shores, kelp forests, seagrasses and mangroves have recently undergone mass mortalities from marine heatwaves. It is expected that many coral reefs will "undergo irreversible phase shifts due to marine heatwaves with global warming levels >1.5°C".


title: Coral bleaching

text: This problem was already identified in 2007 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as the greatest threat to the world's reef systems.


title: Coral bleaching

text: In the Great Barrier Reef, before 1998 there were no such events. The first event happened in 1998 and after it they begun to occur more and more frequently so in the years 2016 - 2020 there were 3 of them.


title: Coral bleaching

text: With the increase of coral bleaching events worldwide, National Geographic noted in 2017, "In the past three years, 25 reefs—which comprise three-fourths of the world's reef systems—experienced severe bleaching events in what scientists concluded was the worst-ever sequence of bleachings to date."


title: Coral bleaching

text: Elevated sea water temperatures are the main cause of mass bleaching events. Sixty major episodes of coral bleaching have occurred between 1979 and 1990, with the associated coral mortality affecting reefs in every part of the world. In 2016, the longest coral bleaching event was recorded. The longest and most destructive coral bleaching event was because of the El Niño that occurred from 2014 to 2017. During this time, over 70 percent of the coral reefs around the world have become damaged.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Factors that influence the outcome of a bleaching event include stress-resistance which reduces bleaching, tolerance to the absence of zooxanthellae, and how quickly new coral grows to replace the dead. Due to the patchy nature of bleaching, local climatic conditions such as shade or a stream of cooler water can reduce bleaching incidence. Coral and zooxanthellae health and genetics also influence bleaching.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Large coral colonies such as "Porites" are able to withstand extreme temperature shocks, while fragile branching corals such "Acropora" are far more susceptible to stress following a temperature change. Corals consistently exposed to low stress levels may be more resistant to bleaching.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Scientists believe that the oldest known bleaching was that of the Late Devonian (Frasnian/Famennian), also triggered by the rise of sea surface temperatures. It resulted in the demise of the largest coral reefs in the Earth's history.


title: Coral bleaching

text: According to Clive Wilkinson of Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network of Townsville, Australia, in 1998 the mass bleaching event that occurred in the Indian Ocean region was due to the rising of sea temperatures by 2 °C coupled with the strong El Niño event in 1997–1998.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Coral bleaching events and the subsequent loss of coral coverage often result in the decline of fish diversity. The loss of diversity and abundance in herbivorous fish particularly affect coral reef ecosystems. As mass bleaching events occur more frequently, fish populations will continue to homogenize. Smaller and more specialized fish species that fill particular ecological niches that are crucial for coral health are replaced by more generalized species. The loss of specialization likely to contributes to loss of resilience in coral reef ecosystems after bleaching events.


title: Coral bleaching

text: According to Brian Skoloff of "The Christian Science Monitor", "If the reefs vanished, experts say, hunger, poverty and political instability could ensue." Since countless sea life depend on the reefs for shelter and protection from predators, the extinction of the reefs would ultimately create a domino effect that would trickle down to the many human societies that depend on those fish for food and livelihood. There has been a 44% decline over the last 20 years in the Florida Keys, and up to 80% in the Caribbean alone.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Coral reefs provide various ecosystem services, one of which is being a natural fishery, as many frequently consumed commercial fish spawn or live out their juvenile lives in coral reefs around the tropics. Thus, reefs are a popular fishing site and are an important source of income for fishers, especially small, local fisheries. As coral reef habitat decreases due to bleaching, reef associated fish populations also decrease, which affects fishing opportunities. A model from one study by Speers et al. calculated direct losses to fisheries from decreased coral cover to be around $49–69 billion, if human societies continue to emit high levels of greenhouse gases. But, these losses could be reduced for a consumer surplus benefit of about $14–20 billion, if societies chose to emit a lower level of greenhouse gases instead. These economic losses also have important political implications, as they fall disproportionately on developing countries where the reefs are located, namely in Southeast Asia and around the Indian Ocean. It would cost more for countries in these areas to respond to coral reef loss as they would need to turn to different sources of income and food, in addition to losing other ecosystem services such as ecotourism. A study completed by Chen et al. suggested that the commercial value of reefs decreases by almost 4% every time coral cover decreases by 1% because of losses in ecotourism and other potential outdoor recreational activities.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Coral reefs also act as a protective barrier for coastlines by reducing wave impact, which lowers the damage from storms, erosions, and flooding. Countries that lose this natural protection will lose more money because of the increased susceptibility of storms. This indirect cost, combined with the lost revenue in tourism, will result in enormous economic effects.


title: Coral bleaching

text: The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) monitors for bleaching "hot spots", areas where sea surface temperature rises 1 °C or more above the long-term monthly average. The "hot spots" are the location in which thermal stress is measured and with the development of Degree Heating Week (DHW), the coral reef's thermal stress is monitored. Global coral bleaching is being detected earlier due to the satellite remote sensing the rise of sea temperatures. It is necessary to monitor the high temperatures because coral bleaching events are affecting coral reef reproduction and normal growth capacity, as well as it weakening corals, eventually leading to their mortality. This system detected the worldwide 1998 bleaching event, that corresponded to the 1997–98 El Niño event. Currently, 190 reef sites around the globe are monitored by the NOAA, and send alerts to research scientists and reef managers via NOAA Coral Reef Watch (CRW) website. By monitoring the warming of sea temperatures, the early warnings of coral bleaching, alerts reef managers to prepare and draw awareness to future bleaching events. The first mass global bleaching events were recorded in 1998 and 2010, which was when the El Niño caused the oceans temperatures to rise and worsened the corals living conditions. The 2014–2017 El Niño was recorded to be the longest and most damaging to the corals, which harmed over 70% of our coral reefs. Over two-thirds of the Great Barrier Reef have been reported to be bleached or dead.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Increasing ocean acidification due to rises in carbon dioxide levels exacerbates the bleaching effects of thermal stress. Acidification affects the corals' ability to create calcareous skeletons, essential to their survival. This is because ocean acidification decreases the amount of carbonate ion in the water, making it more difficult for corals to absorb the calcium carbonate they need for the skeleton. As a result, the resilience of reefs goes down, while it becomes easier for them to erode and dissolve. In addition, the increase in CO allows herbivore overfishing and nutrification to change coral-dominated ecosystems to algal-dominated ecosystems. A recent study from the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future found that with the combination of acidification and temperature rises, the levels of CO could become too high for coral to survive in as little as 50 years.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Zooxanthellae are a type of dinoflagellate that live within the cytoplasm of many marine invertebrates. Members of the phylum Dinoflagellata, they are a round micro-algae that are share a symbiotic relationship with their host. They are also part of the genus Symbiodinium and Kingdom Alveolata. These organisms are phytoplankton and therefore photosynthesize. The products of photosynthesis, i.e. oxygen, sugar, etc. are harnessed by the host organism, and in exchange, the zooxanthellae are offered housing and protection, as well as carbon dioxide, phosphates and other essential inorganic compounds that help them to survive and thrive. Zooxanthellae share 95% of the products of photosynthesis with their host coral. According to the a study done by D.J. Smith et al. photoinhibition is a likely factor in coral bleaching. It also suggests that the hydrogen peroxide produced in zooxanthealle plays a role in signaling themselves to flee the corals. Photo-inhibition of Zooxanthellae can be caused by exposure to UV filters found in personal care products. In a study done by Zhong et al., Oxybenzone (BP-3) had the most negative effects on zooxanthellae health. The combination of temperature increase and presence of UV filters in the ocean has further decreased zooxanthellae health. The combination of UV filters and higher temperatures led to an additive effect on photo-inihibition and overall stress on coral species.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Infectious bacteria of the species "Vibrio shiloi" are the bleaching agent of "Oculina patagonica" in the Mediterranean Sea, causing this effect by attacking the zooxanthellae. "V. shiloi" is infectious only during warm periods. Elevated temperature increases the virulence of "V. shiloi", which then become able to adhere to a beta-galactoside-containing receptor in the surface mucus of the host coral. "V. shiloi" then penetrates the coral's epidermis, multiplies, and produces both heat-stable and heat-sensitive toxins, which affect zooxanthellae by inhibiting photosynthesis and causing lysis.


