title: Fredric Jameson

text: The book's argument emphasized history as the "ultimate horizon" of literary and cultural analysis. It borrowed notions from the structuralist tradition and from Raymond Williams's work in cultural studies, and joined them to a largely Marxist view of labor (whether blue-collar or intellectual) as the focal point of analysis. Jameson's readings exploited both the explicit formal and thematic choices of the writer and the unconscious framework guiding these. Artistic choices that were ordinarily viewed in purely aesthetic terms were recast in terms of historical literary practices and norms, in an attempt to develop a systematic inventory of the constraints they imposed on the artist as an individual creative subject. To further this meta-commentary, Jameson described the "ideologeme", or "the smallest intelligible unit of the essentially antagonistic collective discourses of social classes", the smallest legible residue of the real-life, ongoing struggles occurring between social classes. (The term "ideologeme" was first used by Mikhail Bakhtin and Pavel Nikolaevich Medvedev in their work "The Formal Method in Literary Scholarship" and was later popularised by Julia Kristeva. Kristeva defined it as "the intersection of a given textual arrangement ... with the utterances ... that it either assimilates into its own space or to which it refers in the space of exterior texts ...".)


title: Fredric Jameson

text: Jameson's establishment of history as the only pertinent factor in this analysis, which derived the categories governing artistic production from their historical framework, was paired with a bold theoretical claim. His book claimed to establish Marxian literary criticism, centered in the notion of an artistic mode of production, as the most all-inclusive and comprehensive theoretical framework for understanding literature. According to Vincent B. Leitch, the publication of "The Political Unconscious" "rendered Jameson the leading Marxist literary critic in America."


title: Fredric Jameson

text: In 1984, during his tenure as Professor of Literature and History of Consciousness at the University of California, Santa Cruz, Jameson published an article titled "Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism" in the journal "New Left Review". This controversial article, which Jameson later expanded into a book, was part of a series of analyses of postmodernism from the dialectical perspective Jameson had developed in his earlier work on narrative. Jameson viewed the postmodern "skepticism towards metanarratives" as a "mode of experience" stemming from the conditions of intellectual labor imposed by the late capitalist mode of production.


title: Fredric Jameson

text: Postmodernists claimed that the complex differentiation between "spheres" or fields of life (such as the political, the social, the cultural, the commercial), and between distinct social classes and roles within each field, had been overcome by the crisis of foundationalism and the consequent relativization of truth-claims. Jameson argued against this, asserting that these phenomena had or could have been understood successfully within a modernist framework; the postmodern failure to achieve this understanding implied an abrupt break in the dialectical refinement of thought.


title: Fredric Jameson

text: In his view, postmodernity's merging of all discourse into an undifferentiated whole was the result of the colonization of the cultural sphere, which had retained at least partial autonomy during the prior modernist era, by a newly organized corporate capitalism. Following Adorno and Horkheimer's analysis of the culture industry, Jameson discussed this phenomenon in his critical discussion of architecture, film, narrative, and visual arts, as well as in his strictly philosophical work.


title: Fredric Jameson

text: Two of Jameson's best-known claims from "Postmodernism" are that postmodernity is characterized by pastiche and a crisis in historicity. Jameson argued that parody (which implies a moral judgment or a comparison with societal norms) was replaced by pastiche (collage and other forms of juxtaposition without a normative grounding). Relatedly, Jameson argued that the postmodern era suffers from a crisis in historicity: "there no longer does seem to be any organic relationship between the American history we learn from schoolbooks and the lived experience of the current, multinational, high-rise, stagflated city of the newspapers and of our own everyday life".


title: Fredric Jameson

text: Jameson's analysis of postmodernism attempted to view it as historically grounded; he therefore explicitly rejected any moralistic opposition to postmodernity as a cultural phenomenon, and continued to insist upon a Hegelian immanent critique that would "think the cultural evolution of late capitalism dialectically, as catastrophe and progress all together". His refusal to simply dismiss postmodernism from the onset, however, was misinterpreted by some Marxist intellectuals as an implicit endorsement of postmodern views.


title: Fredric Jameson

text: Jameson's later writings include "Archaeologies of the Future", a study of utopia and science fiction, launched at Monash University in Melbourne, Australia, in December 2005, and "The Modernist Papers" (2007), a collection of essays on modernism that is meant to accompany the theoretical "A Singular Modernity" (2002) as a "source-book". These books, along with "Postmodernism" and "The Antinomies of Realism" (2013), form part of an ongoing study entitled "The Poetics of Social Forms", which attempts, in Sara Danius's words, to "provide a general history of aesthetic forms, at the same time seeking to show how this history can be read in tandem with a history of social and economic formations". As of 2010, Jameson intends to supplement the already published volumes of "The Poetics of Social Forms" with a study of allegory entitled "Overtones: The Harmonics of Allegory". "The Antinomies of Realism" won the 2014 Truman Capote Award for Literary Criticism.


title: Fredric Jameson

text: Alongside this continuing project, he has recently published three related studies of dialectical theory: "Valences of the Dialectic" (2009), which includes Jameson's critical responses to Slavoj Žižek, Gilles Deleuze, and other contemporary theorists; "The Hegel Variations" (2010), a commentary on Hegel's "Phenomenology of Spirit"; and "Representing Capital: A Reading of Volume One" (2011), an analysis of Marx's "Das Kapital".


title: Fredric Jameson

text: An overview of Jameson's work, "Fredric Jameson: Live Theory," by Ian Buchanan, was published in 2007.


title: Fredric Jameson

text: In 2008, Jameson was awarded the annual Holberg International Memorial Prize in recognition of his career-long research "on the relation between social formations and cultural forms". The prize, which was worth (approximately $648,000), was presented to Jameson by Tora Aasland, Norwegian Minister of Education and Research, in Bergen, Norway, on 26 November 2008.


title: Fredric Jameson

text: In 2009, Jameson was awarded the Lyman Tower Sargent Distinguished Scholar Award by the North American Society for Utopian Studies.


title: Fredric Jameson

text: Jameson has had influence, on the theorization of the postmodern in China. In mid-1985, shortly after the beginning of the cultural fever (early 1985 to June Fourth, 1989)—a period in Chinese intellectual history characterized in part by intense interest in Western critical theory, literary theory, and related disciplines—Jameson discussed the idea of postmodernism in China in lectures at Peking University and the newly founded Shenzhen University. Jameson's ideas as presented at Peking University had an impact on some students, including Zhang Yiwu and Zhang Xudong, scholars whose work would come to play an important role in the analysis of postmodernity in China. In 1987 Jameson published a book entitled "Postmodernism and Cultural Theories" (), translated into Chinese by Tang Xiaobing. Although the Chinese intelligentsia's engagement with postmodernism would not begin in earnest until the nineties, "Postmodernism and Cultural Theories" was to become a keystone text in that engagement; as scholar Wang Ning writes, its influence on Chinese thinkers would be impossible to overestimate. Its popularity may be partially due to the facts that it was not written in a dense style and that, because of Jameson's writing style, it was possible to use the text to support either praise or criticism of the Chinese manifestation of postmodernity. In Wang Chaohua's interpretation of events, Jameson's work was mostly used to support praise, in what amounted to a fundamental misreading of Jameson:


title: Fredric Jameson

text: The caustic edge of Jameson's theory, which had described postmodernism as "the cultural logic of late capitalism," was abandoned for a contented or even enthusiastic endorsement of mass culture, which [a certain group of Chinese critics] saw as a new space of popular freedom. According to these critics, intellectuals, who conceived of themselves as the bearers of modernity, were reacting with shock and anxiety at their loss of control with the arrival of postmodern consumer society, uttering cries of "quixotic hysteria," panic-stricken by the realization of what they had once called for during the eighties.


title: Fredric Jameson

text: The debate fueled by Jameson, and specifically "Postmodernism and Cultural Theories", over postmodernism was at its most intense from 1994 to 1997, carried on by Chinese intellectuals both inside and outside the mainland; particularly important contributions came from Zhao Yiheng in London, Xu Ben in the United States, and Zhang Xudong, also in the United States, who had gone on to study under Jameson as a doctoral student at Duke.


