title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: When South Carolina seceded in December 1860, Major Robert Anderson, a pro-slavery, former slave owner from Kentucky, remained loyal to the Union. He was the commanding officer of United States Army forces in Charleston, South Carolina—the last remaining important Union post in the Deep South. Acting upon orders from the War Department to hold and defend the U.S. forts, he moved his small garrison from Fort Moultrie, which was indefensible, to the more modern, more defensible, Fort Sumter in the middle of Charleston Harbor. South Carolina leaders cried betrayal, while the North celebrated with enormous excitement at this show of defiance against secessionism. In February 1861 the Confederate States of America were formed and took charge. Jefferson Davis, the Confederate president, ordered the fort be captured. The artillery attack was commanded by Brig. Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard, who had been Anderson's student at West Point. The attack began April 12, 1861, and continued until Anderson, badly outnumbered and outgunned, surrendered the fort on April 14. The battle began the American Civil War, as an overwhelming demand for war swept both the North and South, with only Kentucky attempting to remain neutral.


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: According to Adam Goodheart (2011), the modern meaning of the American flag was also forged in the defense of Fort Sumter. Thereafter, the flag was used throughout the North to symbolize American nationalism and rejection of secessionism.


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: Abraham Lincoln's rejection of the Crittenden Compromise, the failure to secure the ratification of the Corwin Amendment in 1861, and the inability of the Washington Peace Conference of 1861 to provide an effective alternative to Crittenden and Corwin came together to prevent a compromise that is still debated by Civil War historians. Even as the war was going on, William Seward and James Buchanan were outlining a debate over the question of inevitability that would continue among historians.


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: Two competing explanations of the sectional tensions inflaming the nation emerged even before the war. The first was the "Needless War" argument. Buchanan believed the sectional hostility to be the accidental, unnecessary work of self-interested or fanatical agitators. He also singled out the "fanaticism" of the Republican Party. Seward, on the other hand, believed there to be an irrepressible conflict between opposing and enduring forces. Shelden argues that, "Few scholars in the twenty-first century would call the Civil War 'needless,' as the emancipation of 4 million slaves hinged on Union victory."


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: The "Irrepressible Conflict" argument was the first to dominate historical discussion. In the first decades after the fighting, histories of the Civil War generally reflected the views of Northerners who had participated in the conflict. The war appeared to be a stark moral conflict in which the South was to blame, a conflict that arose as a result of the designs of slave power. Henry Wilson's "History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America" (1872–1877) is the foremost representative of this moral interpretation, which argued that Northerners had fought to preserve the union against the aggressive designs of "slave power". Later, in his seven-volume "History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the Civil War" (1893–1900), James Ford Rhodes identified slavery as the central—and virtually only—cause of the Civil War. The North and South had reached positions on the issue of slavery that were both irreconcilable and unalterable. The conflict had become inevitable.


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: The idea that the war was avoidable became central among historians in the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s. Revisionist historians, led by James G. Randall (1881–1953) at the University of Illinois, Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) at Princeton University and Avery Craven (1885–1980) at the University of Chicago, saw in the social and economic systems of the South no differences so fundamental as to require a war. Historian Mark Neely explains their position:


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: Revisionism challenged the view that fundamental and irreconcilable sectional differences made the outbreak of war inevitable. It scorned a previous generation's easy identification of the Northern cause with abolition, but it continued a tradition of hostility to the Reconstruction measures that followed the war. The Civil War became a needless conflict brought on by a blundering generation that exaggerated sectional differences between North and South. Revisionists revived the reputation of the Democratic party as great nationalists before the war and as dependable loyalists during it. Revisionism gave Lincoln's Presidency a tragic beginning at Fort Sumter, a rancorous political setting of bitter factional conflicts between radicals and moderates within Lincoln's own party, and an even more tragic ending. The benevolent Lincoln died at the moment when benevolence was most needed to blunt radical designs for revenge on the South.


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: Randall blamed the ineptitude of a "blundering generation" of leaders. He also saw slavery as essentially a benign institution, crumbling in the presence of 19th century tendencies. Craven, the other leading revisionist, placed more emphasis on the issue of slavery than Randall but argued roughly the same points. In "The Coming of the Civil War" (1942), Craven argued that slave laborers were not much worse off than Northern workers, that the institution was already on the road to ultimate extinction, and that the war could have been averted by skillful and responsible leaders in the tradition of Congressional statesmen Henry Clay and Daniel Webster. Two of the key leaders in antebellum politics, Clay and Webster, in contrast to the 1850s generation of leaders, shared a predisposition to compromises marked by a passionate patriotic devotion to the Union.


title: Origins of the American Civil War

text: But it is possible that the politicians of the 1850s were not inept. More recent studies have kept elements of the revisionist interpretation alive, emphasizing the role of political agitation (the efforts of Democratic politicians of the South and Republican politicians in the North to keep the sectional conflict at the center of the political debate). David Herbert Donald (1920–2009), a student of Randall, argued in 1960 that the politicians of the 1850s were not unusually inept but that they were operating in a society in which traditional restraints were being eroded in the face of the rapid extension of democracy. The stability of the two-party system kept the union together, but would collapse in the 1850s, thus reinforcing, rather than suppressing, sectional conflict. The union, Donald said, died of democracy.


title: Mohamed Ihattaren

text: Mohamed Amine Ihattaren (Riffian-Berber: ⵎⵓⵃⴰⵎⴻⴷ ⵉⵃⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ, born 12 February 2002) is a Dutch professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Eredivisie club Ajax, on loan from Juventus.


title: Mohamed Ihattaren

text: Ihattaren was born in Utrecht and grew up in the Kanaleneiland district with around 16,000 inhabitants, mainly with Moroccan background. Many international footballers are also from there, including Ibrahim Afellay and Ismaïl Aissati. Possessing Dutch and Moroccan passports, he was born to Moroccan parents. He has four brothers and a sister. His father, Mostapha Ihattaren (died in October 2019), arrived in Utrecht in the 1980s from Rouadi close to Al Hoceima, a city located in the Rif region of northern Morocco. Ihattaren was enrolled by his father at the local football club SV Houten club in Utrecht in 2009.


title: Mohamed Ihattaren

text: Under the coaching of Henry Vermeulen, he appeared in all matches during his year at SV Houten. Vermeulen stated in 2018: "His ball handling, his dribbling and his vision were impressive. He was nicknamed "Ibi" due to his playing style resembling that of Ibrahim Afellay".


title: Mohamed Ihattaren

text: A youth product of PSV Eindhoven since 2010, Ihattaren signed his first professional contract with PSV on 28 March 2018. Ihattaren made his professional debut for PSV in a 2–1 Eredivisie win over FC Groningen on 26 January 2019, coming on as a late substitute for Gastón Pereiro. He became the fourth-youngest player to make his debut for PSV, behind Stanley Bish, Wilfred Bouma and Willy Janssen.


title: Mohamed Ihattaren

text: Ihattaren made four appearances for the first team before making his debut for reserve team Jong PSV in the second-tier Eerste Divisie on 22 February 2019, in a 2–2 home draw against Roda JC Kerkrade. In that game, he scored his first senior goal.


title: Mohamed Ihattaren

text: Ihattaren had made eight appearances for the first team when head coach Mark van Bommel definitively promoted him to the first-team squad in March 2019. There, he went on to compete for a spot as an attacking midfielder with Gastón Pereiro and Érick Gutiérrez.


title: Mohamed Ihattaren

text: Ihattaren scored his first goal for PSV's first team on 18 August 2019, netting to close the game with a 2–0 final score Heracles Almelo. His first European goal followed four days after, when he scored the opener in a 3–0 win in the UEFA Europa League qualifier against Apollon Limassol.


title: Mohamed Ihattaren

text: Ihattaren scored his second goal in the Eredivisie on 7 December 2019, in a 5–0 win over Fortuna Sittard. He scored from a penalty in the 52nd minute and dedicated the goal to his father, who had died two months earlier. By scoring the penalty, Ihattaren became the youngest player ever to score on a penalty-kick in the Eredivisie (17 years and 298 days). He broke the record of Ronald Koeman, who was 17 years and 325 days at the time of his first successful penalty-kick. Ihattaren became a starter in the first team of PSV during the 2019–20 season.


title: Mohamed Ihattaren

text: In the first half of the 2020–21 season, Ihattaren lost his place in the starting lineup under new head coach Roger Schmidt. Only in December 2020, he emerged from his slump of form. In February 2021, however, tensions broke out again between Schmidt and Ihattaren, and the latter's attitude was questioned.


title: Mohamed Ihattaren

text: On 31 July 2021, Ihattaren was axed from the squad for disciplinary reasons as he was officially absent from practice with PSV due to illness. Instead, he was spotted at the Nice training ground together with his agent Mino Raiola.


title: Mohamed Ihattaren

text: After signing with Juventus, he was promptly loaned to fellow-Serie A club Sampdoria on a one-year deal. On 12 September, Ihattaren made his first bench appearance in a 2–2 draw against Inter Milan, without making his debut. In October 2021 – only a month and a half after his arrival – Ihattaren had still not made his debut for the club, and reports of 'adaptation issues' arose, despite Ihattaren having been assigned a personal assistant in Italy to support him with practical matters, in addition to his own manager José Fortes Rodríguez, the man who has been guiding him on behalf of his agent Mino Raiola for several years. Allegedly, Sampdoria were fed up with his behaviour and lack of professionalism. He had practiced individually for a long time to regain his fitness in Genoa, but regularly visited acquaintances in Monaco and Milan, cities about two and a half hours drive from Genoa. He returned to the Netherlands for "personal reasons" on 14 October 2021. Ihattaren ended his experience at Sampdoria with only one bench appearance and he was never fielded onto the pitch.


title: Mohamed Ihattaren

text: On 12 January 2022 it was reported that Ihattaren was working on his fitness with Gerald Vanenburg in order to facilitate a re-entry into professional football. Initial reports speculated a return to his hometown club FC Utrecht. On 30 January it was confirmed that Ajax had loaned him from Juventus for one year with an option to buy set at €2 million. On 11 March, after still having not made his debut for the club, manager Erik ten Hag expressed his disappointment with Ihattaren's physical improvement in recent weeks: "If you can't run, it ends there".