title: Coral bleaching

text: During the summer of 2003, coral reefs in the Mediterranean Sea appeared to gain resistance to the pathogen, and further infection was not observed. The main hypothesis for the emerged resistance is the presence of symbiotic communities of protective bacteria living in the corals. The bacterial species capable of lysing "V. shiloi" had not been identified as of 2011.


title: Coral bleaching

text: The Great Barrier Reef along the coast of Australia experienced bleaching events in 1980, 1982, 1992, 1994, 1998, 2002, 2006, 2016 and 2017. Some locations suffered severe damage, with up to 90% mortality. The most widespread and intense events occurred in the summers of 1998 and 2002, with 42% and 54%, respectively, of reefs bleached to some extent, and 18% strongly bleached. However, coral losses on the reef between 1995 and 2009 were largely offset by growth of new corals. An overall analysis of coral loss found that coral populations on the Great Barrier Reef had declined by 50.7% from 1985 to 2012, but with only about 10% of that decline attributable to bleaching, and the remaining 90% caused about equally by tropical cyclones and by predation by crown-of-thorns starfishes.


title: Coral bleaching

text: A global mass coral bleaching has been occurring since 2014 because of the highest recorded temperatures plaguing oceans. These temperatures have caused the most severe and widespread coral bleaching ever recorded in the Great Barrier reef. The most severe bleaching in 2016 occurred near Port Douglas. In late November 2016 surveys of 62 reefs showed that long term heat stress from climate change caused a 29% loss of shallow water coral. The highest coral death and reef habitat loss was inshore and mid-shelf reefs around Cape Grenville and Princess Charlotte Bay.


title: Coral bleaching

text: The IPCC's moderate warming scenarios (B1 to A1T, 2 °C by 2100, IPCC, 2007, Table SPM.3, p. 13) forecast that corals on the Great Barrier Reef are very likely to regularly experience summer temperatures high enough to induce bleaching.


title: Coral bleaching

text: In 1996, Hawaii's first major coral bleaching occurred in Kaneohe Bay, followed by major bleaching events in the Northwest islands in 2002 and 2004. In 2014, biologists from the University of Queensland observed the first mass bleaching event, and attributed it to The Blob. In 2014 and 2015, a survey in Hanauma Bay Nature Preserve on Oahu found 47% of the corals suffering from coral bleaching and close to 10% of the corals dying. In 2014 and 2015, 56% of the coral reefs of the big island were affected by coral bleaching events. During the same period, 44% of the corals on west Maui were effected. On 24 January 2019, scientists with The Nature Conservancy found that the reefs had begun to stabilize nearly 4 years after the last bleaching event. According to the Division of Aquatic Resources (DAR), there was still a considerable amount of bleaching in 2019. On Oahu and Maui, up to 50% of the coral reefs were bleached. On the big island, roughly 40% of corals experienced bleaching in the Kona coast area. The DAR stated that the recent bleaching events have not been as bad as the 2014-2015 events. In 2020, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) released the first-ever nationwide coral reef status report. The report stated that the northwestern and main Hawaiian islands were in "fair" shape, meaning the corals have been moderately impacted.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Eight severe and two moderate bleaching events occurred between 1960 and 2016 in the coral community in Jarvis Island, with the 2015–16 bleaching displaying the unprecedented severity in the record.


title: Coral bleaching

text: According to the 2017 Japanese government report, almost 75% of Japan's largest coral reef in Okinawa has died from bleaching.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Coral reef provinces have been permanently damaged by warm sea temperatures, most severely in the Indian Ocean. Up to 90% of coral cover has been lost in the Maldives, Sri Lanka, Kenya and Tanzania and in the Seychelles during the massive 1997–98 bleaching event. The Indian Ocean in 1998 reported 20% of its coral had died and 80% was bleached. The shallow tropical areas of the Indian Ocean are already experiencing what are predicted to be worldwide ocean conditions in the future. Coral that has survived in the shallow areas of the Indian Ocean may be proper candidates for coral restoration efforts in other areas of the world because they are able to survive the extreme conditions of the ocean.


title: Coral bleaching

text: The Maldives has over 20,000 km of reefs, of which more than 60% of the coral has suffered from bleaching in 2016.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Thailand experienced a severe mass bleaching in 2010 which affected 70% of the coral in the Andaman Sea. Between 30% and 95% of the bleached coral died.


title: Coral bleaching

text: In 2017 there was a study done on two islands in Indonesia to see how their coral cover was. One of the places was Melinjo Islands and the other was Saktu Islands. In Saktu Island the lifeform conditions were categorized as bad, with an average coral cover of 22.3%. In Melinjo Islands the lifeform conditions were categorized as bad, with an average coral cover of 22.2%.


title: Coral bleaching

text: In South Florida, a 2016 survey of large corals from Key Biscayne to Fort Lauderdale found that about 66% of the corals were dead or reduced to less than half of their live tissue.


title: Coral bleaching

text: The first recorded mass bleaching event that took place in the Belize Barrier Reef was in 1998, where sea level temperatures reached up to from 10 August to 14 October. For a few days, Hurricane Mitch brought in stormy weather on 27 October but only reduced temperatures by 1 degree or less. During this time period, mass bleaching in the fore-reef and lagoon occurred. While some fore reef colonies suffered some damage, coral mortality in the lagoon was catastrophic.