title: Varistor

text: A varistor is an electronic component with an electrical resistance that varies with the applied voltage. Also known as a voltage-dependent resistor (VDR), it has a nonlinear, non-ohmic current–voltage characteristic that is similar to that of a diode. Unlike a diode however, it has the same characteristic for both directions of traversing current. Traditionally, varistors were indeed constructed by connecting two rectifiers, such as the copper-oxide or germanium-oxide rectifier in antiparallel configuration. At low voltage the varistor has a high electrical resistance which decreases as the voltage is raised. Modern varistors are primarily based on sintered ceramic metal-oxide materials which exhibit directional behavior only on a microscopic scale. This type is commonly known as the metal-oxide varistor (MOV).


title: Varistor

text: Varistors are used as control or compensation elements in circuits either to provide optimal operating conditions or to protect against excessive transient voltages. When used as protection devices, they shunt the current created by the excessive voltage away from sensitive components when triggered.


title: Varistor

text: The name "varistor" is a portmanteau of "varying resistor". The term is only used for non-ohmic varying resistors. Variable resistors, such as the potentiometer and the rheostat, have ohmic characteristics.


title: Varistor

text: The development of the varistor, in form of a new type of rectifier based on a cuprous oxide layer on copper, originated in the work by L.O. Grondahl and P.H. Geiger in 1927.


title: Varistor

text: The copper-oxide varistor exhibited a varying resistance in dependence on the polarity and magnitude of applied voltage. It was constructed from a small copper disk, of which one side was formed a layer of cuprous oxide. This arrangement provides low resistance to current flowing from the semiconducting oxide to the copper side, but a high resistance to current in the opposite direction, with the instantaneous resistance varying continuously with the voltage applied.


title: Varistor

text: In the 1930s, small multiple-varistor assemblies of a maximum dimension of less than one inch and apparently indefinite useful lifetime found application in replacing bulky electron tube circuits as modulators and demodulators in carrier current systems for telephonic transmission.


title: Varistor

text: Other applications for varistors in the telephone plant included protection of circuits from voltage spikes and noise, as well as click suppression on receiver ("ear-piece") elements to protect users' ears from popping noises when switching circuits. These varistors were constructed by layering an even number of rectifier disks in a stack and connecting the terminal ends and the center in an anti-parallel configuration, as shown in the photo of a Western Electric Type 3B varistor of June 1952 (below).


title: Varistor

text: The Western Electric type 500 telephone set of 1949 introduced a dynamic loop equalization circuit using varistors that shunted relatively high levels of loop current on short central office loops to adjust the transmission and receiving signal levels automatically. On long loops, the varistors maintained a relatively high resistance and did not alter the signals significantly.


title: Varistor

text: Another type of varistor was made from silicon carbide by R. O. Grisdale in the early 1930s. It was used to guard telephone lines from lightning.


title: Varistor

text: In the early 1970s, Japanese researchers recognized the semiconducting electronic properties of zinc oxide (ZnO) as being useful as a new varistor type in a ceramic sintering process, which exhibited a voltage-current function similar to that of a pair of back-to-back Zener diodes. This type of device became the preferred method for protecting circuits from power surges and other destructive electric disturbances, and became known generally as the metal-oxide varistor (MOV). The randomness of orientation of ZnO grains in the bulk of this material provided the same voltage-current characteristics for both directions of current flow.


title: Varistor

text: The most common modern type of varistor is the metal-oxide varistor (MOV). This type contains a ceramic mass of zinc oxide (ZnO) grains, in a matrix of other metal oxides, such as small amounts of bismuth, cobalt, manganese oxides, sandwiched between two metal plates, which constitute the electrodes of the device. The boundary between each grain and a neighbor forms a diode junction, which allows current to flow in only one direction. The accumulation of randomly oriented grains is electrically equivalent to a network of back-to-back diode pairs, each pair in parallel with many other pairs.


title: Varistor

text: When a small voltage is applied across the electrodes, only a tiny current flows, caused by reverse leakage through the diode junctions. When a large voltage is applied, the diode junction breaks down due to a combination of thermionic emission and electron tunneling, resulting in a large current flow. The result of this behavior is a nonlinear current-voltage characteristic, in which the MOV has a high resistance at low voltages and a low resistance at high voltages.


title: Varistor

text: A varistor remains non-conductive as a shunt-mode device during normal operation when the voltage across it remains well below its "clamping voltage", thus varistors are typically used for suppressing line voltage surges. Varistors can fail for either of two reasons.


title: Varistor

text: A catastrophic failure occurs from not successfully limiting a very large surge from an event like a lightning strike, where the energy involved is many orders of magnitude greater than the varistor can handle. Follow-through current resulting from a strike may melt, burn, or even vaporize the varistor. This thermal runaway is due to a lack of conformity in individual grain-boundary junctions, which leads to the failure of dominant current paths under thermal stress when the energy in a transient pulse (normally measured in joules) is too high (i.e. significantly exceeds the manufacture's "Absolute Maximum Ratings"). The probability of catastrophic failure can be reduced by increasing the rating, or using specially selected MOVs in parallel.


title: Varistor

text: Cumulative degradation occurs as more surges happen. For historical reasons, many MOVs have been incorrectly specified allowing frequent swells to also degrade capacity. In this condition the varistor is not visibly damaged and outwardly appears functional (no catastrophic failure), but it no longer offers protection. Eventually, it proceeds into a shorted circuit condition as the energy discharges create a conductive channel through the oxides.


title: Varistor

text: The main parameter affecting varistor life expectancy is its energy (Joule) rating. Increasing the energy rating raises the number of (defined maximum size) transient pulses that it can accommodate exponentially as well as the cumulative sum of energy from clamping lesser pulses. As these pulses occur, the "clamping voltage" it provides during each event decreases, and a varistor is typically deemed to be functionally degraded when its "clamping voltage" has changed by 10%. Manufacturer's life-expectancy charts relate current, severity, and number of transients to make failure predictions based on the total energy dissipated over the life of the part.


title: Varistor

text: In consumer electronics, particularly surge protectors, the MOV varistor size employed is small enough that eventually failure is expected. Other applications, such as power transmission, use VDRs of different construction in multiple configurations engineered for long life span.


title: Varistor

text: Other important parameters are the varistor's energy rating in joules, operating voltage, response time, maximum current, and breakdown (clamping) voltage. Energy rating is often defined using standardized transients such as 8/20 microseconds or 10/1000 microseconds, where 8 microseconds is the transient's front time and 20 microseconds is the time to half value.


title: Varistor

text: Typical capacitance for consumer-sized (7–20 mm diameter) varistors are in the range of 100–2,500 pF. Smaller, lower-capacitance varistors are available with capacitance of ~1 pF for microelectronic protection, such as in cellular phones. These low-capacitance varistors are, however, unable to withstand large surge currents simply due to their compact PCB-mount size.


title: Varistor

text: The response time of the MOV is not standardized. The sub-nanosecond MOV response claim is based on the material's intrinsic response time, but will be slowed down by other factors such as the inductance of component leads and the mounting method. That response time is also qualified as insignificant when compared to a transient having an 8 µs rise-time, thereby allowing ample time for the device to slowly turn-on. When subjected to a very fast, <1 ns rise-time transient, response times for the MOV are in the 40–60 ns range.


title: Varistor

text: To protect telecommunication lines, transient suppression devices such as 3 mil carbon blocks (IEEE C62.32), ultra-low capacitance varistors, and avalanche diodes are used. For higher frequencies, such as radio communication equipment, a gas discharge tube (GDT) may be utilized. A typical surge protector power strip is built using MOVs. Low-cost versions may use only one varistor, from the hot (live, active) to the neutral conductor. A better protector contains at least three varistors; one across each of the three pairs of conductors. In the United States, a power strip protector should have an Underwriters Laboratories (UL) 1449 3rd edition approval so that catastrophic MOV failure does not create a fire hazard.