title: Mohamed Ihattaren

text: On 1 April, Ihattaren first appeared for Jong Ajax, AFC Ajax's youth team competing in the Eerste Divisie league, in a 0–0 draw against NAC Breda, which marked his first competitive game in almost a year. Three days later, Ihattaren played his first game with Jong Ajax as a starter and scored a goal against TOP Oss, helping his side win 4–1. On 17 April, Ihattaren debuted for the first team during the 2022 KNVB Cup Final loss against PSV, his former team, coming on as a substitute in the 86th minute. On 25 April, he scored an hat-trick in ten minutes in Jong Ajax's 6–1 win against VVV-Venlo.


title: Mohamed Ihattaren

text: Born in Utrecht, Netherlands, Ihattaren is a youth international for the Netherlands, and was a member of the Netherlands U17s who won the 2018 UEFA European Under-17 Championship. In November 2019 he committed his international future to the Netherlands national team. Ihattaren was called up to the senior Netherlands squad for the UEFA Nations League matches against Poland and Italy in September 2020.


title: Mohamed Ihattaren

text: A quick and skilful midfielder, Ihattaren is mainly as a playmaker but can play most attacking positions. Instinctive and skilled in passing, he has been compared to fellow countryman Memphis Depay.


title: Mohamed Ihattaren

text: Ihattaren has recently come under fire for his alleged ties and connections to the Dutch criminal underworld: he is accused of having ties to the Mocro Maffia (a powerful criminal organization made up of criminals who are Moroccan or of Moroccan descent), after one of the alleged members of the organization (who is on trial in connection with the notorious Marengo trial) arrived at the courthouse in a car belonging to Ihattaren, which led Dutch authorities to investigate and discover that Ihattaren is a friend and associate of some high-ranking members of this powerful criminal group. Because of all this controversy, he began to receive death threats on social media and Ajax (his current team) would be trying to terminate his contract before the end of the current season of the Eredivisie, the first division of the football in the Netherlands.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: "Paparazzi" is a song by American singer Lady Gaga from her debut studio album, "The Fame" (2008). It was released as the album's fifth and final single by Interscope Records. Gaga wrote and produced the song with Rob Fusari. The song portrays Gaga's struggles in her quest for fame, as well as balancing success and love. Musically, it is an uptempo techno-pop and dance-pop song whose lyrics describe a stalker following somebody to grab attention and fame.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: The single was released on May 29, 2009, through the music video. On July 6, 2009, it was released digitally in Ireland and the United Kingdom and four days later physically in Australia. "LoveGame" initially had been planned as the third single release in the UK, but when its lyrics and music video were deemed potentially controversial, it was decided that "Paparazzi" would be released instead. "Paparazzi" was critically acclaimed for its "fun-filled" and club-friendly nature. It was also commercially successful, reaching top-ten positions in the music charts of Australia, Canada, Ireland, the United Kingdom, and the United States and topping the charts in the Czech Republic, Germany and Scotland.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: The accompanying music video was directed by Jonas Åkerlund and portrays Gaga as a doomed starlet, hounded by photographers, who is almost killed by her boyfriend (played by Alexander Skarsgård). It shows her survival, comeback, revenge on her boyfriend, and experiences on the way to fame. The video won two MTV Video Music Awards in 2009 for Best Art Direction and Best Special Effects. Gaga performed the song at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards in a performance art piece symbolizing the negative effect of fame leading to death. Additional live performances of the song took place during many of her concert tours and residency shows.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: Before she rose to fame, Lady Gaga met music producer Rob Fusari in March 2006 and began dating him in May. Gaga traveled daily to New Jersey to work on songs she had written and compose new material with Fusari. While working together, he compared some of her vocal harmonies to those of Freddie Mercury, lead singer of Queen. He also created the "Lady Gaga" moniker after the Queen song "Radio Ga Ga". Although the musical relationship between Fusari and Gaga was unsuccessful at first, the pair soon started writing more songs for Gaga. Towards the end of 2007, Gaga's management company introduced her to songwriter and producer RedOne, whom they also managed.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: By 2008, Gaga relocated to Los Angeles to work extensively with her record label to complete her debut album, "The Fame", and set up her own creative team called the Haus of Gaga. "Paparazzi" was one of the songs written by Gaga and Fusari who also produced the track. In a 2009 interview with "Rolling Stone", Gaga recalled her relationship with a heavy metal drummer called Luke, who became an inspiration for most of the songs on "The Fame", including "Paparazzi". The song became a symbol for Gaga to escape her own narcissism and desire for fame. She was infatuated with Luke, calling him "the love of her life", and ready to be his fan, to turn the camera around and photograph him.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: To the Australian "Daily Telegraph", Gaga explained that "Paparazzi" was about struggling to balance success and love. Further explanations said that the song was about trying to win the paparazzi and the media in one's favor. "It's a love song for the cameras, but it's also a love song about fame or love – can you have both, or can you only have one", she concluded. "Paparazzi" was the album's third single in Ireland, Italy, and the United Kingdom, the fourth in Canada and the United States and the fifth in Australia, France and New Zealand. Although released on July 6, 2009, in the United Kingdom and four days later in Australia, "LoveGame" initially had been planned as the third single release in the former but deeming its lyrics and music video potentially controversial, it was decided that "Paparazzi" would be released instead.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: "Paparazzi" was recorded at 150 Studios in Parsippany-Troy Hills, New Jersey. Along with the production and songwriting of the track, Gaga also did the background vocals and played piano and synthesizer. Calvin "Sci-Fidelty" Gaines did the programming and Fusari did the audio engineering and recording. Other personnel involved in creating the final version of the song included Robert Orton who did the audio mixing, and Gene Grimaldi who mastered the song at Oasis Mastering Studios, Burbank, California.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: "Paparazzi" is a dance-pop and techno-pop song with an uptempo, sultry beat similar to Gaga's previous singles "Just Dance" and "Poker Face". According to the sheet music published by Sony/ATV Music Publishing, the song has a moderate electro-synth groove. It is composed in the key of C minor (A major in the chorus) with a tempo of 115 beats per minute. It is set in common time, and Gaga's vocal range spans from a low-note of G to the high-note of E. The verses follow in the chord progression of Cm–A–Cm and the chorus uses an A–E–Fm–D progression. The lyrics of "Paparazzi" deal with stalking and the trappings of fame. Gaga sings about her desire to get attention from the cameras: "I'm your biggest fan/I'll follow you until you love me/Papa, paparazzi."


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: The song received acclaim from music critics, and has been considered one of the best songs in Gaga's discography years after its release. In 2011, "Rolling Stone" called it the second greatest Gaga song of all time, praising the song's theme and beat. Jill Menze of "Billboard", while reviewing The Fame Ball Tour, complimented Gaga's vocals on the song by saying, "The fame-obsessed ballad 'Paparazzi' showed how adept she can be with her range." Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" said that, "You may quickly tire of hearing the album's theme constantly reiterated, but the tune of 'Paparazzi' takes up residence in your brain and refuses to budge." Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called the song clever and said that it "functions simultaneously as glorious pop trash and a wicked parody of it."


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: Priya Elan of "The Times" thought that "even the trio of songs that provides the core of the album's celebrity theme ('Paparazzi', 'Beautiful Dirty Rich', and the title track) don't ruminate on the addictive inanity of fame, choosing instead to observe passively." David Balls from Digital Spy praised Gaga's decision of releasing a mid-tempo track after two uptempos ("Just Dance" and "Poker Face") saying that "thanks to a typically catchy chorus and some smart, celebrity-themed lyrics, very nearly as thrilling in the finish. Backed with a hilariously self-indulgent video, it seems GaGa still has us firmly in her clutch and, ahem, squealing for more."


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: Evan Sawdey of PopMatters said that both "Paparazzi" and the earlier single "Poker Face" are comparable with the musical styles of first single "Just Dance" but added that "never once does it feel like Gaga is deliberately repeating herself; instead, her faults only come from covering territory that she's obviously not prepared for." Freedom du Lac of "The Washington Post" said that even though Gaga turns somewhat serious while disapprovingly singing "Paparazzi", the song comes across as flat and faceless as well as vapid. Erika Howard of the "New Times Broward-Palm Beach" called it the most telling track from the album.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: Jon Caramanica of "The New York Times" said that "'Paparazzi' is a love letter from camera to subject but stops short of admitting that the affection runs both ways. Any notion that Lady Gaga is sketching an elaborate stunt is stopped cold at the lyric sheet, a perverse flaunting of simplicity that betrays no cynicism whatsoever." Pitchfork Media ranked "Paparazzi" number 83 on their list of 2009's 100 best tracks. "NME" ranked it at number 9 in their list of the best songs of 2009.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: In the United States, the song debuted on the "Billboard" Hot 100 at number 74 on the issue dated September 12, 2009, and reached a peak of number six, becoming her fourth consecutive top-ten single on the chart. With the song, Gaga joined Christina Aguilera, Beyoncé, and Fergie as the only women this decade to collect four Hot 100 top-tens from a debut album. It also reached the top of "Billboard" Pop Songs chart, thus making Gaga the first artist in the 17-year history of Pop Songs chart to have her first four singles from a debut album reach the top of the chart. The song also topped the Hot Dance Club Songs chart. As of February 2018, it has sold 3.6 million digital downloads in the United States according to Nielsen Soundscan. It became Gaga's fourth song to top the three-million mark, and was certified five-times Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). "Paparazzi" debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 at number 92 and moved up to number 57 the following week becoming the week's greatest digital gainer. The song ultimately peaked at number three on the chart, in its 13th week.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: "Paparazzi" debuted on the official Australian Singles Chart at number 73 on the issue dated June 1, 2009, and leaped to 27 the next week. The song ultimately peaked at number two, giving Gaga her fourth top five single in Australia. The song was certified two-times Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipment of 140,000 copies. In New Zealand, "Paparazzi" debuted at number 23 on the week ending June 22, 2009, and reached a peak of number five. The song was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ) after 14 weeks on the chart, for shipping over 7,500 copies.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: In the UK, "Paparazzi" debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 99 in February 2009 due to digital downloads after the release of "The Fame". It reached number 13 for the issue dated June 21, 2009, after jumping from 43 to this position from the last week. The next week the song further climbed to number eight and ultimately peaked at number four. As of July 2022, the song has sold 942,000 copies in the UK with 39 million streams and is certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). "Paparazzi" debuted at number 38 on the Irish Singles Chart and peaked at number four. "Paparazzi" reached number one in Germany, making it her second chart-topper there. The song also debuted on the Dutch Top 40 at number 27 on the issue dated July 18, 2009. It peaked at number four on its sixth week on the chart. In Italy, the song debuted at number 19 and then climbed to number three, becoming Gaga's second top three there.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: The music video was directed by Swedish director, Jonas Åkerlund, who had previously directed music videos for artists like the Smashing Pumpkins, Madonna, Moby, Rammstein, and U2. His wife Bea Åkerlund was hired as Gaga's stylist for the video. It was filmed on April 13 & 14, 2009 at Villa de León in Malibu, California, and at Chateau d'Or in Bel Air, Los Angeles. Gaga told MTV News that she was satisfied with the finished version of the "Paparazzi" video, likening it to a short film. In an interview with "The Canadian Press" on May 26, 2009, Gaga cited her video as "the most amazing creative work that [she's] put together so far." She went on to describe the message of the video:


