title: Hierapolis

text: The north gate forms part of a fortification system built at Hierapolis in Theodosian times (late 4th century) and is its monumental entrance, matched by a symmetrical gate to the south of the city. Built of reused material from the demolition of the Agora, it is flanked by two square towers, as in other nearby cities such as Blaundus. Four large marble brackets with heads of lions, of panther and of a Gorgon were found collapsed in front of the gate. They are quite expressive and, whilst belonging to antique buildings, were evidently reused as apotropaic elements on the two sides of the gate so as to ward off evil influence.


title: Hierapolis

text: The Theatre was probably constructed under the reign of Hadrian after the earthquake of 60 AD. The facade is long, the full extent of which remains standing. In the cavea there are 50 rows of seats divided into seven parts by eight intermediate stairways. The diazoma, which divided the cavea into two, was entered by two vaulted passages (the vomitoria). There is an Imperial loge at the middle of the cavea and a 6-foot-high (1.83 m) wall surrounding the orchestra.


title: Hierapolis

text: During the reign of Septimius Severus at the beginning of the 3rd century, the old scaenae frons was replaced by a new, more monumental one, organized on three storeys and flanked by two imposing side entry buildings. Sculptural reliefs, displaying mythological subjects, were placed on the different storeys, while dedicatory inscriptions ran along the entablatures. The transformation was outstanding due to the size of the structures, the high quality of workmanship and materials employed.


title: Hierapolis

text: The auditorium was rebuilt as well, substituting the ancient limestone seats with others in marble, and realizing a high podium on the orchestra in order to adapt the building to the organization of venationes and gladiator schools.


title: Hierapolis

text: An earthquake in Hierapolis in the 7th century caused the collapse of the entire building as well as the ultimate abandonment of the city. Since the 18th century, the monument's striking ruins have become a recurrent theme in European travellers’ descriptions and engravings.


title: Hierapolis

text: Septimius Severus is portrayed in a relief together with his wife Julia Domna, his two sons Caracalla and Geta, and the god Jupiter. In AD 352, the orchestra was probably transformed into an arena for aquatic shows, which had become fashionable. The stage, which is high, had five doors and six niches. In front of these there were ten marble columns, decorated with alternate rectilinear and curved segments. The wall behind the scene was decorated with three rows of columns one behind another. The columns on the front row do not have grooves and stood on octagonal bases.


title: Hierapolis

text: The auditorium consisted of stacked seating with a capacity of 15,000 and was bisected by the main aisle. It featured an imperial box. The lower part originally had twenty rows and the upper part twenty five, but only thirty rows altogether have survived. The auditorium is segmented into nine aisles by means of eight vertical passageways with steps. The proscenium consisted of two stories with ornately decorated niches to the sides. Several statues, reliefs (including depictions of Apollo, Dionysus, and Diana), and decorative elements have been excavated by the Italian archaeological team and can be seen in the local museum.


title: Hierapolis

text: A temple was raised to Apollo Lairbenos, the town's principal god during the late Hellenistic period. This Apollo was linked to the ancient Anatolian sun god Lairbenos and the god of oracles Kareios. The site also included temples or shrines to Cybele, Artemis, Pluto, and Poseidon. Now only the foundations of the Hellenistic temple remain. The temple stood within a peribolos () in Doric style.


title: Hierapolis

text: The structures of the temple are later, though the presence of two Ionic capitals in the Museum (see under Museum), as well as of a Corinthian capital of the 1st century AD and other architectural fragments lead archaeologists to suppose the existence of an earlier temple on the site.


title: Hierapolis

text: The temple, which has a marble staircase, lies within a sacred area, about long. It was surrounded by an enclosure wall ("temenos"). The back of the temple was built against the hill, the peribolos was surrounded on the remaining southern, western and northern sides, by a marble portico, which has been partially excavated. This portico has pilasters bearing fluted Doric semi-columns supporting capitals that are decorated below with a row of astragali and beads and which, on the decorated below with a row of astragali and beads and which, on the echinus, bear a series of ovolos.


title: Hierapolis

text: The new temple was reconstructed in the 3rd century in Roman fashion, recycling the stone blocks from the older temple. The reconstruction had a smaller area and now only its marble floor remains.


title: Hierapolis

text: Following studies carried out on site in 1998, a geologist of the Italian National Research Council recognized that the origin of both the Temple of Apollo and of the nearby Ploutonion was linked to the existence of the surface trace of a seismic fault, on which both sanctuaries were purposely built and which was revered as Gateway of Hades. The Ploutonion was the oldest religious centre of the native community, the place where Apollo met with Cibele. It was said that only the priest of the Great Mother could enter the cave without being overpowered by the noxious underground fumes. Temples dedicated to Apollo were often built over geologically active sites, including his most famous, the temple at Delphi.


title: Hierapolis

text: When the Christian faith was granted official primacy in the 4th century, this temple underwent a number of desecrations. Part of the peribolos was also dismantled to make room for a large Nympheum.


title: Hierapolis

text: Next to the Apollo temple and within its sacred area is the oldest local sanctuary, Pluto's Gate, a ploutonion () or plutonium, which here means a shrine to the Greek god Pluto. This plutonion was described by several ancient writers, including Strabo, Cassius Dio, and Damascius. It is a small cave just large enough for one person to enter through a fenced entrance, beyond which stairs go down and from which emerges suffocating carbon dioxide gas caused by subterranean geologic activity. Behind the roofed chamber is a deep cleft in the rock, through which fast-flowing hot water passes while releasing a sharp-smelling gas.


title: Hierapolis

text: During the early years of the town, castrated priests of Cybele descended into the plutonion, crawling over the floor to pockets of oxygen or holding their breath. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and so tends to settle in hollows. The priests would then come up to show that they were miraculously immune to the gas and infused with divine protection.


title: Hierapolis

text: An enclosed area of stood in front of the entrance. It was covered by a thick layer of suffocating gas, killing anyone who dared to enter it. The priests sold birds and other animals to the visitors, so that they could try out how deadly this enclosed area was. Visitors could (for a fee) ask questions of Pluto's oracle. This provided a considerable source of income for the temple. The entrance to the plutonion was walled off during the Christian times and has just been recently unearthed.


title: Hierapolis

text: The Nymphaeum is located inside the sacred area in front of the Apollo temple. It dates from the 2nd century AD. It was a shrine of the nymphs, a monumental fountain distributing water to the houses of the city via an ingenious network of pipes. The Nymphaeum was repaired in the 5th century during the Byzantine era. A retaining wall was built with elements from the peribolos of the Apollonian temple. By doing so, the early Christians cut off the view of the pagan temple. The Byzantine gate was constructed in the 6th century. Now only the back wall and the two side walls remain. The walls and the niches in the walls were decorated with statues. The Italian archaeological team has excavated two statues of priestesses, which are now on display at the local museum.


title: Hierapolis

text: The Nymphaeum has a U-shaped plan and sits on the continuation of the main colonnaded road. The stone pavement columns and other architectural remains mark a great part of the colonnaded road which ran through the city in a north–south direction. It has statues and shops around it, underneath which passed canals. The road had a base covered with stone blocks, now under the pool of the Private Administration. There are two huge doors which were constructed at the end of the 1st century AD and left outside the city walls.


title: Hierapolis

text: Beyond the city walls and meadow, following the main colonnaded road and passing the outer baths ("thermae extra muros"), an extensive necropolis extends for over on both sides of the old road to Phrygian Tripolis and Sardis. The other goes south from Laodikya to Closae. The necropolis extends from the northern to the eastern and southern sections of the old city. Most of the tombs have been excavated.


title: Hierapolis

text: This necropolis is one of the best preserved in Turkey. Most of about the 1,200 tombs were constructed with local varieties of limestone, though marble has been used, as well.


title: Hierapolis

text: Most tombs date from the late Hellenic period, but there are also a considerable number from the Roman and early Christian periods. People who came for medical treatment to Hierapolis in ancient times and the native people of the city buried their dead in tombs of several types according to their traditions and socio-economic status.


title: Hierapolis

text: The monuments are situated in the large area, together with many travertine lahids, inscribed with Soros suffixes written in Greek (some over 2,000 years old) generally in the epigraphs on lahids.


title: Hierapolis

text: There are many architectural grave monuments in Hierapolis and they show different architectural techniques. The oldest graves are of the Hellenistic Period (1st and 2nd centuries BC), and are Tumulus graves, which are located on the east side of the foothill. The stone is cut properly limited to the drum cylinder which bonds the top of the burial chamber. The grave room is accessible from the corridor dramos.


title: Hierapolis

text: These tombs belonged to rich families. Poor families' tombs were carved into the rock and are simple. On the north side of the city, the graves made as the 2nd and the 3rd, are generally surrounded by walls and they have gardens decorated with flowers and trees (especially cypress). Grave monuments which are completely made of travertine, show different types; like simple lahids, and home kind graves which has two or more lahids on it. On the sarcophagus that holds the lahid, there is an inscription written in Greek ("bomas", "altar"). "Bomas" was used as symbol which stresses that with the connection of a dead body of a person in high position, his or her remembrance will be exalted. These monuments have the same functions with heroon. (The grave monuments made for celebrating are for the heroes' and important persons’ who are believed to become gods after they die.)


title: Hierapolis

text: A raised relief on the Sarcophagus of a certain Marcus Aurelius Ammianos, a local miller, depicts the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod. On the pediment a waterwheel fed by a mill race is shown powering via a gear train two frame saws cutting rectangular blocks by the way of connecting rods and, through mechanical necessity, cranks (see diagram). The accompanying inscription is in Greek.


title: Hierapolis

text: On the right side, fascinating signs of the earthquake can be seen. Large travertine area is completely demolished. The rectangle and hallow graves, which may be simpler and older than the necropolis, attracts attention. While digging, experts in Denizli Museum, found a grave with long inscriptions. Close to it, Epigraphic marble blocks had been founded which are dated to the Early Hellenistic Period.