title: Varistor

text: While a MOV is designed to conduct significant power for very short durations (about 8 to 20 microseconds), such as caused by lightning strikes, it typically does not have the capacity to conduct sustained energy. Under normal utility voltage conditions, this is not a problem. However, certain types of faults on the utility power grid can result in sustained over-voltage conditions. Examples include a loss of a neutral conductor or shorted lines on the high voltage system. Application of sustained over-voltage to a MOV can cause high dissipation, potentially resulting in the MOV device catching fire. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has documented many cases of catastrophic fires that have been caused by MOV devices in surge suppressors, and has issued bulletins on the issue.


title: Varistor

text: A series connected thermal fuse is one solution to catastrophic MOV failure. Varistors with internal thermal protection are also available.


title: Varistor

text: There are several issues to be noted regarding behavior of transient voltage surge suppressors (TVSS) incorporating MOVs under over-voltage conditions. Depending on the level of conducted current, dissipated heat may be insufficient to cause failure, but may degrade the MOV device and reduce its life expectancy. If excessive current is conducted by a MOV, it may fail catastrophically, keeping the load connected, but now without any surge protection. A user may have no indication when the surge suppressor has failed. Under the right conditions of over-voltage and line impedance, it may be possible to cause the MOV to burst into flames, the root cause of many fires and the main reason for NFPA's concern resulting in UL1449 in 1986 and subsequent revisions in 1998 and 2009. Properly designed TVSS devices must not fail catastrophically, resulting in the opening of a thermal fuse or something equivalent that only disconnects MOV devices.


title: Varistor

text: A MOV inside a transient voltage surge suppressor (TVSS) does not provide complete protection for electrical equipment. In particular, it provides no protection from sustained over-voltages that may result in damage to that equipment as well as to the protector device. Other sustained and harmful over-voltages may be lower and therefore ignored by a MOV device.


title: Varistor

text: A varistor provides no equipment protection from inrush current surges (during equipment startup), from overcurrent (created by a short circuit), or from voltage sags (brownouts); it neither senses nor affects such events. Susceptibility of electronic equipment to these other electric power disturbances is defined by other aspects of the system design, either inside the equipment itself or externally by means such as a UPS, a voltage regulator or a surge protector with built-in overvoltage protection (which typically consists of a voltage-sensing circuit and a relay for disconnecting the AC input when the voltage reaches a danger threshold).


title: Varistor

text: Another method for suppressing voltage spikes is the transient-voltage-suppression diode (TVS). Although diodes do not have as much capacity to conduct large surges as MOVs, diodes are not degraded by smaller surges and can be implemented with a lower "clamping voltage". MOVs degrade from repeated exposure to surges and generally have a higher "clamping voltage" so that leakage does not degrade the MOV. Both types are available over a wide range of voltages. MOVs tend to be more suitable for higher voltages, because they can conduct the higher associated energies at less cost.


title: Varistor

text: Another type of transient suppressor is the gas-tube suppressor. This is a type of spark gap that may use air or an inert gas mixture and often, a small amount of radioactive material such as Ni-63, to provide a more consistent breakdown voltage and reduce response time. Unfortunately, these devices may have higher breakdown voltages and longer response times than varistors. However, they can handle significantly higher fault currents and withstand multiple high-voltage hits (for example, from lightning) without significant degradation.


title: Varistor

text: Multi-layer varistor (MLV) devices provide electrostatic discharge protection to electronic circuits from low to medium energy transients in sensitive equipment operating at 0–120 volts dc. They have peak current ratings from about 20 to 500 amperes, and peak energy ratings from 0.05 to 2.5 joules.


title: Religion in Italy

text: Religion in Italy is characterised by the predominance of Christianity and an increasing diversity of religious practices, beliefs and denominations. Most Christians in Italy adhere to the Catholic Church, whose headquarters are in Vatican City, Rome. Christianity has been present in the Italian Peninsula since the 1st century.


title: Religion in Italy

text: According to the 2012 "Global Religious Landscape" survey by the Pew Research Center (a think tank in the United States), 83.3% of the country's residents are Christians, 12.4% are irreligious, atheist or agnostic, 3.7% are Muslims and 0.6% adhere to other religions. Other sources give different accounts of Italy's Islamic population, usually around 2%. According to other sources, up to 10% of residents, both Italian citizens and foreign residents, profess a faith which is different from Catholicism. Among religious minorities, Islam is the largest, followed by Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, Protestantism, Jehovah's Witnesses, Buddhism, Hinduism, Sikhism and Judaism.


title: Religion in Italy

text: According to the 2017 "Being Christian in Western Europe" survey by Pew, 58% of Italians consider religion to be very or somewhat important. Italy was the only country in the survey having more practising Christians than non-practising ones. Italy is the third European Union member in terms of highest weekly church attendance rates after Poland and Ireland. Italy's Catholic patron saints are Francis of Assisi and Catherine of Siena.


title: Religion in Italy

text: The 2012 "Global Religious Landscape" survey by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life (an American think tank) found that 83.3% of Italy's residents were Christians, 12.4% were irreligious, atheist or agnostic, 3.7% were Muslims and 0.6% adhered to other religions.


title: Religion in Italy

text: Regarding Italian citizens in Italy, according to the 2005 Eurobarometer poll (conducted on behalf of the European Commission), 74% of Italians "believe there is a God", 16% "believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 6% "do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force". According to a 2006 survey by (an Italian research centre), Catholics made up 87.8% of Italian citizens, with 36.8% describing themselves as observants. According to the same poll in 2010, those percentages fell to 76.5% and 24.4%, respectively. In 2016 Eurispes found that 71.1% of Italians were Catholic, 5 points down from 2010, but their religious practice was on the rise at 25.4%. According to (another Italian research centre) in 2014, 75% of Italians are Catholic. In the spring of 2016 the Pew Research Center found that 81.7% of the population of Italy was affiliated with the Catholic Church, out of a Christian population of 85.1%; non-religious people comprised the 11.6% of the total population and were divided in atheists (3.1%), agnostics (2.5%) and "nothing in particular" (6.0%). According to a 2017 poll by Ipsos (a France-based research centre), 74.4% of Italians are Catholic (including 27.0% engaged and/or observant), 22.6% are irreligious and 3.0% adhere to other denominations in Italy.


title: Religion in Italy

text: Finally, Eurostat's Eurobarometer survey in 2018 showed that 85.6% of Italy's population is Christian (78.9% Catholic, 4.6% orthodox Christians, 0.6% Protestants, 1.5% other Christians), while 2.6% belong to other religions and 11.7% are non-religious (7.5% atheists, 4.2% agnostics).


title: Religion in Italy

text: Additionally, there are significant differences in religious beliefs by gender, age and geography. For instance, according to a 2014 Doxa poll: 80% of women defined themselves as "Catholic", while 69% of men did so; 80% of the people in the age group above 55 defined themselves as Catholic, while 8% said to be irreligious or atheist and another 7% described themselves as "without religious reference"; among people aged between 15 and 34, percentages were 68%, 13% and 12%, respectively; in Southern Italy, 85%, 6% and 5%, respectively; in the North-West, 62%, 16% and 13%, respectively.


title: Religion in Italy

text: The headquarters of the 1.2-billion strong Catholic Church, the State of Vatican City (see also Holy See), is an enclave within the city of Rome and, thus, the Italian territory. The Church's world leader, the Pope, is the Bishop of Rome, hence the special relationship between Italians and the Church—and the latter's entanglement with Italian politics (see Lateran Treaty and the section below on religion and politics).


title: Religion in Italy

text: The current Pope is Francis, born Jorge Mario Bergoglio, who, before his election in 2013, is from Argentina and was the Archbishop of Buenos Aires from 1998 to his installation. Francis is the third non-Italian Pope in a row, after John Paul II (1978–2005) from Poland and Benedict XVI (2005–2013) from Germany.


title: Religion in Italy

text: Most of the leading Catholic religious orders, including the Jesuits, the Salesians, the Franciscans, the Capuchin Franciscans, the Benedectines, the Dominicans, the Divine Word Missionaries, the Redemptorists, the Conventual Franciscans and the Oblates of Mary Immaculate, have their headquarters in Rome too.