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: It has a real, genuine, powerful message about fame-whoring and death and the demise of the celebrity, and what that does to young people. The video explores ideas about sort of hyperbolic situations that people will go to in order to be famous. Most specifically, pornography and murder. These are some of the major themes in the video.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: Later, in her "V" magazine cover story, Gaga believed that Diana, Princess of Wales was referenced in the video, claiming she died because of being a martyr symbolic of fame. The video was supposed to premiere on June 4, 2009, in the United Kingdom and Ireland, on Channel 4. However, while touring in Australia, Gaga posted a message on her Twitter account on May 29, 2009, saying "Stop leaking my motherf**king videos", which referred to the video being released without the singer's consent.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: The music video is seven minutes long. Swedish actor Alexander Skarsgård plays Gaga's boyfriend. The video features a murderous plot line involving a doomed starlet who is constantly followed by photographers. The video opens with a shot of a seaside mansion, where Gaga and her boyfriend are shown lying on a bed talking in Swedish. They move to the balcony and start making out; however, when hidden photographers start taking pictures of them, Gaga realizes that her boyfriend has set the paparazzi to photograph her and tries to stop him. Her struggles nevertheless remain futile even when she punches him, and in a final frantic attempt at defense, she smashes a nearby bottle of liquor into his face. The enraged boyfriend throws her over the balcony. Gaga lies on the ground in her own blood as the photographers continue to take pictures of her bloody body and tabloid headlines proclaim that her career is over. According to "Rolling Stone", this scene pays homage to Alfred Hitchcock's film "Vertigo" (1958).


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: Later, Gaga is shown getting out of a limousine, being carried by male dancers to a wheelchair. It is during this scene that the song starts. As the dancers gyrate around her, she starts walking down the carpet with the help of a pair of crutches while wearing a metallic bustier and a matching helmet. The metallic outfit is a reference to the film "Metropolis" (1927). These scenes are interspersed with scenes of dead models lying around the mansion. Next Gaga is shown on a golden couch where she makes out with a trio of hair metal rockers during the line "Loving you is cherry pie". The trio, which consist of the triplets Calle "Kelii" Landeberg, Nisse "Izzy" Landeberg, and Pelle "Rock" Landeberg are known as Snake of Eden and they are from the reality television dating program "Daisy of Love". According to MTV, this scene is a reference to the song "Cherry Pie" by American glam band Warrant. The video continues through the intermediate bridge with Gaga wearing a dress made up of film strips and a towering feathered Mohawk headdress.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: In the next scene, Gaga and her eye-patch wearing boyfriend are reading magazines on a sofa in a tea room. Gaga wears a yellow jumpsuit with circular glasses and shoulder pads. "The Guardian" compared this look with that of Minnie Mouse. She finally takes her revenge on her boyfriend by discreetly poisoning his drink with white powder concealed in her ring. As he falls dead, Gaga calls 9-1-1 and declares that she just killed her boyfriend. The police arrive at the mansion and arrest Gaga who, wearing a tall ice cream cone corkscrew wig, walks to the police car as the paparazzi surround her once again. Images flash by, with newspapers proclaiming her innocence and that Gaga is back in the spotlight and has regained her fame. The video ends with Gaga posing for mug shots like a fashion model while wearing a tulip shaped metallic dress similar to the single cover.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: "Rolling Stone" writer Daniel Kreps compared the video with the 1992 music video for "November Rain" by Guns N' Roses. He described the scenes of the dead models as stomach-turning while complimenting the video for "brimming with cinematic style [so] that it's hard to take your eyes off it, though it will likely be labeled as a little self-indulgent." He also commented on the leaking of the video, saying that it "warranted more than just a simple leak; it deserved a red carpet." Anna Pickard from "The Guardian" complimented the video saying that "quite a lot of work has gone into it". However, she opined that the video was too long. "Entertainment Weekly" gave a positive review of the video, saying "it gives us even more of the next-level cuckoo we've come to expect from the girl born Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta." The paparazzi theme of the video was compared to Britney Spears' 2004 music video, "Everytime". MTV News called the video a "1940s romantic-epic-style video" that "proves once and for all that Gaga is a true original with a unique vision." The video was nominated for five VMAs at the 2009 awards in the categories of Best Direction, Best Editing, Best Special Effects, Best Cinematography and Best Art Direction. Along with four other nominations for "Poker Face", she and Beyoncé were tied for most nominations that year. The video won the award for Best Art Direction and Best Special Effects. The music video for Gaga's single "Telephone" is a continuation of the "Paparazzi" music video, and is a short film as well. The video picks up right where "Paparazzi" left off; starting with Gaga in prison.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: Gaga performed "Paparazzi" live on the UK program, The Album Chart Show on February 14, 2009, as promotion for "The Fame". The song was performed at Capital Radio 95.8 FM in an acoustic piano version on May 1, 2009. On June 26, 2009, Gaga performed the song at the Glastonbury Festival emerging from a silver case on stage. The song was a major part of Gaga's performance in her first headlining Fame Ball tour as the opening number of the setlist. The show started with a video intro called "The Heart" where Gaga played an alternate persona called Candy Warhol. She wore a silver and black short skirt like a tutu and shaped like peplum on both sides. She was surrounded by her dancers holding plates which were encrusted with crystals and completely hid them. The stage was surrounded by mechanical fog and heavy lighting was being emitted from the background.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: "Paparazzi" was performed at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, which began with Gaga lying on the floor, on a set that was described as an ornate mansion. She stumbled across the stage and did choreographed dance moves, finally ending up playing a piano. The final chorus involved theatrical blood dripping from Gaga's ribcage as Gaga collapsed on the stage wailing in agony and one of the dancers gently lifted her. Gaga then hung lifeless with one hand rising above her dancers and blood smeared on her face with a golden halo being projected on the screen behind her. Gaga dedicated the performance to her fans. Ashley Laderer from "Billboard" opined that "this was the performance that really made Lady Gaga. It proved she was more than just a superficial pop star—she was an artist, and quite unlike one we'd ever seen before, a true force to be reckoned with." Morgan Evans of "Harper's Bazaar" thought that Gaga's VMA performance "introduced the world to the darker, edgier side she would soon become known for."


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: The song was performed by Gaga in a similar choreography at the thirty-fifth season of NBC's late night comedy show "Saturday Night Live". It was also present on the set list of Gaga's Monster Ball Tour (2009–2011). On the original version of the show, she wore multiple donned braided extensions and was perched atop a railing. From each of her braids, a dancer was attached on the stage. A backdrop of stars were shown during the performance. During the revised Monster Ball shows, Gaga changed the concept and the performance of the song. She wore an emerald green dress by Thierry Mugler, and was attacked by a giant, mechanical Angler fish. Gaga then removed the dress to reveal a leotard of the same color and during the bridge she is lowered beneath the stage to acquire her pyro-technic bra. In the final chorus of the song Gaga returns and kills the monster with the sparks from the bra. The song was part of the setlist of Gaga's 2012–2013 tour, the Born This Way Ball. Gaga was notably absent from stage for the first two minutes of the song, and "Mother G.O.A.T.", a floating mechanical head performed it instead of her. Gaga then emerged on stage, and concluded the song while shooting the head, making it to cry blood.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: During the tour (2014), Gaga performed "Paparazzi" dressed up in a polka-dotted rubber outfit with tentacles growing out around her waist and her head. Rob Sheffield from "Rolling Stone" described her look as "she had an inflatable rubber order of fried calamari growing out of her spine", while Adam Carlson from "Billboard" said that the outfit made Gaga look like a "dancing Ursula from "The Little Mermaid" ". The song was added to the setlist of the Joanne World Tour (2017–2018), where she was wearing a red leather bodysuit and tassel leather boots, and the performance ended with a choreographed attack on Gaga by her dancers.


title: Paparazzi (Lady Gaga song)

text: "Paparazzi" was performed on Lady Gaga Enigma + Jazz & Piano (2018–2021), the singer's Las Vegas residency, which consist of two different shows. On the Enigma shows, she performs "Paparazzi" in a floating orb-like cage that is elevated above the audience, while on the Jazz and Piano show, she performs it on the piano, with "the full orchestra kicking in with some apropos suspense-movie chase music". Talking about the latter, John Katsilometes of the "Las Vegas Review-Journal" argued that "a live version of that song in Vegas would be a hit single", saying that the "raging" performance "always jolts the crowd to a standing ovation".


title: Michael Obafemi

text: Michael Oluwadurotimi Obafemi (born 6 July 2000) is an Irish professional footballer who plays as a striker for EFL Championship club Swansea City and the Republic of Ireland national team.


title: Michael Obafemi

text: Obafemi was born in Dublin to Nigerian parents. While he was still an infant, his family moved to England and he was raised in the London area. His older brother Afolabi Obafemi is also a footballer.


title: Michael Obafemi

text: Obafemi was released by Watford prior to his 14th birthday in 2014. He took a year out of the game before joining Leyton Orient in 2015, moving on to Southampton in 2016.


title: Michael Obafemi

text: Obafemi made his professional debut for Southampton as a substitute in the 82nd minute of a 1–1 draw with Tottenham Hotspur on 21 January 2018. Aged 17 years and 199 days, Obafemi became the second youngest player to make a Premier League appearance for Southampton after Luke Shaw, who was 17 years and 116 days old.