title: Hierapolis

text: On the North side of the area, digging works are going on. On the hillside, Byzantine ramparts, on the grave builds, marble lahids had been founded. This lahids are staying on a stone base. The roof that built with cob brick is covered with tiles. This was a new style in this period, and inside the grave it is decorated with coloured wall paintings.


title: Hierapolis

text: On the way to Laodikeia and Colossae is another grave related to the Necropolis. This is the grave of Tiberius Cladius Talamos, whose name was written in the long epigraph, and it attracts attention due to the resemblance of its facade to a home.


title: Hierapolis

text: The St. Philip Martyrium stands on top of the hill outside the northeastern section of the city walls. It dates from the 5th century. It was said that Philip was buried in the center of the building and, though his tomb has recently been unearthed, the exact location has not yet been verified. The Martyrium burned down at the end of the 5th or early 6th century, as attested by fire marks on the columns. Philip is said to have been martyred in Hierapolis by being crucified upside-down or by being hung upside down by his ankles from a tree.


title: Hierapolis

text: The martyrium is usually taken to have been named after the Christian apostle Philip, but from early times there has been some dispute as to the actual identity of "Philip of Hierapolis". This confusion started with a report by Polycrates of Ephesus in his Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History and in his controversial letter written to Victor of Rome towards the end of the 2nd century. In the letter, he reports that the graves of Philip "of the twelve apostles", and of his two aged virgin daughters were in (the Phrygian) Hierapolis; a third daughter, "who had lived in the Holy Ghost", was buried at Ephesus. With this may be compared the testimony of Clement of Alexandria, who incidentally speaks of "Philip the Apostle" as having begotten children and as having given daughters in marriage.


title: Hierapolis

text: On the other hand, Proclus, one of the interlocutors in the "Dialogue of Caius", a writing of somewhat later date than the letter of Polycrates, mentions "four prophetesses, the daughters of Philip at Hierapolis in Asia, whose tomb and that of their father are to be seen there", where the mention of the daughters prophesying identifies the person meant with the Philip of Acts. Early traditions say this Philip was martyred by hanging in Phrygia. and was also known as "Philip the Apostle".


title: Hierapolis

text: The reasons for setting aside the evangelist identification, and for holding that the Philip who lived at Hierapolis was the Apostle are stated by Lightfoot, Colossians (2). Fresh confirmation of his view was afforded by the discovery of an inscription at Hierapolis, showing that the church there was dedicated to the memory "of the holy and glorious apostle and theologian Philip."Early traditions say this Philip was martyred by hanging in Phrygia. and was also known as "Philip the Apostle".


title: Hierapolis

text: The martyrium had a special design, probably executed by an architect of a Byzantine emperor. It has a central octagonal structure with a diameter of under a wooden dome which is covered with lead tiles. This is surrounded with eight rectangular rooms, each accessible via three arches. Four were used as entrances to the church, the other four as chapels. The space between the eight rooms was filled with heptagonal chapels with a triangular apse. The dome above the apse was decorated with mosaics. The whole structure was surrounded by an arcade with marble columns. All the walls were covered with marble panels.


title: Hierapolis

text: The great baths were centred upon the natural thermal pools and were one of the biggest buildings of Hierapolis.


title: Hierapolis

text: Especially in the period of the Roman Empire, Hierapolis and its site were a health centre. In those years, thousands of people used to come to the baths, of which there are more than fifteen, and they found their remedy in those baths. Today's Antique Pool was shaped by the earthquake which happened in the 7th century AD. The marble portico with Ionic arrangement fell into the spring during that earthquake.


title: Hierapolis

text: The water in the thermal pool is 36–57 °C, pH value is 5.8 and radon value is 1480 pCi/L. The spa water contains bicarbonate, sulphate and carbon dioxide, as well as iron and radioactive combination. The water in this spring is suitable for taking showers and drinking cures, 2430 MG/liter melt metal value.


title: Hierapolis

text: This set of baths was constructed outside the north gate at the beginning of the 3rd century AD. It was converted into a church in the early Christian era (th century). It is apparent that the building had stuccoed, vaulted ceilings and that the halls were decorated with marble slabs.


title: Hierapolis

text: The Archaeology Museum has been located in the great baths since 1984. The museum also includes artifacts from Laodiceia, Colossae, Tripolis, Attuda and other towns of the Lycos (Çürüksu) valley. In addition to these, the museum has a large section devoted to artifacts found at Beycesultan Hüyük and which includes some of the most beautiful examples of Bronze Age craft.


title: Hierapolis

text: Artifacts which have come from the Caria, Pisidia and Lydia regions are also on display in this museum. The museum's exhibition space consists of three closed areas of the Hierapolis Bath and open areas in the eastern side, which are known to have been used as the library and the gymnasium. The artifacts in the open exhibition space are mostly marble and stone.


title: Hierapolis

text: This room contains finds from the excavations in Hierapolis and Laodiceia, including sarcophagi, statues, gravestones, pedestals, pillars and inscriptions. Among these artifacts there are statues of Tyche, Dionysus, Pan, Asklepios, Isis, Demeter and Trion which, although executed by the Romans, were inspired by the Hellenistic tradition. The representations of local customs on family tombs are particularly interesting.


title: Hierapolis

text: The most beautiful examples of baked earth sarcophagi are specific to this area. One of the most valuable works of art in this room is the sarcophagus belonging to a certain Arhom, of the 'Sidemare' type. On it is an inscription to Maximilian, and it is the finest work to emerge from the ancient towns of Lahdi and Laodicia.


title: Hierapolis

text: In this room, there are small findings from several civilizations of the last 4,000 years. These works, which are displayed in chronological order include works from many archaeological sites in and around Denizli. A special importance is given to the findings from Beycesultan Höyük. These discoveries are an example of an ancient civilization. These works, which were found in the excavation conducted by the British Institute of Archaeology include idols, baked earth bowls, libation cups, seals and other stone artifacts. In other parts of the room are displayed objects from the Frigan, Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine period such as glass cups, necklaces, gemstones (in the form of rings, bracelets, earrings and so on) and earthenware lamps. This room also contains an important sequence of ancient coins arranged in chronological order. The earliest of these coins were minted in the 6th century AD and the display proceeds through the Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Selçuk and Ottoman periods with coins of gold, silver and bronze.


title: Hierapolis

text: In this room, decorative works from the theatre of Hierapolis, most of which have been restored, are displayed. Some of the reliefs of the scenery building remain in site but parts of them have been replaced by copies. In the works that are found in the room there are reliefs devoted to the myth of Apollo and Artemis, the delights of Dionysos and the coronation of the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus. There are depictions of the abduction of Persephone by Hades, Apollo, Leto, Artemis, and Hades and sculpted sphinxes. Sculpted relief reminiscent of Attalus and Eumenes are on display. Inscriptions describing the coronation of the goddess Hierapolis and decisions of the assembly concerning the theater may be seen.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown is a 1967 musical with music and lyrics by Clark Gesner and (in a 1999 revision) Andrew Lippa. It is based on the characters created by cartoonist Charles M. Schulz in his comic strip "Peanuts". The musical has been a popular choice for amateur theatre productions because of its small cast and simple staging.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: John Gordon was credited with the book of the show, but according to Gesner's foreword in the published script, "John Gordon" is a collective pseudonym that covers Gesner, the cast members, and the production staff, all of whom worked together to assemble the script. "The Guide to Musical Theatre" notes that "John Gordon is a pseudonym for the staff and cast of the show. The original cast included Bob Balaban, Gary Burghoff, Bill Hinnant, Skip Hinnant, Karen Johnson and Reva Rose."


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: During the early 1960s, Gesner had begun writing songs based on Charles Schulz's " Peanuts" characters, but was unable to get permission from United Feature Syndicate to use the characters in his songs. Eventually Gesner sent Schulz a demo recording of some of the songs and Gesner soon had permission to properly record them, which he did in 1966. Orson Bean sang the role of Charlie Brown, Clark Gesner sang Linus, Barbara Minkus sang Lucy, and Bill Hinnant sang Snoopy (he reprised his role in the Off-Broadway production).


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: At the time, Gesner had no plans for a musical based on this pre-production "concept album". However, producer Arthur Whitelaw, who would later go on to write another musical based on "Peanuts", encouraged Gesner to turn the album into a musical.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: The stage adaptation of the concept album, titled "You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown", went into rehearsal in New York City on February 10, 1967. Prior to its opening, the musical had no actual libretto; it was several vignettes with a musical number for each one.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: On March 7, 1967, the musical premiered off-Broadway at Theatre 80 in the East Village, featuring Gary Burghoff as Charlie Brown, Skip Hinnant as Schroeder, Reva Rose as Lucy, Bob Balaban as Linus, Karen Johnson as Patty (an early Peanuts character not to be confused with Peppermint Patty), and Bill Hinnant as Snoopy. Joseph Hardy directed and choreographer Patricia Birch was billed as "Assistant to the Director". Joe Raposo, later of "Sesame Street" fame, was billed as "Music Director" and composer of incidental music for the show. This production of "You're A Good Man, Charlie Brown" lasted 1,597 performances, closing on February 14, 1971.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: The off-Broadway cast recording, originally released on MGM Records, was later remastered by Decca Broadway/Universal Classics and re-released on September 31, 2000. A 1970 U.S. tour lasted 202 performances on the road.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: A Broadway production opened at the John Golden Theatre on June 1, 1971, and closed on June 27, 1971, after 32 performances and 15 previews. Directed by Joseph Hardy and with choreography by Patricia Birch, the new cast consisted of Carter Cole as Schroeder, Grant Cowan as Snoopy, Stephen Fenning as Linus, Liz O'Neal as Lucy, Dean Stolber as Charlie Brown, and Lee Wilson as Patty.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: The musical opened in the West End in London on February 1, 1968, produced by Harold Fielding and Bernard Delfont, and directed by original 1967 director Joseph Hardy. It played at the Fortune Theatre for 116 performances, until closing on May 11, 1968. The whole original Toronto cast reprised their roles for West End. Don Potter, who portrayed Snoopy, reprised his role in the original San Francisco cast of "Snoopy! The Musical".


