title: Claud Cockburn

text: At the same time, Cockburn claimed that the Security Service (MI5) was spying on him because of "The Week", but the British historian D.C. Watt argued that it was more likely that if anyone was spying on Cockburn, it was the Special Branch of Scotland Yard, which was less experienced in that work than MI5. Cockburn was an opponent of appeasement before the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In a 1937 article in "The Week", Cockburn coined the term "Cliveden set" to describe what he alleged to be an upper-class pro-German group that exercised influence behind the scenes. "The Week" ceased publication shortly after the war had begun.


title: Claud Cockburn

text: Watt alleges that the information printed in "The Week" included rumours, some of which suited Moscow's interests. Watt used as an example the claim "The Week" made in February–March 1939 that German troops were concentrating in Klagenfurt for an invasion of Yugoslavia, which Watt states to have no basis in reality.


title: Claud Cockburn

text: In 1947, Cockburn moved to Ireland and lived at Ardmore, County Waterford. He continued to contribute to newspapers and journals, including a weekly column for "The Irish Times". In the "Irish Times" he famously stated, "Wherever there is a stink in international affairs, you will find that Henry Kissinger has recently visited".


title: Claud Cockburn

text: Among his novels were "Beat the Devil" (originally under the pseudonym James Helvick), "The Horses", "Ballantyne's Folly", and "Jericho Road". "Beat the Devil" was made into a 1953 film by the director John Huston, who paid Cockburn £3,000 for the rights to the book and screenplay. Cockburn collaborated with Huston on the early drafts of the script, but the credit went to Truman Capote. The title was later used by Cockburn's son Alexander for his regular column in "The Nation".


title: Claud Cockburn

text: He published "Bestseller", an exploration of English popular fiction, "Aspects of English History" (1957), "The Devil's Decade" (1973), his history of the 1930s and "Union Power" (1976).


title: Claud Cockburn

text: His first volume of memoirs was published as "In Time of Trouble" (1956) in the United Kingdom and as "A Discord of Trumpets" in the United States. It was followed by "Crossing the Line" (1958), and "A View from the West" (1961). Revised, they were published by Penguin as "I, Claud..." in 1967. Again revised and shortened, with a new chapter, they were republished as "Cockburn Sums Up" shortly before he died.


title: Claud Cockburn

text: He also wrote "Mr. Mintoff Comes to Ireland". The book was published in 1975 but set in 1980 when Dom Mintoff was Malta's Prime Minister and leader of the Malta Labour Party. The cover description describes it as a "shrewd assessment of how a small independent nation may best stand up to the so called Great Powers".


title: Claud Cockburn

text: His granddaughters include RadioNation host Laura Flanders, ex-BBC Economics editor Stephanie Flanders, and actress Olivia Wilde.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: The following is a list of ammunition fired by the 125 mm smoothbore gun series used in the T-64, T-72, T-80, M-84, T-90, PT-91, T-14 Armata, and other tanks derived from those designs, as well as the 2A45 Sprut anti-tank gun.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS) using a sabot and tracer (APFSDS-T). Typically used against other modern tanks.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: There are different ways to measure penetration value. NATO uses the 50% (This means that 50% of the shell had to go through the plate), while the Soviet and Russian standard is higher (80% had to go through). According to authorities like Paul Lakowski, the difference in performance can reach as much as 8%


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Entered service (estimated) in 1968. Essentially the same as the 3BM9 projectile with a tungsten carbide plug.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Entered service (estimated 1972). An export version of the 3BM-15 without the tungsten carbide plug. Hence, it is an all-steel penetrator with inferior performance.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Entered service 1976. Tungsten carbide penetrator core sheathed in steel. Enlarged cap help to increase positive normalization and hold a much larger penetrator.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Entered service 1983. Tungsten-nickel-iron alloy penetrator core sheathed in steel. Utilised new 4Zh63 high-energy propelling charge. Penetrator is base-installed to prevent deflection during penetration against multi-layered composite armour. Improved penetrator cap made of aluminium alloy.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Entered service in 1985. The projectile is an integrated depleted uranium-nickel-zinc alloy penetrator.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Entered service in 1986. The projectile is double tungsten alloy rod sheathed in low melting point alloy covered with steel, intended to increase penetration against non-explosive reactive armour (NERA) such as Chobham armour.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Uses a new sabot design, and a Tungsten Alloy penetrator of increased length compared to prior generation Russian APFSDS ammunition. Used on 2A46M-4/5 with new autoloader.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Entered service in 2005. Uses a new sabot. Identical to 3BM69 in dimensions, the difference being that the projectile is made out of tungsten.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Second-generation Chinese sabot round (). "II" and "II M" are the export versions with slightly reduced penetration. "BT-4" is a newer export version with equivalent penetration for the VT-4.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Third-generation Chinese sabot round () unveiled in 2017. Subject of a data leak on War Thunder forum in June 2022 (leaked data is used here). This performance value is identical to value shown on Chinese state media, CCTV7.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: High-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) fin stabilized (HEAT-FS) rounds. Typically used against lighter or older tanks and armoured personnel carriers.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Entered service 1968, replacing steel liner with a copper liner. "M" means медь ("copper" in Russian) Uses 3V-15 detonator. Due to Soviet Union's copper economize policy production of the model is limited. Penetration performance claimed to be 10% higher than steel liner version.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Improved warhead. Entered service estimated 1978, replacing steel liner with a copper liner. Improved wave-shaping booster.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Entered service estimated 1982. "Material B" depleted uranium alloy liner to enhance penetration of advanced composite armours like Chobham.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Entered service estimated 1988. A new type of explosive-filling was applied, which improved focusing of the jet stream.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: First seen publicly in 1998. Reportedly a triple charge warhead intended to reduce efficiency of NERA elements.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: High explosive fragmentation fin stabilised. General purpose rounds, for use against infantry, bunkers and light vehicles and other "soft" targets.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Entered service in 1962. Uses the 3V-21 detonator (mass = 0.431 kg, reliability = 0.98). The 90% lethal zone for infantry is reported to be 40 m wide and 20 m deep.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Entered service in 1970. Uses the 3V-21 detonator (mass = 0.431 kg, reliability = 0.98). The projectile creates between 600 and 2,000 fragments. The body is made up of 45Kh1 steel or 60S2 high-fragmentation steel for modern projectiles. Modern projectiles creates up to 2,500 effective fragments.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Entered service in 2014. Uses the 3VM-18 programmable detonator. The projectile contains 450 tungsten rods, each weighing 3 grams and creates 2,500 fragments in a cone formation ahead of the projectile when air burst mode is set. Air burst mode for use against infantry, light vehicles and helicopters, delayed mode use against bunkers and other constructions. Is currently used on the 2A46M-5 gun, mounted on the T-90M.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Entered service in 1975. Uses the 3VM-17 time detonator. For use against wide area infantry and light vehicles. Time of detonation setting is mechanical, for modernization, the shell fuze could be set automatically by improved "Ainet" systems or "Kalina" systems, which are available on the T-90K commander tank or the regular main battle tanks such as the T-90A, T-90M, T-80UA, and the T-14 Armata main battle tank.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Entered service in 1988. Uses the 3VM-12 programmable detonator. A part of Remote detonation system "Ainet" on T-80UK commander tank.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: The 9K112 Kobra (NATO reporting name is AT-8 Songster) is also fired from the 125 mm main guns of the T-64 and T-80 series of tanks


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: The 9M119 Svir and 9M119M Refleks (NATO reporting name: "AT-11 Sniper") anti-tank guided missile has semi-automatic command to line of sight (SACLOS) laser beam riding guidance and a tandem shaped charge HEAT warhead. It has an effective range of 75 m to 5000 m, and takes 17.6 seconds to reach maximum range. Refleks can penetrate about of steel armour and can engage low-flying air targets such as helicopters.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: Designed for the 2A82-1M gun on T-14 Armata tanks, the 3UBK21 Sprinter has millimeter wave semi-automatic command to line of sight (SACLOS) guidance and a tandem shaped-charge HEAT warhead. It has an effective range of 50 m to 12000 m. and can penetrate of steel rolled homogeneous armour (RHAe) after explosive reactive armour (ERA). It can also engage low-flying air targets such as helicopters.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: The Sokol-1 guided shell is fired from the 125 mm main gun, it borrowed design from the 152mm artillery shell 3OF75 Santimetr-M and both have very similar appearance, but with an added shaped charge cap into its design similar to the M712 Copperhead, intended to defeat heavily armoured targets. It uses the technique that is referred to as the Russian concept of impulse corrections (RCIC), an impulse steering flight control system to correct the projectile's trajectory.


title: 125 mm smoothbore ammunition

text: The 3UBK14F1 guided shell is fired from the 125 mm main gun, its design was modified from 9M119 missile, removing the rocket motor and replacing it with an extra thermobaric warhead, turning it into a guided shell. Its range was decreased to 3.5 km, and it is claimed to have three times the explosive power of regular thermobaric variant 125 mm guided missiles.


title: Rahul Ramakrishna

text: Rahul Ramakrishna (born 15 January 1991) is an Indian actor, writer and journalist. He made his debut with the short film, "Sainma". He became popular with his role in the 2017 Telugu film, "Arjun Reddy".


title: Rahul Ramakrishna

text: Rahul Ramakrishna was born in Hyderabad, Telangana. His father was a yoga instructor and his mother is an assistant editor for a business magazine. He studied mechanical engineering in VJIT Hyderabad but discontinued it after second year.


title: Rahul Ramakrishna

text: Rahul Ramakrishna worked as a journalist in evening dailies, "Post Noon" and "Metro India". He also worked as a translator for journalists visiting Hyderabad on assignments. Along with a short stint as a film review writer for a "Hindustan Times" affiliated website, Rahul did many varied odd-jobs, as a songwriter, screenwriter, and as a presenter for a television cook show.


