title: Kantō Massacre

text: Koreans, Chinese, and Ryukyuans wore Japanese clothing in order to hide their identities. They also tried to properly pronounce shibboleths such as "十五円五十銭" (15 yen and 50 sen), with difficult elongated vowels. Those who failed these tests were killed. During that time, not only Koreans but also Chinese, Ryukyuans, and foreigners were all marked as Koreans. Some journalists who came to Tokyo were mistaken for Koreans and killed due to differences in their pronunciations. The vigilantes were indiscriminate with regards to gender and age. When the massacre reached its peak, the rivers Sumidagawa and Arakawa which flowed through Tokyo were stained with blood.


title: Kantō Massacre

text: The filmmaker Akira Kurosawa, who was a child at the time, was astonished to witness the irrational behavior of the mob.


title: Kantō Massacre

text: Some Koreans sought safety in police stations in order to escape the slaughter, but in some areas vigilantes broke into police stations and pulled them out. In other cases, police officers handed groups of Koreans over to local vigilantes, who proceeded to kill them. The arrival of foreigners and other people in Tokyo meant death. The police continued to assist the killings or responded to reports of murder passively. In contrast, the Yakuza, who accepted Koreans among their membership, protected Koreans from the lynch mobs.


title: Kantō Massacre

text: Both vigilantes and Japanese Army troops burned Korean bodies in order to destroy the evidence of murder. Official Japanese reports in September claimed that only five Koreans had been killed, and even years after, the number of acknowledged deaths remained in the low hundreds. After the massacre, Korean survivors painstakingly documented the extent of the massacre. Based on their testimonies, Japanese eyewitness accounts, and additional academic research, current estimates of the death toll range from 6,000 to 9,000. Between 50 to 90 percent of the Korean population of Yokohama was killed.


title: Kantō Massacre

text: Amidst the mob violence, regional police and the Imperial Army used the pretext of civil unrest to liquidate political dissidents. Socialists such as (平澤計七) and the Chinese communal leader Wang Xitian (王希天), were abducted and killed by local police and Imperial Army, who claimed the radicals intended to use the crisis as an opportunity to overthrow the Japanese government.


title: Kantō Massacre

text: In a particularly egregious instance known as the Amakasu Incident, the married couple Sakae Ōsugi (Japan's first Esperanto teacher) and Noe Itō, both anarchists and feminists, were executed by Imperial Army officer Masahiko Amakasu along with their six-year-old nephew. The bodies of the parents and child were thrown in a well. The incident created national outrage and Amakasu was sentenced to ten years in prison, but he served only three.


title: Kantō Massacre

text: Beginning on September 18, the Japanese government arrested 735 participants in the massacre. However, the government had no intent of sentencing the participants as they would murderers. In November, the "Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun" reported that during the trials, the defendants and the judges were both smiling and laughing as they recounted the lynchings. The prosecution recommended light sentences.


title: Kantō Massacre

text: As knowledge of the lynch mobs spread through the Korean community, thousands attempted to flee the city. The Tokyo police tasked a collaborationist group called Sōaikai with arresting escaping Koreans and detaining them in camps in Honjo, Tokyo. Tokyo police chief Maruyama Tsurukichi ordered the Sōaikai to confine Koreans to the camps to prevent them from spreading news of the massacre abroad. The Sōaikai eventually ordered 4,000 Koreans to perform unpaid labor cleaning up the city ruins for over two months.


title: Kantō Massacre

text: On September 5, after Prime Minister Uchida Kōsai acknowledged that unlawful killings had occurred, Tokyo officials met secretly to discuss a way to deny and minimize the massacre. Laying out their plans in a memorandum, they agreed to minimize the number of dead, blame the rumors of Korean violence on the labor organizer Yamaguchi Seiken, and frame innocent Koreans by accusing them of rioting. This plan was executed in the following months. A ban on reporting the death count was obeyed by all newspapers, while officials claimed only five people had died. On October 21, almost two months after the massacre began, local police arrested 23 Koreans, simultaneously lifting the ban so that the initial reporting on the full scale of the massacre was mixed with the false arrests.


title: Kantō Massacre

text: Yamaguchi was publicly blamed by Japanese officials for starting the rumors of Korean mobs, but this logically incoherent charge was never formalized. After being held in prison for several months he was finally prosecuted only for redistributing food and water from ruined houses to earthquake survivors without permission of the homeowners. In July 1924 he was sentenced to two years in prison; it is unknown if he survived his imprisonment.


title: Kantō Massacre

text: Korean newspapers in Seoul were blocked from receiving information about the massacre by local police. Two Koreans who personally escaped Tokyo and rushed to Seoul to report the news were arrested for "spreading false information" and the news report about them was completely censored. When word of the massacre did reach the Korean peninsula, Japan attempted to placate the Koreans by distributing films throughout the country showing Koreans being well treated. These films were reportedly poorly received. The Governor-General of Korea paid out 200 yen in compensation to 832 families of massacre victims, although the Japanese government on the mainland only admitted to about 250 deaths. The Governor-General also published and distributed propaganda leaflets with "beautiful stories" ("bidan" 美談) of Japanese protecting Koreans from lynch mobs. Police chief Nishizaka himself distributed "bidan" stories of heroic police protecting Koreans, which he later admitted in an interview were carefully selected to omit unflattering aspects.


title: Kantō Massacre

text: After the massacre, Navy Minister Takarabe Takeshi praised the Japanese lynch mobs for their "martial spirit," describing them as a successful result of military conscription. Paper plays called kamishibai were performed for children which portrayed the slaughter with vivid, bloody illustrations. Performers would encourage children to cheer for the lynch mobs as they killed "dangerous" Koreans. In 1927, an official history of Yokohama City claimed that the rumors of Korean attackers had "some basis in fact." In 1996, historian J. Michael Allen remarked that the massacre is "hardly known outside Korea."


title: Kantō Massacre

text: Books denying the massacre and repeating the government frame story of 1923 became constant bestsellers in the 2010s. In April 2017, the Cabinet Office deleted historical evidence and acknowledgement of the massacre from their website. Beginning 2017, Tokyo mayor Yuriko Koike broke decades of precedent by refusing to acknowledge the massacre or offer condolences to the descendants of survivors, saying that whether a massacre occurred is a matter of historical debate. In July 2020, Koike was re-elected as mayor of Tokyo in a landslide victory. In September 2020 a Japanese group held a rally in Sumida, Tokyo calling for a memorial to the massacre located in Yokoamichō Park to be demolished, saying that the massacre never happened and the memorial constituted "hate speech against our ancestors."


title: Kantō Massacre

text: Prewar narratives by Koreans frequently appealed to a Japanese readership to heal the wounds which were caused by ethnic divides, while in the immediate postwar period the "emperor system" was blamed for brainwashing massacre participants to act against their better instincts. After the 1970s such appeals to people's higher consciences faded away, and the massacre became part of a marker of indelible difference between the Japanese and Korean peoples and the Japanese people's willful ignorance of the massacre. Ri Kaisei's 1975 novel "Exile and Freedom" exemplifies this turning point with a central monologue: "Can you guarantee that it won't happen again right here and now? Even if you did, would your guarantees make Korean nightmares go away? No chance..."


title: Kantō Massacre

text: As the massacre passed out of living memory in the 1990s, it became hidden history to younger generations of Zainichi Koreans. In the 2015 novel "Green and Red" ("Midori to aka" 『緑と赤』), by Zainichi novelist (深沢潮 "Fukazawa Ushio"), the Zainichi protagonist learns about the massacre by reading about it in a history book, which serves to give excess weight to her fears over anti-Korean sentiment. Fukazawa emphasizes that the narrator is driven to discover this history out of anxiety rather than having any preexisting historical understanding.


title: Kantō Massacre

text: Director Oh Chongkong (吳充功, 오충공) made two documentary films about the pogrom: "Hidden Scars: The Massacre of Koreans from the Arakawa River Bank to Shitamachi in Tokyo" ("Kakusareta tsumeato: Tokyo aragawa dote shūhen kara Shitamachi no gyakusatsu" 隠された爪跡: 東京荒川土手周辺から下町の虐殺, 1983) and "The Disposed-of Koreans: The Great Kanto Earthquake and Camp Narashino" ("Harasagareta Chōsenjin: Kantō Daishinsai to Narashino shūyōjo" 払い下げられた朝鮮人: 関東大震災と習志野収容所, 1986).


title: Kantō Massacre

text: There have been several plays about the massacre. The playwright and Esperantist Ujaku Akita wrote "Gaikotsu no buchō" (骸骨の舞跳) in 1924, decrying the culture of silence by Japanese; its first printing was banned by the Japanese censors. It was translated into Esperanto as "Danco de skeletoj" in 1927. The playwright Koreya Senda did not write about the violence explicitly, but adopted the pen name "Koreya" after he was mistaken for a Korean by the mob. In 1986, a Japanese playwright, Fukuchi Kazuyoshi (福地一義), discovered his father's diary, read the account of the massacre which is contained in it and wrote a play which is based on his father's account. The play was briefly revived in 2017.


title: Kantō Massacre

text: In 2014, nonfiction writer Katō Naoki documented the massacre in his book "September on the Streets of Tokyo" ("Kugatsu, Tōkyō no rojō de" 九月、東京の路上で). This book has also been translated into Esperanto. As of 2020, Katō continues to advocate on behalf of victims' families and fight against historical revisionism.


title: Kantō Massacre

text: In the "Pachinko" Novel and Drama, a young Hansu escapes Yokohama with his father's former Yakuza employer, Ryoichi from the Great Kantō Earthquake and avoids getting caught by a group of Japanese vigilantes burning a barn of Koreans escaping the massacre in Kantō with the help of a Japanese farmer.


title: Michael Watson

text: Michael Watson (born 15 March 1965) is a British former professional boxer who competed from 1984 to 1991. He held the Commonwealth middleweight title from 1989 to 1991, and challenged three times for a world title between 1990 and 1991. Watson's career was cut short as a result of near-fatal injury sustained during a loss to Chris Eubank for the WBO super-middleweight title in 1991.