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: A U.S. tour began on November 18, 1998, in Skokie, Illinois. The tour was expected to become a full-scale revival to open at the Longacre Theatre on Broadway, but was moved to the Ambassador Theatre after "Bring in 'Da Noise, Bring in 'Da Funk"'s closing. After the tour ended on January 17, 1999, the revival opened on February 4, 1999, and closed on June 13, 1999, having played 14 previews and 149 performances. It featured new dialogue by Michael Mayer, who also directed, and additional songs and orchestration written by Andrew Lippa; choreography was by Jerry Mitchell and sets by David Gallo, Mayer's frequent collaborator.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: In this revival, the character of Patty was replaced with Sally Brown, inspired by the same change Schulz made in the animated TV adaptation. The cast featured Anthony Rapp as Charlie Brown, B.D. Wong as Linus, Ilana Levine as Lucy, and Stanley Wayne Mathis as Schroeder. Also featured were Kristin Chenoweth and Roger Bart as Sally and Snoopy, with each winning the Tony award in the respective category. Kirsten Wyatt was the standby for Lucy and Sally.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: The 1999 cast appeared on "The Rosie O'Donnell Show" to promote the show, singing "Beethoven Day." O'Donnell joined in with the cast to close her show by performing the finale as the credits rolled.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: On December 15, 2008, a one-night-only benefit performance of "Charlie Brown" was staged at the Gerald W. Lynch Theater at John Jay College in Manhattan for the Make-A-Wish Foundation, directed by David Lefkowich. The cast featured Morgan Karr as Charlie Brown, David Larsen as Schroeder, Tom Deckman as Snoopy, Matt Crowle as Linus, Carmen Ruby Floyd as Lucy, and Kenita R. Miller as Sally.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: The musical was revived at the Off-Broadway York Theatre Company. The revival used some young actors from Broadway productions. The six-member “Peanuts” gang featured Joshua Colley as Charlie Brown, Gregory Diaz as Schroeder, Aidan Gemme as Snoopy, Milly Shapiro as Sally, Mavis Simpson-Ernst as Lucy, and Jeremy T. Villas as Linus. Graydon Peter Yosowitz played the role of Charlie Brown from June 1–7. The production ran from May 24 – June 26, 2016.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: Charlie Brown and Linus are together, as his friends give their various opinions of him ("Opening"). Today everyone is calling him a "good man". They state he could be king. Lucy, however says he could be king if he wasn't so wishy-washy ("You're A Good Man, Charlie Brown"). Lucy expresses her deep infatuation with Schroeder and asks him what he thinks of the idea of marriage. Schroeder is aware of her feelings, but remains aloof as he plays his piano. Lucy then exclaims: "My Aunt Marion was right. Never try to discuss marriage with a musician" ("Schroeder").


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: Snoopy, in his World War I flying ace uniform, climbs atop his doghouse. He goes through a scene, with him being a pilot searching for the Red Baron. In his imagination, he is defeated by the Red Baron and returns to the aerodrome in France ("The Red Baron"). Meanwhile, Charlie Brown returns, and, with his friends, plays the Little League Baseball Championship. After some mishaps, the team finally manages to make some progress. Charlie Brown steps up to the plate, and despite his valiant efforts, strikes out and loses the game. We learn that this was a flashback, and Charlie Brown expresses his deep sorrow to his pen pal ("T-E-A-M (The Baseball Game)").


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: Charlie Brown stands alone as his friends give their various opinions of him, each overlapping the other ("Opening"). Today everyone is calling him a "good man". Charlie Brown is happy and hopeful as usual, but he nevertheless wonders if he really is what they say. He decides to find out how he can really become a good person ("You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown").


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: Snoopy, in his World War I flying ace uniform climbs atop his doghouse. He goes through a scene, with him being a pilot searching for the Red Baron. In his imagination, he is defeated by the Red Baron and returns to the aerodrome in France ("The Red Baron").


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: "Note: "Opening, Pt. 2", "Glee Club Rehearsal", and "Bows" was not included in the original cast recording."


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: "Note: The three new songs added to the show ("Beethoven Day", "Rabbit Chasing", and "My New Philosophy") are by Andrew Lippa. "You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown Reprise", "Queen Lucy", "Peanuts Potpourri", "Rabbit Chasing", and "The Red Baron" are not included in the 1999 revival Broadway cast recording."


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: In the original Off-Broadway production, the instrumentation was simply a piano (doubling on toy piano and melodica), a bass, and percussion. It can be heard on the original cast recording.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: When Tams-Witmark acquired the rights to "Charlie Brown", the orchestration was rewritten from the original version. The complete orchestration contained a piano, bass, guitar, percussion, five woodwind parts, two trumpets, horn, trombone, and strings. The piano player can also be doubled on celeste, toy piano, and melodica; the first woodwind plays flute and piccolo; the second is the second flute part; the third and fourth are the first and second clarinet parts respectively; the fifth on bass clarinet and tenor sax. Any guitar, horn, and string parts (excluding bass) were all optional.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: When "Charlie Brown" was brought back to Broadway in 1999, the orchestration was deeply revised, containing a five-piece orchestra that consisted of a piano, bass, percussion, a woodwind player, and a violinist. The piano player can double on keyboard synthesizer and kazoo; the bass player doubles on electric and acoustic bass, tenor recorder, and kazoo (in the original Broadway pit the bass player also doubled on acoustic and electric guitar); the woodwind part doubles on piccolo, flute, clarinet, soprano and alto sax, soprano recorder, and kazoo; the violin part also doubles on viola, alto recorder, kazoo, and tambourine. The percussionist primarily plays drum set but doubles on vibraphone, bells, triangle, timpani, and xylophone, with the parts intended to be played with a synthesizer. This version is also available through Tams-Witmark.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: "Notes: The character of "Sally" was added in the 1999 revival, replacing "Patty" from the original version. Sally was then used for the 2016 revival as well. <br>The characters of Patty and Schroeder do not appear on the concept album."


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: Articles about the 1999 revision while it was in previews noted that the one difference between the original production and the 1999 version was that the latter reflected the increased ethnic diversity of casting over the decades that had passed, with Schroeder being played by an African American actor (Mathis) and Linus by an Asian American (Wong).


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: The off-Broadway production was well received, with "The Village Voice" praising the simplistic set and "strikingly talented" cast. Walter Kerr in "The New York Times" called the show "a miracle", saying, "Almost everything works, because almost everything is effortless."


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: In reviewing the 1999 revival, "Playbill"'s Steven Suskin found it "overblown and underwhelming. The scenic and musical enhancements were especially harmful, it seemed to me; the unassuming, child-size characters were overwhelmed… Which is not to say that the 1999 music department did a bad job; it's simply that the concept of a big, new 'You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown' worked against the inherent qualities of the material." In "The New York Times", Ben Brantley wrote a lukewarm review:


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: Brantley did praise some of the cast, saying, "Kristin Chenoweth's performance as Sally will be the part that should seal her reputation. This glow cast by a star-in-the-making gives a real Broadway magic to a show that otherwise feels sadly shrunken… And Roger Bart, in the plum role of Snoopy, the charismatic beagle, incorporates some delightful doglike mannerisms."


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: In 1973, the show was adapted for television in a Hallmark Hall of Fame TV special, broadcast on NBC. Actors featured in the adaptation included original 1967 cast member Bill Hinnant as Snoopy. Hinnant was the only member of the original off-Broadway cast to reprise their role in the special.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: CBS aired a new prime-time animated TV special in 1985, based on the original musical. This version was the first animated depiction of Snoopy with comprehensible dialogue, voiced by Robert Towers, who previously portrayed the role in the 1967 Los Angeles production alongside Burghoff as Charlie Brown and Judy Kaye as Lucy.


title: You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown

text: Original cast albums have been released for all three versions of the stage show, however the 1973 Hallmark Hall of Fame recording on Atlantic Records is no longer in print.


title: Subaru Levorg

text: The is a mid-size car manufactured since 2014 by Subaru. According to the company, the name Levorg is an acronym of three words, LEgacy, reVOlution, touRinG. The Levorg shares its platform with the Impreza, Legacy and WRX.


title: Subaru Levorg

text: The Levorg was first shown as a pre-production concept car at the 43rd Tokyo Motor Show in November 2013. Subaru began collecting orders on the Japanese market on 4 January 2014, and the car went on sale in May. In February 2015, Subaru announced the introduction of the Levorg on the European market, and the car made its première on the continent at the Geneva Motor Show in March of the same year.


title: Subaru Levorg

text: On the domestic Japanese market the Levorg is available with two DOHC flat-four petrol engines, both turbocharged, intercooled and direct injected: a , "FB16" 1.6 L and a , "FA20" 2.0 L. The two are coupled to a "Lineartronic" continuously variable transmission and four-wheel-drive.


title: Subaru Levorg

text: On 20 November 2019, Subaru launched the 2020 Subaru Levorg V-Sport. It features front sports seats with fabric upholstery, a leather wrapped steering wheel with silver stitching, as well as piano black and chrome trim. As with the variant it is based on, it sports Bilstein dampers, ventilated disc brakes and 225/45 R18 tires. V-Sport will be available in Japan and is priced at JPY 3,150,000.


title: Subaru Levorg

text: During its advance sales before launch, Subaru received about 11,000 orders in three months, 2,000 short of its projection.


title: Subaru Levorg

text: On 12 January 2016, Subaru announced that it was entering the British Touring Car Championship, as a manufacturer entry, in partnership with Team BMR. For the 2016 season, the team were preparing four "Levorg Sports Tourers" to the championship's Next Generation Touring Car specification. The BTCC Levorgs are configured as rear wheel drive rather than four wheel drive (which is disallowed by the championship's regulations). Former double champions Jason Plato and Colin Turkington piloted the cars, along with team owner Warren Scott. The marque's "FA20" 2.0 litre boxer engine was race prepared for the team by Mountune Racing.