title: Rahul Ramakrishna

text: Rahul's affiliation with acting began as a theatre enthusiast where he worked with several theatre groups as part of their production crew. According to his interviews, Rahul developed a keen interest in acting after a workshop with playwright and activist N Madhusudan and Dr. Sagari Ramdas, both of whom Rahul credits as his teachers and guides. His first attempt at acting was in a short film, "Sainma" directed by Tharun Bhascker Dhaassyam. Following the appreciation that poured in both for the film's attempt and aesthetics and for the acting prowess of the entire cast, he signed up to play the main lead's supporting friend in a comic role in the Telugu film, "Jayammu Nischayammu Raa" starring Srinivasa Reddy and Poorna directed by Sivaraju Kanumuri.


title: Rahul Ramakrishna

text: After this, Rahul shot to fame as Shiva, in the film "Arjun Reddy", where his character's unwavering loyalty to the lead's combined with wit and emotional support garnered him a massive fan following in the audience and the film fraternity alike.


title: Rahul Ramakrishna

text: The success of "Arjun Reddy" and the widespread recognition furthered his career with instrumental characters in many Telugu films of 2018 such as "Bharat Ane Nenu", "Sammohanam", "Chi La Sow". Rahul repeated his "hero's best friend" role and combination with actor Vijay Deverakonda in the film "Geetha Govindam". In 2020 he appeared in "Ala Vaikunthapurramuloo".


title: Rahul Ramakrishna

text: In late 2018, Rahul announced that he will be marrying his girlfriend, however, he later postponed the marriage citing busy shooting schedules.


title: Hand fan

text: A handheld fan, or simply hand fan, is any broad, flat surface that is waved back-and-forth to create an airflow. Generally, purpose-made handheld fans are folding fans, which are shaped like a sector of a circle and made of a thin material (such as paper or feathers) mounted on slats which revolve around a pivot so that it can be closed when not in use. Hand fans were used before mechanical fans were invented.


title: Hand fan

text: On human skin, the airflow from handfans increases evaporation which has a cooling effect due to the latent heat of evaporation of water. It also increases heat convection by displacing the warmer air produced by body heat that surrounds the skin, which has an additional cooling effect, provided that the ambient air temperature is lower than the skin temperature – which is typically about . Fans are convenient to carry around, especially folding fans.


title: Hand fan

text: Next to the folding fan, the rigid hand screen fan was also a highly decorative and desired object among the higher classes. Its purpose is different since they are more cumbersome to carry around. They were mostly used to shield a lady's face against the glare of the sun or the fire.


title: Hand fan

text: Hand fans originated about 4000 years ago in Egypt. Egyptians viewed them as sacred objects, and the tomb of Tutankhamun contained two elaborate hand fans.


title: Hand fan

text: Archaeological ruins and ancient texts show that the hand fan was used in ancient Greece at least from the 4th century BC and was known as a ().


title: Hand fan

text: Christian Europe's earliest known fan was the flabellum (ceremonial fan), which dates from the 6th century. It was used during services to drive insects away from the consecrated bread and wine. Its use died out in western Europe, but continues in the Eastern Orthodox and Ethiopian Churches.


title: Hand fan

text: There were many kinds of fans in ancient China. The Chinese character for "fan" () is etymologically composed of the characters for "door" () and "feather" (). Historically, fans have played an important aspect in the life of the Chinese people. The Chinese have used hand-held fans as a way to relief themselves during hot days since the ancient times; the fans are also an embodiment of the wisdom of Chinese culture and art. They were also used for ceremonial and ritual purposes and as a sartorial accessory when wearing . They were also carriers of Chinese traditional arts and literature and were representative of its user's personal aesthetic sense and their social status. Specific concepts of status and gender were associated with types of fans in Chinese history, but generally folding fans were reserved for males while rigid fans were for females.


title: Hand fan

text: In ancient China, fans came in various shapes and forms (such as in a leaf, oval or a half-moon shape), and were made in different materials such as silk, bamboo, and feathers. So far, the earliest fans that have been found date to the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Period. It was suggested by the Cultural Relics Archaeology Institute of Hubei Province that these fans were made of either bamboo or feathers and were oftentimes used as burial objects in the State of Chu. The oldest existing Chinese fans are a pair of woven bamboo, wood or paper side-mounted fans from the 2nd century BC. The Chinese form of the feather fan, known as , was a row of feathers mounted in the end of a handle. The arts of fan making eventually progressed to the point that by the Jin dynasty, fans could come in different shapes and could be made in different materials. The selling of hexagonal-shaped fan was also recorded in the "Book of Jin".


title: Hand fan

text: In later centuries, Chinese poems and four-word idioms were used to decorate fans, using Chinese calligraphy pens. The Chinese dancing fan was developed in the 7th century.


title: Hand fan

text: The most ancient ritual Chinese fan is the , also known as , which is believed to have been invented by Emperor Shun. It is characterized with a long handed and the fan looks like a door in shape. This type of fan was used for ceremonial purposes. While its shape evolved throughout the millennia, it remained used as a symbol of imperial power and authority; it continued to be used until the fall of the Qing dynasty.


title: Hand fan

text: Silk round-shaped fans are called (), also known as "fans of reunion"; it is a type of "rigid fan". These types of fans were mostly used by women in the Tang dynasty and was later introduced into Japan. These round fans remained mainstream even after the growing popularity of the folding fans. Round fans with Chinese paintings and with calligraphy became very popular in the Song dynasty. During the Song dynasty, famous artists were often commissioned to paint fans. Lacquer fans were also one of the unique handcraft of the Song dynasty.


title: Hand fan

text: Chinese brides also used a type of moon-shaped round fan in a traditional Chinese wedding called . The ceremonial rite of was an important ceremony in Chinese wedding: the bride would hold it in front of her face to hide her shyness, to remain mysterious, and as a way to exorcise evil spirits. After all the other wedding ceremonies were completed and after the groom had impressed the bride, the bride would then proceed in revealing her face to the groom by removing the from her face.


title: Hand fan

text: Another popular type of Chinese fan was the palm leaf fan (), also known as (), which was made of the leaves and stalks of ("Livistona chinensis").


title: Hand fan

text: The folding fan (), invented in Japan, was later introduced to the Chinese in the 10th century. In 988 AD, folding fans was first introduced in China by a Japanese monk from Japan as a tribute during the Northern Song dynasty; these folding fans became very fashionable in China by the Southern Song dynasty. The folding fans were referred to as "Japanese fans" by the Chinese. While the folding fans gained popularity, the traditional silk round fans continued to remain mainstream in the Song dynasty. The folding fan later became very fashionable in the Ming dynasty; however, folding fans were met with resistance because they were believed to be intended for the lower class people and servants.


title: Hand fan

text: From the late 18th century until 1845, trade between America and China flourished. During this period, Chinese fans reached the peak of their popularity in America; popular fans among American women were the fan, and fans made of palm leaf, feather, and paper. The most popular type during this period appeared to have been the palm leaf fan. The custom of using fans among the American middle class and by ladies was attributed to this Chinese influence.


title: Hand fan

text: In ancient Japan, hand fans, such as oval and silk fans, were greatly influenced by Chinese fans. The earliest visual depiction of fans in Japan dates back to the 6th century AD, with burial tomb paintings showed drawings of fans. The folding fan was invented in Japan, with dates ranging from the 6th to 9th centuries; it was a court fan called the , after the court women's dress named . According to the (History of Song), a Japanese monk offered the folding fans (twenty and two to the emperor of China in 988.


title: Hand fan

text: Later in the 11th century, Korean envoys brought along Korean folding fans which were of Japanese origin as gifts to Chinese court. The popularity of folding fans was such that sumptuary laws were passed during Heian period which restricted the decoration of both and paper folding fans.


title: Hand fan

text: The earliest fans in Japan were made by tying thin stripes of (or Japanese cypress) together with thread. The number of strips of wood differed according to the person's rank. Later in the 16th century, Portuguese traders introduced it to the west and soon both men and women throughout the continent adopted it. They are used today by Shinto priests in formal costume and in the formal costume of the Japanese court (they can be seen used by the Emperor and Empress during enthronement and marriage) and are brightly painted with long tassels. Simple Japanese paper fans are sometimes known as .


title: Hand fan

text: Printed fan leaves and painted fans are done on a paper ground. The paper was originally handmade and displayed the characteristic watermarks. Machine-made paper fans, introduced in the 19th century, are smoother, with an even texture. Even today, geisha and use folding fans in their fan dances as well.


title: Hand fan

text: Japanese fans are made of paper on a bamboo frame, usually with a design painted on them. In addition to folding fans (), the non-bending fans () are popular and commonplace. The fan is primarily used for fanning oneself in hot weather. The fan subsequently spread to other parts of Asia, including Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Sri Lanka, and such fans are still used by Buddhist monks as "ceremonial fans".


title: Hand fan

text: Fans were also used in the military as a way of sending signals on the field of battle. However, fans were mainly used for social and court activities. In Japan, fans were variously used by warriors as a form of weapon, by actors and dancers for performances, and by children as a toy.


title: Hand fan

text: Traditionally, the rigid fan (also called fixed fan) was the most popular form in China, although the folding fan came into popularity during the Ming Dynasty between the years of 1368 and 1644, and there are many beautiful examples of these folding fans still remaining.


title: Hand fan

text: The (or Japanese dancing fan) has ten sticks and a thick paper mount showing the family crest, and Japanese painters made a large variety of designs and patterns. The slats, of ivory, bone, mica, mother of pearl, sandalwood, or tortoise shell, were carved and covered with paper or fabric. Folding fans have "montures" which are the sticks and guards, and the leaves were usually painted by craftsmen. Social significance was attached to the fan in the Far East as well, and the management of the fan became a highly regarded feminine art. Fans were even used as a weapon – called the iron fan, or in Japanese.