title: Michael Watson

text: Watson took up boxing at the age of fourteen at the Crown and Manor boxing club, where he proved to be a quick learner, winning an under-71 kg London Schools title in 1980.


title: Michael Watson

text: He had an impressive 20–2 record at the Crown and Manor Club. He transferred to the Colvestone Boxing Club where he trained and sparred for over a year with Kirkland Laing, Dennis Andries, and Darren Dyer. He entered the 1983/84 Nationals at under 75 kg and won the title. On his 19th birthday he fought John Beckles during the 1984 London ABAs, both being national champions. Watson, initially seen as the underdog, won the fight in just over 30 seconds, and was seen as a hope for a boxing medal at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games. However, his place on the Olympic team was taken by Liverpool's Brian Schumacher.


title: Michael Watson

text: Watson's professional career lasted from 1984 to 1991. The highlight was his May 1989 victory over Nigel Benn to secure the British Commonwealth middleweight title. This led to a world title clash with Jamaican Mike McCallum, who defeated Watson by a knockout in the eleventh round.


title: Michael Watson

text: On 22 June 1991 at Earl's Court, he met Chris Eubank in another opportunity for the world middleweight title. Eubank won by a majority decision of 116–113, 115–113 and 114–114, close enough to support dissension by some commentators and supporters.


title: Michael Watson

text: A rematch was arranged on 21 September 1991 at White Hart Lane, this time for the vacant WBO super middleweight title. In round 11, with Watson ahead on points and seemingly on the verge of a stoppage victory, he knocked Eubank down with an overhand right. Moments later, Eubank was back on his feet and connected with a devastating uppercut, which caused Watson to fall back and hit the back of his head against the ropes.


title: Michael Watson

text: Referee Roy Francis stopped the fight in round 12, after which Watson collapsed in the ring. There was no ambulance or paramedic at the event. Doctors wearing dinner jackets arrived after some eight minutes, during which time the fallen fighter received no oxygen. A total of 28 minutes elapsed before Watson received treatment in a hospital neurosurgical unit. He spent 40 days in a coma and had six brain operations to remove a blood clot.


title: Michael Watson

text: After regaining consciousness, he spent over a year in intensive care and rehabilitation and six more years confined to a wheelchair while he slowly recovered some movement and regained the ability to speak and write.


title: Michael Watson

text: Peter Hamlyn, the consultant neurosurgeon who operated on Watson, said in 2010, "I think back to those first days, and the milestone moments. The first eight months were so depressing. He couldn't hear, couldn't speak, couldn't walk. Slowly, he clawed it all back. So extraordinary".


title: Michael Watson

text: Watson sued the British Boxing Board of Control (BBBoC) for negligence and won damages reputedly of around £1 million. The High Court ruled that the BBBoC was responsible for medical provision at a fight and that administering oxygen and resuscitation on site would have made a considerable difference to Watson's outcome. Mr Justice Kennedy said that the board was "in breach of its duty to Mr Watson". This decision was upheld at the Court of Appeal, and the BBBoC did not appeal to the House of Lords, selling their London headquarters to pay out a £400,000 compensation settlement. The judge said that this was "sadly a long way short of the damages that [Watson] would have received had the defendants had the money or had they been insured".


title: Michael Watson

text: On 19 April 2003 Watson completed the London Marathon, walking two hours each morning and afternoon for six days. Raising money for the Brain and Spine Foundation, Watson slept overnight in a support bus.


title: Michael Watson

text: Finishing the race by his side were Chris Eubank and his neurosurgeon, both of whom had become his personal friends. On 4 February 2004 Watson was awarded the MBE by Queen Elizabeth II for his services to disability sport. Watson was announced as a torchbearer in the 2012 Paralympic relay.


title: Michael Watson

text: In February 2017 Watson and his carer, Lennard Ballack, were victims of a carjacking in Chingford, London. During the attack, Ballack had ammonia sprayed in his face and was beaten, whilst Watson was dragged along the road when the car was driven off, unable to escape. Watson suffered flashbacks and seizures after the event. The two attackers were later sentenced to 16 years for their part in the attack and other crimes.


title: Aeëtes

text: Aeëtes (; , ; , ), or Aeeta, was a king of Colchis in Greek mythology. The name comes from the ancient Greek word (, "eagle").


title: Aeëtes

text: Aeëtes was the son of Sun god Helios and the Oceanid Perseis, brother of Circe, Perses and Pasiphaë, and father of Medea, Chalciope and Absyrtus. His consort was either (1) Idyia, the youngest daughter of Oceanus, (2) Asterodeia, a Caucasian Oceanid, (3) the Nereid Neaera, (4) Clytia, (5) Ipsia or Eurylyte.


title: Aeëtes

text: According to others, he was the brother of Perses, a king of Tauris, husband of his niece Hecate, and father of Medea, Chalciope and Absyrtus. Yet other versions make Aeëtes a native of Corinth and son of Ephyra, an Oceanid, or else of a certain Antiope. Asterope was also one of the possible mothers of Aeëtes.


title: Aeëtes

text: Pausanias states that, according to the poet Eumelos, Aeëtes was the son of Helios (from northern Peloponnesus) and brother of Aloeus. Helios divided the land he ruled, and he gave Aloeus the part in Asopia (see Asopus) and Aeëtes the part of Ephyra (Corinth). Later, Aeëtes gave his kingdom to Bounos, a son of Hermes and Alkidameia, and went to Colchis, a country in western Caucasus. When Bounos died, Epopeus, a son of Aloeus who ruled in Asopia, became king of Ephyra too. Aeëtes built a new colony in Colchis, near the mouth of the large river Phasis, and called it Aea.


title: Aeëtes

text: Phrixus, son of Athamas and Nephele, along with his twin, Helle, were hated by their stepmother, Ino. Ino hatched a devious plot to get rid of the twins, roasting all the town's crop seeds so they would not grow. The local farmers, frightened of famine, asked a nearby oracle for assistance. Ino bribed the men sent to the oracle to lie and tell the others that the oracle required the sacrifice of Phrixus but before they were able to kill him, Phrixus and Helle were rescued by a golden ram sent by Nephele, their natural mother. Helle fell off the ram into the Hellespont (which was named after her) and died, but Phrixus survived all the way to Colchis, where Aeëtes took him in and treated him kindly, giving Phrixus his daughter Chalciope in marriage. In gratitude, Phrixus gave the king the golden fleece of the ram, which Aeëtes hung on a tree in his kingdom. Aeëtes dedicated the golden fleece to Ares. Phrixus thus lived at the court of Aeëtes for a long time but one day Aeëtes learned from an oracle that he would die at the hands of a descendant of Aeolus and so he killed Phryxus. His sons, on the other hand, managed to return to Orchomenus.


title: Aeëtes

text: Some time later, Jason arrived to claim the fleece as his own. Aeëtes promised to give it to him only if he could perform certain tasks. First, Jason had to plow a field with fire-breathing oxen that he had to yoke himself. Then, Jason sowed into a field the teeth of a dragon which the Colchian king received from Athena, half of it was sowed before by Cadmus in Thebes. These teeth sprouted into an army of warriors. Jason was quick-thinking, however, and before they attacked him, he threw a rock into the crowd. Unable to determine whence the rock had come, the soldiers killed each other. Jason then ran away. Medea fled, too. Aeëtes pursued them in his own ship as they fled, but Medea distracted her father by killing and dismembering her brother, Absyrtus, and throwing pieces of his cadaver overboard. Aeëtes paused to gather the pieces of his son, and thus Jason and Medea escaped.


title: Aeëtes

text: The mythical Aeetes may have reflected a memory of a historical personage. His name recurs in historical narratives of Classical authors who claim the enduring legacy of Aeëtes in Colchis. Arrian, touring the region in the 2nd century, reports seeing sites and ruins from Aeetes' time. The 5th-century author Zosimus mentions "a palace of Aeetes" standing at the mouth of the Phasis. Local rulers are claimed to have descended from Aeëtes, such as a king of the Phasians from Xenophon's "Anabasis" and Saulaces, a gold-rich king of Colchis, from Pliny the Elder's "Naturalis Historia". Strabo, who treated Aeetes as a historical person, writes that this was "a local name among the Colchians". The name of Aeëtes was borne by a historical Colchian, a 6th-century nobleman in Lazica in the times of Lazic War known from Agathias's account. If naming Aeëtes as the ancestor of the Colchian rulers was not the invention of the classical authors, it is possible that the Colchian rulers regarded themselves as descendants of Aeetes.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: Jørn Oberg Utzon, , Hon. FAIA (; 9 April 191829 November 2008) was a Danish architect. He was most notable for designing the Sydney Opera House in Australia, completed in 1973. When it was declared a World Heritage Site on 28 June 2007, Utzon became only the second person to have received such recognition for one of his works during his lifetime, after Oscar Niemeyer. Other noteworthy works include Bagsværd Church near Copenhagen and the National Assembly Building in Kuwait. He also made important contributions to housing design, especially with his Kingo Houses near Helsingør.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: Utzon attended the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts (1937–42) and was influenced early on by Gunnar Asplund and Alvar Aalto.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: Utzon was born in Copenhagen, the son of a naval architect, and grew up in Aalborg, Denmark, where he became interested in ships and a possible naval career. As a result of his family's interest in art, from 1937 he attended the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts where he studied under Kay Fisker and Steen Eiler Rasmussen. Following his graduation in 1942, he joined Gunnar Asplund in Stockholm where he worked together with Arne Jacobsen and Poul Henningsen. He took a particular interest in the works of American architect Frank Lloyd Wright.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: In 1946 he visited Alvar Aalto in Helsinki. In 1947–48 he travelled in Europe, in 1948 he went to Morocco where he was taken by the tall clay buildings. In 1949, he travelled to the United States and Mexico, where the pyramids provided further inspiration. Fascinated by the way the Mayans built towards the sky to get closer to God, he commented that his time in Mexico was "One of the greatest architectural experiences in my life."