title: Subaru Levorg

text: The 2017 season saw some changes, including Ashley Sutton joining the team from MG Racing. Sutton went on to win the 2017 British Touring Car Championship for the team. Jason Plato continued driving the Levorg, but struggled to find pace throughout the season.


title: Subaru Levorg

text: Unveiled as a prototype at the 2019 Tokyo Motor Show on October 23, the second-generation model switched to the Subaru Global Platform, with a newly developed 1.8 L "CB18" engine. Like the previous generation, this model would not be sold in North America, but would go on sale in Japan in the second half of 2020.


title: Subaru Levorg

text: According to Subaru engine designer Tsuneaki Numamiyauchi, the displacement of the "CB18" was chosen to balance an increase in maximum torque to with improved fuel economy from adopting lean-burn technology. Fuel economy improved from compared to the preceding generation's "FB16" engine. In addition, the overall length of the engine was shortened by , allowing for a larger crush zone for safety.


title: Subaru Levorg

text: The second-generation Levorg is sold in Australia as the WRX Sportswagon and in New Zealand as the WRX GT ("Grand Touring"), leveraging the use of the WRX nameplate. For Australia and New Zealand, the Levorg is fitted with the larger "FA24F" 2.4-litre direct injection turbo engine. On November 25, Subaru announced the "FA24F"-equipped Levorg also would be sold to the Japanese market as the STI Sport R model.


title: The Rose (film)

text: The Rose is a 1979 American musical drama film directed by Mark Rydell, and starring Bette Midler, Alan Bates, Frederic Forrest, Harry Dean Stanton, Barry Primus, and David Keith. Loosely based on the life of Janis Joplin, the film follows a self-destructive rock star in the late 1960s, who struggles to cope with the pressures of her career and the demands of her ruthless business manager.


title: The Rose (film)

text: Originally titled "Pearl" (after Janis Joplin's nickname, which was also the title of her last album), the film's screenplay was revised and fictionalized after her family declined to allow the producers the rights to her story.


title: The Rose (film)

text: "The Rose" was nominated for four Academy Awards including Best Actress in a Leading Role (Bette Midler, in her screen debut), Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Frederic Forrest), Best Film Editing and Best Sound. Midler performed the soundtrack album for the film, and its title track became one of her biggest hit singles.


title: The Rose (film)

text: In late 1969, Mary Rose Foster is a famous rock and roll diva known as "The Rose." In spite of her success, her personal life is lonely and exhausting. She is exploited and overworked by her gruff, greedy manager and promoter Rudge Campbell. Though forthright and brassy, Rose is an insecure alcoholic and former drug user who seems to crave approval in her life. As such, she is determined to return to her Florida hometown, now as a superstar, and perform for the people from her past.


title: The Rose (film)

text: Following a performance in Texas, Rose meets with country music star Billy Ray, whom she idolizes and whose songs she often covers in live shows. Billy Ray cruelly demands that she never perform his music again, and he rudely dismisses her. After discovering that Rudge arranged the meeting because he wants to sign Billy Ray to his label, Rose defiantly flees with a limousine driver named Huston Dyer. The two take a cross-country trip to New York City, where Rose is scheduled to complete recording sessions. They begin a whirlwind romance.


title: The Rose (film)

text: Rudge assumes that Huston is just another hanger-on, but Rose feels she has finally met her true love. Huston eventually admits to her that he is actually an AWOL sergeant from the Army, and she tells him of her past in Florida. The couple's relationship grows turbulent amidst Rose's reckless lifestyle and constant touring. In Memphis, Rose is met by Sarah, a former lover of hers. When Huston walks in on the two women kissing, he and Rose get into a violent fight, after which Huston flees.


title: The Rose (film)

text: Determined to reunite with Huston, Rose searches for him in a red light district of Memphis with PFC Mal, a military member whom she met in Texas. She subsequently appoints Mal as her security escort, and the two travel to Rose's hometown Jacksonville, Florida, where Rudge has booked her a hometown reunion show. Upon arriving, Rose shows Mal her childhood home, her high school, and other local landmarks from her childhood. Arriving at the stadium for afternoon rehearsals for her concert, Rose repeats her intention to take a one-year break from performing, leading Rudge to tell her she will be in breach of contract. Rudge proceeds to fire her, though unbeknownst to Rose, this is only a ploy to ensure that she performs the show. A distraught Rose is met by Huston, who has traveled to Jacksonville to reunite with her.


title: The Rose (film)

text: Believing her concert is cancelled, Rose decides to run away and start a new life with Huston. That night, she takes Huston on a tour of local bars and clubs she used to frequent prior to becoming famous, recklessly drinking and indulging in barbiturates and heroin. At one bar, Huston becomes jealous when a male patron harasses Rose as she performs, and he begins a fight. After, Rudge reaches Rose on her car phone and convinces her to return for the concert. She acquiesces, and her decision to appease Rudge causes Huston to give up on the relationship and leave town. Later that night, after performing the opening song of her long-awaited homecoming concert, Rose collapses onstage and dies of an overdose.


title: The Rose (film)

text: The film was originally offered to Ken Russell, who chose instead to direct "Valentino". Russell has described this decision as the biggest mistake of his career. At one point, Michael Cimino was also slated to direct, but he chose to direct "Heaven's Gate" instead. Cimino did, however, make uncredited contributions to the script.


title: The Rose (film)

text: Suzy Williams was originally offered the title role, but turned it down for personal reasons, instead suggesting it to Bette Midler.


title: The Rose (film)

text: "The Rose" was completed in time for a scheduled release in April 1979; however, 20th Century-Fox elected to postpone release til autumn 1979:"[at] Easter time...the public seems to like frothy films."


title: The Rose (film)

text: "The Rose" received a mixed to positive critical reception. The film has a 73% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 22 reviews. Among the positive reviews were Siskel & Ebert, who on their program ""Sneak Previews"", both gave the film a collective "Yes".


title: The Rose (film)

text: The film opened in New York City on Wednesday, November 7, 1979 and grossed $793,063 in its opening weekend from 44 screens, the second highest-grossing opening weekend on under 50 screens behind "Star Wars" (1977). The film went on to gross $29.2 million in the United States and Canada.


title: Onyeka Okongwu

text: Onyeka Okongwu (born December 11, 2000) is an American professional basketball player for the Atlanta Hawks of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the USC Trojans.


title: Onyeka Okongwu

text: Okongwu was a four-year starter at Chino Hills High School in California, playing alongside Lonzo and LaMelo Ball. As a freshman, he helped his team win the state championship and achieve national success, while being named MaxPreps co-National Freshman of the Year. In his junior and senior seasons, Okongwu led Chino Hills to two more state titles, earning back-to-back California Mr. Basketball honors. He was considered a five-star recruit by ESPN and Rivals. In his only college season, Okongwu played for USC and was named to the first team All-Pac-12.


title: Onyeka Okongwu

text: Okongwu attended Chino Hills High School in Chino Hills, California and started on the varsity basketball team since his freshman season. In his first year, he was teammates with brothers Lonzo, LiAngelo, and LaMelo Ball, who helped elevate the team into the national spotlight. His team ranked number one in the country with a 35–0 record and captured the California Interscholastic Federation (CIF) Open Division state title. Okongwu shared MaxPreps National Freshman of the Year honors with his teammate, LaMelo Ball, after averaging 7.9 points, 7.2 rebounds, and 3.1 blocks per game.


title: Onyeka Okongwu

text: As a sophomore, Okongwu helped Chino Hills reach the CIF Southern Section Open Division semifinals and the CIF State Southern Regional semifinals. In his junior season, he led his team to CIF Southern Section Division I and CIF Division I championships. He averaged 28 points, 14 rebounds, and four blocks per game, earning California Mr. Basketball and "USA Today" All-USA California first team honors. As a senior, Okongwu led Chino Hills to a runner-up finish at the CIF Southern Section Division I tournament and its second consecutive CIF Division I state title. After averaging 27 points, 11 rebounds, 4.3 blocks, and four assists per game, he repeated as California Mr. Basketball, becoming the fifth player to ever do so, and received "USA Today" All-USA California first team distinction.


title: Onyeka Okongwu

text: Okongwu finished his freshman season with offers to play college basketball for UCLA and USC. On May 14, 2018, he committed to USC over UCLA and Arizona State. He was drawn to the program because of its proximity and coaching staff. Okongwu left high school as a five-star recruit on ESPN and Rivals and as a four-star recruit on 247Sports.


title: Onyeka Okongwu

text: Okongwu immediately established himself as USC's best player. In his collegiate debut on November 5, 2019, he recorded 20 points, 13 rebounds and a school-record eight blocks to lead the Trojans to a 77–48 victory over Florida A&M. He became the first USC player to post a double-double in his debut since Taj Gibson in 2006. On November 19, he scored a career-high 33 points, including 17 free throws, in a 91–84 win over Pepperdine. The performance helped him claim Pac-12 Conference player and freshman of the week honors on November 25. On December 1, Okongwu recorded 27 points on 12-of-14 shooting, 14 rebounds and three blocks in a 77–62 victory over Harvard at the Orlando Invitational. He scored 28 points, 24 of which came in the second half, and grabbed 12 rebounds in a December 15 win over Long Beach State. One day later, Okongwu was named Pac-12 freshman of the week for his second time.


title: Onyeka Okongwu

text: Okongwu continued his consistency into the Pac-12 season. On January 2, 2020, he had another strong performance, with 27 points on 12-of-14 shooting and 12 rebounds in a 65–56 win over Washington State. On January 24, he tallied 23 points, 14 rebounds and six blocks in a 79–70 double-overtime loss to Oregon. At the conclusion of the regular season, Okongwu was named to the first team All-Pac-12 and the Pac-12 All-Freshman Team. He led USC with 16.2 points, 8.6 rebounds and 2.7 blocks per game. The Pac-12 tournament and the NCAA tournament were canceled due to concerns over the COVID-19 pandemic. On March 25, 2020, Okongwu announced that he would enter the 2020 NBA draft and forgo his final three years of college basketball eligibility. Analysts regarded him as one of the best prospects in the draft.


title: Onyeka Okongwu

text: Okongwu was selected with the sixth overall pick in the 2020 NBA draft by the Atlanta Hawks. On November 24, 2020, the Atlanta Hawks announced that they had signed Okongwu. On July 21, 2021, the Atlanta Hawks announced that Okongwu had undergone surgery to repair a torn labrum in his right shoulder and Okongwu would be expected to be sidelined for about six months.


title: Onyeka Okongwu

text: Onyeka Okongwu was born to Nigerian immigrants in Los Angeles. Okongwu's older brother, Nnamdi, had also played basketball for Chino Hills High School. In 2014, Nnamdi suffered a brain injury in a skateboarding accident and died after spending three days on life support. Okongwu had worn the number 21 jersey in honor of his brother, who had worn the same number while playing basketball. Since being drafted to the NBA by the Hawks, he switched to wearing number 17 as his old number is retired for Dominique Wilkins, representing the age of his brother when he passed. He also has a younger brother, Chukwuemeka, and a younger sister, Chinemya.


title: Onyeka Okongwu

text: Okongwu is the son of Nigerian parents, Kate and Mike Okongwu. His mother, who is a registered nurse, moved to the United States from Nigeria in 1999.