title: Coral bleaching

text: The most prevalent coral in the reefs Belize in 1998 was the lettuce coral, "Agaricia tenuifolia". On 22 and 23 October, surveys were conducted at two sites and the findings were devastating. Virtually all the living coral was bleached white and their skeletons indicated that they had died recently. At the lagoon floor, complete bleaching was evident among "A. tenuifolia". Furthermore, surveys done in 1999 and 2000 showed a near total mortality of "A. tenuifolia" at all depths. Similar patterns occurred in other coral species as well. Measurements on water turbidity suggest that these mortalities were attributed to rising water temperatures rather than solar radiation.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Hard coral cover on reefs in the Caribbean have declined by an estimated 80%, from an average of 50% cover in the 1970s to only about 10% cover in the early 2000s. A 2013 study to follow up on a mass bleaching event in Tobago from 2010 showed that after only one year, the majority of the dominant species declined by about 62% while coral abundance declined by about 50%. However, between 2011 and 2013, coral cover increased for 10 of the 26 dominant species but declined for 5 other populations.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Coral bleaching in the Red Sea is more common in the northern section of the reefs; the southern part of the reef has been plagued by coral-eating starfish, dynamite fishing and human impacts on the environment. In 1988 there was a massive bleaching event that affected the reefs in Saudi Arabia and in Sudan, though the southern reefs were more resilient and it affected them very little. Previously it was thought that the northern reef suffers more from coral bleaching and shows a fast turnover of coral, while the southern reef was thought to not suffer from bleaching as harshly and show more consistency. However, new research shows that where the southern reef should be bigger and healthier than the northern, it was not. This is believed to be because of major disturbances in recent history from bleaching events, and coral-eating starfish.


title: Coral bleaching

text: In 2010, coral bleaching occurred in Saudi Arabia and Sudan, where the temperature rose 10 to 11 degrees. Certain taxa experienced 80% to 100% of their colonies bleaching, while some showed on average 20% of that taxa bleaching.


title: Coral bleaching

text: In 2010, researchers at Penn State discovered corals that were thriving while using an unusual species of symbiotic algae in the warm waters of the Andaman Sea in the Indian Ocean. Normal zooxanthellae cannot withstand temperatures as high as was there, so this finding was unexpected. This gives researchers hope that with rising temperatures due to global warming, coral reefs will develop tolerance for different species of symbiotic algae that are resistant to high temperature, and can live within the reefs.


title: Coral bleaching

text: In 2010, researchers from Stanford University also found corals around the Samoan Islands that experience a drastic temperature increase for about four hours a day during low tide. The corals do not bleach or die regardless of the high heat increase. Studies showed that the corals off the coast of Ofu Island near America Samoa have become trained to withstand the high temperatures. Researchers are now asking a new question: can we condition corals, that are not from this area, in this manner and slowly introduce them to higher temperatures for short periods of time and make them more resilient against rising ocean temperatures.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Certain mild bleaching events can cause coral to produce high concentrations of sun-screening pigments in order to shield themselves from further stress. Some of the pigments produced have pink, blue or purple hues, while others are strongly fluorescent. Production of these pigments by shallow-water corals is stimulated by blue light. When corals bleach, blue light inside the coral tissue increases greatly because it is no longer being absorbed by the photosynthetic pigments found inside the symbiotic algae, and is instead reflected by the white coral skeleton. This causes an increase in the production of the sun-screening pigments, making the bleached corals appear very colourful instead of white - a phenomenon sometimes called 'colourful coral bleaching'.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Increased sea surface temperature leads to the thinning of the epidermis and apoptosis of gastrodermis cells in the host coral. The reduction in apoptosis and gastrodermis is seen via epithelium, leading to up to a 50% loss in the concentration of symbionts over a short period of time. Under conditions of high temperature or increased light exposure, the coral will exhibit a stress response that includes producing reactive oxygen species, the accumulation of this if not removed by antioxidant systems will lead to the death of the coral. Studies testing the structures of coral under heat stressed environments show that the thickness of the coral itself greatly decreases under heat stress compared to the control. With the death of the zooxanthellae in the heat stressed events, the coral must find new sources to gather fixed carbon to generate energy, species of coral that can increase their carnivorous tendencies have been found to have an increased likelihood of recovering from bleaching events.


title: Coral bleaching

text: After the zooxanthellae leaves the coral, the coral structures are often taken over by algae due to their ability to outcompete the zooxanthella since they need less resources to survive. There is little evidence of competition between zooxanthellae and algae, but in the absence of zooxanthellae the algae thrives on the coral structures. Once algae takes over and the coral can no longer sustain itself, the structures often begin to decay due to ocean acidification. Ocean acidification is the process by which carbon dioxide is absorbed into the ocean, this decreases the amounts of carbonate ions in the ocean, a necessary ion corals use to build their skeletons. Corals go through processes of decalcifying and calcifying during different times of the day and year due to temperature fluctuations. Under current IPCC emission pathway scenarios, corals tend to disintegrate, and the winter months with cooler temperatures will not serve ample time for the corals to reform.


title: Coral bleaching

text: In 2020, scientists reported to have evolved 10 clonal strains of a common coral microalgal endosymbionts at elevated temperatures for 4 years, increasing their thermal tolerance for climate resilience. Three of the strains increased the corals' bleaching tolerance after reintroduction into coral host larvae. Their strains and findings may potentially be relevant for the adaptation to and mitigation of climate change and further tests of algal strains in adult colonies across a range of coral species are planned.


title: Coral bleaching

text: In 2021, researchers demonstrated that probiotics can help coral reefs mitigate heat stress, indicating that such could make them more resilient to climate change and mitigate coral bleaching.


title: Coral bleaching

text: After corals experience a bleaching event to increased temperature stress some reefs are able to return to their original, pre-bleaching state. Reefs either recover from bleaching, where they are recolonized by zooxanthellae, or they experience a regime shift, where previously flourishing coral reefs are taken over by thick layers of macroalgae. This inhibits further coral growth because the algae produces antifouling compounds to deter settlement and competes with corals for space and light. As a result, macroalgae forms stable communities that make it difficult for corals to grow again. Reefs will then be more susceptible to other issues, such as declining water quality and removal of herbivore fish, because coral growth is weaker. Discovering what causes reefs to be resilient or recover from bleaching events is of primary importance because it helps inform conservation efforts and protect coral more effectively.