title: Jørn Utzon

text: In America, he visited Frank Lloyd Wright's home, Taliesin West, in the Arizona desert and met Charles and Ray Eames. In 1950 he established his own studio in Copenhagen and, in 1952, built an open-plan house for himself, the first of its kind in Denmark. In 1957, he travelled first to China (where he was particularly interested in the Chinese desire for harmony), Japan (where he learnt much about the interaction between interiors and exteriors) and India, before arriving in Australia in 1957 where he stayed until 1966. All this contributed to Utzon's understanding of factors which contribute to successful architectural design.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: Utzon had a Nordic sense of concern for nature which, in his design, emphasized the synthesis of form, material and function for social values. His fascination with the architectural legacies of the ancient Mayas, the Islamic world, China, and Japan also informed his practice. This developed into what Utzon later referred to as Additive Architecture, comparing his approach to the growth patterns of nature.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: A design can grow like a tree, he explained: "If it grows naturally, the architecture will look after itself."


title: Jørn Utzon

text: In 1957, Utzon unexpectedly won the competition to design the Sydney Opera House. His submission was one of 233 designs from 32 countries, many of them from the most famous architects of the time. Although he had won six other architectural competitions previously, the Opera House was his first non-domestic project. One of the judges, Eero Saarinen, described it as "genius" and declared he could not endorse any other choice.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: The designs Utzon submitted were little more than preliminary drawings. Dr. Emory Kemp's consulting career began at Ove Arup, where, he conducted analytical calculations for the roof, noting this was no simple task, as Utzon’s sketches were designed to embellish the beauty of the international landmark, not necessarily for simple mathematics. Concerned that delays would lead to lack of public support, the Cahill government of New South Wales nonetheless gave the go-ahead for work to begin in 1958. The British engineering consultancy Ove Arup and Partners put out tenders without adequate working drawings and construction work began on 2 March 1959. As a result, the podium columns were not strong enough to support the roof and had to be rebuilt. The situation was complicated by Cahill's death in October 1959.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: The extraordinary structure of the shells themselves represented a puzzle for the engineers. This was not resolved until 1961, when Utzon himself finally came up with the solution. He replaced the original elliptical shells with a design based on complex sections of a sphere. Utzon says his design was inspired by the simple act of peeling an orange: the 14 shells of the building, if combined, would form a perfect sphere.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: Although Utzon had spectacular, innovative plans for the interior of these halls, he was unable to realise this part of his design. In mid-1965, the New South Wales Liberal government of Robert Askin was elected. Askin had been a 'vocal critic of the project prior to gaining office.' His new Minister for Public Works, Davis Hughes, was even less sympathetic. Elizabeth Farrelly, Australian architecture critic has written that


title: Jørn Utzon

text: Utzon soon found himself in conflict with the new Minister. Attempting to rein in the escalating cost of the project, Hughes began questioning Utzon's capability, his designs, schedules and cost estimates, refusing to pay running costs. In 1966, after a final request from Utzon that plywood manufacturer Ralph Symonds should be one of the suppliers for the roof structure was refused, he resigned from the job, closed his Sydney office and vowed never to return to Australia. When Utzon left, the shells were almost complete, and costs amounted to only $22.9 million. Following major changes to the original plans for the interiors, costs finally rose to $103 million.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: The Opera House was finally completed, and opened in 1973 by Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia. The architect was not invited to the ceremony, nor was his name even mentioned during any of the speeches. He was, however, to be recognised later when he was asked to design updates to the interior of the opera house. The Utzon Room, overlooking Sydney Harbour, was officially dedicated in October 2004. In a statement at the time Utzon wrote: "The fact that I'm mentioned in such a marvellous way, it gives me the greatest pleasure and satisfaction. I don't think you can give me more joy as the architect. It supersedes any medal of any kind that I could get and have got." Furthermore, Frank Gehry, one of the Pritzker Prize judges, commented: "Utzon made a building well ahead of its time, far ahead of available technology, and he persevered through extraordinarily malicious publicity and negative criticism to build a building that changed the image of an entire country."


title: Jørn Utzon

text: While some of Utzon's most notable works are spread around the globe, he was most prolific in his native Denmark, whose landscape inspired him more than any other. Bagsværd Church, just north of Copenhagen, is considered to be a masterpiece of contemporary church architecture, thanks to its bright, naturally illuminated interior and its concrete ceiling straddled with softly-rounded vaulting inspired by clouds. Designed in 1968, the church was completed in 1976. The Kingo Houses in Helsingør (1958) consist of 63 L-shaped homes based on the design of traditional Danish farmhouses with central courtyards. Built in rows following the undulations of the site, each of the houses not only has a view of its own but enjoys the best possible conditions for sunlight and shelter from the wind. Utzon described the arrangement as "flowers on the branch of a cherry tree, each turning towards the sun." In general, Utzon's houses display sophisticated and varied relationships to the path of the sun.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: A few years later, he went on to design the Fredensborg Houses (1963) for Danish pensioners who had worked for long periods abroad. Utzon helped select the site, and planned a complex consists of 47 courtyard homes and 30 terraced houses as well as a central building with a restaurant, meeting rooms and nine guest rooms. His design was inspired by housing in Beijing's Forbidden City. The homes are located around a square in groups of three, designed to maximize privacy, natural lighting, and views of the surrounding countryside. When he was awarded the Pritzker Prize in 2003, Utzon was specifically lauded for his working designing housing projects that, the jury said, were "designed with people in mind."


title: Jørn Utzon

text: His Paustian Furniture Store (1988) on Copenhagen's waterfront stands on a multitude of columns inspired by a beech forest. A temple-like finish is achieved by 11 columns with fan-shaped capitals overlooking the harbour. Similar columns are also present inside the spacious interior, stretching up to the skylight dominating the roof.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: In 2005, in close collaboration with his son Kim Utzon, he helped to plan the Utzon Center in Aalborg (completed 2008) designed to inspire young students of architecture. Located on the waterfront, its high sculptured roofs rise over an auditorium, a boathall and a library while the lower roofs of its exhibition rooms and workshops surround a central courtyard, sheltered from the wind.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: Kuwait's National Assembly Building, completed in 1982, stands on the sea front with (in Utzon's words) "haze and white light and an untidy town behind." Benefiting from an understanding of Islamic architecture, Utzon designed a building consisting of a covered square, a parliamentary chamber, a conference hall, and a mosque. Its waving roof conveys the impression of moving fabric. Its columns are reminiscent of the Karnak temples.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: The Melli Bank building in Tehran, slightly set back from the lines of the busy street where it stands, has a reinforced concrete frame faced with natural stone. The ground-level banking hall, naturally illuminated by skylight vaults, is connected to the upper floor by a central spiral staircase, providing maximum flexibility of space.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: On his return from Australia in 1966, Utzon made a stop on Mallorca. Fascinated by the island, he decided to build a summer house there on the top of a cliff near the fishing village of Portopetro. Named Can Lis after his wife, the house was based on the home he had intended to build in Australia but was inspired by local materials and climate, setting standards for contemporary Mediterranean architecture. The house consists of five loosely linked blocks with a colonnaded outdoor area, a living room and two bedrooms, each with its own courtyard.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: Although Utzon and his wife spent an increasing amount of time on Mallorca, they became disturbed by all the tourists who came to see their home. They decided to move to a more remote area in the mountains where they built a second house known as Can Feliz, consisting of three blocks for dining, living and sleeping, separated by courtyards. The upper part of the grand theatrical living space is furnished for working with heavy timber bookcases and a large table. A huge window provides magnificent views of the pine forests and the sea beyond.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: The Utzon Center in Aalborg, designed together with his son Kim, was the architect's last assignment. In 2005 he commented, "From the bottom of my heart, I hope that the Utzon Center will be a place where positive thoughts converge and where students from the School of Architecture gather when they want to get together to discuss their ideas. It is intended to be a power centre for the architects and people of the future."


title: Jørn Utzon

text: Utzon died in Copenhagen on 29 November 2008, aged 90, of a heart attack in his sleep after a series of operations. He had never returned to Australia to see the completed opera house. On 2 December 2008 the Parliament of New South Wales passed a special motion of condolence to honour Utzon's life and work. He was survived by his wife, Lis, his sons Jan and Kim, his daughter Lin, and several grandchildren. His sons are trained architects and his daughter is a designer, muralist and artist who was at one time married to the Australian architect Alex Popov.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: On 17 May 1985, Utzon was made an honorary Companion of the Order of Australia (AC). He was given the Keys to the City of Sydney in 1998. He was involved in redesigning the Opera House, and in particular, the Reception Hall, beginning in 1999. In 2003, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Sydney; his son accepted the award on his behalf. In 2003, he received the Pritzker Prize, architecture's highest honor.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: In March 2006, Queen Elizabeth II opened the western colonnade addition to the building designed by Utzon who had not returned to Australia since 1966. His son, Jan, took his place at the opening ceremony instead, saying his father was "too old by now to take the long flight to Australia. But he lives and breathes the Opera House, and as its creator he just has to close his eyes to see it."


title: Jørn Utzon

text: Following Utzon's death in 2008, on 25 March 2009, a state memorial and reconciliation concert was held in the Concert Hall at Sydney Opera House.


title: Jørn Utzon

text: According to Kenneth Frampton, Utzon's architectural influence is manifest on three levels: the emphasis given to the roof element, the importance given to the grounding of the building, and the commitment to "the cultural validity of organic growth". Kim Dirkinck-Holmfeld, writing in "Dansk Arkitektur: 1960–1995", comments: Utzon did not obtain many commissions in his mother country but his importance was considerable in terms of direct imitation or inspiration. And he was the only Danish architect who made a significant contribution to the global development of Modernism.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: Shenmue is a 1999 action-adventure game developed and published by Sega for the Dreamcast. It follows the teenage martial artist Ryo Hazuki as he sets out in revenge for the murder of his father in 1980s Yokosuka, Japan. The player explores an open world, fighting opponents in brawler battles and encountering quick time events. The environmental detail was considered unprecedented, with numerous interactive objects, a day-and-night system, variable weather effects, non-player characters with daily schedules and various minigames.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: After developing several successful Sega arcade games, including "Hang-On" (1985), "Out Run" (1986) and "Virtua Fighter" (1993), director Yu Suzuki wanted to create a longer experience, and conceived "Shenmue" as a multi-part epic. In 1996, Sega AM2 began work on a role-playing game for the Sega Saturn set in the "Virtua Fighter" world. Development moved to the Dreamcast in 1997 and the "Virtua Fighter" connection was dropped. "Shenmue" became the most expensive video game ever developed at the time, with an estimated production and marketing cost of , though this also covered some of "Shenmue II" (2001).