title: Hand fan

text: See also, the , a military leader's fan (in old Japan); used in the modern day as an umpire's fan in sumo wrestling, it is a type of Japanese war fan, like the .


title: Hand fan

text: Every Dano (May 5th of the lunar calendar) when the heat began, there was a custom in which the king distributed hand fans to his vassals. The vassal, who received a hand fan from the king, did an ink-and-wash painting and handed out white fans to his elders and the indebted people, which has made the practice of exchanging hand fans widely popular. These cultural factors also contributed to the creation of various types of hand fan in Korea.


title: Hand fan

text: The hand fan () is an integral part of Vietnamese culture. According to the Vân Đài Loại Ngữ, a book written by Lê Quý Ðôn, in the old times Vietnamese people used hand fans made from bird feather and , a type of fan made from leaves of the taraw palm tree. The folding fans only started appearing in Vietnam in the 10th century, known as in Vietnamese. Christian missionary Christoforo Borri recorded that in 1621, both Vietnamese men and women frequently held hand fans as part of their daily garment.


title: Hand fan

text: Many villages in Vietnam have long-dating traditions of making exquisite hand fans such as Canh Hoạch village and Đào Xá village, with fan-making dating back to the early 19th century.


title: Hand fan

text: Simple handheld fans, such as and the are commonly found in the Vietnamese countrysides and popularly used among farmers and working people. The has the simplest design, cut directly from the dried Areca leaf stems, then pressed to flatten. It appears in "Thằng Bờm", a well-known Vietnamese (a type of Vietnamese folk song). The also has a simple design, made by sewing a half-moon shaped Maclurochloa leaf onto a straight bamboo stick. This type of fan is an exclusive part of the culture of Vietnam.


title: Hand fan

text: Hand fans were absent from Europe during the High Middle Ages until they were reintroduced in the 13th and 14th centuries. Fans from the Middle East were brought by Crusaders, and refugees from the Byzantine Empire.


title: Hand fan

text: In the 15th and early 16th century, Chinese folding fans were introduced in Europe and later played an important role in the social circles of Europe in the 18th century. The Portuguese traders first opened up the sea route to China in the 15th century and reached Japan in the mid-16th century, and appear to be the first people who introduced Oriental (Chinese and Japanese) fans in Europe which lead to their popularity, as well as the increased oriental fan imports in Europe.


title: Hand fan

text: The fan became especially popular in Spain, where flamenco dancers used the fan and extended its use to the nobility.


title: Hand fan

text: European fan-makers have introduced more modern designs and have enabled the hand fan to work with modern fashion.


title: Hand fan

text: In the 17th century the folding fan, and its attendant semiotic culture, were introduced from China and Japan. By the end of the 17th century, there were enormous imports of China folding in Europe due to its popularity and to a lesser extent, Japanese folding fans were also reaching Europe by that period.


title: Hand fan

text: These fans are particularly well displayed in the portraits of the high-born women of the era. Queen Elizabeth I of England can be seen to carry both folding fans decorated with pom poms on their guardsticks as well as the older style rigid fan, usually decorated with feathers and jewels. These rigid style fans often hung from the skirts of ladies, but of the fans of this era it is only the more exotic folding ones which have survived. Those folding fans of the 15th century found in museums today have either leather leaves with cut out designs forming a lace-like design or a more rigid leaf with inlays of more exotic materials like mica. One of the characteristics of these fans is the rather crude bone or ivory sticks and the way the leather leaves are often slotted onto the sticks rather than glued as with later folding fans. Fans made entirely of decorated sticks without a fan "leaf" were known as fans. The fan originated in China. However, despite the relative crude methods of construction folding fans were at this era high status, exotic items on par with elaborate gloves as gifts to royalty.


title: Hand fan

text: In the 17th century the rigid fan which was seen in portraits of the previous century had fallen out of favour as folding fans gained dominance in Europe. Fans started to display well painted leaves, often with a religious or classical subject. The reverse side of these early fans also started to display elaborate flower designs. The sticks are often plain ivory or tortoiseshell, sometimes inlaid with gold or silver pique work. The way the sticks sit close to each other, often with little or no space between them is one of the distinguishing characteristics of fans of this era.


title: Hand fan

text: In 1685 the Edict of Nantes was revoked in France. This caused large scale immigration from France to the surrounding Protestant countries (such as England) of many fan craftsmen. This dispersion in skill is reflected in the growing quality of many fans from these non-French countries after this date.


title: Hand fan

text: In the 18th century, fans reached a high degree of artistry and were being made throughout Europe often by specialized craftsmen, either in leaves or sticks. Folded fans of silk, or parchment were decorated and painted by artists. Fans were also imported from China by the East India Companies at this time. Around the middle 18th century, inventors started designing mechanical fans. Wind-up fans (similar to wind-up clocks) were popular in the 18th century.


title: Hand fan

text: It has been said that in the courts of England, Spain and elsewhere, fans were used in a more or less secret, unspoken code of messages. These fan languages were a way to cope with the restricting social etiquette. However, modern research has proved that this was a marketing ploy developed in the 19th century – one that has kept its appeal remarkably over the succeeding centuries. This is now used for marketing by fan makers like Cussons & Sons & Co. Ltd who produced a series of advertisements in 1954 showing "the language of the fan" with fans supplied by the well known French fan maker Duvelleroy.


title: Hand fan

text: The rigid or screen fan () became also fashionable during the 18th and 19th century. They never reached the same level of popularity as the easy to carry around, folding fans which became almost an integrated part of women's dress. The screen fan was mainly used inside the interior of the house. In 18th and 19th century paintings of interiors one sometimes sees one laying on a chimney mantle. They were mainly used to protect a woman's face against the glare and heat of the fire, to avoid getting , or ruddy cheeks from the heat. But probably not in the least it served to keep the heat from spoiling the carefully applied make-up which in those days was often wax-based. Until the 20th century houses were heated by open fires in chimneys or by stoves, and the lack of insulation made many a house very draughty and cold during winter. Therefore, any social or family gathering would be in close proximity to the fireplace.


title: Hand fan

text: The design of the screen fan is a fixed handle, most often made out of exquisitely turned (painted or guided) wood, fixed to a flat screen. The screen could be made out of silk stretched on a frame or thin wood, leather or papier mache. The surface is often exquisitely painted with scenes ranging from flowers and birds of paradise to religious scenes. At the end of the 19th century they disappeared when the need for them ceased to exist. During the 19th century names like the Birmingham-based firm of Jennens and Bettridge produced many papier-mâché fans.


title: Hand fan

text: A large group that continues to use folding hand fans for cultural and fashion use are drag queens. Stemming from ideas of imitating and appropriating cultural ideas of excess, wealth, status and elegance, large folding hand fans, sometimes or more in radius, are used to punctuate speech, as part of performances, or as accessories to an outfit. Fans may have phrases taken from the lexicon of drag and LGBTQ+ culture written on them, and may be decorated in other ways, such as the addition of sequins or tassels.


title: Hand fan

text: Folding fans are often used to emphasize a point in a person's speech, rather than for express use of fanning oneself. A person might harshly snap open the fan when engaging in "throwing shade" on (comically insulting) another person, creating a loud snapping noise that punctuates the insult. Drag dance numbers also utilise larger hand fans as a way to add flair and as a prop, used to emphasise movements in the dance.


title: Hand fan

text: Popular drag comedy webshow UNHhhh has used folding fans as a point of humour, with the sound made by a folding fan unfolding coined onomatopoeically as a "thworp" by the editors.


title: Constructor (object-oriented programming)

text: In class-based, object-oriented programming, a constructor (abbreviation: ctor) is a special type of subroutine called to create an object. It prepares the new object for use, often accepting arguments that the constructor uses to set required member variables.


text: A constructor resembles an instance method, but it differs from a method in that it has no explicit return type, it is not implicitly inherited and it usually has different rules for scope modifiers. Constructors often have the same name as the declaring class. They have the task of initializing the object's data members and of establishing the invariant of the class, failing if the invariant is invalid. A properly written constructor leaves the resulting object in a "valid" state. Immutable objects must be initialized in a constructor.


text: Most languages allow overloading the constructor in that there can be more than one constructor for a class, with differing parameters. Some languages take consideration of some special types of constructors. Constructors, which concretely use a single class to create objects and return a new instance of the class, are abstracted by factories, which also create objects but can do so in various ways, using multiple classes or different allocation schemes such as an object pool.


text: Constructors that can take at least one argument are termed as parameterized constructors. When an object is declared in a parameterized constructor, the initial values have to be passed as arguments to the constructor function. The normal way of object declaration may not work. The constructors can be called explicitly or implicitly. The method of calling the constructor implicitly is also called the shorthand method.


text: If the programmer does not supply a constructor for an instantiable class, Java compiler inserts a default constructor into your code on your behalf. This constructor is known as default constructor. You would not find it in your source code (the java file) as it would be inserted into the code during compilation and exists in .class file. The behavior of the default constructor is language dependent. It may initialize data members to zero or other same values, or it may do nothing at all. In Java, a "default constructor" refer to a nullary constructor that is automatically generated by the compiler if no constructors have been defined for the class or in the absence of any programmer-defined constructors (e.g. in Java, the default constructor implicitly calls the superclass's nullary constructor, then executes an empty body). All fields are left at their initial value of 0 (integer types), 0.0 (floating-point types), false (boolean type), or null (reference types).


text: Like C++, Java also supports "Copy Constructor". But, unlike C++, Java doesn't create a default copy constructor if you don't write your own. Copy constructors define the actions performed by the compiler when copying class objects. A Copy constructor has one formal parameter that is the type of the class (the parameter may be a reference to an object). It is used to create a copy of an existing object of the same class. Even though both classes are the same, it counts as a conversion constructor.


text: While copy constructors are usually abbreviated copy ctor or cctor, they have nothing to do with class constructors used in .NET using the same abbreviation.