title: Religion in Italy

text: The Italian territory is divided into 225 Catholic dioceses (whose bishops have been organised, since 1952, in the politically influential Italian Episcopal Conference, CEI) and, according to Church statistics (which do not consider current active members), 96% of the country's population was baptised as Catholic.


title: Religion in Italy

text: Ecclesial life is somewhat vibrant and, despite secularization, some of the most active movements and associations are Catholic, including organisations as diverse as Catholic Action (AC), the Italian Catholic Association of Guides and Scouts (AGESCI), Communion and Liberation (CL), Neocatechumenal Way, the Focolare Movement, the Christian Associations of Italian Workers (ACLI), the Community of Sant'Egidio, etc., most of which have been involved in social activities and have frequently supplied Italian politics with their members.


title: Religion in Italy

text: Italy's current President, Sergio Mattarella, and former Prime Minister, Matteo Renzi, have been AC and AGESCI leaders, respectively, while the current President of the CEI, Cardinal Angelo Bagnasco, has been a long-time AGESCI assistant.


title: Religion in Italy

text: Other than that the Latin-rite Catholic Church, Italy has two more native churches: the Italo-Albanian Catholic Church, one of the twenty-two Eastern Catholic Churches in communion with the Pope, and the Waldensian Evangelical Church, a Christian movement originated from Lyon in the late 12th century and adopted Calvinist theology shortly after the start of the Protestant Reformation (see also: Waldensians). The two churches include the majority of the population in Piana degli Albanesi, Sicily and Lungro, Calabria, and the so-called "Waldensian Valleys" (Val Pellice, Val Chisone and Valle Germanasca) of western Piedmont, respectively.


title: Religion in Italy

text: Most historical mainline Protestants, including the Waldensians (30,000 members), the Baptists (Baptist Evangelical Christian Union of Italy, 20,000), the mostly German-speaking Lutherans (Lutheran Evangelical Church in Italy, 7,000), the Methodists (Methodist Evangelical Church in Italy, 5,000) and minor Calvinist and Presbyterian communities, are affiliated to the Federation of Evangelical Churches in Italy, along with the Italian section of The Salvation Army and some minor Evangelical and Pentecostal denominations. In the Protestant context, it is also worth mentioning the Evangelical Christian Church of the Brethren (21,000) and the Italian section of the Seventh-day Adventist Church (20,000).


title: Religion in Italy

text: Italy is home to around 45,000 Jews, who are one of the most ancient Jewish communities in the world. Jewish presence dates to the pre-Christian Roman period and has continued uninterrupted up to the present, despite periods of extreme persecution and occasional expulsions from parts of the country. Native Italian Jews, who form the core of the community in Rome, practice the minhag Italkim, or "Italian Jews", but there are also Ashkenazi Jews who have settled in the North, especially in the lands of the former Republic of Venice (Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia and eastern Lombardy) and Piedmont, since the late Middle Ages, and Sephardi Jews, who have established themselves mostly in Livorno, Florence, Venice and several cities of Emilia, after their expulsion from the Kingdom of Naples. The Jewish community of Milan, the country's second largest after Rome's, is the most international in character and composition, notably including a substantial number of Mizrahi Jews originating from Libya and the Middle East. The twenty-one Jewish local communities are affiliated with the Union of Italian Jewish Communities, which counts 25,000 members.


title: Religion in Italy

text: According to CESNUR, in 2017 in Italy there were about 3,200 adherents to pre-Christian, neo-pagan or neo-shamanic indigenous religions. Modern forms of native polytheism is represented by Roman Polytheistic Reconstructionism, which includes organizations such as "Nova Roma", the "Associazione Tradizionale Pietas", "Communitas Populi Romani", the "Movimento Tradizionale Romano", and the "Societas Hesperiana pro Culto Deorum". There are also pagans belonging to other European religions, such as Heathenism, to which the "Comunità Odinista" and the "Tempio del Lupo" belong; Druidism, Hellenism and Wicca.


title: Religion in Italy

text: Immigration has brought to Italy many religious minorities, especially Islam, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Oriental Orthodoxy. By the numbers, in 2015 the country was home to around 1,850,000 Muslims and virtually 1,700,000 Orthodox Christians. Among the latter, especially relevant are the Romanian Orthodox Church, which has a diocese of Italy, and the Greek Orthodox Church (Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople), whose Archdiocese of Italy and Malta and Exarchate of Southern Europe has its see in Venice. Massimo Introvigne, founder and director of CESNUR (an Italian think tank devoted to religious studies) and main author of "L'enciclopedia delle religioni in Italia", predicts that, thanks to continued immigration from Eastern Europe, Orthodox Christians could soon become the country's second largest religious group, overtaking Muslims.


title: Religion in Italy

text: Also Protestantism, especially in its evangelical and Pentecostal forms, is on the rise: Introvigne recalls how Giorgio Bouchard, a Waldensian pastor, told him that "when he was born, the typical Italian Protestant was a man, lived in Piedmont, had a last name like Bouchard and was a Waldensian", while "today, the typical Italian Protestant believer is a woman, lives in Campania or Sicily, is named Esposito and is a Pentecostal." Not surprisingly the Assemblies of God in Italy (150,000 members), the Federation of Pentecostal Churches (50,000) and several smaller evangelical/Pentecostal denominations have the majority of their communities in the South. Additionally, several foreign-born churches, especially African initiated churches, mostly evangelical and/or Pentecostal, are taking roots in the country, especially in the North.


title: Religion in Italy

text: Among the fastest-growing new religious denominations in Italy a special place is held by the Jehovah's Witnesses (who count around 420,000 faithful, including both members and other people regularly attending the Congregation's meetings). Then come four faiths professed mainly by immigrants: Buddhists (260,000), Hindus (180,000), Sikhs (150,000), and Latter-day Saints (26,000). According to Caritas Italiana (the CEI's charitable arm), in 2015 the immigrant population was 53.8% Christian (30.5% Orthodox, 18.3% Catholic, 4.3% Protestant and 0.7% other), 32.2% Muslim, 2.9% Hindu and 2.2% Buddhist. According to the same source, in 2012 Italy was home to 850 "African Neo-Pentecostal churches", 750 foreign-language Catholic communities, 655 mosques or other Islamic houses of worship, 355 Orthodox parishes, 126 Buddhist temples, 37 Sikh ones and 2 Hindu ones.


title: Religion in Italy

text: The religious composition of the Italian population (2015 estimate: 60,795,612 people, including 55,782,575 Italian citizens and 5,014,037 foreign residents) is shown in the table below. The primary data source is the aforementioned CESNUR, which includes the data on foreign residents provided by Caritas Italiana.


title: Religion in Italy

text: Due to the lack of a single, coherent and statistically accurate source, the figures are to be taken with a grain of salt and sums do not necessarily add up. The number of Catholics among Italian citizens is calculated using the latest Eurispes poll, released in January 2016: according to the survey 71.1% of Italians are Catholic. The numbers of Christians are consequently calculated, including that number and the data provided by CESNUR and Caritas Italiana.


title: Religion in Italy

text: Religious denominations which have a relevant presence in the country, but for which there are no data, are included in the table.


title: Religion in Italy

text: Religious practice, especially church attendance, is still high in Italy when compared to the average Western European country.


title: Religion in Italy

text: The Italian National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT) found in 2015 that 29.0% of the population went to church, synagogue, mosque, temple or another house of worship on a weekly basis. The share of practising believers was higher in Southern Italy (33.5%) than the North-West (27.7%), the North-East (26.8%) and the Centre (25.0%). Religious practice was particularly high in Sicily (37.3%), in Campania (35.4%), Calabria (34.8%), Apulia (32.6%) and Molise (30.9%) in the South, in Veneto (32.4%)—once dubbed "white Veneto" because of Christian Democracy's strength there (white being the party's official colour)—and Trentino (31.4%) in the North-East, in Marche (31.6%) in the Centre. It was particularly low in Liguria (18.6%), Aosta Valley (21.0%), Friuli-Venezia Giulia (21.9%), and Sardinia (21.9%) and the so-called "red regions" (long-time strongholds of the left-wing/centre-left, from the Italian Communist Party to the current Democratic Party), especially Tuscany (19.4%) and Emilia-Romagna (21.6%).