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: Despite sales of 1.2 million, "Shenmue" did not recoup its development cost and was a commercial failure. It received positive reviews for its graphics, soundtrack and ambition, though its slow pace and emphasis on mundane detail divided players. It attracted a cult following, appeared in several lists of the greatest video games of all time, and is credited for pioneering game mechanics such as quick time events and open worlds. Later appraisal has been mixed, with criticism for its controls, pace and voice acting.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: After the release of "Shenmue II", further "Shenmue" games entered development hell and Suzuki left Sega. In 2018, Sega released high-definition ports of "Shenmue" and "Shenmue II" for multiple formats. Following a successful crowdfunding campaign, Suzuki developed "Shenmue III" independently; it was released for the PlayStation 4 and Windows in 2019. An anime adaptation of "Shenmue" premiered in 2022.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: The player controls the teenage martial artist Ryo Hazuki as he investigates his father's murder in Yokosuka in 1986. They must explore the open world, searching for clues, examining objects and talking to non-player characters. Occasionally, Ryo battles opponents in fighting sequences similar to Sega's "Virtua Fighter" series; outside of combat, players can practice moves to increase their power. In quick time events, the player must press the right button within a time limit to succeed.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: "Shenmue" features a persistent world with level of detail considered unprecedented for games at the time. Shops open and close, buses run to timetables, and characters have their own routines, each in accordance with the in-game clock. The player can inspect objects including drawers, cabinets and shelves, though not all objects are interactive. Ryo receives a daily allowance which can be spent on items including food, raffle tickets, audio cassettes and capsule toys. There are several minigames; in the local arcade, for example, Ryo can throw darts or play complete versions of the Sega arcade games "Hang-On" and "Space Harrier". Later in the game, Ryo gets a part-time job at the docks and must ferry crates between warehouses and compete in races using a forklift.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: "Edge" described "Shenmue" as "a game of middle management, often composed of the unglamorous daily grinds – being home for bedtime, wisely spending money earned from a day job, or training combat moves through lonely practice – that other games bypass".


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: In Yokosuka, Japan, 1986, the teenage martial artist Ryo Hazuki returns to his family dojo to witness a confrontation between his father Iwao and a Chinese man, Lan Di. Lan Di easily incapacitates Ryo, and threatens to kill him unless Iwao gives him a mysterious stone artifact known as the dragon mirror. Iwao tells him the mirror is buried under the cherry blossom tree outside. As his men recover the mirror, Lan Di mentions a man he claims Iwao killed in China. He delivers a finishing blow and Iwao dies in Ryo's arms.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: Swearing revenge on Lan Di, Ryo begins his investigation by asking locals about what they witnessed. As he is about to run out of leads, a letter addressed to Ryo's father arrives from a Chinese man named Zhu Yuanda suggesting he seek the aid of Master Chen, who works at Yokosuka Harbor. Through Chen and his son Guizhang, Ryo learns that the mirror taken by Lan Di is one of two. He locates the second, the phoenix mirror, in a hidden basement beneath his father's dojo.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: Chen reveals that Lan Di has left Japan for Hong Kong. Ryo borrows money to buy a plane ticket from a disreputable travel agency; when he goes to collect the ticket, he is ambushed by Chai, a member of Lan Di's criminal organization, the Chi You Men, who destroys his ticket. Ryo learns that the Chi You Men is connected to the local harbor gang, the Mad Angels, and takes a job at the harbor as a forklift driver to investigate. After he causes trouble, the Mad Angels kidnap his schoolfriend Nozomi. Ryo rescues her and makes a deal with the Mad Angels leader to beat up Guizhang in exchange for a meeting with Lan Di. Ryo realizes the deal is a trap and teams up with Guizhang to defeat the Mad Angels.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: Ryo arranges to take a boat to Hong Kong with Guizhang. On the day of departure, they are attacked by Chai. Ryo defeats him, but Guizhang is injured and urges Ryo to go without him, saying he will meet him in China later. Chen advises Ryo to seek the help of a martial artist in Hong Kong named Lishao Tao. Ryo boards the boat and leaves for Hong Kong.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: "Shenmue" was created by Yu Suzuki. After joining Sega in 1983, Suzuki created several successful arcade games including "Hang-On" (1985)", Out Run" (1986) and "Virtua Fighter" (1993). In comparison to arcade games, where the ideal experience is only a few minutes long, Suzuki wanted to make a longer experience and researched role-playing games (RPGs).


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: To test camera, combat and conversation systems, he and Sega AM2 built a prototype Sega Saturn game, "The Old Man and the Peach Tree," about a young man, Taro, seeking a martial arts grandmaster in 1950s Luoyang, China. Taro brings an old man a peach in exchange for information about the grandmaster; at the end of the game, the man skilfully skips stones across water to hunt fish, revealing that he is the grandmaster.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: In 1996, AM2 began developing a 3D Saturn RPG with the working title "Guppy". This became "Virtua Fighter RPG: Akira's Story", an RPG starring the "Virtua Fighter" character Akira. AM2 planned a "cinematic" approach, including voice acting and elaborate combat sequences. Suzuki researched locations in China, and constructed four acts with the themes "sadness", "fight", "departure" and "starting afresh". In this version of the story, Akira would overcome his grief following his father's death, travel to China, defeat an antagonist, and begin a journey with a new friend. Suzuki recruited a screenwriter, a playwright and film directors to write the multi-part story, which "IGN" described as a "revenge epic in the tradition of Chinese cinema".


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: In 1997, development moved to Sega's upcoming console, the Dreamcast. In 1998, Sega of America vice president Bernie Stolar told "Next Generation": "I can't tell you what Suzuki-san is working on. Let's just say that I've seen the project and it's going to rock the gaming world." The same year, to better market the game as a Dreamcast "killer app", the "Virtua Fighter" connection was dropped and Suzuki announced the working title "Project Berkley". In November, Sega announced that "Shenmue" was so unique it belonged to a new genre it termed "full reactive eyes entertainment" or "FREE". By the time of the Dreamcast's release in Japan in November 1998, the game had been titled "Shenmue".AM2 focused on developing the game world, creating a large open environment with minigames and subquests. The setting is modeled on Dobuita in Yokosuka, Japan. The team worked with interior decorators to design more than 1,200 rooms and locations, and created over 300 characters with their own names, personalities and relationships, some modeled on Sega employees, with detailed clay models as animation references. Meteorological records of 1986 Yokosuka were used to create algorithmically generated weather and day-and-night cycles. The cut scenes are rendered in real time, without full-motion video (FMV), and motion capture was used to capture the movements of Budō (Japanese martial arts) experts. To fit the material onto a manageable number of discs, AM2 developed a new type of data compression.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: In 1999, AM2 focused on fixing bugs, finding hundreds each day. At the time, there were no bug-tracking systems, so the team tracked bugs with Excel spreadsheets; at one point, they had tracked over 10,000 unresolved bugs. On one occasion, several non-player characters became trapped in the convenience store where they had gone as part of their scripted routines; Suzuki's solution was to widen the store's door. The product placement of the Coca-Cola and Timex brands also created problems, as the companies had strict specifications for their implementation. Suzuki said the biggest challenge was management, with over 300 staff and no experience of large projects.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: According to the localizer Jeremy Blaustein, "Shenmue"'s English localization was fraught with problems exacerbated by the project's scale. At Suzuki's insistence, the English voices were recorded in Japan, which greatly restricted the casting; Blaustein said "we hired basically every single [English-speaking] person that exists [in Japan] and calls themselves a voice actor". The scripts were translated by several people, creating consistency problems, and arrived late, leaving no time for rewrites or proper direction.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: "Shenmue" became the most expensive game ever developed at the time, reported to have cost Sega . In 2011, Suzuki said the figure was closer to $47 million including marketing. Development also covered some of "Shenmue II" (2001), which was completed for a smaller amount, and groundwork for future "Shenmue" games.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: On November 27, 1998, Sega released the Dreamcast in Japan. The launch game "Virtua Fighter 3tb", also directed by Suzuki, included a preview disc of "Shenmue" featuring FMV scenes and an interview with Suzuki, but no gameplay footage. On December 20, 1998, Sega unveiled "Shenmue" at a conference at the Yokohama International Assembly Hall and demonstrated its clock, weather and quick time event systems; fans could watch the conference online. Initial reactions were positive, with "Edge" saying it "could be one of the most ambitious and important video game endeavours of the decade". However, the quick time events angered some fans, who had assumed the game would only use "Virtua Fighter"-style battles.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: Sega announced a Japanese release date of April 1999, which was delayed to August 5. At the Tokyo Game Show in March 1999, Sega announced that "Shenmue" would span multiple games and allowed the public to play it for the first time. At a Japanese consumer show on May 3, 1999, Sega demonstrated the facial animation and announced that non-player characters would have their own daily routines. Later that month, Sega showed "Shenmue" in America for the first time at the 1999 Game Developer's Conference. It was playable the following week at the E3 trade fair in Los Angeles.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: At a Japanese consumer conference on June 1, 1999, Sega announced a "Shenmue" promotion to coincide with a Dreamcast price drop. Sega distributed a limited-edition video, "What's Shenmue", with Dreamcast consoles and games, and a playable demo from August 1. The "spoof" demo has Ryo search a small area of Yokosuka for Sega then-managing director Hidekazu Yukawa. Sega also announced that "Shenmue" had been delayed to October 28, 1999. On June 22, Sega announced a ""Shenmue" Subway Tour", showing playable demos at Japanese train stations that August. NHK spent six months with the development team and broadcast a making-of documentary about the game before its release.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: At the end of September, Sega announced a release date for early 2000, before moving it ahead to the final week of 1999. Sega released "Shenmue" on December 29, 1999, in Japan, November 8, 2000, in North America, and December 1, 2000, in Europe.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: "Shenmue" sold 260,000 copies in its first week. It eventually sold 1.2 million copies and became the Dreamcast's fourth-bestselling game. However, its sales did not cover its development cost and analysts consider it a major commercial failure. It followed years of declining profits for Sega and contributed to Sega's exit from the game console market. "USgamer" wrote that though "Shenmue"'s sales would have been a success for most games, only an "impossible" number of sales would have seen "Shenmue" turn a profit. According to "GamesRadar", every Dreamcast owner would have needed to buy "Shenmue" twice for it to turn a profit, and so "ironically it probably did as much to kill the Dreamcast as it did to cement its reputation".