text: Conversion constructors provide a means for a compiler to implicitly create an object belonging to one class based on an object of a different type. These constructors are usually invoked implicitly to convert arguments or operands to an appropriate type, but they may also be called explicitly.


text: In C++, move constructors take an Rvalue reference to an object of the class, and are used to implement ownership transfer of the parameter object's resources.


text: In Java, C#, and VB .NET, the constructor creates reference type objects in a special memory structure called the


text: "heap". Value types (such as int, double, etc.) are created in a sequential structure called the "stack".


text: VB .NET and C# also allow the use of the "new" operator to create value type objects, but these value type objects are created on the stack regardless of whether the operator is used or not.


text: In C++, objects are created on the stack when the constructor is invoked without the new operator, and created on the heap when the constructor is invoked with the new operator. Stack objects are deleted implicitly when they go out of scope, while heap objects must be deleted implicitly by a destructor or explicitly by using the "delete" operator.


text: In C++, the name of the constructor is the name of the class. It returns nothing. It can have parameters like any member function. Constructor functions are usually declared in the public section, but can also be declared in the protected and private sections, if the user wants to restrict access to them.


text: The constructor has two parts. First is the initializer list which follows the parameter list and before the method body. It starts with a colon and entries are comma-separated. The initializer list is not required, but offers the opportunity to provide values for data members and avoid separate assignment statements. The initializer list is required if you have "const" or reference type data members, or members that do not have parameterless constructor logic. Assignments occur according to the order in which data members are declared (even if the order in the initializer list is different). The second part is the body, which is a normal method body enclosed in curly brackets.


text: C++ allows more than one constructor. The other constructors must have different parameters. Additionally constructors which contain parameters which are given default values, must adhere to the restriction that not all parameters are given a default value. This is a situation which only matters if there is a default constructor. The constructor of a base class (or base classes) can also be called by a derived class. Constructor functions are not inherited and their addresses cannot be referenced. When memory allocation is required, the "new" and "delete" operators are called implicitly.


text: A copy constructor has a parameter of the same type passed as "const" reference, for example "Vector(const Vector& rhs)". If it is not provided explicitly, the compiler uses the copy constructor for each member variable or simply copies values in case of primitive types. The default implementation is not efficient if the class has dynamically allocated members (or handles to other resources), because it can lead to double calls to "delete" (or double release of resources) upon destruction.


text: On returning objects from functions or passing objects by value, the objects copy constructor will be called implicitly, unless return value optimization applies.


text: C++ implicitly generates a default copy constructor which will call the copy constructors for all base classes and all member variables unless the programmer provides one, explicitly deletes the copy constructor (to prevent cloning) or one of the base classes or member variables copy constructor is deleted or not accessible (private). Most cases calling for a customized copy constructor (e.g. reference counting, deep copy of pointers) also require customizing the destructor and the copy assignment operator. This is commonly referred to as the Rule of three.


text: In C#, a "static constructor" is a static data initializer. Static constructors are also called "class constructors". Since the actual method generated has the name ".cctor" they are often also called "cctors".


text: Static constructors are called implicitly when the class is first accessed. Any call to a class (static or constructor call), triggers the static constructor execution.


text: Static constructors are thread safe and implement a singleton pattern. When used in a generic programming class, static constructors are called at every new generic instantiation one per type. Static variables are instantiated as well.


text: In Eiffel, the routines which initialize new objects are called "creation procedures". Creation procedures have the following traits:


text: Although object creation involves some subtleties, the creation of an attribute with a typical declaration codice_21 as expressed in a creation instruction codice_22 consists of the following sequence of steps:


text: In the first snippet below, class codice_26 is defined. The procedure codice_24 is coded after the keyword codice_28.


text: The keyword codice_29 introduces a list of procedures which can be used to initialize instances. In this case the list includes codice_30, a procedure with an empty implementation inherited from class codice_31, and the codice_24 procedure coded within the class.


text: In the second snippet, a class which is a client to codice_26 has a declarations codice_34 and codice_35 of type codice_26.


text: In procedural code, codice_34 is created as the origin (0.0, 0.0). Because no creation procedure is specified, the procedure codice_30 inherited from class codice_31 is used. This line could have been coded codice_40 .


text: Only procedures named as creation procedures can be used in an instruction with the codice_29 keyword.


text: Next is a creation instruction for codice_35, providing initial values for the codice_35's coordinates.


text: The third instruction makes an ordinary instance call to the codice_24 procedure to reinitialize the instance attached to codice_35 with different values.


text: In F#, a constructor can include any codice_46 or codice_47 statements defined in a class. codice_46 statements define private fields and codice_47 statements execute code. Additional constructors can be defined using the codice_17 keyword.


text: As of ES6, JavaScript has direct constructors like many other programming languages. They are written as such


text: In Object Pascal, the constructor is similar to a factory method. The only syntactic difference to regular methods is the keyword codice_11 in front of the name (instead of codice_56 or codice_57). It can have any name, though the convention is to have codice_12 as prefix, such as in codice_59. Creating an instance of a class works like calling a static method of a class: codice_60.


text: In OCaml, there is one constructor. Parameters are defined right after the class name. They can be used to initialize instance variables and are accessible throughout the class. An anonymous hidden method called codice_61 allows to evaluate an expression immediately after the object has been built.


text: In PHP version 5 and above, the constructor is a method named codice_62 (notice that it's a double underscore), which the keyword codice_17 automatically calls after creating the object. It is usually used to automatically perform initializations such as property initializations. Constructors can also accept arguments, in which case, when the codice_17 statement is written, you also need to send the constructor arguments for the parameters.


text: In PHP, a class is only allowed to declare a maximum of one constructor method. Static methods, factory classes or optional constructor arguments are some ways to facilitate multiple ways to create objects of a PHP class.


text: In Perl programming language version 5, by default, constructors are factory methods, that is, methods that create and return the object, concretely meaning create and return a blessed reference. A typical object is a reference to a hash, though rarely references to other types are used too. By convention the only constructor is named "new", though it is allowed to name it otherwise, or to have multiple constructors. For example, a Person class may have a constructor named "new" as well as a constructor "new_from_file" which reads a file for Person attributes, and "new_from_person" which uses another Person object as a template.


text: With the Moose object system for Perl, most of this boilerplate can be left out, a default "new" is created, attributes can be specified, as well as whether they can be set, reset, or are required. In addition, any extra constructor functionality can be included in a "BUILD" method which the Moose generated constructor will call, after it has checked the arguments. A "BUILDARGS" method can be specified to handle constructor arguments not in hashref / key => value form.


text: In Python, constructors are defined by one or both of codice_5 and codice_6 methods. A new instance is created by calling the class as if it were a function, which calls the codice_5 and codice_6 methods. If a constructor method is not defined in the class, the next one found in the class's Method Resolution Order will be called.


text: In the typical case, only the codice_6 method need be defined. (The most common exception is for immutable objects.)


text: Classes normally act as factories for new instances of themselves, that is, a class is a callable object (like a function), with the call being the constructor, and calling the class returns an instance of that class. However the codice_5 method is permitted to return something other than an instance of the class for specialised purposes. In that case, the codice_6 is not invoked.


text: With Raku, even more boilerplate can be left out, given that a default "new" method is inherited, attributes can be specified, as well as whether they can be set, reset, or are required. In addition, any extra constructor functionality can be included in a "BUILD" method which will get called to allow for custom initialization. A "TWEAK" method can be specified to post-process any attributes already (implicitly) initialized.


text: And should you have set up variables with names identical to the named parameters, you can use a shortcut that will use the name of the variable for the named parameter:


text: In Ruby, constructors are created by defining a method called codice_72. This method is executed to initialize each new instance.


title: Kamalinee Mukherjee

text: Kamalinee Mukherjee is an Indian actress. She has predominantly appeared in Telugu films as well as Malayalam, Tamil, Hindi, Bengali and Kannada language films.


title: Kamalinee Mukherjee

text: After graduating with a degree in English literature, she completed a workshop on theatre in Mumbai. She made her acting debut in "Phir Milenge" (2004), a film that was based on the subject of AIDS. She then appeared in the Telugu film "Anand" also in 2004.


title: Kamalinee Mukherjee

text: Kamalinee was born and brought up in Kolkata, India. Her father is a marine engineer and her mother is a jewellery designer. She is the eldest of the three siblings in the family. Owing to her "love for being on the stage" since childhood, she acted in all sorts of amateur and professional stageplays while in school and college. Incidentally, she always portrayed masculine characters in these plays. Besides theatre, she developed a love for reading, painting and writing. She also underwent several years of training in the Indian classical dance form, Bharatanatyam.


title: Kamalinee Mukherjee

text: After graduating with a degree in English literature from Loreto College in Kolkata, she began a hotel management course in New Delhi but left it to pursue a course in theatre in Mumbai.


title: Kamalinee Mukherjee

text: After a chance meeting, actor-director Revathi offered her a role in her second directorial venture, "Phir Milenge", a film about AIDS. Though initially apprehensive about her entering into the acting profession, her parents were very supportive. In the film, she plays a radio jockey, and the younger sibling to Shilpa Shetty's character.


title: Kamalinee Mukherjee

text: Around the same time, Sekhar Kammula, a national award-winning director from the Telugu film industry, was in the process of casting for his next Telugu film, "Anand". After noticing her in an advertisement, Kammula selected her for the role. Mukherjee said that the role of an independent and modern woman, which was just like her own personality, appealed to her. The film won six prestigious 2004 Nandi Awards bestowed by the Government of Andhra Pradesh. Among these, Mukherjee won the Nandi Award for the Best Leading Actress. She also won two awards for being the best debutante actress of the year.