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: Bubbles (born April 30, 1983) is a chimpanzee once kept as a pet by the American singer Michael Jackson, who bought him from a Texas research facility in the 1980s. Bubbles frequently traveled with Jackson, drawing attention in the media. In 1987, during the "Bad" world tour, Bubbles and Jackson drank tea with the mayor of Osaka, Japan.


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: Bubbles was initially kept at the Jackson family home in Encino, Los Angeles, but was moved to Jackson's home, Neverland Ranch, in 1988. There, he slept in a crib in Jackson's bedroom, used Jackson's toilet and ate Jackson's candy in the Neverland movie theater. By 2003, Bubbles had matured into a large and aggressive adult chimpanzee unsuitable as a pet, like many captive chimpanzees, and was sent to a California animal trainer. When the trainer closed his operation in 2004, Bubbles was moved to the Center for Great Apes, a sanctuary in Wauchula, Florida, where he has lived since 2005.


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: Bubbles was born in 1983 in a research facility in Austin, Texas, that bred primates for animal testing. There are conflicting reports as to how he came into Jackson's possession; many state that Jackson had purchased him when he was eight months old. The acquisition was said to have been supervised by Bob Dunn, then one of Hollywood's most famous suppliers and trainers of animals for films, photoshoots and advertisements.


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: Bubbles was kept at the Jackson family's Encino home until 1988, when he was moved to Jackson's new home, Neverland Ranch, in Santa Barbara County, California. Bubbles slept in a crib in Jackson's bedroom, ate candy in the Neverland movie theater, was fed at the dining table, wore a diaper, and used Jackson's toilet. At Jackson's 2005 trial, Jackson said that his chimpanzees helped with housekeeping chores: "They run around, help me clean the room. They help me dust, clean the window." Jackson's housekeepers testified that they disapproved of the chimpanzee behavior. One said she had to clean feces hurled at the bedroom wall, and another described a chimpanzee tearing off his diaper before crawling into Jackson's bed.


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: During the late 1980s, Jackson took Bubbles on outings and would often talk to him. According to reports, he showed him how to moonwalk. Bubbles had an agent and was rumored to have his own bodyguard. He sat in for the recording of Jackson's album "Bad" (1987)— Jackson insisted that Bubbles and Jackson's pet snake attend as spectators—and accompanied Jackson for the filming of the "Bad" music video. Bubbles made a cameo in the video for "Liberian Girl".


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: When the Bad world tour began in September 1987, Bubbles and Jackson shared a two-bedroom hotel suite in Tokyo. Bubbles and Jackson made a social visit to the Mayor of Osaka, Yasushi Oshima; there, Bubbles drank Japanese green tea while seated quietly next to Jackson. Oshima said that he and his fellow officials were "surprised to see the chimpanzee, but we understand he is [Michael's] good friend ... This is the first time an animal ever entered City Hall." Though allowed to travel to Japan, Bubbles was unable to enter Britain and Sweden due to strict quarantine laws. Jackson also brought Bubbles for tea at Elizabeth Taylor's house. Taylor did not mind that Jackson had brought a chimpanzee. At a party to celebrate and promote "Bad", Bubbles reportedly "worked the room" and was "the life of the party".


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: Around this time, Bubbles and Jackson were photographed by Kenny Rogers for his book, "Your Friends and Mine". The photo shows Bubbles held on Jackson's hip. In the black and white photograph, Bubbles is dressed casually in a long sleeved shirt and overalls. Jackson is also dressed casually; he wears jeans and a simple shirt. Rogers said: "Bubbles was so human it was almost frightening. He would take Christopher [Rogers' son] by the hand, walk over to the refrigerator, open it, take out a banana and hand it to him. Christopher was amazed... we all were."


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: According to author David Wigg, Queen singer Freddie Mercury grew frustrated trying to record a duet with Jackson, "There Must Be More to Life Than This", because of his insistence that Bubbles be in the studio. According to Wigg, "Michael made Bubbles sit between them and would turn to the chimp between takes and ask, 'Don't you think that was lovely?' Or, 'Do you think we should do that again?' After a few days of this, Freddie just exploded ... 'I'm not performing with a fucking chimp sitting next to me each night.'" Mercury left the project and released the song as a solo artist in 1985. The duet with Jackson was not released until the Queen members Brian May and Roger Taylor discovered it and included it on the album "Queen Forever" in 2014.


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: In the 2003 documentary "Living with Michael Jackson," Jackson told the journalist Martin Bashir that Bubbles had become pugnacious. He was moved to an animal sanctuary over fears he might attack Jackson's newborn son, Prince Michael II. Jackson bought two more baby chimpanzees, Max and Action Jackson; the public believed these chimpanzees were also Bubbles. Bubbles' removal was a source of regret for Jackson. During the interview, Bashir was also told of how Jackson had planned to hold a "celebrity animal party" for Bubbles; Cheeta, the chimpanzee from "Tarzan", Benji and Lassie were to be invited.


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: Bubbles was relocated to Bob Dunn's ranch in Sylmar, California. Dunn said at the time: "Bubbles is an adult chimp and a wild animal. We don't let him out to play." According to CNN, Jackson and his children visited Bubbles and played with the other animals at the ranch. "[Jackson] still acts like a kid around them", Dunn said. "The Washington Times", however, claimed Jackson did not visit Bubbles, despite Jackson's representative having stated that he would like to meet him again. Shortly afterward, in December 2003, it was claimed that Bubbles had attempted suicide. He was supposedly taken to a hospital in time to be saved.


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: Since the closure of Dunn's facility in 2004, Bubbles has been kept at the Center for Great Apes in Wauchula, Florida, where he is said to enjoy painting and listening to flute music. The annual care for each animal at the centre costs around $17,000 as of 2009. Patti Ragan, director for the Center for Great Apes, commented on the animals' daily routine at the sanctuary: "They relax. They take naps together. They might go up in the top of the cupola. They go out in the chutes and lie under a tree in the tunnel system. They groom each other and they fight and they have arguments, too." According to animal keepers at the center, Bubbles—whose facial features have changed since his time with Jackson—is now "huge and ugly", weighing 185 pounds (84 kg), but has a "sweet character". In 2009, Bubbles was spending most of his time sitting quietly in trees with Sam, a 40-year-old chimpanzee.


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: On June 25, 2009, Jackson died at the age of 50, after having a cardiac arrest. Dunn, speaking to the "News of the World", said: "Bubbles definitely missed [Jackson] when they parted and will miss him now. Chimpanzees are intelligent. They remember people and stuff. Bubbles and Michael were close friends and playmates. The last time Michael visited, Bubbles definitely recognized and remembered him." He said that Jackson thought of Bubbles as his first child, and added that he hoped Jackson's children would keep in touch with their "stepbrother" following their father's death. In 2010, Jackson's sister La Toya visited Bubbles at the Center for Great Apes in Florida. According to the Center for Great Apes website, Jackson's estate "has continued to support the annual care costs for Bubbles at the sanctuary".


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: According to the journalist Steve Huey, Bubbles formed a public perception of Jackson as a "bizarre eccentric, obsessed with recapturing his childhood". According to Robert Thompson, professor of popular culture at Syracuse University, Jackson's acquisition of Bubbles was "when the weirdness began to reach mythic proportions".


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: Jackson and Bubbles' bond, as well as Jackson's other alleged eccentricities, contributed to the media nickname "Wacko Jacko", which Jackson came to despise. The media often focused on Bubbles, rather than Jackson's music, and published false stories, such as the allegation that Bubbles was not a single ape, but one of several. A later claim suggested that Bubbles had died; Jackson's press agent Lee Solters told reporters that "when Bubbles heard about his demise he went bananas ... Like Mark Twain, his death is grossly exaggerated and he's alive and doing well."


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: The media also falsely reported that Bubbles would be the ringbearer at Elizabeth Taylor's wedding at Neverland Ranch in 1991; according to "The New York Times", it was "an idea that some newspapers found too delightful not to report." "The National Enquirer" claimed that the musician Prince had used extrasensory perception to turn Bubbles crazy. According to the story, Jackson said: "What kind of sicko would mess with a monkey? This is the final straw. Poor, poor Bubbles." Jackson found the story hilarious; his staff reported that they had never seen him laugh so much.


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: Jackson launched "Michael's Pets", a range of soft toys based on the animals he owned, in November 1986. "He [Jackson] was very instrumental in designing the toys", said Bob Michaelson, who was responsible for developing them. "He was very instrumental in how it should be programmed... he's got tremendous intuition." Jackson, in approving the toys, stipulated that the manufacturers donate $1 per sale to a children's charity.