title: Religion in Italy

text: After Italian unification, predominantly supported by secular and anti-clerical forces, and especially the capture of Rome in 1870 which marked the final defeat of the Papal States by the Kingdom of Italy and gave start to the so-called Roman Question over the temporal power of the Pope, Catholics largely self-excluded themselves from active politics. As a result, all the main political parties and parliamentary groupings were secular in character until the early 20th century.


title: Religion in Italy

text: In 1905 the Italian Catholic Electoral Union was formed in order to coordinate the participation of Catholic voters in the Italian electoral contests. The party had minor but significant results and, under the so-called Gentiloni pact in 1913, it entered in alliance with the establishment Liberals.


title: Religion in Italy

text: After World War I, Catholics organised the Italian People's Party, as part of the Christian democracy movement.


title: Religion in Italy

text: During the Fascist regime, the Roman Question was settled through the Lateran Treaty, signed by the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy in 1929. These gave birth to the State of Vatican City. Fascism persecuted religious minorities: on 9 April 1935, Guido Buffarini Guidi outlawed the Pentecostal faith, and during 1938-1939 Jews were targeted by the infamous racial laws and later victims of a genocide in the context of the Holocaust.


title: Religion in Italy

text: The Italian resistance movement saw the participation of Catholics, Protestants (Waldensians were especially active in the Action Party), and Jews (through the Jewish Brigade) alike. In 1943 a group of Catholics, including several former Populars and many members of Catholic Action (a widespread lay association), formed the aforementioned Christian Democracy party and, with Alcide De Gasperi, led the Italian provisional government since 1945.


title: Religion in Italy

text: After World War II, the Catholic Church, after some initial reservations (Pope Pius XII favoured a solution similar to that of the Church in Francoist Spain, while some cardinals wanted a plurality of Catholic parties, possibly including a communist one), actively supported De Gasperi's Christian Democracy, a Catholic-inspired but formally non-denominational party, and the so-called "political unity of Catholics". From 1946 to 1992 all Prime Ministers but two were Christian Democrats and Catholics.


title: Religion in Italy

text: However, both the Waldensians and the Jews have played an important role in Italian politics. While several Catholic-inspired parties also rose to political prominence after Christian Democracy's dissolution in 1994 (from Italian People's Party–1994 to Democracy is Freedom, from the Christian Democratic Centre to the Union of the Centre, from Forza Italia–1994 to Forza Italia–2013, Waldensians have usually been active in "secular" parties, especially the Italian Socialist Party, Italian Communist Party and, more recently, the Democratic Party, which is also home to former Christian Democrats. More recently, a group of conservative Pentecostals set up the Extended Christian Pact party. Also, the Jews have mostly been active in "secular" parties, but they have recently been more divided between the Democrats and Forza Italia.


title: Religion in Italy

text: The Constitution of Italy recognises the Catholic Church and the state as "independent and sovereign, each within its own sphere" (article 7), in respect of the liberal principle of separation of church and state. In particular, the Lateran Treaty of 1929 (signed under Benito Mussolini), which gave a special status to the Church, is recognised and modifications "accepted by both parties" to such treaty are allowed without the need of constitutional amendments. In fact, the treaty was later modified by a new agreement between the state and the Church in 1984 (under Prime Minister Bettino Craxi), according to which Catholicism ceased to be the state religion.


title: Religion in Italy

text: Freedom of religion is also recognised, with "all religious denominations" having "the right of self-organisation according to their own statutes, provided these do not conflict with Italian law"; "[t]heir relations with the state are regulated by law, based on agreements with their respective representatives" (article 8). Having an agreement with the Italian government is not needed in order to appoint chaplains in hospitals and jails and to be partially financed by taxpayers' money. Since 1984, the Italian government has signed thirteen such agreements and eleven have been approved by the Italian Parliament and signed into law, including the following:


title: Religion in Italy

text: Under the eight per thousand system, Italian taxpayers can choose to whom devolve a compulsory "Eight per thousand tax" of 0.8% from their annual income tax return between an organised religion recognised by Italy or, alternatively, to a social assistance scheme run by the government. In the latest available year (2012), 15,226,291 taxpayers chose the Catholic Church, 562,313 the Union of Methodist and Waldensian Churches, 72,238 the Union of Jewish Communities in Italy, 47,859 the Lutheran Evangelical Church in Italy, 44,229 the Evangelical Christian Churches Assemblies of God in Italy, and 29,448 the Italian Union of Seventh-day Adventist Christian Churches. The "Eight per thousand tax" has thus disproportionately helped some minor denominations, particularly the Waldensians.


title: Esther Smith

text: Esther Smith is an English actress best known for her work in the television series "Uncle", "Cuckoo" and "Trying". She is also known for originating the role of Delphi Diggory in the play "Harry Potter and the Cursed Child".


title: Esther Smith

text: Smith was raised in Stourbridge, West Midlands. Her parents are teachers, and she has a sister, Rachel. Smith began dancing when she was three and was active in her local pantomime company. She studied ballet and contemporary dance at King Edward VI College in Stourbridge, where she began acting, before moving to the Guildford School of Acting at the urging of a teacher.


title: Esther Smith

text: Shortly after leaving drama school, Smith rose to prominence in 2010 for her role as Trish in "Material Girl". She has since had guest appearances on "Skins" and "The Midnight Beast".


title: Esther Smith

text: In 2014, she replaced Tamla Kari as Rachel for the second series of "Cuckoo" on BBC Three. She also starred in the ITV2 comedy "Cockroaches" and had a recurring role on another BBC Three sitcom, "Uncle", as Melodie.


title: Esther Smith

text: In April 2015, Smith starred in Channel 4 show "Ballot Monkeys", as assistant to the Liberal Democrats candidate. In February 2016, she appeared in "Siblings" as Holly, an old flame of Dan's from Circus School.


title: Esther Smith

text: She was part of the original cast of "Harry Potter" play "Harry Potter and the Cursed Child", portraying Delphi Diggory. In October 2017 she appeared in "Parliament Square" as Kat at the Royal Exchange, Manchester.


title: Esther Smith

text: In May 2020, Smith began appearing in Apple TV+ original "Trying" in the lead role of Nikki. Season 2 premiered on 21 May 2021. Season 3 premiered on 22 July 2022.


title: Saint-Rémy-de-Provence

text: Saint-Rémy-de-Provence (; Provençal Occitan: "Sant Romieg de Provença" in classical and "Sant Roumié de Prouvènço" in Mistralian norms) is a commune in the Bouches-du-Rhône department, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Southern France. Located in the northern part of the Alpilles, of which it is the main town, it had a population of 9,893 in 2017.


title: Saint-Rémy-de-Provence

text: The town, which has been inhabited since Prehistory, was named after Saint Remigius under the Latin name "Villa Sancti Remigii".


title: Saint-Rémy-de-Provence

text: From May 1889 to May 1890, Vincent van Gogh was a patient at the Saint-Paul Asylum in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence, and painted some of his most memorable works, including The Starry Night, which features the town.


title: Saint-Rémy-de-Provence

text: Saint-Rémy-de-Provence is situated about south of Avignon, just north of the Alpilles mountain range.


title: Saint-Rémy-de-Provence

text: The Avignon-TGV high-speed train station is 20 km from the city. The closest airports are located in Avignon, Nîmes, and Marseille.


title: Saint-Rémy-de-Provence

text: Also, there are several highways and main roads which serve Saint-Remy. The A7 autoroute, which runs down the Rhone valley and connects Lyon to Marseille via Orange is about east of Saint Remy. The A54 autoroute runs from Nîmes to Salon-de-Provence, and passes through Arles, away.