title: Kamalinee Mukherjee

text: After receiving appreciation for her portrayal of a strong-willed, independent and modern woman in "Anand", her next film was "Meenakshi," in 2005. Despite the film not finding much commercial success, Mukherjee said that she did not regret doing the film and that it was a big learning curve. Film reviewers praised Mukherjee for her acting skills. In 2006, she appeared in two Telugu language films ("Style" and "Godavari)" and one Tamil language film ("Vettaiyaadu Vilaiyaadu)". "Style" is a dance-based film with actor-choreographers Prabhu Deva, Raghava Lawrence, Charmee Kaur and Raja.


title: Kamalinee Mukherjee

text: "Godavari", which was Sekhar Kammula's next film, starred Sumanth and Mukherjee in the lead roles. This drama film, which had the Godavari River in the backdrop, dealt with a romantic love story between the lead characters. Mukherjee portrayed the role of a woman with independent thinking and tremendous inner strength, under the "backdrop of middle/upper middle class sensibilities, new aspirations, identity crisis, independence, yearnings and moreover, parental concerns". The film received predominantly positive reviews, and Kamalinee's role was particularly praised. While one reviewer said that she was "beautiful ... both in looks and in her measured acting style," another reviewer praised her for the "intense yet cool portrayal".


title: Kamalinee Mukherjee

text: She made her Tamil debut in 2006 in Gautham Vasudev Menon's "Vettiyadu Velliyadu" starring Tamil superstar Kamal Haasan. Following this, came "Gamyam" by Krish, a film widely praised by critics and audiences alike and subsequently remade in Tamil and Kannada, both of which featured Kamalinee in the lead role. "Gamyam" was the only regional film from the south to be in the running for India's entry to the Academy Awards apart from sweeping both the Nandi and Filmfare Awards.


title: Kamalinee Mukherjee

text: In 2009, she played the role of Latin Christian woman, Pemenna, in "Kutty Srank", directed by Cannes award-winning director, Shaji N. Karun, and starring Malayalam matinee idol, Mammooty. The film swept the National Awards, winning in six categories including Best Film. In the same year, she worked in veteran director Vamsi's musical "Gopi Gopika Godavari,".


title: Kamalinee Mukherjee

text: In 2012, Kamalinee debuted in her native language, Bengali in National Award-winning director, Aniruddha Roy Chowdhury's "Aparajita Tumi," starring Bengali superstar Prosenjit Chatterjee. The film met with critical and commercial success.


title: Kamalinee Mukherjee

text: Following "Aparajita Tumi", Kamalinee also appeared in K Raghavendra Rao's devotional film, "Shirdi Sai" with Nagarjuna. Her next project was new-age Malayalam director, V. K. Prakash's "Natholi Oru Cheriya Meenalla", where she played a quirky character opposite Fahadh Faasil.


title: Kamalinee Mukherjee

text: In 2016, Kamalinee worked with award-winning director Karthik Subbaraj in his second directorial venture, a woman-oriented film, "Iraivi". After her special-appearance song in Malayalam director Vysakh's 2014 film "Cousins", she was cast opposite Mohanlal in the box office record-breaking "Pulimurugan". As of January 2017, "Pulimurugan" was the highest-grossing Malayalam film.


title: Kamalinee Mukherjee

text: Kamalinee is a supporter of non-profit organizations CHORD India and World Vision, which are both involved in rehabilitation, welfare and the education of children. She produces beauty tutorial videos along with her two younger sisters, Mrinalinee and Shohinee, for Mrinalinee's YouTube channel "Mirror Mirror". In 2014, she launched Chinese-American poetess Wand Ping's anthology "Ten Thousand Waves" in Hyderabad, India at a poetry reading event. Kamalinee was also part of the poets panel at the Bengaluru poetry festival in August 2016 where she read a selection of her poems alongside award-winning poet Dr. Neal Hall. She is an avid baker and cook and enjoys experimenting with cuisines from around the world.


title: Sara Roosevelt

text: Sara Ann Roosevelt ( Delano; September 21, 1854 – September 7, 1941) was the second wife of James Roosevelt I (from 1880), the mother of President of the United States Franklin Delano Roosevelt, her only child, and subsequently the mother-in-law of Eleanor Roosevelt.


title: Sara Roosevelt

text: Delano grew up in Newburgh, New York, and spent three years in Hong Kong. She gave birth to Franklin in 1882, and was a devoted mother to him for the remainder of her life, including home schooling and living close by in adulthood. She had a complex relationship with her daughter-in-law Eleanor, which has led to media portrayals of her as a domineering and fearsome mother-in-law, though these are at odds with other views. She died in 1941, with her son, then the President, at her side.


title: Sara Roosevelt

text: Sara Delano was born at the Delano Estate in the town of Newburgh, New York, to Warren Delano Jr. and Catherine Robbins Lyman. She had ten siblings, two of whom died as small children. Three more died in their twenties.


title: Sara Roosevelt

text: In 1862, Sara, her mother Catherine, and six brothers and sisters traveled to Hong Kong on the clipper ship "Surprise", where they joined Warren Delano who had resumed his business of trading in opium, then still legal.


title: Sara Roosevelt

text: On board ship, Sara enjoyed spending time in the sailmaker's loft listening to the sailmaker tell sea stories. Her brother Fred discovered Catherine's journal of the voyage many years later, in 1928. In 1865, she moved with her family back to Newburgh. She was educated at home, aside from a brief period in a girls' school in Dresden, Germany in 1876.


title: Sara Roosevelt

text: Delano was described as 5'10" (178 cm), and an intelligent debutante beauty in her youth. She was also known for her sense of purpose that many young women of her age and class lacked at the time.


title: Sara Roosevelt

text: After many suitors, Sara married James Roosevelt I, who was 26 years her senior, in 1880. Two years later, she gave birth to a son, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, on January 30, 1882. After the birth of her son, doctors advised Sara not to have any more children, and thus the young Franklin became the focus of her attention. Many wealthy parents of this time period relied on servants to care for their children, but not Sara. She taught Franklin reading and geography, and employed tutors rather than sending him to a conventional school. After the death of her husband in 1900, she temporarily moved to Boston, Massachusetts to be close to her son who was then studying at Harvard University.


title: Sara Roosevelt

text: Sara did not approve of many of the women that her son courted. When Franklin fell in love with his distant cousin, Eleanor Roosevelt, Sara was determined to change his mind. She tried to coerce him out of the engagement, but with no luck, she insisted that her son keep his arrangement a secret for over a year. Sara was heavily involved in the lives of Eleanor and Franklin's children. She often offered advice on how to raise them, and frequently undermined the couple's disciplinary skills by spoiling her grandchildren. Eleanor often relied on Sara's direction to make her feel more secure in her role of being a mother.


title: Sara Roosevelt

text: Though Sara became known popularly as a stereotypical domineering mother-in-law after being portrayed as much in the film "Sunrise at Campobello", her actual relationship with Eleanor was much more complex. The pair grew close during the early years of the marriage as Eleanor's mother had died when she was young, and she used Sara as a surrogate mother to discuss issues. She supported Eleanor after she discovered Franklin's affair with Lucy Mercer, which put the marriage close to collapse. However, the relationship began to be more distant after Eleanor became more heavily involved in politics and activism.


title: Sara Roosevelt

text: Franklin Roosevelt never had a home of his own that was separate from that of his mother's. In 1906, Roosevelt commissioned a pair of houses to be built at E 65 Street, New York City, as a wedding present for Franklin and his wife, Eleanor, on the strict condition that she could move in next to them. She oversaw a series of connecting doors between the houses, allowing her access to the drawing room and children's bedrooms in the neighboring property. Her son and daughter-in-law moved out after Franklin took office in the White House in 1933.


title: Sara Roosevelt

text: She lived to see Franklin elected President of the United States three times, becoming the first presidential mother to vote for her son. Sara continued to support her son's career, even standing in as First Lady on several occasions. She was always prepared to say something positive about her son, and remained highly protective of him and his family.


title: Sara Roosevelt

text: Sara Delano Roosevelt died on September 7, 1941, with the President at her side, two weeks before her 87th birthday.


title: Sara Roosevelt

text: "Minutes after her death, the largest oak tree at Hyde Park toppled to the ground. It was a clear windless day."


title: Sara Roosevelt

text: The funeral was held at Springwood. The President can be seen wearing a black mourning band on his arm in photographs of him later signing the declaration of war against Japan. His mother's memory is commemorated with the Sara Delano Roosevelt Park in New York City's Lower East Side, which was dedicated during her lifetime, in 1934. She was buried next to her husband at the churchyard at St. James Episcopal Church in Hyde Park.