title: Michael Obafemi

text: He scored his first professional goal with the third goal in a 3–1 victory at Huddersfield on 22 December 2018; at 18 years and 169 days old, he became Southampton's youngest scorer in the Premier League.


title: Michael Obafemi

text: On 31 August 2021, Obafemi joined Swansea City for a fee reported to be between £1.5 and £2 million, signing a three-year contract. On 23 October 2021, Obafemi scored his first goal for Swansea in their 2–1 defeat to Birmingham City.


title: Michael Obafemi

text: Obafemi was eligible to represent England, Nigeria, and the Republic of Ireland. In November 2018 he committed to the Republic of Ireland.


title: Michael Obafemi

text: Obafemi represented the Republic of Ireland at under-19 level, debuting during the 2019 UEFA European Under-19 Championship qualification campaign.


title: Michael Obafemi

text: On 6 November 2018, Obafemi was named in the senior Republic of Ireland squad for the first time for the friendly against Northern Ireland on 15 November and the UEFA Nations League match against Denmark on 19 November 2018. He came on as a substitute in the second half of the 0–0 draw against Denmark to make his debut. He also became the first player born in the 2000s to win a senior cap for Ireland. Obafemi made his debut for the Republic of Ireland under-21 team on 10 October 2019, coming off the bench, in a 0–0 draw with Italy under-21s at Tallaght Stadium.


title: Michael Obafemi

text: On 11 June 2022, he made his first international start at senior level, in a UEFA Nations League match against Scotland, providing one assist (for Troy Parrott) and scoring his first goal, before a groin strain saw Obafemi substituted five minutes after scoring, being replaced by Scott Hogan.


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: Sir Thomas Wyatt (150311 October 1542) was a 16th-century English politician, ambassador, and lyric poet credited with introducing the sonnet to English literature. He was born at Allington Castle near Maidstone in Kent, though the family was originally from Yorkshire. His family adopted the Lancastrian side in the Wars of Roses. His mother was Anne Skinner, and his father Henry, who had earlier been imprisoned and tortured by Richard III, had been a Privy Councillor of Henry VII and remained a trusted adviser when Henry VIII ascended the throne in 1509. Thomas followed his father to court after his education at St John's College, Cambridge. Entering the King's service, he was entrusted with many important diplomatic missions. In public life, his principal patron was Thomas Cromwell, after whose death he was recalled from abroad and imprisoned (1541). Though subsequently acquitted and released, shortly thereafter he died. His poems were circulated at court and may have been published anonymously in the anthology "The Court of Venus" (earliest edition c. 1537) during his lifetime, but were not published under his name until after his death; the first major book to feature and attribute his verse was "Tottel's Miscellany" (1557), printed 15 years after his death.


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: Thomas Wyatt was born at Allington, Kent, in 1503, the son of Sir Henry Wyatt by Anne Skinner, the daughter of John Skinner of Reigate, Surrey. He had a brother Henry, assumed to have died an infant, and a sister Margaret who married Sir Anthony Lee (died 1549) and was the mother of Queen Elizabeth's champion Sir Henry Lee.


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: Wyatt was over six feet tall, reportedly both handsome and physically strong. He was an ambassador in the service of Henry VIII, but he entered Henry's service in 1515 as "Sewer Extraordinary", and the same year he began studying at St John's College, Cambridge. His father had been associated with Sir Thomas Boleyn as constable of Norwich Castle, and Wyatt was thus acquainted with Anne Boleyn.


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: Following a diplomatic mission to Spain, in 1526, he accompanied Sir John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford, to Rome to help petition Pope Clement VII to annul Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, freeing him to marry Anne Boleyn. Russell being incapacitated, Wyatt was also sent to negotiate with the Republic of Venice. According to some, Wyatt was captured by the armies of Emperor Charles V when they captured Rome and imprisoned the Pope in 1527, but he managed to escape and make it back to England.


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: Between 1528 and 1530 Wyatt acted as high marshal at Calais. In the years following he continued in Henry's service; he was, however, imprisoned in the Tower of London for a month in 1536, perhaps because Henry hoped he would incriminate the queen. He was knighted in 1535 and appointed High Sheriff of Kent for 1536. At this time he was sent to Spain as ambassador to Charles V, who was offended by the declaration of Princess Mary's illegitimacy; he was her cousin and they had once been briefly betrothed. Although Wyatt was unsuccessful in his endeavours, and was accused of disloyalty by some of his colleagues, he was protected by his relationship with Cromwell, at least during the latter's lifetime.


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: In 1520 Wyatt married Elizabeth Brooke (1503–1560). A year later, they had a son Thomas (1521–1554) who led Wyatt's rebellion many years after his father's death. In 1524, Henry VIII assigned Wyatt to be an ambassador at home and abroad, and he separated from his wife soon after on grounds of adultery.


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: Wyatt's professed object was to experiment with the English language, to civilise it, to raise its powers to equal those of other European languages. A significant amount of his literary output consists of translations and imitations of sonnets by Italian poet Petrarch; he also wrote sonnets of his own. He took subject matter from Petrarch's sonnets, but his rhyme schemes are significantly different. Petrarch's sonnets consist of an "octave" rhyming "abba abba", followed by a "sestet" with various rhyme schemes. Wyatt employs the Petrarchan octave, but his most common sestet scheme is "cddc ee". Wyatt experimented in stanza forms including the rondeau, epigrams, terza rima, ottava rima songs, and satires, as well as with monorime, triplets with refrains, quatrains with different length of line and rhyme schemes, quatrains with codas, and the French forms of douzaine and treizaine. He introduced the "poulter's measure" form, rhyming couplets composed of a 12-syllable iambic line (Alexandrine) followed by a 14-syllable iambic line (fourteener), and he is considered a master of the iambic tetrameter.


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: Wyatt's poetry reflects classical and Italian models, but he also admired the work of Geoffrey Chaucer, and his vocabulary reflects that of Chaucer; for example, he uses Chaucer's word "newfangleness", meaning fickleness, in "They Flee from Me". Many of his poems deal with the trials of romantic love and the devotion of the suitor to an unavailable or cruel mistress. Other poems are scathing, satirical indictments of the hypocrisies and pandering required of courtiers who are ambitious to advance at the Tudor court.


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: Wyatt's poems are short but fairly numerous. His 96 love poems appeared posthumously (1557) in a compendium called "Tottel's Miscellany". The most noteworthy are thirty-one sonnets, the first in English. Ten of them were translations from Petrarch, while all were written in the Petrarchan form, apart from the couplet ending which Wyatt introduced. Serious and reflective in tone, the sonnets show some stiffness of construction and a metrical uncertainty indicative of the difficulty Wyatt found in the new form. Yet their conciseness represents a great advance on the prolixity and uncouthness of much earlier poetry. Wyatt was also responsible for the important introduction of the personal note into English poetry, for although he followed his models closely, he wrote of his own experiences. His epigrams, songs, and rondeaux are lighter than the sonnets, and they reveal the care and the elegance typical of the new romanticism. His satires are composed in the Italian terza rima, again showing the direction of the innovating tendencies.


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: The Egerton Manuscript is an album containing Wyatt's personal selection of his poems and translations which preserves 123 texts, partly in his handwriting. Tottel's Miscellany (1557) is the Elizabethan anthology which created Wyatt's posthumous reputation; it ascribes 96 poems to him, 33 not in the Egerton Manuscript. These 156 poems can be ascribed to Wyatt with certainty on the basis of objective evidence. Another 129 poems have been ascribed to him purely on the basis of subjective editorial judgment. They are mostly derived from the Devonshire Manuscript Collection and the Blage manuscript. Rebholz comments in his preface to "Sir Thomas Wyatt, The Complete Poems", "The problem of determining which poems Wyatt wrote is as yet unsolved". However, this statement is predicated on his preface's perfunctory rejection of the most significant contribution to its resolution, Richard Harrier's The Canon of Sir Thomas Wyatt's Poetry, which presents an analysis of the documentary evidence establishing a solid case for rejecting 101 of the 129 texts ascribed to Wyatt on no objective basis whatsoever.


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: Critical opinions have varied widely regarding Wyatt's work. Eighteenth-century critic Thomas Warton considered Wyatt "confessedly an inferior" to his contemporary Henry Howard, and felt that Wyatt's "genius was of the moral and didactic species" but deemed him "the first polished English satirist". The 20th century saw an awakening in his popularity and a surge in critical attention. His poems were found praiseworthy by numerous poets, including Ezra Pound, Marianne Moore, John Berryman, Yvor Winters, Basil Bunting, Louis Zukofsky and George Oppen. C. S. Lewis called him "the father of the Drab Age" (i.e. the unornate), from what he calls the "golden" age of the 16th century. Patricia Thomson describes Wyatt as "the Father of English Poetry".


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: Many have conjectured that Wyatt fell in love with Anne Boleyn in the early- to mid-1520s. Their acquaintance is certain, but it is not certain whether the two shared a romantic relationship. George Gilfillan implies that Wyatt and Boleyn were romantically involved. In his verse, Wyatt calls his mistress Anna and might allude to events in her life:


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: Gilfillan argues that these lines could refer to Anne's trip to France in 1532 prior to her marriage to Henry VIII and could imply that Wyatt was present, although his name is not included among those who accompanied the royal party to France. Wyatt's sonnet "Whoso List To Hunt" may also allude to Anne's relationship with the King:


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: In still plainer terms, Wyatt's late sonnet "If waker care" describes his first "love" for "Brunette that set our country in a roar"—presumably Boleyn.


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: In May 1536, Wyatt was imprisoned in the Tower of London for allegedly committing adultery with Anne Boleyn. He was released later that year thanks to his friendship or his father's friendship with Thomas Cromwell, and he returned to his duties. During his stay in the Tower, he may have witnessed Anne Boleyn's execution (19 May 1536) from his cell window, as well as the executions of the five men with whom she was accused of adultery; he wrote a poem which might have been inspired by that experience.


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: Around 1537, Elizabeth Darrell was Thomas's mistress, a former maid of honour to Catherine of Aragon. She bore Wyatt three sons.