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: In 1988, the artist Jeff Koons made three identical porcelain sculptures, "Michael Jackson and Bubbles", as part of his "Banality" exhibit. At the time, each sculpture was said to be worth $250,000. Koons once said: "If I could be one other living person, it would probably be Michael Jackson." The piece became one of Koons' best known works. The figure shows Jackson and Bubbles wearing gold military-style suits. In 2001, one of the figures was put up for auction and was expected to fetch between $3 million and $4 million. The figure sold to an anonymous telephone bidder for $5.6 million, a record for a work by Koons.


title: Bubbles (chimpanzee)

text: "The Daily Telegraph" reported in August 2009 that Bubbles was to publish a "tell-all memoir" about his time with Jackson. The book, "Bubbles: My Secret Diary, From Swaziland to Neverland," is a spoof diary by journalist John Blake, and the book fictionally documents the "darker aspects" of Bubbles' life, including a "$2,000-a-day banana addiction, depression, romantic conquests, and [his] 'vicious rivalry' with "Tarzan" star Cheeta". The "collection of very personal and honest entries from [Bubbles'] diary" was released in October 2009. Blake said:


title: Plaintiff

text: A plaintiff (Π in legal shorthand) is the party who initiates a lawsuit (also known as an "action") before a court. By doing so, the plaintiff seeks a legal remedy. If this search is successful, the court will issue judgment in favor of the plaintiff and make the appropriate court order (e.g., an order for damages). "Plaintiff" is the term used in civil cases in most English-speaking jurisdictions, the notable exceptions being England and Wales, where a plaintiff has, since the introduction of the Civil Procedure Rules in 1999, been known as a "claimant" and Scotland, where the party has always been known as the "pursuer". In criminal cases, the prosecutor brings the case against the defendant, but the key complaining party is often called the "complainant".


title: Plaintiff

text: In some jurisdictions, a lawsuit is commenced by filing a summons, claim form or a complaint. These documents are known as pleadings, that set forth the alleged wrongs committed by the defendant or defendants with a demand for relief. In other jurisdictions, the action is commenced by service of legal process by delivery of these documents on the defendant by a process server; they are only filed with the court subsequently with an affidavit from the process server that they had been given to the defendant according to the rules of civil procedure.


title: Plaintiff

text: In most English-speaking jurisdictions, including Hong Kong, Nigeria, Australia, Canada and the United States, as well as in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, the legal term "plaintiff" is used as a general term for the party taking action in a civil case.


title: Plaintiff

text: The word "plaintiff" can be traced to the year 1278, and stems from the Anglo-French word "pleintif" meaning "complaining". It was identical to "plaintive" at first and receded into legal usage with the -iff spelling in the 15th century.


title: Plaintiff

text: In most common-law jurisdictions, the term "claimant" used in England and Wales since 1999 (see below) is used only in specific, often non-judicial contexts. In particular, in American usage, terms such as "claimant" and "claim form" are limited to extrajudicial process in insurance and administrative law. After exhausting remedies available through an insurer or government agency, an American claimant in need of further relief would turn to the courts, file a complaint (thus establishing a real court case under judicial supervision) and become a plaintiff.


title: Plaintiff

text: In England and Wales, the term "claimant" replaced "plaintiff" after the Civil Procedure Rules came into force on 26 April 1999. The move, which brings England and Wales out of line with general usage in English-speaking jurisdictions, was reportedly based on an assessment that the word "claimant" is more acceptable as "plain English" than the word "plaintiff". In Scottish law a plaintiff is referred to as a "pursuer" and a defendant as a "defender".


title: Plaintiff

text: The party against whom the complaint is made is the defendant; or, in the case of a petition, a respondent. Case names are usually given with the plaintiff first, as in "Plaintiff v. Defendant".


title: Password manager

text: A password manager is a computer program that allows users to store and manage their passwords for local applications and online services. In many cases software used to manage passwords allow also generate strong passwords and fill forms. Password manager can be delivered as a one of or mixed of: computer application, mobile application, web browser extension, web based service, portable software for USB units.


title: Password manager

text: A password manager assists in generating and retrieving complex passwords, storing such passwords in an encrypted database, or calculating them on demand.


title: Password manager

text: Depending on the type of password manager used and on the functionality offered by its developers, the encrypted database is either stored locally on the user's device or stored remotely through an online cloud storage. Password managers typically require a user to generate and remember one "master" password to unlock and access information stored in their databases. Modern password managers increase security using 2F authentication and extend usability using embed in device biometrics like faceID or touchID.


title: Password manager

text: Many password manager applications offer additional capabilities that enhance both convenience and security such as storage of credit card and frequent flyer information and autofill functionality.


title: Password manager

text: Password managers commonly reside on the user's personal computer or mobile device, in the form of a locally installed software application. These applications can be offline, wherein the password database is stored independently and locally on the same device as the password manager software. Alternatively, password managers may offer or require a cloud-based approach, wherein the password database is dependent on an online file hosting service and stored remotely, but handled by password management software installed on the user's device.


title: Password manager

text: Some offline password managers do not require Internet permission, so there is no leakage of data due to the network. To some extent, a fully offline password manager is more secure, but may be much weaker in convenience and functionality than an online one.


title: Password manager

text: An online password manager is a website that securely stores login details. They are a web-based version of more conventional desktop-based password manager.


title: Password manager

text: The advantages of online password managers over desktop-based versions are portability (they can generally be used on any computer with a web browser and a network connection, without having to install software), and a reduced risk of losing passwords through theft from or damage to a single PC – although the same risk is present for the server that is used to store the users passwords on. In both cases this risk can be prevented by ensuring secure backups are taken.


title: Password manager

text: The major disadvantages of online password managers are the requirements that the user trusts the hosting site and that there is no keylogger on the computer they are using. With servers and the cloud being a focus of cyber attacks, how one authenticates into the online service and whether the passwords stored there are encrypted with a user defined key are just as important. Another important factor is whether one- or two-way encryption is used.


title: Password manager

text: Some online password management systems, such as Bitwarden, are open source, where the source code can be independently audited, or hosted on a user's own machine, rather than relying on the service's cloud.


title: Password manager

text: The use of a web-based password manager is an alternative to single sign-on techniques, such as OpenID or Microsoft's Microsoft account (previously Microsoft Wallet, Microsoft Passport, .NET Passport, Microsoft Passport Network, and Windows Live ID) scheme, or may serve as a stop-gap measure pending adoption of a better method.


title: Password manager

text: Token-based password managers need to have a security token mechanism, wherein a locally-accessible hardware device, such as smart cards or secure USB flash devices, is used to authenticate a user in lieu of or in addition to a traditional text-based password or other two-factor authentication system. The data stored in the token is usually encrypted to prevent probing and unauthorized reading of the data. Some token systems still require software loaded on the PC along with hardware (smart card reader) and drivers to properly read and decode the data.


title: Password manager

text: There are a few companies that make specific third-party authentication devices, with one of the most popular being YubiKey. But only a few third-party password managers can integrate with these hardware devices. While this may seem like a problem, most password managers have other acceptable two-step verification options, integrating with apps like Google Authenticator and in-built TOTP generators. While third-party token devices are useful in heightening security, they are only considered extra measures for security and convenience, and they are not considered to be essential nor are they critical to the proper functioning of a password manager.


title: Password manager

text: The advantage of password-based access controls is that they are easily incorporated in most software using APIs available in many software products, they require no extensive computer/server modifications, and that users are already familiar with the use of passwords. While passwords can be fairly secure, the weakness is how users choose and manage them, by using:


title: Password manager

text: It is typical to make at least one of these mistakes. This makes it very easy for hackers, crackers, malware and cyber thieves to break into individual accounts, corporations of all sizes, government agencies, institutions, etc. It is protecting against these vulnerabilities that makes password managers so important.


title: Password manager

text: Password managers can also be used as a defense against phishing and pharming. Unlike human beings, a password manager program can also incorporate an automated login script that first compares the current site's URL to the stored site's URL. If the two do not match then the password manager does not automatically fill in the login fields. This is intended as a safeguard against visual imitations and look-alike websites. With this built-in advantage, the use of a password manager is beneficial even if the user only has a few passwords to remember. While not all password managers can automatically handle the more complex login procedures imposed by many banking websites, many of the newer password managers handle complex passwords, multi-page fill-ins, and multi-factor authentication prior.


title: Password manager

text: By that same logic, password managers can also protect against keystroke logging malware (keyloggers). When using a multi-factor authentication password manager that automatically fills in logon fields, the user does not have to type any user names or passwords for the keylogger to pick up. While a keylogger may pick up the PIN to authenticate into the smart card token, for example, without the smart card itself (something the user has) the PIN does the attacker no good. However, password managers cannot protect against man-in-the-browser attacks, where malware on the user's device performs operations (e.g. on a banking website) while the user is logged in while hiding the malicious activity from the user.


title: Password manager

text: If the passwords are stored in an unencrypted fashion, it is still generally possible to obtain the passwords given local access to the machine.


title: Password manager

text: Some password managers use a user-selected master password or passphrase to form the key used to encrypt the protected passwords. The security of this approach depends on the strength of the chosen password (which might be guessed or brute-forced), and also that the passphrase itself is never stored locally where a malicious program or individual could read it. A compromised master password renders all of the protected passwords vulnerable.


title: Password manager

text: As with any system which involves the user entering a password, the master password may also be attacked and discovered using key logging or acoustic cryptanalysis. Some password managers attempt to use virtual keyboards to reduce this risk – though this is still vulnerable to key loggers that take screenshots as data is entered. This risk can be mitigated with the use of a multi-factor verification device.


title: Password manager

text: Some password managers include a password generator. Generated passwords may be guessable if the password manager uses a weak random number generator instead of a cryptographically secure one.


title: Password manager

text: A strong password manager will include a limited number of false authentication entries allowed before the password manager is locked down and requires IT services to re-activate. This is the best way to protect against the brute-force attack.