title: Sara Roosevelt

text: In 2003, the City University of New York announced they would restore Roosevelt's former home, now known as the Sara Delano Roosevelt Memorial House, on 47 East 65th Street, where she lived from 1908 until her death.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Chinese Singaporeans () are Singaporeans of Chinese descent. Chinese Singaporeans constitute 75.9% of the Singaporean citizen population according to the official census, making them the largest ethnic group among them.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: As early as the 10th century, there was evidence of Chinese people trading and settling in Singapore and there were also various Chinese records documenting trading activities and Chinese residents on the island from the 10th to the 14th century. Prior to the establishment of Singapore as a British trading port, there was a small population of 120 Malays who were the followers of Temenggong Abdul Rahman, and about 20–30 Chinese living on the island. After Singapore became a British colony, there was an influx of Chinese migrant workers, but these early Chinese migrants to Singapore were predominantly males, as they would usually return to their families in China after they have earned enough. There was only a significant number of Chinese residents permanently settling in Singapore during the early to mid twentieth century, forming the bulk of the Chinese Singaporean population today.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Many Chinese Singaporeans can trace their ancestry to the southeastern China such as the speakers of Hokkien, Teochews and Cantonese are the 3 largest dialect groups that Chinese Singaporeans are classified under.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The Singapore Department of Statistics defines "Chinese" as a "race" or "ethnic group", as opposed to Malay, Indian and Others under the CMIO model. They consist of "persons of Chinese origin" such as the Hokkiens, Teochews, Hainanese, Cantonese, Hakka, Henghuas, Hokchias and Foochows, Shanghainese, Northern Chinese, etc." Chinese Singaporeans are defined as the "Chinese community in Singapore" regardless of their affiliation with the wider global Chinese community.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The early records of Singapore in Imperial Chinese sources named Singapore as "Long Ya Men" (龍牙門), "Dan Ma Xi" (單馬錫 or 淡馬錫). Later other terms such as "Xi La" (息辣), "Shi le" (石叻), or "Xi Li" (息力, for "selat" meaning strait) may also refer to Singapore or the surrounding areas.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Archaeological excavations of artefacts such as Chinese coins or ceramics in Singapore, which dated back to the period of the reign of Emperor Zhenzong of Song (998–1022) and Emperor Renzong of Song (1023–1063), indicated that Chinese merchants or traders had already visited Singapore by the Song dynasty.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The Chinese record "Annals of various foreign states" ("Zhu fan zhi") written by Zhao Rushi in 1225 clearly described Chinese merchant ships arriving in Singapore from Quanzhou and various Chinese trading activities. In this annal, the chapter San Fo Qi (三佛齊 the Chinese name for Srivijaya) recorded merchant ships passing through "Ling Ya Men" (凌牙門, although it is not clear however if it is the same as Long Ya Men) before reaching Srivijaya for trading.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The Chinese traveller Wang Dayuan, visiting the island around 1330, described a small Malay settlement called Dan Ma Xi (淡馬錫, from Malay Temasek) in which Chinese residents live together with the Malays.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Following the decline of Srivijayan power, Temasek was alternately claimed by the Majapahit and the Siamese, but the invasion of 1377 and 1391 caused Singapore to be destroyed. Following that, there were little Chinese records of the visiting of Chinese to Singapore. Singapore is marked as Dan Ma Xi in the Mao Kun map that dates back to the naval voyage of Chinese explorer Zheng He in 1403. The earliest groups of Chinese who settled in what is today Singapore were the Peranakan Chinese from Malacca and Riau who were descendants of those who immigrated to the region and married local wives between the 15th to 18th centuries.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The 19th century Chinese record" Investigation of Southern Pacific" (南洋蠡測) (Nanyang Li Ce) described the presence of Chinese tombs in Singapore (known as "Xin Ji Li Po" (新忌利波 in Chinese). On the Chinese tomb, there were words and inscriptions recording the period of Later Liang and Emperor Gong of Song. This may suggest that from 907 to 1274, some Chinese had settled, lived, died and were buried in Singapore.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: From the founding of modern Singapore by Stamford Raffles until the Japanese occupation in 1942, Singapore was ruled as a colony by the British. When the British first arrived in Singapore, most of the inhabitants on the island of Singapore were fisherman, seamen or pirates, living in small houses. There were about 150 people; a majority of 120 Malay and 30 minority Chinese.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: When Singapore became a Straits Settlement, there were very few Chinese. After Singapore became a British trading post as part of the Straits Settlement, the first batch of Chinese came from Malaysia, predominantly from Malacca and Penang. Amongst these Chinese from Malacca and Penang, many were Peranakans or descendants of Chinese in Malaysia for several generations. Most were traders who could speak Chinese and Malay, though many were also English-educated and could communicate with the British. In the" Manners and customs of the Chinese of the Straits Settlements, Singapore", it was described that the Straits-born Chinese regarded themselves as British subjects instead of Chinese subjects; their lifestyle was more westernised. By the time of the first census of Singapore in 1824, the Chinese migrants were noted as being either Peranakans, or from Macau, Guangdong and Fujian.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The Chinese quickly formed the majority of the population in Singapore, by the census of 1826 there were already more Chinese (6,088) than Malays (4,790) excluding Bugis (1,242) and Javanese (267). The Chinese became the dominant group by the 1830s (the largest ethnic group at 45.9% in the 1836 census), and by 1849, 52.8% of the total population of 52,891 were Chinese. The Chinese population reached over 70% of the total by 1901 and has stayed there since.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The early Chinese migrants to Singapore were predominantly males. In 1826, the official census figures show that out of a total population of 13,750, there were 5,747 Chinese males but only 341 Chinese females. Most of the Chinese females in this early period of Singapore were nyonyas from Malacca as women from China were discouraged from emigrating. It was noted in 1837 that there were no Chinese women in Singapore who had emigrated directly from China; even as late as 1876, a British official in Singapore wrote that he did not know of any respectable Chinese woman who had emigrated with her husband. The imbalance of the sexes in Chinese community continued for a long time with the continual flow into Singapore of male migrant workers who were either single or had left their wives and children behind in China; for example, the 1901 census figures show that there were 130,367 Chinese males compared to 33,674 Chinese females. For a long period, most of the Chinese population in early Singapore were immigrants as many did not intend to settle permanently to raise their family there; even by the late 1890s, only around 10% of the Chinese population in Singapore were born there. The early migrant Chinese workers worked to send money back to their family in China, and many would then return to China after they had earned enough money. However, an increasing number would also choose to settle permanently in Singapore, especially in the 1920s when more chose to remain in Singapore rather than leave. Change in social attitude in the modern era also meant that Chinese women were freer to emigrate from China, and the sex ratio began to normalise in the 20th century. This gradual normalisation of sex ratio led to an increase in the number of native births. Immigration would continue to be the main reason for the Chinese population increase in Singapore until the 1931–1947 period when the natural increase in population would surpass the net immigration figures.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Many of the early migrants were Chinese traders who were attracted by the free trade policy after Singapore became the capital of the British Straits Settlements in 1832. Many also came to work in the plantations, with 11,000 migrants recorded in one year. Singapore became one of the entry and dispersal points for large number of Chinese and Indian migrants who came to work in the plantations and mines of the Straits Settlements, many of whom then settled in Singapore after their contract ended. Because of booming commerce which required a large labour force, the Chinese coolie trade also appeared in Singapore. Indentured Chinese Cantonese labourers and British Raj labourers were contracted by coolie traders and brought to Singapore to work. In 1860 under the 2nd Opium War, Chinese coolie trade became legalised and reached a high peak. The large influx of coolies into Singapore only stopped after William Pickering became the Protector of Chinese. In 1914, the coolie trade was abolished and banned in Singapore.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The large influx of Chinese to Singapore led to the establishment of a large number of Chinese associations, schools, and temples in Singapore and, within a century, the Chinese immigrant population exceeded that of the Malays. During this period, Christian missionaries from Europe began evangelising to the Asians, especially the Chinese.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Peranakans, or those descendants of Chinese in Southeast Asia for many generations who were generally English-educated were typically known in Singapore as "Laokuh" (老客 – Old Guest) or "Straits Chinese". Most of them paid loyalty to the British Empire and did not regard themselves as "Huaqiao". From the 19th until the mid-20th century, migrants from China were known as "Sinkuh" (新客 – New Guest). A majority of them were coolies, workers on steamboats, etc. Some of them came to Singapore for work, in search of better living conditions or to escape poverty in China. Many of them also escaped to Singapore due to chaos and wars in China during the first half of the 20th century. They came mostly from the Fujian, Guangdong and Hainan provinces and, unlike Peranakans, paid loyalty to China and regarded themselves as "Huaqiao".


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The Second Sino-Japanese War, started in 1937, revived a perceived sense of patriotism in the local Chinese to their native homeland in China which led them to impose an embargo against Japanese goods and products in Singapore. During the war, many of the immigrants returned to China to fight the Japanese, while established entrepreneurs sent economic aid or military equipment to China. After the Japanese took Singapore in 1942, the Kempeitai tracked down many Chinese who aided the Chinese war effort against Japan. However, the Kempeitai's Sook Ching Operation was simply a massacre designed to drive fear into the local populace, so the Kempeitai simply picked out people based on accounts of masked informers, which in many cases were false accounts based on personal vendettas. There was also active anti-Japanese resistance during the war, such as Force 136, headed by Lim Bo Seng.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Race riots were common during the early post-war period, predominantly in the period between self-governance and independence in 1965.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: One major riot took place during birthday celebrations in honour of Muhammad, on 21 July 1964. There were records of high casualties (23 killed and 454 injured), as well as claims that the riot was politically motivated to oust the then Prime Minister (Lee Kuan Yew) and his cabinet as well as to prevent the promotion of a Malaysian Malaysia concept in Peninsular Malaysia.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: After the independence of Singapore in 1965, Singapore began to foster a more racially harmonious society in Singapore. Following the construction of Singapore national identity and nationhood, the Chinese in Singapore began to change their mindset from temporary stay to permanent settlements in Singapore, thus taking roots in Singapore. Following this transformation, the Chinese in Singapore gradually began to recognise citizenship-wise as "Singaporeans".


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Chinese migrants from China during the late 20th century and early 21st century were generally known as "Xinyimin 新移民" (new immigrants). They came from various parts of China.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: When the Chinese migrants first arrived in Singapore in the 19th and early 20th century, they settled in an enclave such as Chinatown. They tended to group themselves according to dialectal similarity, with those from nearby Chinese regions grouping. This led the Chinese to form 5 dialectal Cohorts (known as "Bangqun," 幫群), namely the "Hokkien Bang", "Teochew Bang"," Cantonese Bang", "Hakka Bang" and "Hainanese Bang".