title: Coral bleaching

text: A primary subject of research regarding coral recovery pertains to the idea of super-corals, otherwise referred to as the corals that live and thrive in naturally warmer and more acidic regions and bodies of water. When transplanted to endangered or bleached reefs, their resilience and irradiance can equip the algae to live among the bleached corals. As Emma Camp, a National Geographic Explorer, marine bio-geochemist and an ambassador for Biodiversity for the charity IBEX Earth, suggests, the super-corals could have the capability to help with the damaged reefs long-term. While it can take 10 to 15 years to restore damaged and bleached coral reefs, the super-corals could have lasting impacts despite climate change as the oceans rise in temperature and gain more acidity. Bolstered by the research of Ruth Gates, Camp has looked into lower oxygen levels and the extreme, unexpected habitats that reefs can be found in across the globe.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Corals have shown to be resilient to short-term disturbances. Recovery has been shown in after storm disturbance and crown of thorns starfish invasions. Fish species tend to fare better following reef disturbance than coral species as corals show limited recovery and reef fish assemblages have shown little change as a result of short-term disturbances. In contrast, fish assemblages in reefs that experience bleaching exhibit potentially damaging changes. One study by Bellwood "et al". notes that while species richness, diversity, and abundance did not change, fish assemblages contained more generalist species and less coral dependent species. Responses to coral bleaching are diverse between reef fish species, based on what resources are affected. Rising sea temperature and coral bleaching do not directly impact adult fish mortality, but there are many indirect consequences of both. Coral-associated fish populations tend to be in decline due to habitat loss; however, some herbivorous fish populations have seen a drastic increase due to the increase of algae colonization on dead coral. Studies note that better methods are needed to measure the effects of disturbance on the resilience of corals.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Until recently, the factors mediating the recovery of coral reefs from bleaching were not well studied. Research by Graham "et al." (2015) studied 21 reefs around Seychelles in the Indo-Pacific in order to document the long-term effects of coral bleaching. After the loss of more than 90% of corals due to bleaching in 1998 around 50% of the reefs recovered and roughly 40% of the reefs experienced regime shifts to macroalgae dominated compositions. After an assessment of factors influencing the probability of recovery, the study identified five major factors: density of juvenile corals, initial structural complexity, water depth, biomass of herbivorous fishes, and nutrient conditions on the reef. Overall, resilience was seen most in coral reef systems that were structurally complex and in deeper water.


title: Coral bleaching

text: The ecological roles and functional groups of species also play a role in the recovery of regime shifting potential in reef systems. Coral reefs are affected by bioeroding, scraping, and grazing fish species. Bioeroding species remove dead corals, scraping species remove algae and sediment to further future growth, grazing species remove algae. The presence of each type of species can influence the ability for normal levels of coral recruitment which is an important part of coral recovery. Lowered numbers of grazing species after coral bleaching in the Caribbean has been likened to sea-urchin-dominated systems which do not undergo regime shifts to fleshy macroalgae dominated conditions.


title: Coral bleaching

text: There is always the possibility of unobservable changes, or cryptic losses or resilience, in a coral community's ability to perform ecological processes. These cryptic losses can result in unforeseen regime changes or ecological flips. More detailed methods for determining the health of coral reefs that take into account long-term changes to the coral ecosystems and better-informed conservation policies are necessary to protect coral reefs in the years to come.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Research is being done to help slow down the mortality rate of corals. Worldwide projects are being completed to help replenish and restore the coral reefs. Current coral restoration efforts include microfragmentation, coral farming, and relocation. The population of corals is rapidly declining, so scientists are doing experiments in coral growth and research tanks to help replenish their population. These research tanks mimic the coral reefs natural environment in the ocean. They are growing corals in these tanks to use for their experiments, so no more corals are being harmed or taken from the ocean. They are also transplanting the successfully grown corals from the research tanks and putting them into the areas of the ocean where the reefs are dying out. An experiment is being done in some coral growth and research tanks by Ruth Gates and Madelaine Van Oppen. They are trying to make "super corals" that can withstand some of the environmental factors that the corals are currently dying from. Van Oppen is also working on developing a type of algae that will have a symbiotic relationship with corals and can withstand water temperature fluctuations for long periods of time. This project may be helping to replenish our reefs, but the growing process of corals in research tanks is very time-consuming. It can take at least 10 years for the corals to fully grow and mature enough to where they will be able to breed. Following Ruth Gates' death in October 2018, her team at the Gates Coral Lab at the Hawai'i Institute of Marine Biology continues her research on restoration efforts. Continuing research and restoration efforts at the Gates Coral Lab focuses on the effects of beneficial mutations, genetic variation, and relocation via human assistance on the resilience of coral reefs. As of 2019, the Gates Coral Lab team determined that large-scale restoration techniques would not be effective; localized efforts to restore coral reefs on an individual basis are tested to be more realistic and effective while research is conducted to determine the best ways to combat coral destruction on a mass scale.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are sectioned-off areas of the ocean designated for protection from human activities such as fishing and un-managed tourism. According to NOAA, MPAs currently occupy 26% of U.S. waters. MPAs have been documented to improve and prevent the effects of coral bleaching in the United States. In 2018, research by coral scientists in the Caribbean concluded that areas of the ocean managed/protected by government had improved conditions that coral reefs were able to flourish in. MPAs defend ecosystems from overfishing, which allows multiple species of fish to thrive and deplete seaweed density, making it easier for young coral organisms to grow and increase in population/strength. From this study, a 62% increase in coral populations was recorded due to the protection of an MPA. Higher populations of young coral increase the longevity of a reef, as well as its ability to recover from extreme bleaching events.


title: Coral bleaching

text: There are a number of stressors locally impacting coral bleaching, including sedimentation, continual support of urban development, land change, increased tourism, untreated sewage, and pollution. To illustrate, increased tourism is good for a country, however, it also comes with costs. An example is the Dominican Republic which relies heavily on its coral reefs to attract tourists resulting in increased structural damage, over fishing, nutrient pollution, and an increase in diseases to the coral reefs. As a result, the Dominican Republic has implemented a sustainable management plan for its land and marine areas to regulate ecotourism.


title: Coral bleaching

text: Coral reefs provide shelter to an estimated quarter of all ocean species. Experts estimate that coral reef services are worth up to $1.2 million per hectare which translates to an average of $172 billion per year. The benefits of coral reefs include providing physical structures such as coastal shoreline protection, biotic services within and between ecosystems, biogeochemical services such as maintaining nitrogen levels in the ocean, climate records, and recreational and commercial (tourism) services. Coral reefs are one of the best marine ecosystems to use to as a food source. The coral reefs are also the perfect habitat for rare and economically important species of tropical fish, as they provide the perfect area for fish to breed and create nurseries in. If the populations of the fish and corals in the reef are high, then we can use the area as a place to gather food and things with medicinal properties, which also helps create jobs for people who can collect these specimens. The reefs also have some cultural importance in specific regions around the world.