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: The "Shenmue" localizer Jeremy Blaustein likened the failure to the epic 1980 film "Heaven's Gate", which went drastically over budget and was a commercial failure: "Suzuki was coming off of huge past successes, and he was the man. And so this was going be "the" thing ... And everyone wanted a piece of that $70 million, you know? And of course that's like the worst thing you could do, is to start out a project saying we've got all this money, and then just keep throwing more money at it." Peter Moore, then-president of Sega of America, said "Shenmue" sold "extremely well" but could not make a profit due to the Dreamcast's limited installed base. Dreamcast engineer Hideki Sato defended "Shenmue" as an "investment [which] will someday be recouped" because the lessons learnt during development could be applied to other games.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: "Shenmue" holds an average aggregate score of 89% on GameRankings. Critics praised its graphics, realism, soundtrack and ambition. "IGN" called it "a gaming experience that no one, casual to hardcore gamer, can miss", and "Eurogamer" called it "one of the most compelling and unusual gaming experiences ever created". "GameSpot" wrote that though "Shenmue" is "far from perfect" it was "revolutionary" and "worth experiencing - provided you have the time to invest". "Edge" initially called the Japanese version a "landmark"; they later said the English version was not the "milestone" they had hoped for, but was "involving, and ultimately rewarding".


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: Ed Lomas of the UK "Official Dreamcast Magazine" said the production values were "astounding ... ["Shenmue"] is the most beautiful game ever made, no doubt about it." Though he acknowledged problems with controls, dated QTEs, script and voice acting, he felt the experience as a whole was "incredible", particularly its immersion and the freedom to pursue the story at the player's pace. Jeff Lundrigan of "Next Generation" wrote: "Everyone on Earth owes it to themselves to play this. Some will enjoy it more than others, but no one will fail to recognize its magnificent production values and depth of design."


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: Several reviews criticized the invisible walls, abundance of cutscenes, English voice acting, and the inability to progress without waiting for scheduled events. "GameSpot" wrote that by "the time you're driving forklifts and participating in the game's QTE-filled conclusion, hours upon hours of boredom will have taken their toll". "Game Informer" criticized the lack of action, writing: "Determining your character's next move requires little more than talking to someone, who will then tell you who to see or where to go ... all that's left is a guy walking around an amazingly detailed environment. If I wanted to experience that, I could see it in another game with proven endless entertainment value. It's called life."


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: "Shenmue" received the Excellence Prize for Interactive Art at the 2000 Japan Media Arts Festival. "Edge" awarded it for Graphical Achievement, stating that Suzuki's "experiment in creating what is a complete, populated virtual world in which a game occurs proves to be a mighty" success, particularly the "breathtaking" level of detail on the character models, and that never had there been "such a convincing representation of real life" built into a video game. "GameSpot" named it the most disappointing console game of 2000, but awarded it the prize for "Best Graphics, Technical" for a console game, and nominated it for "Best Adventure Game", "Best Sound" and "Best Graphics, Artistic".


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: In 2009, "IGN" Xbox editor Hilary Goldstein praised "Shenmue" for its "great ideas", but said it was "ultimately uninteresting", and "IGN" Nintendo's Matt Casamassina felt it was "more of a technical demo than a coherent game". However, "IGN" UK's Martin Robinson described it as "a deeply personal game" that "opened my eyes to a whole new world for video games, suggesting that they didn't have to be about shooting aliens in the face, rescuing the princess or slaying orcs for hours on end – they could be about real people in a real place ... it's the mundane moments that gave "Shenmue" its poetry."


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: In 2011, "Empire" wrote that "the digital environment created by "Shenmue" was revolutionary at the time ... Even by today's standards, its rich and affectionate vision of urban Japan is inspiring." In his 2010 book "1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die", David McCarthy wrote of "Shenmue's" "paradigmatic impact on the entire video game industry"; according to McCarthy, while it appears "crude and blocky" compared to modern games, it "recreated the real world with ... attention to detail that has never been rivaled." In a 2014 retrospective, "Edge" wrote that "some were entranced by the game's abounding atmosphere and visual detail. Others left frozen by clumpy interaction with an unthreatening, almost rustic world ... where they'd wander the districts of Yokosuka while asking unusual questions to pensioners and hairdressers." In the same year, the "Guardian" wrote: "["Shenmue"'s] pacing might be glacial compared to the rollercoaster tempo of "Uncharted", but slowing things down allows for a greater appreciation of everything that Suzuki and Sega's AM2 department achieved here ... how everything is held together remains quite exquisite, under the closest scrutiny, even by 2014 standards."


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: Reviews of the HD ports of "Shenmue" and "Shenmue II" in 2018 were less positive. "Destructoid"s Peter Glagowski wrote that "Shenmue" had "interesting concepts that are marred by poor execution", and criticized the combat and slow pacing. He concluded: "This open-world design was truly original and fascinating in 1999, but there really wasn't a need to include half of the features that "Shenmue" has." The "Escapist" critic Ben "Yahtzee" Croshaw disliked the "relentless" and "frenetic" combat, and felt that the open world lacked content between key story moments. The critic Jim Sterling wrote that ""Shenmue" is dreadful [...] Maybe at the turn of the millennium when this game was worth a shit it could get away with being bold, but boldness is no excuse for wasting the player's time, having absolutely no respect for the audience or its patience, and generally expecting people to make their own fun in a game that doesn't really give all that many tools to have fun with."


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: "Shenmue" attracted a cult following. Fans visit Dobuita Street in Yokosuka, where most of the game is set. It has been included in several lists of the greatest games of all time. "Edge" placed it number 50 in its 2007 list of the top 100 games. In 2008, it was voted #25 on Game's "Greatest Games of All Time" reader poll of over 100,000 votes. In 2006 and 2008, "IGN" readers voted "Shenmue" and "Shenmue II" #81 and #63 respectively in the "Readers' Choice Top 100 Games Ever" list. In April 2011, "Empire" ranked "Shenmue" the 42nd best video game of all time. In April 2013, "Den of Geek" ranked "Shenmue" and "Shenmue II" the joint-best Dreamcast games. In September 2013, readers of the German games magazine "M! Games" voted "Shenmue" the best game of all time. In October 2013, MSN UK named it one of the 20 best games of all time. In 2014, "Shenmue" was the 71st best game ever by "Slant Magazine" and the seventh by "Empire".


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: "Shenmue" is credited for pioneering several game technologies. In its list of "Top 5 Underappreciated Innovators", "1UP.com" credited it as the original "open-world city game" before the idea was popularized by games such as "Grand Theft Auto III" (2001). Its large environments, wealth of options and level of detail have been compared to later sandbox games including "Grand Theft Auto," "Yakuza", "Fallout 3", and "Deadly Premonition". "Shenmue" is also credited for naming and popularizing the quick time event, which games including "Resident Evil", "God of War", and "Tomb Raider" would incorporate.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: Suzuki plans "Shenmue" to cover at least four games. "Shenmue II", developed simultaneously with "Shenmue", was released in 2001 in Japan and Europe and 2002 in North America. It was also a commercial failure, and "Shenmue III" entered a period of development hell lasting over a decade. In 2004, Sega announced a massively multiplayer online role-playing game for PC set in the "Shenmue" world, "Shenmue Online", but it was never released. In 2010, Sega announced another spin-off, "Shenmue City", a social game for the Yahoo Mobage mobile service; it was shut down in late 2011.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: In September 2011, Suzuki left Sega to focus on his development studio Ys Net. At the E3 conference on June 15, 2015, he announced a Kickstarter crowdfunding campaign to develop "Shenmue III" with Ys Net for PlayStation 4, and Windows having licensed the rights from Sega. The campaign reached its initial $2 million goal in just under nine hours. On July 17, 2015, "Shenmue III" became the fastest-funded and highest-funded video game project in Kickstarter history, raising $6.3 million in total. It was released on November 19, 2019.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: A remake of "Shenmue" and "Shenmue II," featuring new models, textures and lighting, was canceled in 2017 due to technical problems. On August 21, 2018, Sega released high-definition ports of "Shenmue" and "Shenmue II" for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One. The ports include new graphics and control options, improved user interfaces, and Japanese and English voices. Some details, such as product placement, are omitted, and cutscenes are presented in their original aspect ratio due to technical limitations.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: The ports were released in Japan on November 22, 2018, and debuted at number four on the Japanese charts with 37,529 retail sales on PlayStation 4. They remained among the top 20 bestselling games in Japan until December 2, 2018, having sold almost 45,000 copies.


title: Shenmue (video game)

text: Sega released a soundtrack album, "Shenmue Orchestra Version", on April 1, 1999, before the game's release. A two-disc soundtrack album, "Shenmue OST Chapter 1: Yokosuka," was released on March 23, 2000. A compilation film of "Shenmue"'s cut scenes, "Shenmue: The Movie," was released theatrically in Japan in 2001 and packaged with the Xbox version of "Shenmue II". An anime adaptation of "Shenmue" premiered on February 6, 2022.


title: Solicitation

text: Solicitation is the act of offering, or attempting to purchase, goods and/or services. Legal status may be specific to the time or place where it occurs. The crime of "solicitation to commit a crime" occurs when a person encourages, "solicits, requests, commands, importunes or otherwise attempts to cause" another person to attempt or commit a crime, with the purpose of thereby facilitating the attempt or commission of that crime.