title: Password manager

text: Password managers that do not prevent swapping their memory to hard drive make it possible to extract unencrypted passwords from the computer’s hard drive. Turning off swap can prevent this risk.


title: Password manager

text: Web-based password managers, which run inside the browser of the user, are particularly fraught with pitfalls. A detailed study using several password managers uncovered the following possible flaws inside web-based password managers:


title: Password manager

text: Furthermore, password managers have the disadvantage that any potential hacker or malware just need to know one password to gain access to all of a user's passwords and that such managers have standardized locations and ways of storing passwords which can be exploited by malware.


title: Password manager

text: Various high-profile websites have attempted to block password managers, often backing down when publicly challenged. Reasons cited have included protecting against automated attacks, protecting against phishing, blocking malware, or simply denying compatibility. The Trusteer client security software from IBM features explicit options to block password managers.


title: Password manager

text: Such blocking has been criticized by information security professionals as making users less secure. The typical blocking implementation involves setting codice_1 on the relevant password web form. Consequently, this option is now ignored from Internet Explorer 11 on https sites, Firefox 38, Chrome 34, and in Safari from about 7.0.2.


title: Password manager

text: A 2014 paper from researcher at the Carnegie Mellon University found that whilst browsers refuse to autofill if the protocol on the current login page is different from the protocol at the time the password was saved, some password managers would insecurely fill in passwords for the http version of https-saved passwords. Most managers did not protect against iframe and redirection based attacks and exposed additional passwords where password synchronization had been used between multiple devices.


title: Social Convergence

text: It was founded in 2018 by the Autonomist Movement (MA), Libertarian Left (IL) (a part of the movement left the party in 2019), Socialism and Freedom (SOL) and New Democracy (ND). It is part of the leftist coalition Broad Front. In mid-2019, members of the movement began their process to register as a legally constituted political party.


title: Social Convergence

text: Social Convergence experienced an internal crisis in 2019, after a large number of militants resigned from the party, due to the initial rejection of Gabriel Boric's participation in the agreement made by the congress to create a new constitution, initiated due to the 2019 Chilean protests. Arguing that the agreement did not seem to them to be a sufficient response to the protests. However, after the changes that the agreement underwent (gender parity, indigenous seats, etc), these members ended up supporting the agreement, but did not remain part of the party.


title: Smudging

text: Smudging, or other rites involving the burning of sacred herbs (e.g., white sage) or resins, is a ceremony practiced by some Indigenous peoples of the Americas. While it bears some resemblance to other ceremonies and rituals involving smoke (e.g., Australian smoking ceremony, some types of saining) from other world cultures, notably those that use smoke for spiritual cleansing or blessing, the purposes and particulars of the ceremonies, and the substances used, can vary widely among tribes, bands and nations, and even more so among different world cultures. In traditional communities, Elders maintain the protocols around these ceremonies and provide culturally specific guidance. The smudging ceremony, by various names, has been appropriated by others outside of the Indigenous communities as part of New Age or commercial practices, which has also led to the over-harvesting of some of the plants used in ceremonies. The appropriation and the over-harvesting have both been protested by Indigenous people in the US and Canada.


title: Smudging

text: In some Indigenous American and Canadian ceremonies, certain herbs are traditionally used to purify or bless people and places. For instance, some cultures use the smoke of burning red cedar as part of their particular purification and healing ceremonies. Sometimes this is done in hospitals to "cleanse and repel evil influence." However, the same herbs that are burned by one culture may be taboo to burn in another, or they may be used for a completely different purpose. When specific herbs are burned ceremonially, this may or may not be called "smudging", depending on the culture. Traditionally, when gathering herbs for ceremonial use, care is taken to determine the time of day, month, or year when the herbs should be collected; for example, at dawn or evening, at certain phases of the moon, or according to yearly cycles. Gertrude Allen, a Lumbee, reported that her father, an expert in healing with plants, stated that sage varies in potency at different times of the year.


title: Smudging

text: While sage is commonly associated with smudging and several Native American, First Nations, Inuit or Métis cultures may use forms of sage that are local to their region, the use of sage is neither universal, nor as widespread as many believe. Its use in regions that have not traditionally used sage for purification is largely a result of the Pan-Indian movement, rather than traditional practice. In some cases it may be in direct opposition to what is traditional for that region. Likewise, not all Native American or Indigenous Canadian cultures that burn herbs or resins for ceremony call this practice "smudging".


title: Smudging

text: While using various forms of scent and scented smoke (such as incense) in religious and spiritual rites is an element common to many different cultures worldwide, the details, reasons, desired effects, and spiritual meanings are usually unique to the specific cultures in question.


title: Smudging

text: While white sage is not currently on the endangered list, the over-harvesting by commercial sellers has severely depleted the amount available, and many fear that it is soon to be endangered or extinct. Native ceremonial people have reported that visits to their traditional harvesting sites in recent years have found them bare, their personal supply of sage taken from the tribe forever by new age, hippie, and other commercial poachers who have "destroyed" the sites by ripping the plants up by their roots.


title: Smudging

text: Some of the terminology in use among non-Indigenous people, such as the American English term "smudge stick" is usually found in use among those who imitate what they believe are Native American sacred ceremonies. However, the herbs used in commercial "smudge sticks" or "sage bundles," and the rituals performed with them by non-Natives, are rarely the actual materials or ceremonies used by traditional Native Americans. Use of these objects have also been adopted in some forms into a number of modern belief systems, including many forms of New Age and eclectic Neopagan spirituality. This has been protested against by Native activists as a form of cultural misappropriation, and care is needed to distinguish smudging from other practices involving smoke, which have completely different cultural protocols.


title: Smudging

text: Smudging "kits" are often sold commercially, by companies such as Anthropologie, Sephora, World Market, and Walmart, despite traditional prohibitions against the sale of spiritual medicines like white sage. These may include bundles of a single herb or a combination of several different herbs; often these herbs are not found bundled together in traditional use, and their use is not universal to all, or even most, Native cultures. In some Native American cultures the burning of these herbs is prohibited. Other commercial items may contain herbs not native to North America, or not indigenous to the region where they are being used, as well as substances that are toxic when burnt.


title: Smudging

text: Native American and First Nations students in college dorms have at times faced harassment and been forbidden from burning herbs for ceremonial reasons due to university fire prevention policies that prohibit the burning of candles or incense in college dorm rooms. This has raised issues around the religious freedom of Native Americans. In another account, a Native American in Cincinnati became ordained by the Universal Life Church in order to fulfill the requirement that only clergy members could perform smudging ceremonies as part of the prayer ritual for other Native Americans in area hospitals.


title: Smudging

text: Other cultures worldwide may burn herbs or incense for spiritual purposes, such as in smoking ceremonies, some forms of saining, or practices involving the use of incense censers. However, these cultures have their own practices, as well as their own beliefs about these ritual actions and the ritual use of smoke.


title: Cush (Bible)

text: Cush or Kush ( , "Kūš"; ), according to the Hebrew Bible, was the oldest son of Ham and a grandson of Noah. He was the brother of Mizraim, Phut, and Canaan. Cush was the father of Nimrod, a king called the "first heroic warrior on earth".


title: Cush (Bible)

text: Cush is traditionally considered the ancestor of the "land of Cush", an ancient territory believed to have been located near the Red Sea. Cush is identified in the Bible with the Kingdom of Kush or ancient Sudan. The Cushitic languages are named after Cush.


title: Cush (Bible)

text: Cush is a Hebrew name that is possibly derived from "Kash", the Egyptian name of Upper Nubia and later of the Nubian kingdom at Napata, known as the Kingdom of Kush.


title: Cush (Bible)

text: The form "Kush" appears in Egyptian records as early as the reign of Mentuhotep II (21st century BC), in an inscription detailing his campaigns against the Nubian region. At the time of the compilation of the Hebrew Bible, and throughout classical antiquity, the Nubian kingdom was centered at Meroë in the modern-day nation of Sudan.


title: Cush (Bible)

text: Josephus gives an account of the nation of Cush, son of Ham and grandson of Noah: "For of the four sons of Ham, time has not at all hurt the name of Cush; for the Ethiopians, over whom he reigned, are even at this day, both by themselves and by all men in Asia, called Cushites" ("Antiquities of the Jews" 1.6).


title: Cush (Bible)

text: The Book of Numbers 12:1 calls a wife of Moses "a Cushite woman", whereas Moses's wife Zipporah is usually described as hailing from Midian. Ezekiel the Tragedian's "Exagoge" 60-65 (fragments reproduced in Eusebius) has Zipporah describe herself as a stranger in Midian, and proceeds to describe the inhabitants of her ancestral lands in North Africa:


title: Cush (Bible)

text: "Stranger, this land is called Libya. It is inhabited by tribes of various peoples, Ethiopians, dark men. One man is the ruler of the land: he is both king and general. He rules the state, judges the people, and is priest. This man is my father and theirs."


title: Cush (Bible)

text: During the 5th century AD, Syrian writers described the Himyarites of South Arabia as "Cushaeans" and "Ethiopians".


title: Cush (Bible)

text: The Persian historian al-Tabari (c. 915) recounts a tradition that the wife of Cush was named Qarnabil, daughter of Batawil, son of Tiras, and that she bore him the "Abyssinians, Sindis and Indians".


title: Cush (Bible)

text: Explorer James Bruce, who visited the Ethiopian Highlands c. 1770, wrote of "a tradition among the Abyssinians, which they say they have had since time immemorial", that in the days after the Deluge, Cush, the son of Ham, traveled with his family up the Nile until they reached the Atbara plain, then still uninhabited, from where they could see the Ethiopian table-land. There they ascended and built Axum, and sometime later returned to the lowland, building Meroë. He also states that European scholars of his own day had summarily rejected this account on grounds of their established theory, that Cush must have arrived in Africa via Arabia and the Bab-el-Mandeb, a strait located between Yemen on the Arabian Peninsula, and Djibouti and Eritrea on the Horn of Africa. Further, the great obelisk of Axum was said to have been erected by Cush in order to mark his allotted territory, and his son Ityopp'is was said to have been buried there, according to the "Book of Aksum", which Bruce asserts was revered throughout Abyssinia equally with the "Kebra Nagast".