title: Coral bleaching

text: In 2010, the Convention on Biological Diversity's (CBD) Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 created twenty distinct targets for sustainable development for post-2015. Target 10 indicates the goal of minimizing "anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs". Two programs were looked at, one that reduces coral reef loss by 50% that has a capital cost of $684 million and a recurrent cost of $81 million. The other program reduces coral reef loss by 80 percent and has a capital cost of $1.036 billion with recurring costs of $130 million. CBD acknowledges that they may be underestimating the costs and resources needed to achieve this target due to lack of relevant data but nonetheless, the cost-benefit analysis shows that the benefits outweigh the costs by a great enough amount for both programs (benefit cost ratio of 95.3 and 98.5) that "there is ample scope to increase outlays on coral protection and still achieve a benefit to cost ratio that is well over one".


title: Canada (New France)

text: The colony of Canada was a French colony within the larger territory of New France. It was claimed by France in 1535 during the second voyage of Jacques Cartier, in the name of the French king, Francis I. The colony remained a French territory until 1763, when it became a British colony known as the Province of Quebec.


title: Canada (New France)

text: In the 16th century the word "Canada" could refer to the territory along the Saint Lawrence River (then known as the Canada River) from Grosse Isle to a point between Québec and Trois-Rivières. The terms "Canada" and "New France" were also used interchangeably. French explorations continued west "unto the Countreys of Canada, Hochelaga, and Saguenay" before any permanent settlements were established. In 1600 a permanent trading post and habitation was established at Tadoussac at the confluence of the Saguenay and Saint Lawrence rivers. However, because this trading post was under a trade monopoly, it was not constituted as an official French colonial settlement.


title: Canada (New France)

text: The first official settlement of Canada was Québec, founded by Samuel de Champlain in 1608. The other four colonies within New France were Hudson's Bay to the north, Acadia and Newfoundland to the east, and Louisiana far to the south. Canada became the most developed of the five colonies of New France. It was divided into three districts, Québec, Trois-Rivières, and Montreal, each with its own government. The governor of the District of Quebec also served as the governor-general for all of New France.


title: Canada (New France)

text: The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763 saw Great Britain defeat the French and their allies, and take possession of Canada. In the Treaty of Paris of 1763, which formally ended the Seven Years' War, France ceded Canada in exchange for other colonies, with a large portion of Canada becoming the British colony of the Province of Quebec.


title: Canada (New France)

text: In the 240 years between Verrazano's voyage of exploration in 1524 and the Conquest of New France in 1763, the French marked the North American continent in many ways. Whether it was through by land distribution and clearing, the establishment of villages and towns, deploying a network of roads and paths or developing the territory with various constructions, the French colonists transformed and adapted the environments according to their needs.


title: Canada (New France)

text: There are three major periods of expansion of the territory of Canada, mostly as a result of exploration efforts. First, the 1534-1603 period, in which Canada's territory comprised the coasts of Newfoundland, the entirety of Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia and the coasts of New Brunswick, the Saint Lawrence River and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.


title: Canada (New France)

text: Then 1603-1673, in which, due to westward expansion and conflicts with Great Britain, the Canada territory was now composed of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and of the Great Lakes, as well as southern Ontario and northern New England.


title: Canada (New France)

text: Then, in the last period of 1673-1741, the Canada territory was composed of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and of the Great Lakes, southern Ontario, southern Manitoba and the north-eastern Midwest. It is in this period that Canada was at its largest.


title: Canada (New France)

text: Dependent on Canada were the "Pays d'en Haut" (upper countries), a vast territory north and west of Montreal, covering the whole of the Great Lakes and stretching as far into the North American continent as the French had explored. Before 1717, when it ceded territory to the new colony of Louisiana, it stretched as far south as the Illinois Country. In the Great Lakes area, a mission, Sainte-Marie among the Hurons, was established in 1639. Following the destruction of the Huron homeland in 1649 by the Iroquois, the French destroyed the mission themselves and left the area. In what are today Ontario and the eastern prairies, various trading posts and forts were built such as Fort Kaministiquia in 1679 (at modern Thunder Bay, Ontario), Fort Frontenac in 1673 (today's Kingston, Ontario), Fort Saint Pierre in 1731 (near modern Fort Frances, Ontario), Fort Saint Charles in 1732 (on Lake of the Woods located on Magnusens Island on the Northwest Angle of Minnesota) and Fort Rouillé in 1750 (today's Toronto). The mission and trading post at Sault Ste. Marie (1688) would later be split by the Canada–US border.


title: Canada (New France)

text: The French settlements in the "Pays d'en Haut" among and south of the Great Lakes were Fort Niagara (1678) (near modern Youngstown, New York), Fort Crevecoeur (1680) (near the present site of Creve Coeur, Illinois, a suburb of Peoria, Illinois), Fort Saint Antoine (1686) (on Lake Pepin in Wisconsin), Fort St. Joseph (1691) (on the southernmost point of St. Joseph Island, Ontario on Lake Huron), Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit (1701) (today's Detroit, Michigan), Fort Michilimackinac (1715) (on the Straits of Mackinac at Mackinaw City, Michigan), Fort Miami (1715) (modern Fort Wayne, Indiana), Fort La Baye (1717) (today's Green Bay, Wisconsin), and Fort Beauharnois (1727) (in Florence Township, Goodhue County, Minnesota).


title: Canada (New France)

text: Today, the term "Les Pays-d'en-Haut" refers to a regional county municipality in the Laurentides region of the present Province of Quebec, north of Montreal, while the former Pays d'en Haut was part of the District of Montreal.


title: Canada (New France)

text: The "Domaine du roy", established in 1652, was a vast region of New France, which stretched north from the St. Lawrence River to Hudson Bay. It was located between the eastern limit of the seigneurie of Les Éboulements and Cape Cormorant. The territory had an area of more than 460,000km2. After the Conquest of New France, the territory's name was changed to Rupert's Land.


title: Canada (New France)

text: A population survey was done in 1740 to estimate Canada's population. The survey of the Saint Lawrence River valley counted about 44,000 colonists in total. The majority of them were born in Canada and lived in a rural environnement. Of the colonists, 18,000 lived under the Government of Québec, 4,000 under the Government of Trois-Rivières and 22,000 under the Government of Montreal. As for colonists not living in the Saint Lawrence River valley, Île Royale (now Cape Breton) counted 4,000 inhabitants (of which 1,500 were in Louisbourg), and Île Saint-Jean (now Prince Edward Island) had 500 inhabitants.