title: Saint-Rémy-de-Provence

text: The climate in the Alpilles is considered Mediterranean. Winters there are gentle and dry, and summers are hot and dry. The highest average temperature is recorded in July and August , and the lowest in December and January . The rainiest month is January with an average of 7 rainy days, compared with July, the driest month, with an average of 2 rainy days. The Alpilles region receives more precipitation than the French Rivera, 1–2 cm more per year. There are about 30 days of frost per year. Snow is rare, but can be heavy when it does fall.


title: Saint-Rémy-de-Provence

text: The ruins of the Roman city of Glanum, including a triumphal arch, can still be seen on the southern outskirts of the city.


title: Saint-Rémy-de-Provence

text: The Saint-Paul Asylum in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence is where Vincent van Gogh was a patient, from May 1889 to May 1890, and where he painted some of his most memorable works, including The Starry Night which features the town. The site is now named the Clinique Van Gogh for him.


title: Salman the Persian

text: Salman the Persian or Salmān al-Fārsī (), born Rūzbeh Khoshnūdān (), was a Persian companion (Sahaba) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He was raised as a Zoroastrian in Sasanian Persia, then attracted to Christianity, and then converted to Islam after meeting Muhammad in the city of Yathrib, which later became Medina. During some of his later meetings with the other Sahabah, he was referred to by the kunyah "Abu ʿAbdullah" ("Father of Abdullah"). At his suggestion a trench was dug (a Sasanian military technique) around Medina when it was attacked by the Meccan Quraysh in the Battle of the Trench.


title: Salman the Persian

text: According to some traditions, he was appointed as the governor of Al-Mada'in in Iraq, and in popular tradition, Muhammad considered Salman as being part of his household. He was a follower of Ali ibn Abi Talib after the death of Muhammad.


title: Salman the Persian

text: Salman was a Persian born with the name Rouzbeh Khoshnudan in the city of Kazerun in Fars Province, or Isfahan in Isfahan Province. In a hadith, Salman also traced his ancestry to Ramhormoz. The first sixteen years of his life were devoted to studying to become a Zoroastrian "magus" or priest after which he became the guardian of a fire temple. Three years later in 587 he met a Nestorian Christian group and was impressed by them. Against the wishes of his father, he left his family to join them. His family imprisoned him afterwards to prevent him but he escaped.


title: Salman the Persian

text: He traveled around the Middle East to discuss his ideas with priests, theologians and scholars in his quest for the truth. During his stay in Syria, he heard of Muhammad, whose coming had been predicted by Salman's last Christian teacher on his deathbed. Afterwards and during his journey to the Arabian Peninsula, he was betrayed and sold to a Jew in Medina. After meeting Muhammad, he recognized the signs that the monk had described to him. He converted to Islam and secured his freedom with the help of Muhammad.


title: Salman the Persian

text: Abu Hurairah is said to have referred to Salman as "Abu al-Kitabayn" ("the father of the two books"; that is, the Bible and the Quran), and Ali is said to have referred to him as "Luqman al-Hakeem" ("Luqman the wise," a reference to a wise man mentioned in the Quran). When ever people inquired about his ancestry, Salman is said to have replied: "I am Salman, the son of Islam from the child of Adam."


title: Salman the Persian

text: Salman came up with the idea of digging a great trench around the Medina, to defend the city against the army of 10,000 Arabian non-Muslims. Muhammad and his companions accepted Salman's plan because it was safer, and there would be a better chance that the non-Muslim army would have a larger number of casualties.


title: Salman the Persian

text: While some sources gather Salman with the "Muhajirun", other sources narrate that during the Battle of the Trench, one of Muhajirun stated "Salman is one of us, Muhajirun", but this was challenged by the Muslims of Medina (also known as the "Ansar"). A lively argument began between the two groups with each of them claiming Salman belonged to their group and not to the other one. Muhammad arrived on the scene and heard the argument. He was amused by the claims but soon put an end to the argument by saying: "Salman is neither Muhajir nor Ansar. He is one of us. He is one of the People of the House."


title: Salman the Persian

text: Salman participated in the conquest of the Sasanian Empire, and became the first governor of Sasanid capital Ctesiphon, after its fall at the time of the second Rashidun Caliph, Umar ibn Al-Khattab. However, according to some other sources, after Muhammad's death, he disappeared from public life until 656, when Ali became the Caliph, and appointed Salman as the governor of Al-Mada'in at the age of 88.


title: Salman the Persian

text: He translated the Quran into Farsi or Persian, thus becoming the first person to interpret and translate the Quran into a foreign language. Salman is said to have written the following poem on his enshrouding cotton:


title: Salman the Persian

text: Salman used to cut the hair of Muhammad at the time, inspiring plates in Turkish barber shops with the verse:


title: Salman the Persian

text: One source states that he died in 32 A.H. / 652 or 653 C.E. in the Julian calendar. while another source says he died during Uthman's era in 35 A.H. / 655 or 656 C.E. Other sources state that he died during Ali's reign. His tomb is located in Salman Al-Farsi Mosque in Al-Mada'in, or according to some others, in Isfahan, Jerusalem or elsewhere.


title: Salman the Persian

text: Shi'ites, Twelvers in particular, hold Salman in high esteem for a "hadith" attributed to him, in which all twelve Imāms were mentioned to him by name, from Muhammad. Salman, along with Abu Dharr, Ammar ibn Yasir, and Miqdad ibn Aswad, is considered to be the four loftiest of the Shi'a. Ali Asgher Razwy, a 20th-century Shia Twelver Islamic scholar states:


title: Salman the Persian

text: Salman is also well known as a prominent figure in Sufi traditions. Sufi orders such as Qadriyya and Bektashiyya and Naqshbandi have Salman in their Isnad of their brotherhood. In the Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi order and Naqshbandi order, Salman is the third person in the chain connecting devotees with Muhammad. The members of associations also regarded Salman as one of their founders, along with Ali ibn Abi Talib.


title: Salman the Persian

text: Druze tradition honors several "mentors" and "prophets", and Salman is honored as a prophet, and as an incarnation of the monotheistic idea.


title: Salman the Persian

text: As to the signs of the invisible heaven, there appeared four men who successively announced unto the people the joyful tidings of the rise of that divine Luminary. Rúz-bih, later named Salmán, was honoured by being in their service. As the end of one of these approached, he would send Rúz-bih unto the other, until the fourth who, feeling his death to be nigh, addressed Rúz-bih saying: 'O Rúz-bih! when thou hast taken up my body and buried it, go to Hijáz for there the Day-star of Muhammad will arise. Happy art thou, for thou, shalt behold His face!'


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: The Epistle to the Ephesians is the tenth book of the New Testament. Its authorship has traditionally been attributed to Paul the Apostle but starting in 1792, this has been challenged as Deutero-Pauline, that is, pseudepigrapha written in Paul's name by a later author strongly influenced by Paul's thought, probably "by a loyal disciple to sum up Paul's teaching and to apply it to a new situation fifteen to twenty-five years after the Apostle's death".


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: According to New Testament scholar Daniel Wallace, the theme may be stated pragmatically as "Christians, get along with each other! Maintain the unity practically which Christ has effected positionally by his death."


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: Another major theme in Ephesians is the keeping of Christ's body (that is, the Church) pure and holy.


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: In the second part of the letter, Ephesians 4:17–6:20, the author gives practical advice in how to live a holy, pure, and Christ-inspired lifestyle.


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: According to tradition, the Apostle Paul wrote the letter while he was in prison in Rome (around AD 62). This would be about the same time as the Epistle to the Colossians (which in many points it resembles) and the Epistle to Philemon. However, many critical scholars have questioned the authorship of the letter and suggest that it may have been written between AD 80 and 100.


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: The first verse in the letter identifies Paul as its author. While early lists of New Testament books, including the Muratorian fragment and possibly Marcion's canon (if it is to be equated with the Epistle to the Laodiceans), attribute the letter to Paul, more recently there have been challenges to Pauline authorship on the basis of the letter's characteristically non-Pauline syntax, terminology, and eschatology.