title: Cush (Bible)

text: Scholars like Johann Michaelis and Rosenmuller have pointed out that the name "Cush" was applied to tracts of country on both sides of the Red Sea, in the Arabian Peninsula (Yemen) and Northeast Africa.


title: Epistasis

text: EPISTASIS is a phenomenon in genetics in which the effect of a gene mutation is dependent on the presence or absence of mutations in one or more other genes, respectively termed modifier genes. In other words, the effect of the mutation is dependent on the genetic background in which it appears. Epistatic mutations therefore have different effects on their own than when they occur together. Originally, the term "epistasis" specifically meant that the effect of a gene variant is masked by that of a different gene.


title: Epistasis

text: The concept of "epistasis" originated in genetics in 1907 but is now used in biochemistry, computational biology and evolutionary biology. The phenomenon arises due to interactions, either between genes (such as mutations also being needed in regulators of gene expression) or within them (multiple mutations being needed before the gene loses function), leading to non-linear effects. Epistasis has a great influence on the shape of evolutionary landscapes, which leads to profound consequences for evolution and for the evolvability of phenotypic traits.


title: Epistasis

text: Understanding of epistasis has changed considerably through the history of genetics and so too has the use of the term. The term was first used by William Bateson and his collaborators Florence Durham and Muriel Wheldale Onslow. In early models of natural selection devised in the early 20th century, each gene was considered to make its own characteristic contribution to fitness, against an average background of other genes. Some introductory courses still teach population genetics this way. Because of the way that the science of population genetics was developed, evolutionary geneticists have tended to think of epistasis as the exception. However, in general, the expression of any one allele depends in a complicated way on many other alleles.


title: Epistasis

text: In classical genetics, if genes A and B are mutated, and each mutation by itself produces a unique phenotype but the two mutations together show the same phenotype as the gene A mutation, then gene A is epistatic and gene B is hypostatic. For example, the gene for total baldness is epistatic to the gene for brown hair. In this sense, epistasis can be contrasted with genetic dominance, which is an interaction between alleles at the same gene locus. As the study of genetics developed, and with the advent of molecular biology, epistasis started to be studied in relation to quantitative trait loci (QTL) and polygenic inheritance.


title: Epistasis

text: The effects of genes are now commonly quantifiable by assaying the magnitude of a phenotype (e.g. height, pigmentation or growth rate) or by biochemically assaying protein activity (e.g. binding or catalysis). Increasingly sophisticated computational and evolutionary biology models aim to describe the effects of epistasis on a genome-wide scale and the consequences of this for evolution. Since identification of epistatic pairs is challenging both computationally and statistically, some studies try to prioritize epistatic pairs.


title: Epistasis

text: Terminology about epistasis can vary between scientific fields. Geneticists often refer to wild type and mutant alleles where the mutation is implicitly deleterious and may talk in terms of genetic enhancement, synthetic lethality and genetic suppressors. Conversely, a biochemist may more frequently focus on beneficial mutations and so explicitly state the effect of a mutation and use terms such as reciprocal sign epistasis and compensatory mutation. Additionally, there are differences when looking at epistasis within a single gene (biochemistry) and epistasis within a haploid or diploid genome (genetics). In general, epistasis is used to denote the departure from 'independence' of the effects of different genetic loci. Confusion often arises due to the varied interpretation of 'independence' among different branches of biology. The classifications below attempt to cover the various terms and how they relate to one another.


title: Epistasis

text: Two mutations are considered to be purely additive if the effect of the double mutation is the sum of the effects of the single mutations. This occurs when genes do not interact with each other, for example by acting through different metabolic pathways. Simply, additive traits were studied early on in the history of genetics, however they are relatively rare, with most genes exhibiting at least some level of epistatic interaction.


title: Epistasis

text: When the double mutation has a fitter phenotype than expected from the effects of the two single mutations, it is referred to as positive epistasis. Positive epistasis between beneficial mutations generates greater improvements in function than expected. Positive epistasis between deleterious mutations protects against the negative effects to cause a less severe fitness drop.


title: Epistasis

text: Conversely, when two mutations together lead to a less fit phenotype than expected from their effects when alone, it is called negative epistasis. Negative epistasis between beneficial mutations causes smaller than expected fitness improvements, whereas negative epistasis between deleterious mutations causes greater-than-additive fitness drops.


title: Epistasis

text: Independently, when the effect on fitness of two mutations is more radical than expected from their effects when alone, it is referred to as synergistic epistasis. The opposite situation, when the fitness difference of the double mutant from the wild type is smaller than expected from the effects of the two single mutations, it is called antagonistic epistasis. Therefore, for deleterious mutations, negative epistasis is also synergistic, while positive epistasis is antagonistic; conversely, for advantageous mutations, positive epistasis is synergistic, while negative epistasis is antagonistic.


title: Epistasis

text: The term genetic enhancement is sometimes used when a double (deleterious) mutant has a more severe phenotype than the additive effects of the single mutants. Strong positive epistasis is sometimes referred to by creationists as irreducible complexity (although most examples are misidentified).


title: Epistasis

text: Sign epistasis occurs when one mutation has the opposite effect when in the presence of another mutation. This occurs when a mutation that is deleterious on its own can enhance the effect of a particular beneficial mutation. For example, a large and complex brain is a waste of energy without a range of sense organs, but sense organs are made more useful by a large and complex brain that can better process the information. If a fitness landscape has no sign epistasis then it is called "smooth".


title: Epistasis

text: At its most extreme, reciprocal sign epistasis occurs when two deleterious genes are beneficial when together. For example, producing a toxin alone can kill a bacterium, and producing a toxin exporter alone can waste energy, but producing both can improve fitness by killing competing organisms. If a fitness landscape has sign epistasis but no reciprocal sign epistasis then it is called "semismooth".


title: Epistasis

text: Reciprocal sign epistasis also leads to genetic suppression whereby two deleterious mutations are less harmful together than either one on its own, i.e. one compensates for the other. A clear example of genetic suppression was the demonstration that in the assembly of bacteriophage T4 two deleterious mutations, each causing a deficiency in the level of a different morphogenetic protein, could interact positively. If a mutation causes a reduction in a particular structural component, this can bring about an imbalance in morphogenesis and loss of viable virus progeny, but production of viable progeny can be restored by a second (suppressor) mutation in another morphogenetic component that restores the balance of protein components.


title: Epistasis

text: The term genetic suppression can also apply to sign epistasis where the double mutant has a phenotype intermediate between those of the single mutants, in which case the more severe single mutant phenotype is suppressed by the other mutation or genetic condition. For example, in a diploid organism, a hypomorphic (or partial loss-of-function) mutant phenotype can be suppressed by knocking out one copy of a gene that acts oppositely in the same pathway. In this case, the second gene is described as a "dominant suppressor" of the hypomorphic mutant; "dominant" because the effect is seen when one wild-type copy of the suppressor gene is present (i.e. even in a heterozygote). For most genes, the phenotype of the heterozygous suppressor mutation by itself would be wild type (because most genes are not haplo-insufficient), so that the double mutant (suppressed) phenotype is intermediate between those of the single mutants.


title: Epistasis

text: In non reciprocal sign epistasis, fitness of the mutant lies in the middle of that of the extreme effects seen in reciprocal sign epistasis.


title: Epistasis

text: When two mutations are viable alone but lethal in combination, it is called Synthetic lethality or unlinked non-complementation.


title: Epistasis

text: In a haploid organism with genotypes (at two loci) "ab", "Ab", "aB" or "AB", we can think of different forms of epistasis as affecting the magnitude of a phenotype upon mutation individually (Ab and aB) or in combination (AB).


title: Epistasis

text: Epistasis in diploid organisms is further complicated by the presence of two copies of each gene. Epistasis can occur between loci, but additionally, interactions can occur between the two copies of each locus in heterozygotes. For a two locus, two allele system, there are eight independent types of gene interaction.


title: Epistasis

text: This can be the case when multiple genes act in parallel to achieve the same effect. For example, when an organism is in need of phosphorus, multiple enzymes that break down different phosphorylated components from the environment may act additively to increase the amount of phosphorus available to the organism. However, there inevitably comes a point where phosphorus is no longer the limiting factor for growth and reproduction and so further improvements in phosphorus metabolism have smaller or no effect (negative epistasis). Some sets of mutations within genes have also been specifically found to be additive. It is now considered that strict additivity is the exception, rather than the rule, since most genes interact with hundreds or thousands of other genes.


title: Epistasis

text: Epistasis within the genomes of organisms occurs due to interactions between the genes within the genome. This interaction may be direct if the genes encode proteins that, for example, are separate components of a multi-component protein (such as the ribosome), inhibit each other's activity, or if the protein encoded by one gene modifies the other (such as by phosphorylation). Alternatively the interaction may be indirect, where the genes encode components of a metabolic pathway or network, developmental pathway, signalling pathway or transcription factor network. For example, the gene encoding the enzyme that synthesizes penicillin is of no use to a fungus without the enzymes that synthesize the necessary precursors in the metabolic pathway.


title: Epistasis

text: Just as mutations in two separate genes can be non-additive if those genes interact, mutations in two codons within a gene can be non-additive. In genetics this is sometimes called intragenic suppression when one deleterious mutation can be compensated for by a second mutation within that gene. Analysis of bacteriophage T4 mutants that were altered in the rIIB cistron (gene) revealed that certain pairwise combinations of mutations could mutually suppress each other; that is the double mutants had a more nearly wild-type phenotype than either mutant alone. The linear map order of the mutants was established using genetic recombination data, From these sources of information, the triplet nature of the genetic code was logically deduced for the first time in 1961, and other key features of the code were also inferred.


title: Epistasis

text: Also intragenic suppression can occur when the amino acids within a protein interact. Due to the complexity of protein folding and activity, additive mutations are rare.