title: Canada (New France)

text: In 1791, the Province of Quebec was separated into Lower Canada (now Quebec) and Upper Canada (now Ontario). Lower Canada and Upper Canada were fused into the Province of Canada in 1841, before separating again into the modern-day provinces of Quebec and Ontario during the Confederation of Canada in 1867. Because of the historical and geographical continuity, as well as the continued use of the French language, civil law, customs, cultural aspects and the ruling power of the Catholic Church in government until the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, the province of Quebec is considered by many to be the modern-day continuation of the Canada colony of New France. Still today, the majority of the Quebec population is descended from the original French-speaking "Canadien" of Canada, and the cultural distinctiveness of Quebec from the rest of the country has led to the emergence of a Québécois identity and the Quebec sovereignty movement. Descendants of the original of Canada (New France) living outside of Quebec are now often referred to by a name which references their province of residence (ex. Franco-Ontarian). Francophone populations in the Maritime provinces, however, are more likely to be descended from the settlers of the French colony of Acadia. They are therefore called Acadians.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: Wanderers Football Club was an English association football club. It was founded as "Forest Football Club" in 1859 in Leytonstone. In 1864, it changed its name to "Wanderers", a reference to it never having a home stadium, instead playing at various locations in London and the surrounding area. Comprising mainly former pupils of the leading English public schools, Wanderers was one of the dominant teams in the early years of organised football and won the inaugural Football Association Challenge Cup (now known as the FA Cup) in 1872. The club won the competition five times in total, including three in succession from 1876–78, a feat which has been repeated only once.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: The club was a founder member of The Football Association (as Forest F.C.) in 1863 and played friendly matches only until the advent of the FA Cup in 1871. Prior to the standardised Laws of the Game, Wanderers played matches under various rules, and continued to do so even after the formation of the FA. Among the players who represented the club were C. W. Alcock, the so-called "father of modern sport", and Arthur Kinnaird, regarded as the greatest player of his day. By the 1880s the club's fortunes had declined and it was reduced to playing a single annual match against Harrow School, the "alma mater" of many of its founders. The club had dissolved by around 1887.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: The club was initially formed as Forest Football Club in 1859 by a number of former public school pupils, primarily recent Old Harrovian school leavers who wanted to continue to play the sport Founder members included Charles W. Alcock, who had just left Harrow School, his brother John F. Alcock, J. Pardoe and brothers A. and W. J. Thompson. Several Old Foresters also played for the Forest club, as Forest School was located less than a mile north of the ground.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: Forest's home ground from 1859-1865 was at Forest Place on Leyton Flats, a part of Epping Forest by the Whipps Cross Road between Snaresbrook and Leytonstone. For the first two years of the club's existence, the players organised matches among themselves at Forest Place. The first match against another club took place on 15 March 1862, and resulted in a victory over Crystal Palace (not the modern club of the same name). Both this match, and a return fixture between the two teams the following month, involved fifteen players on each team. At the time, the rules of association football had not been codified, and many variants existed, differing in the number of players per team, whether players were permitted to play the ball with their hands, or the method of scoring goals. The club's rulebook from 1861 was based on the Cambridge rules of 1856 with a small number of additions. In a September 1862 newspaper advertisement, the club sought opponents for matches "on the rules of the University of Cambridge".


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: In 1863 the Forest club was among the founder members of The Football Association (the FA) and adopted the rules set down by that body, although they continued to play occasional matches under other sets of rules against clubs not affiliated to the FA.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: The following year, the club played its first match under the name Wanderers Football Club, against N.N. Club of Kilburn. Alcock had decided, possibly because of the expense the club was incurring by organising its own ground, to turn it into a "wandering" team with no fixed home venue, however it appears that some of the club's members opposed this idea. For the following season teams operated under both names, with several players appearing for both, and indeed Forest and Wanderers even played each other in one match, but after 1865 there is no record of any further matches under the Forest name. The Wanderers initially fared well, losing only one of their sixteen matches in the 1865–66 season, but over the subsequent four seasons the team's fortunes declined significantly and Alcock also found it increasingly difficult to ensure that eleven of his players actually turned up for a match, with the club often forced to play with fewer than the required number of players or borrow some from their opponents. During this period the club played a number of "home" matches at Battersea Park and Middlesex County Cricket Club's Lillie Bridge Grounds. Wanderers subsequently made Kennington Oval its semi-permanent home in 1869. The club played 151 matches at The Oval.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: In the 1870–71 season, the Wanderers finally turned around their fortunes, losing only five of thirty-seven matches played. For the following season the FA, following a suggestion by Alcock, initiated the Football Association Challenge Cup, a knock-out tournament open to all member clubs. Due to a combination of their opponents withdrawing and an unusual rule in place at the time which allowed both clubs to progress to the next round in the event of a draw, Wanderers won only one game in the four rounds leading up to the final, held at the Kennington Oval on 16 March 1872. The club beat the Royal Engineers 1–0 to become the first ever winners of the cup, the winning goal being scored by Morton Betts, who was playing under the pseudonym "A. H. Chequer".