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: During the British colonial period, the colonial government basically adopted the approach of using "the Chinese to govern the Chinese". They appointed Chinese leaders to govern the Chinese community. Effectively, the Chinese community existed in a half-autonomy state. Most Chinese leaders used the Chinese civil societies (small organisations) to help govern the Chinese community and to help new Chinese immigrants settled into Singapore, including finding jobs and lodgings for them.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: As most of these Chinese civil societies were involved in Chinese family religious activities such as funerals or ancestral worship, they were in fact religious-oriented. This gradually evolved into the development of Chinese Temples or Chinese clan associations in Singapore. As time passed by, the Chinese had grown to have more achievements in the business and education in Singapore. Some rich and powerful Chinese businessmen began to establish Clubs, such as the Ee Ho Hean Club (怡和軒) in 1895, and Chamber of Commerce, such as the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry, to broaden the Chinese social circle. Established in 1906, the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry was the highest body of organisation within the Chinese community in Singapore. It was responsible for fighting the rights of the Chinese in Singapore during the British colonial period. During the World War II, the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry had managed to help raise funds and resources to help relieve the sufferings in war-torn China.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: After Singapore gained independence and autonomy in the 1960s, the Singapore government undertook measures to help foster racial harmony in Singapore. It encouraged various races of different languages and religious backgrounds to intermingle and to live side by side. Following the growth of Singaporean nationhood and national identity, the Chinese immigrants began to change their mindset from temporary migration to permanent settlements, thus soiling their roots in Singapore. With the strengthening of Singaporean national identity, the Chinese clans association gradually declined in terms of importance. Their role of organising and governing the Chinese community was soon taken over by the Singapore government.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Today, all Singaporean clan associations come under the flagship of Singapore Federation of Chinese Clans Association (SFCCA). They connect Chinese Singaporeans to their Chinese roots or Ancestral home. Besides, the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry (SCCCI) continued to look after the interests of the Chinese business community as well as sourcing business opportunities in China. The Chinese Development Assistance Council was founded out of these two organisations (SFCCA and SCCCI) to help nurture and develop the potential of the Chinese community in contributing to the continued success of multiracial Singapore. There are also various Chinese cultural organisations such as Singapore Chinese Calligraphy Society, Singapore Chinese Orchestra, Siong Leng Musical Association, Nanyang Confucian Association, Singapore Chinese Opera Institute etc. Besides, there are also major Chinese religious associations such as Singapore Buddhist Federation, Taoist Federation (Singapore) and Singapore Buddhist Lodge to look after the religious affairs of Chinese Singaporeans.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: All these Chinese organisations continue to play an important role in the economical, cultural and religious activities of Chinese Singaporeans.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: In general, Singaporeans of Chinese descent are grouped according to their respective ancestry to Fujian, Guangdong and Hainan. The Min Nan people (Hokkiens and Teochews) and Cantonese people together form more than three-quarters of the Chinese Singaporean population. The Hakka, Henghuas, Foochows and other subgroups account for most of the remainder. Singaporeans of Chinese descent are generally the descendants of non-indentured and indentured immigrants from southern China during the 19th and first half of the 20th century. The 1990s and early 21st century saw Singapore experience a third wave of immigration from different parts of China.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The Hokkien-speaking subgroup constitutes nearly two-fifths of the Chinese Singaporean population. They are Hoklo people from Minnan, including mixed-race Peranakan Chinese and immigrants who originated in the southern parts of the Fujian province, including Xiamen, Quanzhou and Zhangzhou.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: They speak Singaporean Hokkien, the standard of which is based on the Amoy dialect of Xiamen, which is partially comprehensible with Teochew although less so with Hainanese. Hokkien Chinese was a "lingua franca" among coastal Chinese and was also used by other ethnic groups such as the Malays and the Indians to communicate with Chinese before Mandarin came to dominance during the 1980s and 1990s.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Just as in Taiwan, Hokkien people, speakers of Hokkien, refers not to people originating from all parts of Fujian. "Hokkien" refers only to the Minnan (Southern Min) region of southern coastal Fujian. Singaporean Hokkien does not include northern Fujianese such as those arriving from Fuzhou, Putian and so on. Early Hokkien migrants settled around Amoy Street and Telok Ayer Street, forming enclaves around the Thian Hock Kheng Temple. They subsequently set up clan headquarters ("Hokkien Huey Kuan") there and later expanded to Hokkien Street and the vicinity of China Street. Hokkiens were the most active in early trading that centred along the Singapore River.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: As early settlers came from the southern coast of China, they were to pray for calm waves and a safe journey and worshipped the “Mother of Heavenly Sage” or Tian Shang Sheng Mu (), the Goddess who can calm the sea and ensure the safety of those travelling across the seas. Thian Hock Keng Temple was thus built in 1840 along Telok Ayer Street and dedicated to Tian Shang Sheng Mu (), it was a bustling meeting point and an important congregation point for the Hokkien community. Other popular deities are the Kew Ong Yah, Guan Teh Gong, Kuan Yim Hood Chor, Ong Yah Gong, Qing Shui Zhu Shi, Bao Sheng Da Di, Kai Zhang Sheng Wang, Fu De Zheng Shen and especially the Jade Emperor, 9th Day of the 1st Lunar Month is the birthday of Jade Emperor and is considered by many Chinese to be the most important day of the lunar year.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: A traditional Taoist practice by spiritual mediumship (乩童, "jītóng", "tâng-ki"; 童乩) is also popular. The "tangki" goes into a trance and purportedly channels a chosen Deity for the petitioner. The Deity will provides wide range of divine assistance from bestowing blessings to oracles consultation to exorcism to giving spiritual protection and talismans.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The Teochew-speaking subgroup in Singapore constitutes about a fifth of the Chinese Singaporean population, making them the second-largest Southern Min dialect-speaking group in Singapore. The Teochew speakers form a separate division of Hoklo (Min Nan/Hokkien) people. They originated from Chaoshan region in eastern Guangdong, in cities like Chaozhou, Jieyang and Shantou. Many trace their origins from different Northern cities but were settled there to maintain as county authorities within the south of China.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Despite similarities, the Teochew and Hokkien speakers consider themselves distinct and did not get along during their early settlement in Singapore, especially during the British colonial era. The Teochew were dominant for a period of time during the 19th century. Mass immigration from Fujian changed this, although the majority of the Chinese along the banks of the Straits of Johor were Teochew until the HDB initiated redevelopment in the 1980s. "The Straits Times" reports that Hougang still has a relatively high concentration of Teochew residents.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Most Teochew settled along the Singapore River in Chinatown during the 19th and early 20th century. Teochew who settled in Chinatown worked in many commercial sectors as well as the fisheries. Commercial sectors once dominated by Teochews include Circular Road and South Bridge Road. Other Teochew businessmen set up gambier and pepper plantations in the dense forests of north Singapore and Johor Bahru. The Chinese first started their plantations with the approval of the Sultan of Johor and then developed the "kangchu" (江厝, "jiāngcuò", "river house") system. "Chu" was the clan name of the first headman of the plantations in the area. These "kangchus" gave rise to modern place names such as Choa Chu Kang, Lim Chu Kang and Yio Chu Kang, all of which were plantation areas before urban redevelopment.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Early Chinese immigrants clustered themselves to form clan and language associations. These clan associations ("kongsi") served as unions for the mostly illiterate Chinese labourers and represented them when dealing with their colonial administrators or employers. One of the most prominent associations for the Teochew was the "Ngee Ann Kongsi", formed in 1845 and is still in operation. The association also take care of Yueh Hai Ching Temple, which is the oldest Teochew temple in Singapore.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The Cantonese-speaking subgroup makes up about 15% of the Chinese Singaporean population. They originated from Hong Kong and the southern region of Guangdong province in China, including Guangzhou, Foshan, Zhaoqing, Jiangmen, Maoming and Heshan.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The Cantonese speak several dialects belonging to the Yue family. "Yue Hai" is considered the prestige dialect from its occurrence in Guangzhou. Other variants include "Luoguang", "Toishanese" and "Gouyeung".