title: Solicitation

text: In England and Wales, the term soliciting is usually "for a person (whether male or female) persistently to loiter or solicit in a street or public place for the purpose of prostitution" under the Street Offences Act 1959 as amended. The crime of soliciting should not be confused with the profession of a solicitor, which under UK law is typically that of a lawyer, who may also function as a legal agent to obtain the services of a barrister on behalf of a client.


title: Solicitation

text: In the United States, solicitation is the name of a crime, an inchoate offense that consists of a person offering money or inducing another to commit a crime with the specific intent that the person solicited commit the crime. For example, under federal law, for a solicitation conviction to occur the prosecution must prove both that defendant had the intent that another person engage in conduct constituting a felony crime of violence, and that the defendant commanded, induced, or otherwise endeavored to persuade the other person to commit the felony.


title: Solicitation

text: In the United States, the term "solicitation" implies some part of commercial element, consideration, or payment.


title: Solicitation

text: Unlike conspiracy, there is no overt step necessary for solicitation, one person can be a defendant and it merges with the substantive crime.


title: Solicitation

text: It is not necessary that the person commit the crime, nor is it necessary that the person solicited be willing or able to commit the crime (such as if the "solicitee" were an undercover police officer).


title: Solicitation

text: For example, if Alice commands Bob to assault Charlie, and Alice intends for Bob to assault Charlie, then Alice is guilty of solicitation. However, if Alice commands Bob to assault Charlie without intending that a crime be committed (perhaps believing that Charlie has given consent), then there is no solicitation.


title: Solicitation

text: An interesting twist on solicitation occurs when a third party that the solicitor did not intend to receive the incitement overhears the request to the original solicitee and unbeknownst to the solicitor, commits the target offense. In a minority of jurisdictions in the United States, this situation would still be considered solicitation even though the defendant never intended the person that committed the crime to have done so.


title: Solicitation

text: Solicitation is also subject to the doctrine of merger, which applies in situations where the person solicited commits the crime. In such a situation, both Alice and Bob could be charged with the crime as accomplices, which would preclude conviction under solicitation; a person cannot be punished for both solicitation and the crime solicited.


title: Solicitation

text: In addition to the inchoate offense of solicitation, "solicitor" can also refer to a door-to-door salesman. This creates another form of illegal solicitation, as in many jurisdictions, it is illegal to ignore "no soliciting" signs with the burden typically resting upon the solicitor to look for the sign and upon observation to vacate the premises without attempting to contact the homeowner. Some cities require the employer to properly train employees on the appropriate observation of local solicitation ordinances and instruct them to always carry an identifying badge that they must show upon request.


title: Solicitation

text: City ordinances vary but may require a soliciting sign to be of a certain dimension to qualify for legal protection. Some signs may cite the city ordinance and describe the consequences to the solicitor. Although certainly not required, such methods may be more effective at deterring unwanted solicitation.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: The anchoring effect is a cognitive bias whereby an individual's decisions are influenced by a particular reference point or 'anchor'. Both numeric and non-numeric anchoring have been reported in research. In numeric anchoring, once the value of the anchor is set, subsequent arguments, estimates, etc. made by an individual may change from what they would have otherwise been without the anchor. For example, an individual may be more likely to purchase a car if it is placed alongside a more expensive model (the anchor). Prices discussed in negotiations that are lower than the anchor may seem reasonable, perhaps even cheap to the buyer, even if said prices are still relatively higher than the actual market value of the car. Another example may be when estimating the orbit of Mars, one might start with the Earth's orbit (365 days) and then adjust upward until they reach a value that seems reasonable (usually less than 687 days, the correct answer).


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: The original description of the anchoring effect came from psychophysics. When judging stimuli along a continuum, it was noticed that the first and last stimuli were used to compare the other stimuli (this is also referred to as "end anchoring"). This was applied to attitudes by Sherif et al. in their 1958 article "Assimilation and effects of anchoring stimuli on judgments".


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: The anchoring and adjustment heuristic was first theorized by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman. In one of their first studies, participants were asked to compute, within 5 seconds, the product of the numbers one through to eight, either as or reversed as . Because participants did not have enough time to calculate the full answer, they had to make an estimate after their first few multiplications. When these first multiplications gave a small answer – because the sequence started with small numbers – the median estimate was 512; when the sequence started with the larger numbers, the median estimate was 2,250. (The correct answer is 40,320.) In another study by Tversky and Kahneman, participants were asked to estimate the percentage of African countries in the United Nations. Before estimating, the participants first observed a roulette wheel that was predetermined to stop on either 10 or 65. Participants whose wheel stopped on 10 guessed lower values (25% on average) than participants whose wheel stopped at 65 (45% on average). The pattern has held in other experiments for a wide variety of different subjects of estimation.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: As a second example, in a study by Dan Ariely, an audience is first asked to write the last two digits of their social security number and consider whether they would pay this number of dollars for items whose value they did not know, such as wine, chocolate and computer equipment. They were then asked to bid for these items, with the result that the audience members with higher two-digit numbers would submit bids that were between 60 percent and 120 percent higher than those with the lower social security numbers, which had become their anchor. When asked if they believed the number was informative of the value of the item, quite a few said yes. Trying to avoid this confusion, a small number of studies used procedures that were clearly random, such as Excel random generator button and die roll, and failed to replicate anchoring effects.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: The anchoring effect was also found to be present in a study in the Journal of Real Estate Research in relation to house prices. In this investigation, it was established that the 2-year and 9-year highs on the Case-Shiller House Price Index could be used as anchors in predicting current house prices. The findings were used to indicate that, in forecasting house prices, these 2-year and 9-years highs might be relevant.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: Various studies have shown that anchoring is very difficult to avoid. For example, in one study students were given anchors that were wrong. They were asked whether Mahatma Gandhi died before or after age 9, or before or after age 140. Clearly neither of these anchors can be correct, but when the two groups were asked to suggest when they thought he had died, they guessed significantly differently (average age of 50 vs. average age of 67).