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: By 1540, he was again in the king's favour, as he was granted the site and many of the manorial estates of the dissolved Boxley Abbey. However, he was charged once more with treason in 1541; the charges were again lifted, but only thanks to the intervention of Queen Catherine Howard and on the condition of reconciling with his wife. He was granted a full pardon and restored once again to his duties as ambassador. After the execution of Catherine Howard, there were rumours that Wyatt's wife Elizabeth was a possibility to become Henry VIII's next wife, despite the fact that she was still married to Wyatt. He became ill not long after and died on 11 October 1542 around age 39. He is buried in Sherborne Abbey.


title: Thomas Wyatt (poet)

text: Long after Wyatt's death, his only legitimate son Sir Thomas Wyatt the Younger led a thwarted rebellion against Henry's daughter Mary I, for which he was executed. The rebellion's aim was to set on the throne the Protestant-minded Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne Boleyn. Wyatt was an ancestor of Wallis Simpson, wife of the Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII. Thomas Wyatt's great-grandson was Virginia Colony governor Sir Francis Wyatt.


title: Province of Georgia

text: The Province of Georgia (also Georgia Colony) was one of the Southern colonies in British America. It was the last of the thirteen original American colonies established by Great Britain in what later became the United States. In the original grant, a narrow strip of the province extended to the Pacific Ocean.


title: Province of Georgia

text: The colony's corporate charter was granted to General James Oglethorpe on April 21, 1732, by George II, for whom the colony was named. The charter was finalized by the King's privy council on June 9, 1732.


title: Province of Georgia

text: Oglethorpe envisioned a colony which would serve as a haven for English subjects who had been imprisoned for debt and "the worthy poor". General Oglethorpe imposed very strict laws that many colonists disagreed with, such as the banning of alcoholic beverages. He disagreed with slavery and thought a system of smallholdings more appropriate than the large plantations common in the colonies just to the north. However, land grants were not as large as most colonists would have preferred.


title: Province of Georgia

text: Another reason for the founding of the colony was as a buffer state and a "garrison province" which would defend the southern British colonies from Spanish Florida. Oglethorpe imagined a province populated by "sturdy farmers" who could guard the border; because of this, the colony's charter prohibited slavery. The ban on slavery was lifted by 1751 and the colony became a royal colony by 1752.


title: Province of Georgia

text: Although many believe that the colony was formed for the imprisoned, the colony was actually formed as a place of no slavery. Oglethorpe did have the vision to make it a place for debtors, but it transformed into a royal colony. The following is an historical accounting of these first English settlers sent to Georgia:


title: Province of Georgia

text: A committee was appointed to visit the jails and obtain the discharge of such poor prisoners as were worthy, carefully investigating "character, circumstances and antecedents".


title: Province of Georgia

text: On the 16th of November, 1732, the emigrants embarked at Gravesend on the ship Anne ... arriving January 13th [1733] in the harbor of Charleston, S. C. ...


title: Province of Georgia

text: They set sail the day following ... into Port Royal, some eighty miles southward, to be conveyed in small vessels to the river Savannah.


title: Province of Georgia

text: Oglethorpe continued up the river to scout a location suitable for settlement. On February 12, 1733, Oglethorpe led the settlers to their arrival at Yamacraw Bluff, in what is now the city of Savannah, and established a camp with the help of a local elderly Creek chief, Tomochichi. A Yamacraw Indian village had occupied the site, but Oglethorpe arranged for the Indians to move. The day is still celebrated as Georgia Day.


title: Province of Georgia

text: The original charter specified the colony as being between the Savannah and Altamaha Rivers, up to their headwaters (the headwaters of the Altamaha are on the Ocmulgee River), and then extending westward "to the south seas." The area within the charter had previously been part of the original grant of the Province of Carolina, which was closely linked to Georgia.


title: Province of Georgia

text: The Privy Council approved the establishment charter on June 9, 1732, and for the next two decades the council of trustees governed the province, with the aid of annual subsidies from Parliament. However, after many difficulties and the departure of Oglethorpe, the trustees proved unable to manage the proprietary colony, and on June 23, 1752, they submitted a deed of reconveyance to the crown, one year before the expiration of the charter. On January 2, 1755, Georgia officially ceased to be a proprietary colony and became a royal colony.


title: Province of Georgia

text: From 1732 until 1758, the minor civil divisions were districts and towns. In 1758, without Indian permission, the Province of Georgia was divided into eight parishes by the Act of the Assembly of Georgia on March 15. The Town and District of Savannah was named Christ Church Parish. The District of Abercorn and Goshen, plus the District of Ebenezer, was named the Parish of St. Matthew. The District of Halifax was named the Parish of St. George. The District of Augusta was named the Parish of St. Paul. The Town of Hardwick and the District of Ogeechee, including the island of Ossabaw, was named the Parish of St. Philip. From Sunbury in the District of Midway and Newport to the south branch of Newport, including the islands of St. Catherine and Bermuda, was named the Parish of St. John. The Town and District of Darien, to the Altamaha River, including the islands of Sapelo and Eastwood and the sea islands north of Egg Island, was named the Parish of St. Andrew. The Town and District of Frederica, including the islands of Great and Little St. Simons, along with the adjacent islands, was named the Parish of St. James.


title: Province of Georgia

text: Following Britain's victory in the French and Indian War, King George III issued the Proclamation of 1763. One of its provisions was to extend Georgia's southern boundary from the Altamaha River to the St. Marys River. Two years later, on March 25, 1765, Governor James Wright approved an act of the General Assembly creating four new parishesSt. David, St. Patrick, St. Thomas, and St. Mary in the recently acquired land, and it further assigned Jekyll Island to St. James Parish.


title: Province of Georgia

text: The Georgia colony had had a sluggish beginning. James Oglethorpe did not allow liquor, and colonists who came at the trustees' expense were not allowed to own more than of land for their farm in addition to a 60 foot by 90 foot plot in town. Those who paid their own way could bring ten indentured servants and would receive 500 acres of land. Additional land could neither be acquired nor sold. Discontent grew in the colony because of these restrictions, and Oglethorpe lifted them. With slavery, liquor, and land acquisition the colony developed much faster. Slavery had been permitted from 1749. There was some internal opposition to slavery, particularly from Scottish settlers, but by the time of the War of Independence, Georgia was much like the other Southern colonies.


title: Province of Georgia

text: During the American Revolution Georgia's population was at first divided about exactly how to respond to revolutionary activities and heightened tensions in other provinces. When violence broke out in 1775, radical Patriots (also known as Whigs) stormed the royal magazine at Savannah and carried off its ammunition, took control of the provincial government, and drove many Loyalists out of the province. In 1776 a provincial congress had declared independence and created a constitution for the new state. Georgia also served as the staging ground for several important raids into British-controlled Florida.


title: Province of Georgia

text: In 1777 the original eight counties of the state of Georgia were created. Prior to that Georgia had been divided into local government units called parishes. Settlement had been limited to the near vicinity of the Savannah River; the western area of the new state remained under the control of the Creek Indian Confederation.


title: Province of Georgia

text: James Wright, the last Royal Governor of the Province of Georgia, dismissed the royal assembly in 1775. He was briefly a prisoner of the revolutionaries before escaping to a British warship in February 1776. During the American Revolutionary War Wright would become the only royal governor of the Thirteen Colonies to regain control of part of his colony after British forces captured Savannah on December 29, 1778. British and Loyalist forces restored large areas of Georgia to colonial rule, especially along the coast, while Patriots continued to maintain an independent governor, congress, and militia in other areas. In 1779 the British repelled an attack of militia, Continental Army, and French military and naval forces on Savannah. The 1781 siege of Augusta, by militia and Continental forces, restored it to Patriot control. When the war was lost for Britain, Wright and British forces evacuated Savannah on July 11, 1782. After that the Province of Georgia ceased to exist as a British colony.


title: Province of Georgia

text: Georgia was a member of the Second Continental Congress, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, the tenth state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24, 1778, and the fourth state to be admitted to the Union under the U.S. Constitution, on January 2, 1788.


title: Province of Georgia

text: On April 24, 1802, Georgia ceded to the U.S. Congress parts of its western lands, that it had claims for going back to when it was a province (colony). These lands were incorporated into the Mississippi Territory and later (with other adjoining lands) became the states of Alabama and Mississippi.


title: The Thinning: New World Order

text: The Thinning: New World Order is a 2018 American social science fiction thriller web film and the sequel to the 2016 film "The Thinning". As with the first film, the movie was directed by Michael J. Gallagher and stars Logan Paul as a young man struggling against a dystopian future in which population control is enforced through a school aptitude test. The film released to YouTube Premium after being briefly shelved due to controversies surrounding its star, Logan Paul. It was generally panned by critics, with its excessive focus on main character Blake as well as lack of interesting themes highlighted as reasons of dislike.


title: The Thinning: New World Order

text: Governor Dean Redding is running for the next presidential election. He attempts to get Laina Michaels' support for his campaign to mitigate his own controversy surrounding the Thinning. She declines but is later recruited by teacher Ms. Cole and Assuru Global security guard Jack to accept Redding's offer, in order to earn his trust and get close to him with hopes that this will help them end the Thinning for good.


title: The Thinning: New World Order

text: Meanwhile, Blake is presumed dead by the public after he purposely failed the test, but he was actually taken to a slave labor facility to manufacture Assuru Global products along with other failed students called the Worthy (failed students chosen by the government to receive a second chance at life). He finds Ellie there, and they rekindle their relationship. Blake attempts to run away with Ellie, but they are caught by Mason King. DPC guards take Ellie away while Blake's leg is broken by Mason.


title: The Thinning: New World Order

text: Eight months later, two weeks before election day, Laina continues her support for Redding's campaign. Kellan manages to crack the secret of the labor camps, saying Assuru Global doesn't have a manufacturing area in their campus and they have been insourcing military rations from a company called TXPak, enough for 100,000 people per year. Wendy Banks does not believe him, saying he doesn't have any evidence or proof. He visits Laina and secretly tells her everything and she believes him. When Kellan gets in his car, someone tries to suffocate him with a bag, but he triggers the car alarm and scares the killer. Laina then calls FBI agent Joanne Morris and tells her about Kellan's theory. Ms. Cole extracts Corrine and Joey out of the country only to be double-crossed by her co-worker.