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: Biblical scholar Harold Hoehner, surveying 279 commentaries written between 1519 and 2001, found that 54% favored Pauline authorship, 39% concluded against Pauline authorship and 7% remained uncertain. Norman Perrin and Dennis C. Duling found that of six authoritative scholarly references, "four of the six decide for pseudonymity, and the other two (Peake's Commentary on the Bible and the Jerome Biblical Commentary) recognize the difficulties in maintaining Pauline authorship. Indeed, the difficulties are insurmountable." Bible scholar Raymond E. Brown asserts that about 80% of critical scholarship judges that Paul did not write Ephesians.


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: There are four main theories in biblical scholarship that address the question of Pauline authorship.


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: While most English translations indicate that the letter was addressed to "the saints who are in Ephesus" (1:1), the words "in Ephesus" do not appear in the best and earliest manuscripts of the letter, leading most textual critics, like Bart Ehrman, to regard the words as an interpolation. This lack of any internal references to Ephesus in the early manuscripts may have led Marcion, a second-century heresiarch who created the first New Testament canon, to believe that the letter was actually addressed to the church at Laodicea, for details see Epistle to the Laodiceans.


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: Furthermore, if Paul is regarded as the author, the impersonal character of the letter, which lacks personal greetings or any indication that the author has personal knowledge of his recipients, is incongruous with the account in Acts of Paul staying more than two years in Ephesus. For these reasons, most regard Ephesians to be a circular letter intended for many churches. The Jerusalem Bible notes that some critics think the words "who are…" would have been followed by a blank to be filled in with the name of "whichever church was being sent the letter".


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: If Paul was the author of the letter, then it was probably written from Rome during Paul's first imprisonment, and probably soon after his arrival there in the year 62, four years after he had parted with the Ephesian elders at Miletus. However, scholars who dispute Paul's authorship date the letter to between 70 and 80 AD. In the latter case, the possible location of the authorship could have been within the church of Ephesus itself. Ignatius of Antioch himself seemed to be very well versed in the epistle to the Ephesians, and mirrors many of his own thoughts in his own epistle to the Ephesians.


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: Paul's first and hurried visit for the space of three months to Ephesus is recorded in Acts 18:19–21. The work he began on this occasion was carried forward by Apollos and Aquila and Priscilla. On his second visit early in the following year, he remained at Ephesus "three years", for he found it was the key to the western provinces of Asia Minor. Here "a great door and effectual" was opened to him, and the church was established and strengthened by his diligent labours there. From Ephesus the gospel spread abroad "almost throughout all Asia." The word "mightily grew and prevailed" despite all the opposition and persecution he encountered.


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: On his last journey to Jerusalem, the apostle landed at Miletus and, summoning together the elders of the church from Ephesus, delivered to them a farewell charge, expecting to see them no more.


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: The purpose of the epistle, and to whom it was written, are matters of much speculation. It was regarded by C.H. Dodd as the "crown of Paulinism." In general, it is born out of its particular socio-historical context and the situational context of both the author and the audience. Originating in the circumstance of a multicultural church (primarily Jewish and Hellenistic), the author addressed issues appropriate to the diverse religious and cultural backgrounds present in the community.


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: The author exhorts the church repeatedly to embrace a specific view of salvation, which he then explicates.


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: Frank Charles Thompson argues that the main theme of Ephesians is in response to the newly converted Jews who often separated themselves from their Gentile brethren. The unity of the church, especially between Jew and Gentile believers, is the keynote of the book.


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: Ephesians is notable for its domestic code treatment in Ephesians 5:22–6:9, covering husband-wife, parent-child, and master-slave relationships. In Ephesians 5:22, wives are urged to submit to their husbands, and husbands to love their wives "as Christ loved the Church." Christian Egalitarian theologians, such as Katharine Bushnell and Jessie Penn-Lewis, interpret these commands in the context of the preceding verse, for all Christians to "submit to one another." Thus, it is two-way, mutual submission of both husbands to wives and wives to husbands. But according to Peter O'Brien, Professor Emeritus at Moore Theological College, this would be the only instance of this meaning of submission in the whole New Testament, indeed in any extant comparable Greek texts; by O'Brien's account, the word simply does not connote mutuality. Dallas Theological Seminary professor Daniel Wallace understands it to be an extension of Ephesians 5:15-21 on being filled by the Holy Spirit.


title: Epistle to the Ephesians

text: In the period leading up to the American Civil War (1861–65), Ephesians 6:5 on master-slave relationships was one of the Bible verses used by Confederate slaveholders in support of a slaveholding position.


title: Malia Jones

text: Jones was born in Loma Linda, California, and moved to Kailua, Hawaii, at the age of two. Jones is of Hawaiian, Spanish-Filipino, German and English descent. She began to surf competitively in her early teens, and at age 15 won the girls' division of the United States Amateur Surfing Championship. "Surfing Magazine" spotted her while she was competing and asked her to model for their swimsuit issue, and thus a second career was born.


title: Malia Jones

text: Since then, she has appeared on the cover of over a dozen magazines, and has been named one of the "50 Most Beautiful People" by "People" magazine, and one of America's "10 Sexiest Athletes" by "Esquire". She has also been a "Sports Illustrated" swimsuit model. Jones has done TV commercials for American Express, Capri Sun, Coca-Cola, Corona Beer, and VO5 shampoo. Jones was also a consultant for the Disney movie "Lilo & Stitch". She also designs a line of swimwear for Mambo Graphics sportswear.


title: Malia Jones

text: She married surfer Conan Hayes in 1999 then divorced. In 2007, she married Australian professional surfer Luke Stedman. In 2009, she gave birth to the couple's son, Spike. Jones divided her time between Hawaii, France and Sydney, Australia.


title: Malia Jones

text: Her son with actor Alex O'Loughlin, Lion, was born in 2012. Jones and O'Loughlin married in Hawaii on April 18, 2014. They and their three sons (O'Loughlin's son, O'Loughlin and Jones's son, and Jones's son from her previous marriage) live in Hawaii.


title: Going Seventeen (web series)

text: Going Seventeen (, also known as GoSe) is a South Korean variety web series starring boy band Seventeen. The series has been offered for free viewing on YouTube and V Live (then later, on Weverse) since its premiere on June 12, 2017. It features the band members participating in a variety of activities depending on an episode's main concept, ranging from games or completing challenges to skits, role playing and get-togethers.


title: Going Seventeen (web series)

text: The show started primarily with a video blog / behind-the-scenes format in its first seasons, featuring the band's various activities across their career with intermittent variety-type episodes. In 2019, it formally transitioned to the variety show format, and it aired weekly on Mondays at 10:10 p.m. (22:10) KST since January 2020. It began airing on Wednesdays at 21:00 KST since the start of its fifth season in April 2021. Throughout its broadcast history, the show garnered positive reviews for providing quality content that can be enjoyed by anyone in and outside the band's fandom, with cumulative views exceeding 270 million as of January 2022.


title: Going Seventeen (web series)

text: All episodes in this season except for the final episode (Episode 29) are in video blog / behind-the-scenes format, featuring Seventeen's various activities across their career. Episode 29 is in a talk show format.


title: Going Seventeen (web series)

text: This season marks "Going Seventeen"'s change of format, transitioning from video blog (Episodes 1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 12 and 13) to variety show (Episodes 3, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 14 and onwards). It is also in this season when the show first used its opening and ending theme songs.


title: Going Seventeen (web series)

text: This season consists of episodes that are part of Seventeen's "Monthly Seventeen" project (from "Going Seventeen" 2019's Eps. 27-28: "The Secret Life of Going Sevong"), wherein each member contributes an episode concept that will be featured per month within the season's period.


title: Going Seventeen (web series)

text: The soundtrack of "Going Seventeen" includes the show's opening and ending theme songs which are both composed by Seventeen band members Woozi, Jeonghan, Hoshi, DK and Seungkwan. Both are performed by the entire band and debuted on 17 June 2019 in the eighth episode of "Going Seventeen" 2019.