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The Cantonese worked mainly as professionals and tradesmen during the early and mid 20th centuries, and their businesses dominated the shophouses along Temple Street, Pagoda Street, and Mosque Street. Cantonese women from the Samsui district worked as labourers at construction sites and contributed greatly toward Singapore's development. These Samsui women left their families behind in China and came to Singapore to work at construction sites for a living during the early 20th century. Cantonese women from the Siyi district of Jiangmen wore black headgear similar to the Samsui women and mainly worked at Keppel Harbour and the shipyards at the old harbour along the Singapore River. Many Cantonese women also worked as majie in rich people's households. More Cantonese immigrated from Hong Kong in the late 1980s and early 1990s.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Today, the Cantonese dialect is still preserved amongst ethnic Chinese of Cantonese ancestry, although most younger generations tend to speak more Standard Chinese due to language reforms, but is still widely used as the main "lingua franca" for connecting both the older and the younger generations when communicating to one another as well. As of 2010, Singaporeans recognise Chinatown for having a large number of Cantonese people.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The Hakka-speaking subgroup constitutes 11.4% of the Chinese Singaporean population. About 70% of them originated from Dabu County.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Singapore has more than 200,000 Hakkas and they are the fourth-largest dialect group after the Hokkiens, Teochews and Cantonese. The Hakkas were known for running pawnshops, traditional Chinese medicine shops and optical shops. Many Hakka women who came to Singapore during the early 20th century worked in construction sites and wore headgear similar to the Samsui women. However, instead of red, the Hakka women wore black headgear.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Ying Fo Fui Kun, a Hakka clan association, is the oldest clan association in Singapore. Its clan house is located at Telok Ayer Street in the Outram Planning Area, within the Central Area, Singapore's central business district. In 2015 a Hakka "tulou" replica was built. The replica in Singapore was built by the Fong Yun Thai Association, an umbrella body for three Hakka clans – Char Yong (Dabu) Association, Eng Teng Association and Foong Shoon Fui Kuan. This is the only tulou replica outside of proper China till date.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Singapore's founding father Lee Kuan Yew and his son, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong, were fourth- and fifth-generation Chinese Singaporeans of Hakka descent, respectively. Apart from Lee Kuan Yew, many first-generation leaders of Singapore were of Hakka descent, including Chor Yeok Eng, Hon Sui Sen, Howe Yoon Chong and Yong Nyuk Lin.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: This subgroup constitutes about 5% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Of them, the majority are from Hainan and speak Hainanese. The Hainanese in Singapore originated mainly from the north-east part of the island, from cities such as Wenchang and Haikou.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: As relative late-comers to Singapore in the late 19th century, most of them worked as shop assistants, chefs, and waiters in the hospitality sector. Hainanese chicken rice became a famous dish. They were also known for their Western cooking, as many of the early Hainanese migrants worked as cooks on European ships. The Hockchew and Hockchia originated from northeastern Fujian, particularly Fuzhou city, Changle District, Gutian county and Fuqing. They speak Eastern Min. The Puxian or Hinghwas originated from Central FujianPutian and Xianyouand speak Puxian Min.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Taiwan-born Chinese Singaporeans (and their descendants) are predominantly of the Hokkien and Hakka subgroups. They number around 30,000 (2012) and constitutes less than 2% of the Singaporean population. In Singapore, due to their small population, the Taiwanese are often grouped into larger populations, such as the Hokkien and Hakka, according to their dialect or ancestral origin. Newer Taiwanese immigrants have formed a distinctive group on their own. They may speak Taiwanese Mandarin, Hokkien or Hakka and originate from many different cities, including Taipei, New Taipei, Hsinchu, Taichung, Tainan and Kaohsiung.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: According to the book, "Japanese's view of Singapore" () edited by Mr Lin Shaobin, the vice-chairman of Singapore Japanese cultural society, the "Bank of Taiwan" started its operation in Singapore from 1912 to 1925. The book also indicated that according to Japanese statistics of 1932, there were around 105 Taiwanese living in Malaya (including Singapore). According to verbal accounts by Singaporeans, many of the "Japanese" soldiers involved in the occupation of Singapore during World War II were in fact Taiwanese serving in the Imperial Japanese Army. Similar accounts relate that many teachers of Mandarin Chinese in the 1950s and 1960s came from Taiwan. After 1965, military ties led to the immigration of some Taiwanese military personnel as high-ranking officers in Singapore Armed Forces. More immigration began during the 1970s and 1980s from investors, businessmen, and students. Most of these were highly educated and employed in professions such as engineering, business, investment, research and education. Marriages between Chinese Singaporeans and Taiwanese (i.e. Taiwan-born Chinese) often resulted in the Taiwanese partner moving to Singapore and obtaining citizenship.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The Peranakan or "Baba-Nyonya" are early mixed Chinese-Malay immigrants from Malacca and Penang who later migrated to Singapore. The Peranakans are descendants of mixed-race Chinese subgroups such as the lower class Tankas who have for generations extensively intermarried with the indigenous Malays, Bugis, Balinese, Javanese or Europeans and assimilating their adopted slave children. A few notable Peranakans have classified themselves as a separate ethnic group and have a distinct identity from either separate group while the vast majority have self-classified as Chinese Singaporeans after re-assimilation. The men are known as "Baba" while the women are known as "Bibiks" or "Nyonyas".


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Peranakans in Singapore were once concentrated around the Malay settlement at Geylang and the Chinese enclave at Katong because they often served as intermediaries for businesses and social groups in colonial Singapore owing to multilingual fluency in English, Malay, and Hokkien (post-independence and after the 1980s, standard Mandarin as well mastered as a third supplementary language). Many Peranakans and Hokkien Chinese moved out of the congested town of Singaporetoday's Central Business Districtand built seaside mansions and villas along the East Coast in Tanjong Katong for their families. After Singapore's independence, Peranankans moved throughout the island.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Many Peranakans converted to Roman Catholicism during the 17th and 18th century Dutch, Portuguese, British and Spanish colonisation of Southeast Asia, which saw missionaries set up posts in Batavia (today's Jakarta) and along the Malay peninsula.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Before 1990, Mandarin speakers from Beijing and northern China and Wu speakers from Shanghai and the central Pacific coast of China constituted less than 2% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Most of the current population of native Mandarin speakers immigrated to Singapore much later than the other groups, after the Singaporean government relaxed immigration laws in 1989. Many of them were working in blue-collared jobs during Singapore's rapid industrialisation which began in the 1970s. Because of this, the members of this third wave are called the "New Immigrants" (, "Xīnyímín"). They usually speak Standard Mandarin, the "lingua franca" among mainland Chinese groups today, and many speak other varieties as well. Since the 1990s, the number of mainland Chinese who come to Singapore to study or work has steadily increased every year. Many stayed only for a short time and then returned to China, but eventually many settled down permanently and became permanent residents or citizens of Singapore.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Today, newer Chinese migrants includes migrant workers working in various industries of the Singapore economy, with a mix of blue-collar workers and white-collar workers, as well as students.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Traditionally, Chinese Singaporeans used their respective mother tongues as their main avenue of communication. Although that led to communication difficulties amongst speakers of more distant topolects, it has nevertheless forged strong ethnic bonds amongst the Chinese community in Singapore.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: But today, the speech of Chinese in Singapore exhibits a great amount of linguistic diversity which includes English, Singlish, Mandarin, Singdarin (Colloquial Singaporean Mandarin), Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, Hakka, Hainanese, as well as other languages, with the traditional mother tongues of Chinese Singaporeans on the losing end. Most Chinese Singaporeans are generally bilingual, speaking both English and Mandarin.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Before the 1980s, Chinese Singaporeans were either English-educated or Chinese-educated (Standard Chinese). The English-educated Chinese were educated with English as the medium of instruction and learnt little or no Mandarin in school (in such cases, Mandarin became an optional language). As a result, they became affianced to the English-speaking Singaporeans and inevitably distanced from the Mandarin-speaking Singaporeans but were still be able to speak their respective mother tongues. On the other hand, the Chinese-educated were educated with Mandarin as the medium of instruction but learnt little or no English. They usually spoke Mandarin and their respective mother tongues with little or no English. There was a portion of Chinese Singaporeans who were bilingual, i.e. simultaneously educated with both English and Mandarin as the medium of instruction, or who attended Chinese-based primary schools and subsequently transferred to English-based schools for their secondary education.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: After the 1980s, all schools (including former Chinese-based schools) in Singapore are required to use English as the primary medium of instruction with Mandarin as the designated second language. Thus, Chinese Singaporeans educated in after the 1980s are theoretically bilingual.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: English is the first language and therefore spoken by all Singaporeans. This was partly due to the policy of Singapore's government to make English the medium of instruction in all schools in the 1980s (including former Chinese-based schools), as well as making English the working language for administration and business in Singapore (in short making English the lingua franca among all Singaporean). The presence of the English language in Singapore has its roots originating from Singapore's colonial past when Singapore was a British colony. As a result of the government's policy, English or Singlish has become widespread among the residents of Singapore, including but not limited to the Chinese Singaporeans, and this especially the case among the younger generations. As of 2010, it was estimated that 32.6% of Singapore Chinese speak English at home. But at work or in the city and business district, English is the official lingua franca, but ironically Hokkien remains extant amongst Singaporeans, not limited to the Chinese, and operates as an unofficial common language, reminiscent of Singapore before the 1980s.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: Mandarin is another widely spoken language among Chinese Singaporeans. As of 2010, it was estimated that 47.7% of Chinese Singaporeans speak Mandarin at home. Evidently, Singapore government's Speak Mandarin Campaign was launched in the 1980s to make Mandarin the lingua franca among the Chinese in Singapore. It was intended to be the language to unify Chinese Singaporeans from different topolect groups by replacing the then lingua franca Hokkien. This was also because Mandarin was deemed more economically valuable, and speaking Mandarin would help Chinese Singaporeans retain their heritage, as Mandarin supposedly contains a cultural repository of values and traditions that are identifiable to all Chinese, regardless of topolect group. In the 1990s, this campaign began to target the English-speaking Chinese Singaporeans. As a result of this campaign, Mandarin became widespread in places such as residential areas, neighbourhood markets and even business districts, with the various mother tongues of Chinese Singaporeans falling out of favous among younger Chinese Singaporeans. Mandarin is also often spoken in most "traditional Chinese-based" schools, even though English is now their medium of instruction. Colloquially, as with all other languages spoken in Singapore, the Chinese Singaporeans prefer a localised flavour of mixing words from English, Hokkien, Malay, and some other varieties, into their Mandarin speech. Most young Chinese Singaporeans are capable of conversational Mandarin but are weaker in their ability to write Chinese, or with higher level conversations on complex, specialised topics.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The linguistic diversity among Chinese Singaporeans varies according to age group. Most young Chinese Singaporeans speak English and Mandarin while the elderly, though also able to converse in Mandarin, prefer speaking other sinitic languages such as Hokkien, Cantonese, Teochew, Hakka, or Hainanese. As these south-eastern sinitic languages are no longer taught in school, the number of speakers have steadily declined. Besides, many parents have begun to communicate with their children solely in English, believing that English is the quintessential way of attaining upward social mobility. Many young Chinese Singaporeans have a poor command of Mandarin as a result. This applies equally even compared to the more westernised Chinese Singaporean Christian community, who generally prefers the English language over any other.


title: Chinese Singaporeans

text: The question of which language is preferred in Singapore seem to have caused a debate among Singaporeans recently. The question of declining standards in the command of the Chinese language amongst Chinese Singaporean seems to cause several revisions in the government's education policies towards the Chinese language. The government of Singapore's continued policy towards bilingualism for all Chinese Singaporeans, which is to continue to pursue English as the first language while making Mandarin the lingua franca (or at least the 2nd language or home language) amongst all Chinese has drawn mixed responses. The more English-speaking Chinese Singaporeans generally prefer English as the lingua franca or their home language, while the Mandarin-speakers worry that English will replace Mandarin as the lingua franca, which would eliminate the thin thread of Chinese identity. With the rising economy of China in the 21st century, which has led to more Singaporean companies requiring fluency in Mandarin, Mandarin has been viewed with greater importance among Chinese Singaporeans than before. Both English and Mandarin will continue to dominate the language scene among Chinese Singaporeans.