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: The following season, under the competition's original rules, Wanderers, as holders, received a bye all the way to the final. In the final Wanderers beat Oxford University 2–0 to retain the cup, thanks in large part to the performance of A. F. Kinnaird. The club was unable to replicate this success over the next two seasons, although the team did manage a club record 16–0 victory over Farningham in the first round of the 1874–75 FA Cup.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: In October 1875, Wanderers travelled to Scotland for the first time, to play a match against the leading team from north of the border, Queen's Park. Despite fielding their strongest team, Wanderers were outclassed by the Scots and lost 5–0. The London club gained its revenge four months later, however, when Queen's Park travelled to London for a re-match and lost 2–0. This was the first match the Glasgow club, which had been formed nine years earlier, had ever lost. Wanderers reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup without conceding a goal and then defeated Swifts to set up a final against Old Etonians. The Etonians' team contained five former Wanderers players, including Kinnaird. After the initial match finished in a 1–1 draw, Wanderers won the replay 3–0 to win the tournament for the third time.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: The following season, with Kinnaird back in the team, Wanderers overcame indifferent early form to again reach the Cup final, and defeated Oxford University to retain the trophy. Wanderers again dominated the competition in the 1877–78 season, scoring nine goals in both their first and second round matches. The final was a rematch of the 1872 final and Wanderers again defeated Royal Engineers to win an unprecedented third consecutive FA Cup. The rules of the competition stated that under such circumstances the trophy would be retired and become the permanent property of the victorious club, but Alcock returned the cup to the FA on the condition that the rule be removed and no other team permitted to claim it on a permanent basis. Following the final, Wanderers played the reigning Scottish Cup holders, Vale of Leven, but lost 3–1.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: The Wanderers' fortunes declined rapidly following the club's hat-trick of FA Cup wins. By 1878, football clubs had been set up for former pupils of all the leading public schools, and many leading players chose to play for their respective old boys' team instead. Wanderers' fixture list was dramatically reduced in the 1878–79 season, and the team was knocked out of the FA Cup in the first round, losing 7–2 to an Old Etonians team led by Kinnaird. The following season Wanderers managed to reach the third round of the Cup, but lost again to the Etonians, after which many more key players left the club.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: The club struggled on into the 1880–81 season, but was forced to withdraw from the FA Cup after being unable to raise a team for the scheduled first round match. After 1881, the club was reduced to playing only one match per year, against Harrow School each Christmas. A book published by the newspaper "The Sportsman" claimed that the club folded in 1884, however a match at Harrow was reported in "The Times" in December 1887, which Harrow won 3–1.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: In 1868, the Forest club was revived in Woodford, Essex, wearing jerseys, caps, and stockings which were scarlet in front and black behind, with white shorts. In October 1868, it was reported that the reformed club played its first match on the "old ground" in front of Forest Place. Subsequent matches were played 200 yards from George Lane station in Woodford. In imitation of the Wanderers, the club's members were often members of other clubs, and the secretary would choose whichever members were willing and able to play, but after the creation of the FA Cup this model was not sustainable, and the club's final match was a 0-0 draw away to Clapton Pilgrims in March 1872. Pilgrims raised an issue with the FA about clubs borrowing players from other clubs after that match.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: Wanderers are known to have played in orange, purple, and black for at least part of their existence, although as no photographs of the team exist, the exact design is not known. The FA's parade of winners at the 1972 FA Cup Final suggested horizontal stripes, and a replica shirt sold in the modern era followed suit, a likely arrangement given that horizontally-striped shirts were very common during the Victorian era. The programme for the club's 1875 away match with Queen's Park, however, lists Wanderers as playing in white shirts. In the absence of shirt numbering, which would not be introduced for another sixty years, the programme identifies the individual players by the colours of their stockings (socks) or caps, with Alcock and Kinnaird both listed as wearing blue and white caps and Jarvis Kenrick identified by his cerise and French grey cap, the colours of his former club Clapham Rovers.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: Forest F. C. played at common land in front of Forest Place on Leyton Flats between 1859-1865. This is now part of Epping Forest by the Whipps Cross Road between Snaresbrook and Leytonstone, about 500 metres south of the Snaresbrook Crown Court. When Forest re-formed in 1868-1872, apart from the first game at the old ground at Forest Place they played at South Woodford, close to George Lane.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: Wanderers played at several locations between 1864 and 1887 throughout London, but predominantly at Kennington Oval (151 games), Vincent Square (31), Harrow (23), Harrow School (15) and Clapham Common (12). Battersea Park has been erroneously attributed as Wanderers home ground, however Wanderers played just 10 games there between 1864 and 1867.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: Prior to the formation of The Football Association in 1863, individual schools played football according to their own particular rules. Due to the connection Wanderers had with Harrow School, the school's football team played Wanderers frequently – 33 games between the two were recorded between 1865 and 1883. Among the club's other regular opponents were Royal Engineers, Clapham Rovers and Civil Service.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: A total of fifteen players who listed Wanderers as their primary club played for the England national team in international matches, as follows:


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: The following players earned international selection whilst playing at other clubs, but held membership of Wanderers:


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: Additionally, A. F. Kinnaird made one appearance for Scotland and John Hawley Edwards played his one game for Wales while registered as a Wanderers player. Edwards was the first treasurer of the Welsh Football Association and one of only two players to play for England and Wales at full international level. A number of Wanderers players appeared in the England vs Scotland representative matches which took place prior to what is now recognised as the first official international match. Legendary cricketer W. G. Grace also played for the side, but did not take part in any FA Cup finals.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: The first Wanderers secretary was A. W. Mackenzie (1859–1864). He was succeeded by C. W. Alcock (1864–1875), Jarvis Kenrick (1875–1879) and Charles Wollaston (1879–1883).


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: Although records are incomplete, C. W. Alcock is believed to have played the most matches for the Wanderers, with at least 199 appearances, and to have scored the most goals, with at least 82. He also recorded the highest goalscoring total for an individual season, with 17 known goals in the 1870–71 season, including four in a 6–1 win over Civil Service. R. K. Kingsford bettered that feat when he scored five goals against Farningham in 1874, the most goals scored by a Wanderers player in a single match. The 16–0 margin of victory in the Farningham match was by far the largest win achieved by Wanderers, with no other scores in double-figures recorded. The most goals conceded by Wanderers was eight, in an 8–2 defeat to Clapham Rovers in 1879; the club also lost by a six-goal margin on at least one other occasion, a 6–0 defeat to Queen's Park in 1876.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: Wanderers' total of five FA Cup final wins remained a record until Aston Villa won the competition for the sixth time in 1920. As of 2018, only eight clubs have won the tournament more times than the Wanderers.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: The club won the first FA Cup, won three in a row and appeared in the FA Cup Final five times, winning each time. Wanderers hold the joint record for most consecutive wins with Blackburn Rovers and A. F. Kinnaird holds the record for appearances in a Final with nine. Wanderers are tied for ninth place with Everton and West Bromwich Albion for the most FA Cup wins.


title: Wanderers F.C.

text: Sporting sides of Harrow School still use the Wanderers name and a Harrow alumni side named Wanderers took part in a 150th Anniversary Cup match against the Harrow first team in 2022, celebrating 150 years of the FA Cup. In 2009 a club bearing the name Wanderers F.C. was formed in London, initially for a fundraising match. The club claim approval from descendants of some original Wanderers players. The club currently compete in the Surrey South Eastern Combination, Intermediate Division Two, the 11th level of the English football pyramid.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: Stillwater (, "meaning: "Water quiet"") is a city in, and the county seat of, Payne County, Oklahoma, United States. It is located in north-central Oklahoma at the intersection of U.S. Route 177 and State Highway 51. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 45,688, making it the tenth-largest city in Oklahoma. The Stillwater Micropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 78,399 according to the 2012 census estimate. Stillwater was part of the first Oklahoma Land Run held on April 22, 1889, when the Unassigned Lands were opened for settlement and became the core of the new Oklahoma Territory. The city charter was adopted on August 24, 1889, and operates under a council-manager government system.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: Stillwater has a diverse economy with a foundation in aerospace, agribusiness, biotechnology, optoelectronics, printing and publishing, and software and standard manufacturing. Stillwater is home to the main campus of Oklahoma State University (the city's largest employer) as well as Northern Oklahoma College – Stillwater, Meridian Technology Center, and the Oklahoma Department of Career and Technology Education. The city is also home to the National Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: The north-central region of Oklahoma became part of the United States with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. In 1832, author and traveler Washington Irving provided the first recorded description of the area around Stillwater in his book "A Tour on the Prairies". He wrote of “a glorious prairie spreading out beneath the golden beams of an autumnal sun. The deep and frequent traces of buffalo, showed it to be a one of their favorite grazing grounds.”