title: The Thinning: New World Order

text: As requested by Ms. Cole, Laina gets all the information from Redding's campaign manager, Georgina Preston's computer and manages to escape but Jack is caught. Laina is conned by Morris, and she tries to kill Laina. Laina manages to subdue Morris for a few seconds before jumping down into an apartment. She visits Kellan to copy the files of the camps from her drive to his computer. Kellan leaves, and gets in his car which explodes when he turns it on. Laina takes the drive and leaves. It is revealed that Morris and her men, both in league with Assuru, killed Kellan and were planning to kill Laina to tie up loose ends. Morris camps behind a staircase outside, while her men go inside Kellan's apartment. But Laina planned to blow up the apartment, killing Morris's men. When Laina attempts to escape, she is assaulted by Morris to force Laina to give her the drive, but Laina kills Morris by stabbing her with a box cutting knife, then shoving her down a flight of stairs, which snaps Morris' neck. Laina then makes it to BNC News where she turns over the drive to Wendy.


title: The Thinning: New World Order

text: Blake convinces the Worthy to betray them and escape. Blake and Ellie remove their GPS trackers and escape outside, in the middle of the Texas desert. BNC helicopters arrive at the scene, catching video of Blake and Ellie. Mason catches them, and tries to kill Blake. Ellie kills Mason and they both get to safety.


title: The Thinning: New World Order

text: Governor Redding wins the election and becomes President, only for the truth to be told. With full power and authority over the entire nation, Georgina arrests everyone who conspired against Redding and the Thinning. Laina, Blake, and Ellie discover that Georgina will end democracy and freedom in the nation. They are arrested as well but are intercepted by Jack who claims to work for the FBI. Jack tells them that they will defeat Redding and Georgina and take things back to normal.


title: The Thinning: New World Order

text: Production for "The Thinning: New World Order" began in November 2017 and wrapped in December of the same year. Post-production on the film was temporarily stalled in January 2018 due to public controversy surrounding a video Paul shot and posted to YouTube featuring a dead body in Aokigahara forest in Japan. A representative of YouTube later posted a statement in October 2018 after it was announced that the film would release during the same month, stating that "The entire cast and crew worked extremely hard to complete this film last year. In fairness to all of them and the fans who have been asking for the sequel, we decided to release "'The Thinning: New World Order".'"


title: The Thinning: New World Order

text: The film has received negative reviews from "The Verge", "The Daily Dot", and Common Sense Media, the last of which criticized the film for what they saw as an amateurish execution. In their review, "The Verge" noted that one of the film's weaknesses was the focus on "Blake's nonstop gauntlet of physical and psychological trauma", as "Paul's YouTube persona is built on relentless enthusiasm, and his capacity for portraying sadness bottoms out around 'concerned bemusement.'" In turn, "The Daily Dot" noted that "The premise has some potential, but "New World Order" never finds anything interesting to do with it—and that's the film's fatal flaw."


title: Jamie Brewer

text: Jamie Brewer is an American actress and model. She is best known for her roles in the FX horror anthology television series "American Horror Story". In its first season, "", she portrayed Adelaide "Addie" Langdon; in the third season, "", she portrayed Nan, an enigmatic and clairvoyant witch; in the fourth season "", she portrayed Chester Creb's vision of his doll, Marjorie; in the seventh season "", she portrayed Hedda, a member of the 'SCUM' crew, led by feminist Valerie Solanas; and she also returned to her role as Nan in the eighth season, "".


title: Jamie Brewer

text: Brewer grew up loving all forms of the arts, especially movies and theater productions. She started by taking theater classes in 1999 at a College for Kids class during her middle school years. She performed in dramas, musicals, comedies, and many improvisations during her theater training at Dionysus Theater. Brewer appeared and spoke in PSAs for the Super Bowl of Caring Houston Food Drive in Houston, Texas for two consecutive years which aired on NBC, ABC, and CBS. Brewer continues her stage training through The Groundlings Theater and School.


title: Jamie Brewer

text: In 2011, Brewer made her television debut as Adelaide "Addie" Langdon in "". "I first got word of the audition for the show from a friend of mine." She said. "They were looking for a young lady with Down syndrome who could act. My headshot and resume were submitted and I was called for an audition and, to my surprise I got the part. I was so excited."


title: Jamie Brewer

text: About her role, Brewer stated: "Adelaide is a complex character, but the most difficult part of playing Adelaide is learning how to portray someone who isn't always viewed acceptable to her mother and society. This is a new challenge for me."


title: Jamie Brewer

text: After the show's first season ended, she appeared on "Southland" in an episode titled "Heat", which aired on February 20, 2013. Also in 2013, she returned to "American Horror Story" for the third season, subtitled "", playing the supporting role of Nan, a young witch who is clairvoyant.


title: Jamie Brewer

text: It was announced at the 2014 PaleyFest that Brewer would return to the series for the fourth season, subtitled "". Although, at a later date, show creator Ryan Murphy indicated Brewer may not appear during the season. Brewer was later confirmed after appearing in a promo for the final two episodes. She both voiced and played Marjorie, the ventriloquist's dummy of another character.


title: Jamie Brewer

text: In February 2015, Brewer became the first woman with Down syndrome to walk the red carpet at New York Fashion Week, which she did for designer Carrie Hammer.


title: Jamie Brewer

text: Talking about the experience, Brewer said, "It's amazing that the fashion industry are including individuals with disabilities," she said. "It's an amazing opportunity for women, women that are disabled." Another time she also said, "Young girls and even young women [see me] and say 'hey, if she can do it so can I'. It's a true inspiration being a role model for any young women to [encourage them] in being who they are and showing who they are."


title: Jamie Brewer

text: In July 2015, she appeared as a character named Jamie in three episodes of the web series "Raymond & Lane", while In September, Brewer appeared on "Switched at Birth" in an episode titled "Between hope and fear". The next month she claimed her title as a recipient of the Quincy Jones Exceptional Advocacy Award by the Global Down Syndrome Foundation.


title: Jamie Brewer

text: The same month, during an interview, Brewer was asked if she would make an appearance in "American Horror Story"’s upcoming fifth season, subtitled "". She responded with; "Possibly. I don't fully know, it depends. I really want to be." However, she did not appear in the season.


title: Jamie Brewer

text: In May 2017, Brewer starred in the comedy short "Whitney's Wedding", in which she played a bride who gets 'cold-feet' when she starts thinking her fiancé is not "normal".


title: Jamie Brewer

text: In October, American singer Miley Cyrus asked Brewer to introduce her at the "Variety Power of Women" event, where Cyrus received an award for The Happy Hippie Foundation. Cyrus’ non-profit foundation focuses on youth homelessness (particularly among LGBTQ youth), the LGBTQ community, and other vulnerable populations.


title: Jamie Brewer

text: "We’ve never met in person before today, but I'm a huge fan of Jamie's,” Cyrus said during her acceptance speech. “I thought she would beautifully encompass the Happy Hippie Foundation and all we represent.” Brewer also returned to "American Horror Story" on its seventh season "". In the seventh episode of the season she portrayed Hedda, a member of the original 'SCUM' crew, led by feminist Valerie Solanas. Around the same time, Brewer had a role in Bridget Everett’s "Love You More", a pilot filmed for Amazon Video that was later not picked up.


title: Jamie Brewer

text: In February 2018, Brewer made her off-Broadway debut in "Amy and the Orphans," a play by Lindsey Ferrentino about three siblings, one of whom has Down Syndrome, in the wake of their father's death.


title: Jamie Brewer

text: She was the first woman with Down syndrome to star in an Off-Broadway play. In April, Brewer was nominated for an Outstanding Featured Actress in a Play by the Outer Critics Circle Awards for her performance in "Amy and the Orphans." In June of the same year, she won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Play for her performance. Soon afterwards, she was cast, as Gina, in the independent drama film "Turnover".


title: Jamie Brewer

text: During October, Brewer briefly appeared on "American Horror Story" once again, on its eighth season subtitled "", where she reprised the role she played in "Coven". Brewer's return as Nan received positive reviews from hardcore fans. Katie Louise-Smith from "PopBuzz" called Brewer "brilliant" and stated the return was "short but sweet". Ron Hogan of "Den of Geek" reacted to Brewer's return positively, noting her return was "handled well". However, Kat Rosenfield from "Entertainment Weekly" criticized the scene featuring Nan, commenting that it "serves mostly as fan service". Brewer also briefly appeared in the tenth and final episode of the season.


title: Kingdom of Soissons

text: The Kingdom or Domain of Soissons was a rump state of the Western Roman Empire in northern Gaul, between the Somme and the Seine, that lasted for some 25 years during Late Antiquity. The rulers of the rump state, notably its final ruler Syagrius, were referred to as "kings of the Romans" (Latin: "rex Romanorum") by the Germanic peoples surrounding Soissons, with the polity itself being identified as the "Regnum Romanorum", "Kingdom of the Romans", by the Gallo-Roman historian Gregory of Tours. Whether this title was used by Syagrius himself or was applied to him by the barbarians surrounding his realm in a similar way to how they referred to their own leaders as kings is unknown. "Kingdom (or Domain) of Soissons" is a later, historiographical term for the state.


title: Kingdom of Soissons

text: The Kingdom of Soissons began when Emperor Majorian (457–461) appointed Aegidius as "magister militum" of Roman Gaul. When Majorian was killed on the orders of Ricimer in 461, Aegidius maintained his own rule in the remnants of Roman Gaul. In the chaos of contemporary Gaul, he maintained his power against Franks to his east and Visigoths to his south; his relations to the Romano-British of Brittany may have been friendly.


title: Kingdom of Soissons

text: Aegidius died in 464 or 465. His son Syagrius succeeded to the rule. In 486, Syagrius lost the Battle of Soissons to the Frankish king Clovis I and the domain was thereafter under the control of the Franks.


title: Kingdom of Soissons

text: The Kingdom of Soissons originated in the reign of the Western Emperor Majorian (457–461). Majorian appointed Aegidius to be "magister militum" of the Gallic provinces. The remaining Roman territory in Gaul in the northwest was connected with the Roman possessions in the Auvergne, Provence and Languedoc which connected these to Italy. During Majorian's reign, that corridor was annexed by the Germanic tribes now occupying Gaul, thus effectively cutting off Aegidius and his citizens from the Empire. Majorian and Aegidius had recovered the Roman position in most of Gaul, but with the death of Majorian in 461 the Roman position in the center and south deteriorated. These provinces were annexed by the Visigoths and Burgundians in the years 462-477, which left the remaining Roman territories in Gaul isolated.