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: Other studies have tried to eliminate anchoring much more directly. In a study exploring the causes and properties of anchoring, participants were exposed to an anchor and asked to guess how many physicians were listed in the local phone book. In addition, they were explicitly informed that anchoring would "contaminate" their responses, and that they should do their best to correct for that. A control group received no anchor and no explanation. Regardless of how they were informed and whether they were informed correctly, all of the experimental groups reported higher estimates than the control group. Thus, despite being expressly aware of the anchoring effect, participants were still unable to avoid it. A later study found that even when offered monetary incentives, people are unable to effectively adjust from an anchor.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: Anchoring effects are also shown to remain adequately present given the accessibility of knowledge pertaining to the target. This, in turn, suggests that despite a delay in judgement towards a target, the extent of anchoring effects have seen to remain unmitigated within a given time period. A series of three experiments were conducted to test the longevity of anchoring effects. It was observed that despite a delay of one week being introduced for half the sample population of each experiment, similar results of immediate judgement and delayed judgement of the target were achieved. The experiments concluded that external information experienced within the delayed judgement period shows little influence relative to self-generated anchors even with commonly encountered targets (temperature) used in one of the experiments, showing that anchoring effects may precede priming in duration especially when the anchoring effects were formed during the task. Further research to conclude an effect that is effectively retained over a substantial period of time has proven inconsistent.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: Given the old saying that 'Two Heads are Better than One', it is often presumed that groups come to a more unbiased decision relative to individuals. However, this assumption is supported with varied findings that could not come to a general consensus. Nevertheless, while some groups are able to perform better than an individual member, they are found to be just as biased or even more biased relative to their individual counterparts. A possible cause would be the discriminatory fashion in which information is communicated, processed and aggregated based on each individual's anchored knowledge and belief. This results in a diminished quality in the decision-making process and consequently, amplifies the pre-existing anchored biases.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: The cause of group anchoring remains obscure. Group anchors may have been established at the group level or may simply be the culmination of several individual's personal anchors. Previous studies have shown that when given an anchor before the experiment, individual members consolidated the respective anchors to attain a decision in the direction of the anchor placed. However, a distinction between individual and group-based anchor biases does exist, with groups tending to ignore or disregard external information due to the confidence in the joint decision-making process. The presence of pre-anchor preferences also impeded the extent to which external anchors affected the group decision, as groups tend to allocate more weight to self-generated anchors, according to the 'competing anchor hypothesis'.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: A series of experiments were conducted to investigate anchoring bias in groups and possible solutions to avoid or mitigate anchoring. The first experiment established that groups are indeed influenced by anchors while the other two experiments highlighted methods to overcome group anchoring bias. Utilized methods include the use of process accountability and motivation through competition instead of cooperation to reduce the influence of anchors within groups.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: A peer-reviewed study sought to investigate the effect of business intelligence (BI) systems on the anchoring effect. Business intelligence denotes an array of software and services used by businesses to gather valuable insights into an organisation's performance. The extent to which cognitive bias is mitigated by using these systems was the overarching question in this study. While the independent variable was the use of the BI system, the dependent variable was the outcome of the decision-making process. The subjects were presented with a 'plausible' anchor and a 'spurious' anchor in a forecasting decision. It was found that, while the BI system mitigated the negative effects of the spurious anchor, it had no influence on the effects of the plausible anchor. This is important in a business context, because it shows that humans are still susceptible to cognitive biases, even when using sophisticated technological systems. One of the subsequent recommendations from the experimenters was to implement a forewarning into BI systems as to the anchoring effect.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: Several theories have been put forth to explain what causes anchoring, and although some explanations are more popular than others, there is no consensus as to which is best. In a study on possible causes of anchoring, two authors described anchoring as easy to demonstrate, but hard to explain. At least one group of researchers has argued that multiple causes are at play, and that what is called "anchoring" is actually several different effects.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: In their original study, Tversky and Kahneman put forth a view later termed anchoring-as-adjustment. According to this theory, once an anchor is set, people adjust away from it to get to their final answer; however, they adjust insufficiently, resulting in their final guess being closer to the anchor than it would be otherwise. Other researchers also found evidence supporting the anchoring-and-adjusting explanation. Factors that influence the capacity for judgmental correction, like alcohol intoxication and performing a taxing cognitive load (rehearsing a long string of digits in working memory) tend to increase anchoring effects. If people know the direction in which they should adjust, incentivizing accuracy also appears to reduce anchoring effects.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: This model is not without its critiques. Proponents of alternative theories have criticized this model, claiming it is only applicable when the initial anchor is outside the range of acceptable answers. To use an earlier example, since Mahatma Gandhi obviously did not die at age 9, then people will adjust from there. If a reasonable number were given, though, there would be no adjustment. Therefore, this theory cannot, according to its critics, explain all cases of anchoring effect.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: An alternate explanation regarding selective accessibility is derived from a theory called "confirmatory hypothesis testing". In short, selective accessibility proposes that when given an anchor, a judge (i.e. a person making some judgment) will evaluate the hypothesis that the anchor is a suitable answer. Assuming it is not, the judge moves on to another guess, but not before accessing all the relevant attributes of the anchor itself. Then, when evaluating the new answer, the judge looks for ways in which it is similar to the anchor, resulting in the anchoring effect. Various studies have found empirical support for this hypothesis. This explanation assumes that the judge considers the anchor to be a plausible value so that it is not immediately rejected, which would preclude considering its relevant attributes. For example, an online-experiment showed that ratings of previous members of the crowd could act as an anchor. When displaying the results of previous ratings in the context of business model idea evaluation, people incorporate the displayed anchor into their own decision-making process, leading to a decreasing variance of ratings.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: More recently, a third explanation of anchoring has been proposed concerning attitude change. According to this theory, providing an anchor changes someone's attitudes to be more favorable to the particular attributes of that anchor, biasing future answers to have similar characteristics as the anchor. Leading proponents of this theory consider it to be an alternate explanation in line with prior research on anchoring-and-adjusting and selective accessibility.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: A wide range of research has linked sad or depressed moods with more extensive and accurate evaluation of problems. As a result of this, earlier studies hypothesized that people with more depressed moods would tend to use anchoring less than those with happier moods. However, more recent studies have shown the opposite effect: sad people are "more" likely to use anchoring than people with happy or neutral mood. In a study focusing on medical practitioners, it was found that physicians that possess positive moods are less susceptible to anchoring bias, when compared to physicians with neutral moods. This was specifically found to be because a positive mood leads to information processing that is more systematic which leads to more efficient problem solving. This leads to a decreased anchoring effect.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: Early research found that experts (those with high knowledge, experience, or expertise in some field) were more resistant to the anchoring effect. However, anchoring happens unconsciously which means that unless someone who is knowledgeable is warned prior, they are still susceptible to anchoring. Since then, however, numerous studies have demonstrated that while experience can sometimes reduce the effect, even experts are susceptible to anchoring. In a study concerning the effects of anchoring on judicial decisions, researchers found that even experienced legal professionals were affected by anchoring. This remained true even when the anchors provided were arbitrary and unrelated to the case in question. Also, this relates to goal setting, where more experienced individuals will set goals based on their past experiences which consequently affects end results in negotiations.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: Expertise is when a judge has relevant knowledge. In a study using price estimation of cars, it was found that relevant knowledge positively influenced anchoring. Expertise in cognitive bias is related to experience however the two are not exclusively exhaustive. In a study using stock return estimates, it was found that expertise decreases behavioural bias significantly. It was found that other factors like cognitive ability and experience where there is no susceptibility to anchoring or a susceptibility as it increases, tend to become factors that decrease the effects of anchoring when they are an expert.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: Research has correlated susceptibility to anchoring with most of the Big Five personality traits. The personality traits are as follows. Conscientiousness, a character that is orderly and responsible. Neuroticism, an individual that has an uneasy nature and is unstable. Extraversion which is where a person is sociable and outgoing in nature. Openness to experience which is an intelligent and creative personality trait. Agreeableness, where someone is polite and trusting. People high in agreeableness and conscientiousness and neuroticism are more likely to be affected by anchoring, while those high in extraversion and openness to experience are less likely to be affected. Another study found that those high in openness to new experiences were more susceptible to the anchoring effect.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: The impact of cognitive ability on anchoring is contested. A recent study on willingness to pay for consumer goods found that anchoring decreased in those with greater cognitive ability, though it did not disappear. Another study, however, found that cognitive ability had no significant effect on how likely people were to use anchoring. In a poker-like experiment that included people of differing academic achievement and psychometric reasoning scoring, it has been found that anchoring is not related to education level. It also found that numerical reasoning and reflection scores had a negative association with anchoring susceptibility.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: Although overconfidence emanates from the heuristic and refers more specifically to a behavioural tendency to take their initial assessment and put more emphasis on it during making their initial assessment leading to cognitive conceit. Cognitive conceit or overconfidence arises from other factors like personal cognitive attributes such as knowledge and decision-making ability, decreasing the probability to pursue external sources of confirmation. This factor has also been shown to arise with tasks with greater difficulty. Even within subject matter experts, they were also prey to such behaviour of overconfidence and should more so, actively reduce such behaviour. Following the study of estimations under uncertain, despite several attempts to curb overconfidence proving unsuccessful, Tversky and Kahneman (1971) suggest an effective solution to overconfidence is for subjects to explicitly establish anchors to help reduce overconfidence in their estimates.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: In the negotiation process anchoring serves to determine an accepted starting point for the subsequent negotiations. As soon as one side states their first price offer, the (subjective) anchor is set. The counterbid (counter-anchor) is the second-anchor.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: In addition to the initial research conducted by Tversky and Kahneman, multiple other studies have shown that anchoring can greatly influence the estimated value of an object. For instance, although negotiators can generally appraise an offer based on multiple characteristics, studies have shown that they tend to focus on only one aspect. In this way, a deliberate starting point can strongly affect the range of possible counteroffers. The process of offer and counteroffer results in a mutually beneficial arrangement. However, multiple studies have shown that initial offers have a stronger influence on the outcome of negotiations than subsequent counteroffers.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: An example of the power of anchoring has been conducted during the Strategic Negotiation Process Workshops. During the workshop, a group of participants is divided into two sections: buyers and sellers. Each side receives identical information about the other party before going into a one-on-one negotiation. Following this exercise, both sides debrief about their experiences. The results show that where the participants anchor the negotiation had a significant effect on their success.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: Anchoring affects everyone, even people who are highly knowledgeable in a field. Northcraft and Neale conducted a study to measure the difference in the estimated value of a house between students and real-estate agents. In this experiment, both groups were shown a house and then given different listing prices. After making their offer, each group was then asked to discuss what factors influenced their decisions. In the follow-up interviews, the real-estate agents denied being influenced by the initial price, but the results showed that both groups were equally influenced by that anchor.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: Anchoring can have more subtle effects on negotiations as well. Janiszewski and Uy investigated the effects of precision of an anchor. Participants read an initial price for a beach house, then gave the price they thought it was worth. They received either a general, seemingly nonspecific anchor (e.g., $800,000) or a more precise and specific anchor (e.g., $799,800). Participants with a general anchor adjusted their estimate more than those given a precise anchor ($751,867 vs $784,671). The authors propose that this effect comes from difference in scale; in other words, the anchor affects not only the starting "value", but also the starting "scale". When given a general anchor of $20, people will adjust in large increments ($19, $21, etc.), but when given a more specific anchor like $19.85, people will adjust on a lower scale ($19.75, $19.95, etc.). Thus, a more specific initial price will tend to result in a final price closer to the initial one.


title: Anchoring (cognitive bias)

text: As for the question of setting the first or second anchor, the party setting the second anchor has the advantage in that the counter-anchor determines the point midway between both anchors. Due to a possible lack of knowledge the party setting the first anchor can also set it too low, i.e. against their own interests. Generally negotiators who set the first anchor also tend to be less satisfied with the negotiation outcome, than negotiators who set the counter-anchor. This may be due to the regret or sense that they did not achieve or rather maximise the full potential of the negotiations. However, studies suggest that negotiators who set the first offer frequently achieve economically more advantageous results.


title: Luo people

text: The Luo of Kenya and Tanzania are a Nilotic ethnic group native to western Kenya and the Mara Region of northern Tanzania in East Africa. The Luo are the fourth-largest ethnic group (10.65%) in Kenya, after the Kikuyu (17.13%), the Luhya (14.35%) and the Kalenjin (13.37%). The Tanzanian Luo population was estimated at 1.1 million in 2001 and 3.4 million in 2020. They are part of a larger group of related Luo peoples who inhabit an area ranging from South Sudan, southwestern Ethiopia, northern and eastern Uganda, Chad, Central African Republic, Nigeria, northeastern Congo-Kinshasa, southwestern Kenya and northern Tanzania.


title: Luo people

text: They speak the Luo language, also known as "Dholuo", which belongs to the Western Nilotic branch of the Nilotic language family. Dholuo shares considerable lexical similarity with languages spoken by other Luo peoples.


title: Luo people

text: The Luo are descended from migrants who moved into western Kenya from Uganda between the 15th and 20th centuries in four waves. These migrants were closely related to Luo peoples found in Uganda, especially the Acholi and Padhola people. As they moved into Kenya and Tanzania, they underwent significant genetic and cultural admixture as they encountered other communities that were long established in the region.


title: Luo people

text: Traditionally, Luo people practiced a mixed economy of cattle pastoralism, seed farming and fishing supplemented by hunting. Today, the Luo comprise a significant fraction of East Africa's intellectual and skilled labour force in various professions. They also engage in various trades, such as tenant fishing, small-scale farming, and urban work.