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: According to one legend, local Native American tribes — Ponca, Kiowa, Osage, Pawnee — called the creek “Still Water” because the water was always still. A second legend states that cattlemen driving herds from Texas to railways back east always found water "still there". A third legend holds that David L. Payne walked up to Stillwater Creek and said, “This town should be named "Still Water"”. Members of the board thought he was crazy, but the name stuck.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: Stillwater Creek received its official name in 1884 when William L. Couch established his “boomer colony” on its banks. While the creek itself was tranquil, the next few years saw turmoil as pioneers sought free, fertile land and soldiers held them off while complicated legal issues and land titles with Creek and Seminole tribes were hashed out. On April 22, 1889, the cannons fired signaling the first Land Run that opened up the Unassigned Lands of the Oklahoma Territory, which included Stillwater. By the end of the day, had been claimed and designated as Stillwater Township and a tent city with a population numbering 300 had sprung up on the prairie. The "Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture" simply says that the name officially became Stillwater only when the post office opened on May 28, 1889.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: On Christmas Eve, 1890, the legislature of Oklahoma Territory passed a bill certifying Stillwater as the land grant college site. In 1894, Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College held a dedication of its first brick building, Assembly Building, later known as Old Central. Between 1889 and statehood, Stillwater grew. By statehood in 1907, downtown Stillwater was home to more than 50 buildings including several banks, churches, grocery stores, hotels, and department stores.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: The first newspaper was the Stillwater Gazette; telephone and gas service arrived in 1899; and the Eastern Oklahoma Railroad arrived in 1900.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: The population in 1917 was 3,000 and by World War II it had grown to more than 10,000. During the war, town leaders’ aim was to convert Oklahoma A&M into a war training center. They succeeded in creating 12 training units that involved bringing nearly 40,000 service men and women to Stillwater. The WAVES (Women's Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service) was the largest with 10,000 participants. Quonset huts were dotted across town and barracks occupied the site where Stillwater Medical Center and the CareerTech headquarters are now. This vast operation tided the city through the war and served as a base for a healthy economy in the postwar period. In 1952, the Industrial Foundation was established and its trustees worked to bring new industry to town: Moore Plant in 1966, Swan Hose in 1968, Mercury Marine in 1973, National Standard plant in 1988, World Color Press in 1974 and Armstrong World Industries, Inc. in 1988. The census of 2000, the population was 39,065; however, the population was adjusted to 46,156 in 2009.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: The City of Stillwater operates under a council-manager government system, in which an elected city council is responsible for making policy, passing ordinances and approving the city's budget. The council appoints a city manager who implements the policies adopted by the council.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: The city council meets the first and third Monday of the month in the Council Room at the Stillwater Municipal Building, 723 S. Lewis.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: Stillwater does not have city council districts; instead, it has general elections every year. The mayor and councilors are elected to three-year or four-year terms with at least one of the five seats up for election in April every year. Any person elected to the office of mayor or council member after January 1, 2017, is eligible to serve no more than 12 years on the council. Years served do not need to be consecutive. The vice mayor is elected by the council members and acts as mayor during mayor's absence.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: The City of Stillwater employs approximately 500 people. The city encourages resident participation on the boards and committees, applications are accepted year around. Commissions and authorities oversee city policies and services.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: Stillwater's 2009 crime rate for serious crimes (UCR Part 1) was 3657 per 100,000 residents compared to the 2009 national crime rate of 3,466 per crimes per 100,000 residents (FBI 2009 Crime in the United States). In 2009, Stillwater reported: 22 rapes, 15 robberies, 519 assaults, 308 burglaries, and 1,185 larcenies.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: Stillwater is located in districts 33 and 34 of the Oklahoma State House of Representatives and is represented by Republican John Talley in the 33rd district and Democrat Trish Ranson in the 34th district; as of July 2022 In the Oklahoma State Senate, Stillwater is in the 21st district and is represented by Republican Tom Dugger.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: In the United States House of Representatives, Stillwater is represented by Republican Frank Lucas, of the third district in Oklahoma. In the U.S. Senate, Stillwater is represented by Republicans James Lankford and James Inhofe.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: Stillwater is located north-northeast of downtown Oklahoma City and directly west of downtown Tulsa by road. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 28.3 square miles (73.3 km), of which 27.9 square miles (72.1 km) is land and 0.5 square mile (1.2 km) (1.62%) is water.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: Stillwater has a humid subtropical climate, and is located in the area popularly known as "Tornado Alley". During peak storm season in the spring, tornado watches and warnings are frequent, with sirens sounding to warn townsfolk to hurry to shelters when necessary. Summers are sunny, hot, and humid, with the temperature reaching or exceeding 100 (38 °C) ten times annually on average. Winters are generally sunny, mild, and dry, with an average January high temperature of 47 °F and an average annual snowfall of 7.5 inches (19.1 cm).


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: The highest recorded temperature was 115 °F (46 °C) on August 11, 1936, and the lowest recorded temperature was −19 °F (−28 °C) on February 13–14, 1905 and February 4, 1996.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 45,688 people, 17,941 households, and 7,920 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,547 people per square mile (541.6/km). The racial makeup of the city was 79.50% White, 4.71% African American, 3.93% Native American, 5.56% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 1.19% from other races, and 5.05% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.26% of the population.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 15,604 households, out of which 20.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.1% were married couples living together, 7.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 53.1% were non-families. 34.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.13 and the average family size was 2.81.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 15.2% under the age of 18, 38.2% from 18 to 24, 24.4% from 25 to 44, 13.6% from 45 to 64, and 8.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 24 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.4 males.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: The median income for a household in the city was $25,432, and the median income for a family was $41,938. Males had a median income of $31,623 versus $22,312 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,789. About 12.6% of families and 27.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.2% of those under age 18 and 8.9% of those age 65 or over.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: Stillwater is home to a diverse mix of business and industry, from manufacturing to advanced technology. Among its export industries are printing and publishing, floor covering, wire products, software, food and kindred products, and research. Stillwater has the following economic clusters: aerospace, agribusiness, biotechnology, optoelectronics, printing and publishing, software and standard manufacturing.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: Oklahoma State University plays a significant part of Stillwater's overall economy with more than 20,000 students, 5,500 personnel and a focus on research and technology.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: According to the Chamber of Commerce webpage, "Existing Industries", top employers in Stillwater are as follows:


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: Stillwater has a number of distinct shopping and entertainment areas. Downtown Stillwater is a business improvement district with Main Street as its primary thoroughfare. It is bounded by Duncan Street to the west, Lowry Street to the east, and 4th Avenue to the north; it gradually narrows to 15th Avenue to the south.


title: Stillwater, Oklahoma

text: The Strip on Washington Street features small shops, restaurants and live music. It is adjacent to Oklahoma State University where University Avenue and Washington Street intersect. A few blocks east is Campus Corner on Knoblock Street that features unique shops and restaurants, including the original home to Hideaway Pizza.