title: Kingdom of Soissons

text: Aegidius was allied with the Alans, and with Childeric I, king of the Salian Franks of Tournai, and helped them defeat the Visigoths at Orléans in 463. According to Gregory of Tours, Aegidius even ruled the Franks during Childeric's banishment, but Childeric later returned from exile. It is possible that the "Groans of the Britons", referring to a Romano-British request for military assistance after the Roman departure from Britain, may have been addressed to Aegidius.


title: Kingdom of Soissons

text: Aegidius continued to govern until his death in 464. His comes, Paulus of Angers, was killed shortly afterwards, possibly on the same campaign. At that point Aegidius's son, Syagrius, took his place as ruler. Syagrius governed using the title of "dux" (a provincial military commander), but the neighboring Germanic tribes referred to him as "King of the Romans"; hence one of the nicknames of his enclave. In 476, under the rule of Syagrius, the Kingdom of Soissons failed to accept the new rule of Odoacer who had dethroned the Western Emperor earlier that year. While both Syagrius and Odoacer sent messengers to the Eastern Roman Empire, the Eastern emperor Zeno chose to offer legitimacy to Odoacer instead of Syagrius. The Kingdom of Soissons cut all ties with Italy and had no further recorded contact with the Eastern Roman Empire. Even after 476, Syagrius continued to maintain that he was merely governing a Roman province. The Domain of Soissons was in fact an independent region.


title: Kingdom of Soissons

text: Childeric died about 481, and his son Clovis I became the Frankish king. Clovis made continual war against Syagrius, and in the end took over all his territory. Syagrius lost the final Battle of Soissons in 486; many historians consider this Clovis' greatest victory. Syagrius fled to the Visigothic king Alaric II, but the Franks threatened war if Syagrius were not surrendered to them. Syagrius was sent back to Clovis, who had him executed in 486 or 487.


title: Kingdom of Soissons

text: Clovis I ruled the Franks until his death in 511. When he died, the Frankish realm was divided into four kingdoms, one for each of his sons. Clothar I received a portion centred in Soissons, where he had been born a decade after Syagrius' death. Clothar survived all his brothers and their families - in one case by murdering the sons of a deceased brother - and eventually reunited the realm in 555.


title: Kingdom of Soissons

text: When Clothar died in 561, the Frankish realm was divided into three kingdoms, one for each son. The portions centred around Soissons and Paris eventually developed into the kingdom of Neustria, which remained one of the key divisions of the Frankish realm.


title: Kingdom of Soissons

text: When Aegidius was appointed "magister militum of" Gaul by Emperor Majorian, he took control of the remaining Roman troops in Gaul. According to Eastern Roman writer Priscus, Aegidius and Syagrius both commanded "large forces". At one point, Aegidius and/or Syagrius even threatened the Western Roman Empire with an invasion of Italy if the empire did not grant their requests. Their forces also offered effective resistance to the power of the Visigoth Kingdom, to the south and west of Soissons. There are however no figures available that make it possible to come to a judgement on the total strength of their troops.


title: Colistin

text: Colistin, also known as polymyxin E, is an antibiotic medication used as a last-resort treatment for multidrug-resistant Gram-negative infections including pneumonia. These may involve bacteria such as "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", "Klebsiella pneumoniae", or "Acinetobacter". It comes in two forms: colistimethate sodium can be injected into a vein, injected into a muscle, or inhaled, and colistin sulfate is mainly applied to the skin or taken by mouth. Colistimethate sodium is a prodrug; it is produced by the reaction of colistin with formaldehyde and sodium bisulfite, which leads to the addition of a sulfomethyl group to the primary amines of colistin. Colistimethate sodium is less toxic than colistin when administered parenterally. In aqueous solutions it undergoes hydrolysis to form a complex mixture of partially sulfomethylated derivatives, as well as colistin. Resistance to colistin began to appear as of 2015.


title: Colistin

text: Common side effects of the injectable form include kidney problems and neurological problems. Other serious side effects may include anaphylaxis, muscle weakness, and "Clostridium difficile"-associated diarrhea. The inhaled form may result in constriction of the bronchioles. It is unclear if use during pregnancy is safe for the fetus. Colistin is in the polymyxin class of medications. It works by breaking down the cytoplasmic membrane, which generally results in bacterial cell death.


title: Colistin

text: Colistin was discovered in 1947 and colistimethate sodium was approved for medical use in the United States in 1970. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. The World Health Organization classifies colistin as critically important for human medicine. It is available as a generic medication. It is derived from bacteria of the genus "Paenibacillus".


title: Colistin

text: Colistin has been effective in treating infections caused by "Pseudomonas, Escherichia", and "Klebsiella" species. The following represents minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) susceptibility data for a few medically significant microorganisms:


title: Colistin

text: For example, colistin in combination with other drugs is used to attack "P. aeruginosa" biofilm infection in lungs of patients with cystic fibrosis. Biofilms have a low-oxygen environment below the surface where bacteria are metabolically inactive, and colistin is highly effective in this environment. However, "P. aeruginosa" reside in the top layers of the biofilm, where they remain metabolically active. This is because surviving tolerant cells migrate to the top of the biofilm via pili and form new aggregates via quorum sensing.


title: Colistin

text: Two forms of colistin are available commercially: colistin sulfate and colistimethate sodium (colistin methanesulfonate sodium, colistin sulfomethate sodium). Colistin sulfate is cationic; colistimethate sodium is anionic. Colistin sulfate is stable, whereas colistimethate sodium is readily hydrolysed to a variety of methanesulfonated derivatives. Colistin sulfate and colistimethate sodium are eliminated from the body by different routes. With respect to "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", colistimethate is the inactive prodrug of colistin. The two drugs are not interchangeable.


title: Colistin

text: Colistin sulfate and colistimethate sodium may both be given intravenously, but the dosing is complicated. The different labeling of the parenteral products of colistin methanesulfonate in different parts of the world was noted by Li et al. Colistimethate sodium manufactured by Xellia (Colomycin injection) is prescribed in international units, whereas colistimethate sodium manufactured by Parkdale Pharmaceuticals (Coly-Mycin M Parenteral) is prescribed in milligrams of colistin base:


title: Colistin

text: Because colistin was introduced into clinical practice over 50 years ago, it was never subject to the regulations that modern drugs are subject to, and therefore there is no standardised dosing of colistin and no detailed trials on pharmacology or pharmacokinetics. The optimal dosing of colistin for most infections is therefore unknown. Colomycin has a recommended intravenous dose of 1 to 2 million units three times daily for patients weighing 60 kg or more with normal renal function. Coly-Mycin has a recommended dose of 2.5 to 5 mg/kg colistin base a day, which is equivalent to 6 to 12 mg/kg colistimethate sodium per day. For a 60 kg man, therefore, the recommended dose for Colomycin is 240 to 480 mg of colistimethate sodium, yet the recommended dose for Coly-Mycin is 360 to 720 mg of colistimethate sodium. Likewise, the recommended "maximum" dose for each preparation is different (480 mg for Colomycin and 720 mg for Coly-Mycin). Each country has different generic preparations of colistin, and the recommended dose depends on the manufacturer. This complete absence of any regulation or standardisation of dose makes intravenous colistin dosing difficult for the physician.


title: Colistin

text: Colistin has been used in combination with rifampicin; evidence of "in vitro" synergy exists, and the combination has been used successfully in patients. There is also "in vitro" evidence of synergy for colistimethate sodium used in combination with other antipseudomonal antibiotics.


title: Colistin

text: Colistimethate sodium aerosol (Promixin; Colomycin Injection) is used to treat pulmonary infections, especially in cystic fibrosis. In the UK, the recommended adult dose is 1–2 million units (80–160 mg) nebulised colistimethate twice daily. Nebulized colistin has also been used to decrease severe exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and infection with "Pseudomonas aeruginosa".


title: Colistin

text: Resistance to colistin is rare, but has been described. , no agreement exists about how to define colistin resistance. The uses a MIC cut-off of 2 mg/L, whereas the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy sets a MIC cutoff of 4 mg/L or less as sensitive, and 8 mg/L or more as resistant. No standards for describing colistin sensitivity are given in the United States.


title: Colistin

text: The first known colistin-resistance gene in a plasmid which can be transferred between bacterial strains is "mcr-1". It was found in 2011 in China on a pig farm where colistin is routinely used and became publicly known in November 2015. The presence of this plasmid-borne gene was confirmed starting December 2015 in South-East Asia, several European countries, and the United States. It is found in certain strains of the bacteria "Paenibacillus polymyxa".


title: Colistin

text: India reported the first detailed colistin-resistance study, which mapped 13 colistin-resistant infections recorded over 18 months. It concluded that pan-drug-resistant infections, particularly those in the bloodstream, have a higher mortality. Multiple other cases were reported from other Indian hospitals. Although resistance to polymyxins is generally less than 10%, it is more frequent in the Mediterranean and South-East Asia (Korea and Singapore), where colistin resistance rates are increasing. Colistin-resistant "E. coli" was identified in the United States in May 2016.


title: Colistin

text: A recent review from 2016 to 2021 fount that E. coli is the dominant species harbouring mcr genes. Plasmid - mediated colistin resistance is also conferred upon other species that carry different genes resistant to antibiotics. The emergence of the mcr-9 gene is quite remarkable.


title: Colistin

text: Use of colistin to treat "Acinetobacter baumannii" infections has led to the development of resistant bacterial strains. They have also developed resistance to the antimicrobial compounds LL-37 and lysozyme, produced by the human immune system. This cross-resistance is caused by gain-of-function mutations to the "pmrB" gene, a phosphoethanolamine transferase (similar to "mcr-1") located on the bacterial chromosome.


title: Colistin

text: Not all resistance to colistin and some other antibiotics is due to the presence of resistance genes. Heteroresistance, the phenomenon wherein apparently genetically identical microbes exhibit a range of resistance to an antibiotic, has been observed in some species of "Enterobacter" since at least 2016 and was observed in some strains of "Klebsiella pneumoniae" in 2017–2018. In some cases this phenomenon has significant clinical consequences.