title: Luo people

text: Luo people and people of Luo descent have made significant contributions to modern culture and civilization. Tom Mboya and Nigel N. Mwangi were key figures in the African Nationalist struggle. Luo scientists, such as Thomas R. Odhiambo (founder of the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) and winner of UNESCO's Albert Einstein Gold Medal in 1991) and Washington Yotto Ochieng (winner of the Harold Spencer-Jones Gold Medal in 2019 from The Royal Institute of Navigation (RIN)) have achieved international acclaim for their contributions. Prof. Richard S. Odingo was the vice chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change when it received the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 with Al Gore. Barack Obama, the first black President of the United States of America and a Nobel Peace Prize winner, was born to a Kenyan Luo father, Barack Obama Sr. Lupita Nyong'o became the first black African to win an Academy Award in 2014.


title: Luo people

text: The Luo are the originators of a number of popular music genres including benga and ohangla. Benga is one of Africa's most popular genres.


title: Luo people

text: The present day homeland of Kenyan and Tanzanian Luo lies in the eastern Lake Victoria basin in the former Nyanza province in Western Kenya and the Mara region in northwestern Tanzania. This area falls within tropical latitudes and straddles the equator. This area also receives average rainfall averages. The average altitudes range between 3700 and 6000 feet above sea level.


title: Luo people

text: Luo people of Kenya and Tanzania form the majority of Nilotic peoples. During the British colonial period, they were known as Nilotic Kavirondo. The exact location of origin of the Nilotic peoples is controversial but most ethnolinguists and historians place their origins between Bahr-el-Ghazal and Eastern Equatoria in South Sudan. They practiced a mixed economy of cattle pastoralism, fishing and seed cultivation. Some of the earliest archaeological findings on record, which describe a similar culture to this from the same region, are found at Kadero, 48 kilometres (30 miles) north of Khartoum in Sudan, and date to 3000 BC. Kadero contains the remains of a cattle pastoralist culture as well as a cemetery with skeletal remains featuring Sub-Saharan African phenotypes. It also contains evidence of other animal domestication, artistry, long-distance trade, seed cultivation and fish consumption. Genetic and linguistic studies have demonstrated that Nubian people in Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt are an admixed group that started off as a population closely related to Nilotic peoples. This population later received significant gene flow from Middle Eastern and other East African populations. Nubians are considered to be descendants of the early inhabitants of the Nile valley who later formed the Kingdom of Kush which included Kerma and Meroe and the medieval christian kingdoms of Makuria, Nobatia and Alodia. These studies suggest that populations closely related to Nilotic people long inhabited the Nile valley as far as Southern Egypt in antiquity.


title: Luo people

text: For various reasons, slow and multi-generational migrations of Nilotic Luo Peoples occurred from South Sudan into Uganda and western Kenya from at least 1000 AD continuing up until the early 20th century. Some authors note that the early phases of this expansion coincide with the collapse of the Christian Nubian kingdoms of Makuria and Alodia, the penetration of Arabs into central Sudan as well as Nilotic adoption of Iron Age technology. The northern most group of Luo peoples - The Shilluk - advanced north along the White Nile in the 16th century, conquering territory as far as modern day Khartoum. They established the Shilluk Kingdom. In the 15th century, Luo peoples moved into the Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom and established the Babiito dynasty in Uganda. This group assimilated into Bantu culture.


title: Luo people

text: The Luo of Kenya and Tanzania are classified as Southern Luo.and are the only 'river lake Nilotes' having migrated and lived along the Nile river. They entered Kenya and Tanzania via Uganda from the Bahr el-Ghazal region in South Sudan. The Luo speakers who migrated into Kenya were chiefly from four Luo-speaking groups: the Acholi, Adhola and Alur people (From Uganda and parts of South Sudan and Eastern Congo), especially Acholi and Padhola. It is estimated that Dholuo has 90% lexical similarity with Lep Alur (Alur language); 83% with Lep Achol (Acholi language); 93% with Dhopadhola (Padhola language), 74% with Anuak, and 69% with Jurchol (Luwo) and Dhi-Pari (Pari).


title: Luo people

text: Luo of Kenya and Tanzania are also called Joluo or Jonagi/Onagi(a person who has his six lower teeth removed as a rite of passage during puberty), singular Jaluo, Jaonagi or Joramogi/Nyikwaramogi, meaning "Ramogi's heirs." The Luo clans of Kenya and Tanzania were called Ororo, while among the Nuer they were called Liel. In the Dinka tribe, the Luo are called the Jur-Chol. The present-day Kenya Luo traditionally consist of 27 tribes, each in turn composed of various clans and sub-clans ("Jo-" indicates "people of").


title: Luo people

text: Oral history and genealogical evidence have been used to estimate timelines of Luo expansion into and within Kenya and Tanzania. Four major waves of migrations into the former Nyanza province in Kenya are discernible, starting with the People of Jok ("Joka Jok"), which is estimated to have begun around 1490–1517. "Joka Jok" were the first and largest wave of migrants into northern Nyanza. These migrants settled at a place called Ramogi Hill, then expanded around Northern Nyanza. The People of Owiny' ("Jok’Owiny") and the People of Omolo ("Jok’Omolo") followed soon after (1598–1625). A miscellaneous group composed of the Suba, Sakwa, Asembo, Uyoma and Kano then followed. The Suba originally were Bantu-speaking people who assimilated into Luo culture. They fled from the Buganda Kingdom in Uganda after the civil strife that followed the murder of the 24th Kabaka of Buganda in the mid 18th century and settled in South Nyanza, especially at Rusinga and Mfangano islands. Luo speakers crossed Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria from Northern Nyanza into South Nyanza starting in the early 17th century.


title: Luo people

text: As Luo speakers migrated deeper into western Kenya, they encountered the descendants of various people who had long occupied the region. The great lakes region has been inhabited since the early stone age. The Kanysore culture, located at Gogo falls in Migori county, are thought to be the first hunter gatherers in East Africa to produce ceramics. Twa people are thought to have created the rock art present on Mfangano Island. Bantu speakers, early migrants from West Africa, are thought to have reached western Kenya by 1000 BC. They brought with them iron-forging technology and novel farming techniques, turning the great lakes region into one of Africa's main population centres and earliest iron smelting regions. The Urewe culture was dominant from 650 BC to 550 BC. This culture was found in northern Nyanza. Bantu speaking groups found in the Lake Victoria basin today include the Luhya, Suba, Kunta, Kuria and Kisii. Southern Nilotic speakers, the Nandi, Kipsigis and Maasai also were found in this area.


title: Luo people

text: Luo expansion into these already inhabited areas led to trade, conflict, conquest, inter-marriage and cultural assimilation. The previous inhabitants were pushed by Luo speakers to their present day boundaries. Luo customs and habits also changed as they adopted the culture of the communities with which they interacted. Conflict and raids in this diverse area led to the development of defensive savanna architecture, typified by the stone walled ruins, Thimlich Ohinga in South Nyanza. Neville Chittick, the director of the British Institute of History and Archaeology in East Africa was the first to assert that the site was likely to have been constructed before the arrival of Luo speakers. This assertion is poorly supported archaeologically, however, because most of the stone walled structures are dated to within the period of Luo expansion. Nevertheless, Luo speakers maintained Thimlich Ohinga and continued the tradition of building stone walled fortresses ("Ohingni") as well as defensive earthworks ("Gunda Bur") in both Northern and Southern Nyanza. These defensive earth works would curve around living areas surrounding them. Some of these defensive structures enclosed several hundred houses. Archaeological and ethnographic analyses of the sites have shown that the spatial organisation of these structures most closely resembles the layout of traditional Luo homesteads. Ceramic analysis also confirms continuity between the earliest inhabitants of these sites and Luo speakers. With the arrival of the Europeans, these sites were slowly vacated as colonial administration established peace in the region. The families living in the enclosures moved out into individual homesteads using euphorbia instead of stone as fencing material. By the mid 20th century, they were all abandoned.


title: Luo people

text: Early British contact with the Luo was indirect and sporadic. Relations intensified only when the completion of the Uganda Railway had confirmed British intentions and largely removed the need for local alliances. In 1896, a punitive expedition was mounted in support of the Wanga ruler Mumia in Ugenya against the Kager clan led by Ochieng Ger III, otherwise known as Gero. Over 200 were quickly killed by a Maxim gun. Another 300 people in the Uyoma resistance were killed by an expedition led by Sir Charles Horbley (Bwana Obila Muruayi) when they were confiscating Luo cattle to help feed the Indian workers who were building the Uganda railway. Following these clashes, Luo spiritual leaders advised the people to actively cooperate with the British. By 1900, the Luo chief Odera was providing 1,500 porters for a British expedition against the Nandi. The British set up regional headquarters first at Mumias then at Kisumu. They worked to submit the Luo to colonial control and administration. Within a few decades, traditional leaders and political structures were replaced by colonial chiefs.


title: Luo people

text: The Seventh-day Adventist Church missionaries were amongst the earliest Christian missionaries to proselytise to Luo people. Arthur Carscallen, a Canadian Seventh-day Adventist(SDA) was the first Adventist to work in Kenya with Peter Nyambo, from Nyasaland (Present day Malawi). The first mission was opened with the assistance of German missionary Abraham C. Enns, in November 1906 at Gendia Hill, Kendu Bay. These missionaries established stations at Wire Hill, Rusinga Island, Kanyadoto, Karung, Kisii and Kamagambo. These were all in South Nyanza. The first Luo SDA converts were baptised on 21 May 1911. Carscallen was the first to reduce Dholuo to writing. He produced a textbook of grammar and started translating the bible into Dholuo. Catholic missionaries and Anglican missionaries through the Church Mission Society (CMS) were also active throughout Nyanza, but mainly focused on Northern Nyanza.


title: Luo people

text: It remains unclear whether Luo people westernised due to colonial pressure or they readily accepted aspects of western culture. However, by the 1930s, the Luo way of life had changed significantly and westernized. Some suggest that the efforts of Chiefs ("Ruoth") such as Odera Akang'o played a role in this. In 1915, the Colonial Government sent "Odera Akang'o", the "ruoth" of Gem, to Kampala, Uganda. He was impressed by the British settlement there and upon his return home he initiated a forced process of adopting western styles of "schooling, dress and hygiene". This resulted in the rapid education of the Luo in the English language and English ways. European education carried out by the Christian missionaries also played a role in the westernization of the Luo.