title: Colistin

text: The main toxicities described with intravenous treatment are nephrotoxicity (damage to the kidneys) and neurotoxicity (damage to the nerves), but this may reflect the very high doses given, which are much higher than the doses currently recommended by any manufacturer and for which no adjustment was made for pre-existing renal disease. Neuro- and nephrotoxic effects appear to be transient and subside on discontinuation of therapy or reduction in dose.


title: Colistin

text: At a dose of 160 mg colistimethate IV every eight hours, very little nephrotoxicity is seen. Indeed, colistin appears to have less toxicity than the aminoglycosides that subsequently replaced it, and it has been used for extended periods up to six months with no ill effects. Colistin-induced nephrotoxicity is particularly likely in patients with hypoalbuminemia.


title: Colistin

text: The main toxicity described with aerosolised treatment is bronchospasm, which can be treated or prevented with the use of β2-adrenergic receptor agonists such as salbutamol or following a desensitisation protocol.


title: Colistin

text: Colistin is a polycationic peptide and has both hydrophilic and lipophilic moieties. These cationic regions interact with the bacterial outer membrane by displacing magnesium and calcium bacterial counter ions in the lipopolysaccharide. The hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions interact with the cytoplasmic membrane just like a detergent, solubilizing the membrane in an aqueous environment. This effect is bactericidal even in an isosmolar environment.


title: Colistin

text: Colistin binds to lipopolysaccharides and phospholipids in the outer cell membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. It competitively displaces divalent cations (Ca and Mg) from the phosphate groups of membrane lipids, which leads to disruption of the outer cell membrane, leakage of intracellular contents and bacterial death.


title: Colistin

text: No clinically useful absorption of colistin occurs in the gastrointestinal tract. For systemic infection, colistin must therefore be given by injection.


title: Colistin

text: Colistimethate is eliminated by the kidneys, but colistin is eliminated by non-renal mechanism(s) that are as of yet not characterised.


title: Colistin

text: Colistin was first isolated in Japan in 1949 by Y. Koyama, from a flask of fermenting "Bacillus" "polymyxa" var. "colistinus", and became available for clinical use in 1959.


title: Colistin

text: Colistimethate sodium, a less toxic prodrug, became available for injection in 1959. In the 1980s, polymyxin use was widely discontinued because of nephro- and neurotoxicity. As multi-drug resistant bacteria became more prevalent in the 1990s, colistin started to get a second look as an emergency solution, in spite of toxicity.


title: Colistin

text: Colistin has also been used in agriculture, particularly in China from the 1980s onwards. Chinese production for agriculture exceeded 2700 tons in 2015. China banned colistin use for livestock growth promotion in 2016.


title: Colistin

text: The biosynthesis of colistin requires the use of three amino acids: threonine, leucine, and 2,4-diaminobutryic acid. The linear form of colistin is synthesized before cycliziation. Non-ribosomal peptide biosynthesis begins with a loading module and then the addition of each subsequent amino acid. The subsequent amino acids are added with the help of an adenylation domain (A), a peptidyl carrier protein domain (PCP), an epimerization domain (E), and a condensation domain (C). Cyclization is accomplished by a thioesterase. The first step is to have a loading domain, 6-methylheptanoic acid, associate with the A and PCP domains. Now with a C, A, and PCP domain that is associated with 2,4-diaminobutryic acid. This continues with each amino acid until the linear peptide chain is completed. The last module will have a thioesterase to complete the cyclization and form the product colistin.


title: Rotator cuff tear

text: A rotator cuff tear is an injury where one or more of the tendons or muscles of the rotator cuff of the shoulder get torn. Symptoms may include shoulder pain, which is often worse with movement, limited range of motion, or weakness. This may limit people's ability to brush their hair or put on clothing. Clicking may also occur with movement of the arm.


title: Rotator cuff tear

text: Tears may occur as the result of a sudden force or gradually over time. Risk factors include certain repetitive activities, smoking, and a family history of the condition. Diagnosis is based on symptoms, examination, and medical imaging. The rotator cuff is made up of the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis. The supraspinatus is the most commonly affected.


title: Rotator cuff tear

text: Treatment may include pain medication such as NSAIDs and specific exercises. It is recommended that people who are unable to raise their arm above 90 degrees after 2 weeks should be further assessed. In severe cases surgery may be tried, however benefits of surgery are unclear as of 2019. Rotator cuff tears are common. Those over the age of 40 are most often affected. The condition has been described since at least the early 1800s.


title: Rotator cuff tear

text: Many rotator cuff tears have no symptoms. Both partial and full thickness tears have been found on "post mortem" and MRI studies in those without any history of shoulder pain or symptoms . However, the most common presentation is shoulder pain or discomfort. This may occur with activity, particularly shoulder activity above the horizontal position, but may also be present at rest in bed. Pain-restricted movement above the horizontal position may be present, as well as weakness with shoulder flexion and abduction.


title: Rotator cuff tear

text: Abnormal mobility or function of the scapula (scapular dyskinesia) may be present and is related to lower functional scores; it unclear whether scapular dyskinesia is a cause, effect or compensation for rotator cuff pathology.


title: Rotator cuff tear

text: Epidemiological studies strongly support a relationship between age and cuff tear prevalence, with the most common cause being age-related degeneration and, less frequently, sports injuries or trauma.


title: Rotator cuff tear

text: Those most prone to failed rotator cuff syndrome are people 65 years of age or older; and those with large, sustained tears. Smokers, people with diabetes, individuals with muscle atrophy or fatty infiltration, and those who do not follow postoperative-care recommendations also are at greater risk. In a 2008 study the frequency of such tears increased from 13% in the youngest group (aged 50–59 y) to 20% (aged 60–69 y), 31% (aged 70–79 y), and 51% in the oldest group (aged 80–89 y).


title: Rotator cuff tear

text: Some risk factors such as increased age and height cannot be changed. Increased body mass index is also associated with tearing. Recurrent lifting and overhead motions are at risk for rotator cuff injury as well. This includes jobs that involve repetitive overhead work, such as carpenters, painters, custodians, and servers. People who play sports that involve overhead motions, such as swimming, water polo, volleyball, baseball, tennis, and American football quarterbacks, are at a greater risk of experiencing a rotator cuff tear. Striking-based combat sports, such as boxing, also account for severe rotator cuff injuries of competitors, typically when their punches miss the target, or overusing the shoulder by throwing excessively large amounts of punches. Certain track-and-field activities, such as shot put, javelin throw are also of considerable risk, especially when performing outdoors under cold weather conditions or neglecting warming-up procedures, for proper warm-up of the throwing and/or swinging arm can help reduce the stress on the musculature of the shoulder girdle. Corticosteroid injections around the tendons increases the risk of tendon tear and delay tendon healing.


title: Rotator cuff tear

text: The two main causes are acute injury or chronic and cumulative degeneration of the shoulder joint. Mechanisms can be extrinsic, intrinsic or a combination of both.


title: Rotator cuff tear

text: The cuff is responsible for stabilizing the glenohumeral joint to allow abduction and rotation of the humerus. When trauma occurs, these functions can be compromised. Because individuals are dependent on the shoulder for many activities, overuse can lead to tears, with the vast majority being in the supraspinatus tendon.


title: Rotator cuff tear

text: The role of the supraspinatus is to resist downward motion, both while the shoulder is relaxed and carrying weight. Supraspinatus tears usually occurs at its insertion on the humeral head at the greater tubercle. Though the supraspinatus is the most commonly injured tendon in the rotator cuff, the other three can also be injured at the same time.


title: Rotator cuff tear

text: The amount of stress needed to acutely tear a rotator cuff tendon will depend on the underlying condition of the tendon. If healthy, the stress needed will be high, such as with a fall on the outstretched arm. This stress may occur coincidentally with other injuries such as a dislocation of the shoulder or separation of the acromioclavicular joint. In the case of a tendon with pre-existing degeneration, the force may be more modest, such as with a sudden lift, particularly with the arm above the horizontal position. The type of loading involved with injury is usually eccentric, such as when two people are carrying a load and one lets go, forcing the other to maintain force while the muscle elongates.


title: Rotator cuff tear

text: Chronic tears are indicative of extended use in conjunction with other factors such as poor biomechanics or muscular imbalance. Ultimately, most are the result of wear that occurs slowly over time as a natural part of aging. They are more common in the dominant arm, but a tear in one shoulder signals an increased risk of a tear in the opposing shoulder.


title: Rotator cuff tear

text: Several factors contribute to degenerative, or chronic, rotator cuff tears of which repetitive stress is the most significant. This stress consists of repeating the same shoulder motions frequently, such as overhead throwing, rowing, and weightlifting. Many jobs that require frequent shoulder movement such as lifting and overhead movements also contribute. In older populations impairment of blood supply can also be an issue. With age, circulation to the rotator cuff tendons decreases, impairing natural ability to repair, increasing risk for tear. Another potential contributing cause is impingement syndrome, the most common non-sports related injury and which occurs when the tendons of the rotator cuff muscles become irritated and inflamed while passing through the subacromial space beneath the acromion. This relatively small space becomes even smaller when the arm is raised in a forward or upward position. Repetitive impingement can inflame the tendons and bursa, resulting in the syndrome.


title: Rotator cuff tear

text: Well-documented anatomic factors include the morphologic characteristics of the acromion, a bony projection from the scapula that curves over the shoulder joint. Hooked, curved, and laterally sloping acromia are strongly associated with cuff tears and may cause damage through direct traction on the tendon. Conversely, flat acromia may have an insignificant involvement in cuff disease and consequently may be best treated conservatively. The development of these different acromial shapes is likely both genetic and acquired. In the latter case, there can be a progression from flat to curved or hooked with increasing age. Repetitive mechanical activities such as sports and exercise may contribute to flattening and hooking of the acromion. Cricket bowling, swimming, tennis, baseball, and kayaking are often implicated. Progression to a hooked acromion could be an adaptation to an already damaged, poorly balanced rotator cuff with resultant stress on the coracoacromial arch. Other anatomical factors include an os acromiale and acromial spurs. Environmental factors include age, shoulder overuse, smoking, and medical conditions that affect circulation or impair the inflammatory and healing response, such as diabetes mellitus.