title: Going Seventeen (web series)

text: The production of the opening theme song (and its corresponding title sequence for the season) and the ending theme song were documented and featured in the sixth and seventh episodes of "Going Seventeen" 2019. In Episode 6: "Making the "Going Seventeen" Opening Song" (aired 20 May 2019), it was revealed that Woozi pre-produced four instrumentals and let his co-composers choose which among them will be fitting to be the opening and ending theme music. The composers then wrote the lyrics and recorded demo versions of the songs, with Woozi handling the production. Later, the entire band unanimously approved the songs and discussed the production of the songs' final versions and the filming of the show's title sequence. The behind-the-scenes of the recording of the songs and the filming of the title sequence are featured in Episode 7: "Making the "Going Seventeen" Opening Video" (aired 3 June 2019).


title: Going Seventeen (web series)

text: On April 1, 2021, South Korean cable television network JTBC announced a 10-week long Spring special programming block of content from Hybe Labels artists. "Going Seventeen" was included in the lineup for Seventeen. In addition, two new episodes from the series, 'Treasure Island: 13 Raiders', premiered on television first, and later on YouTube and Weverse.


title: Going Seventeen (web series)

text: "Going Seventeen" has been praised for being content that can be enjoyed by anyone regardless of generation, nationality, and fandom. It breaks the notion of 'K-pop content enjoyed only by fans' and is expanding the audience enough to build a fandom of its own. The show has often been labeled 'National Web Variety Show' and even 'K-pop's Infinite Challenge' by various media outlets.


title: Going Seventeen (web series)

text: As of January 2022, "Going Seventeen" surpassed 270 million cumulative views with just two seasons in 2020 and 2021, and averaged over 3.62 million and 2.44 million views per episode, respectively.


title: K-Y Jelly

text: K-Y Jelly is a water-based, water-soluble personal lubricant, most commonly used as a lubricant for sexual intercourse and masturbation. A variety of different products and formulas are produced under the K-Y banner, some of which are not water-soluble.


title: K-Y Jelly

text: Introduced in January 1904 by pharmaceutical company and suture manufacturer Van Horn and Sawtell of New York City, and later acquired by Johnson & Johnson, K-Y Jelly's original stated purpose was as a surgical lubricant, and it was often chosen by doctors because of its natural base. The product is now more widely used as a sexual lubricant to supplement the moisture required for performing sexual acts.


title: K-Y Jelly

text: Unlike petroleum-based lubricants, K-Y jelly is biologically inert, reacting with neither latex condoms nor silicone-based sex toys, and contains no added colors or perfumes. It is non-staining and easy to clean up. Despite having a thick consistency and a tendency to dry out during use, it can be "reactivated" by the addition of saliva or water.


title: K-Y Jelly

text: The product contains no spermicide and thus cannot be used to prevent pregnancy. A formulation containing nonoxynol-9 was removed from the market after the spermicide was found to facilitate the spread of HIV.


title: K-Y Jelly

text: K-Y NG uses glycerin and hydroxyethyl cellulose as the lubricant, with chlorhexidine gluconate, glucono delta-lactone, methylparaben and sodium hydroxide as antiseptic and preservative additives. The liquid form of the product combines glycerin with propylene glycol, sorbitol, and Natrosol 250H (a brand of hydroxyethyl cellulose) for lubrication, with benzoic acid, methylparaben and sodium hydroxide as additives.


title: K-Y Jelly

text: In addition to its use as a personal lubricant, K-Y Jelly is employed by clinicians to perform prostate and gynecological examinations.


title: K-Y Jelly

text: It is used by dentists to cover composite restorations when light curing. This prevents the oxygen inhibitation layer which causes marginal discolouration of restorations.


title: K-Y Jelly

text: It is also used by special effects technicians to create a "slimy" appearance or simulate saliva for animatronic monsters, most notably the "Alien" series.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: The Kawasaki Ki-61 "Hien" (飛燕, "flying swallow") is a Japanese World War II fighter aircraft. Used by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service, it was designated the "Army Type 3 Fighter" (三式戦闘機). Allied intelligence initially believed Ki-61s were Messerschmitt Bf 109s and later an Italian Macchi C.202, which led to the Allied reporting name of "Tony", assigned by the United States War Department. The design originated as a variant of the Kawasaki Ki-60, which never entered production. The Ki-61 became the only mass-produced Japanese fighter of the war to use a liquid-cooled inline V engine. Over 3,000 Ki-61s were produced. Initial prototypes saw action over Yokohama during the Doolittle Raid on 18 April 1942, and continued to fly combat missions throughout the war.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: The Ki-61 was designed by Takeo Doi and his deputy Shin Owada in response to a late 1939 tender by the "Koku Hombu" for two fighters, each to be built around the Daimler-Benz DB 601Aa. Production aircraft would use a Kawasaki licensed DB 601, known as the "Ha-40", which was to be manufactured at its Akashi plant. The Ki-60 was to be a heavily armed specialised interceptor, with a high wing loading; the Ki-61 was to be a more lightly loaded and armed general-purpose fighter, intended to be used mainly in an offensive, air superiority role at low to medium altitudes.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: Both single-seat, single-engine fighters used the same basic construction: all-metal alloys with semi-monocoque fuselages and three-spar wings, with alloy-framed, fabric-covered ailerons, elevators and rudders. Priority was given to the Ki-60, which first flew in April 1941, while design work on the Ki-61 did not begin until December 1940. Although the Ki-61 was broadly similar to the Ki-60, it featured several refinements exploiting lessons learned from the disappointing flight characteristics of the earlier design.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: The all-metal, semi-monocoque fuselage was basically oval in cross-section, changing to a tapered, semi-triangular oval behind the cockpit canopy, with a maximum depth of 1.35 m (4 ft 5 in). An unusual feature of the Ki-61 was that the engine bearers were constructed as an integral part of the forward fuselage, with the cowling side panels being fixed. For servicing or replacement, only the top and bottom cowling panels could be removed. A tapered, rectangular supercharger air intake was located on the port-side cowling. Behind the engine bulkhead were the ammunition boxes feeding a pair of synchronized 12.7 mm (.50 in) Ho-103 machine guns which were set in a "staggered" configuration (the port weapon slightly further forward than that to starboard) in a bay just above and behind the engine. The breeches partly projected into the cockpit, above the instrument panel. The Ho-103 was a light weapon for its caliber (around 23 kg/51 lb) and fired a light shell, but this was compensated for by its rapid rate of fire. The ammunition capacity was limited, having only around 250 rounds for each weapon. A self-sealing fuel tank with a capacity of 165 L (44 US gal) was located behind the pilot's seat. The windshield was armored and there was a 13 mm (.51 in) armor plate behind the pilot. The radiator and oil cooler for the liquid-cooled engine were in a ventral location below the fuselage and wing trailing edge, covered by a rectangular section fairing with a large, adjustable exit flap.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: The evenly-tapered wings had an aspect ratio of 7.2 with a gross area of 20 m (215.28 ft) and featured three spars; a Warren truss main spar and two auxiliary spars. The rear spar carried the split flaps and long, narrow-chord ailerons, while the front spar incorporated the undercarriage pivot points. The undercarriage track was relatively wide at 4 m (13 ft 1.5 in). Each wing had a partially self-sealing 190 L (50 US gal) fuel tank behind the main spar, just outboard of the fuselage. A single weapon (initially a 7.7 mm/0.303 in Type 89 machine gun) was able to be carried in a weapons bay located behind the main spar.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: The first prototype of the "San-shiki-Sentohki ichi gata" ("Type 3 Fighter, Model 1", the official IJAAF designation) first flew in December 1941 at Kagamigahara Airfield. Although test pilots were enthusiastic about its self-sealing fuel tanks, upgraded armament, and good dive performance, the wing loading of 146.3 kg/m (30 lb/ft) at an all-up weight of 2,950 kg (6,500 lb) was viewed with scepticism by many of the senior officers of the "Koku Hombu", who still believed in the light, highly manoeuvrable, lightly armed fighter epitomised by the then new Nakajima Ki-43-I-"Hei" which had a wing loading of 92.6 kg/m (19 lb/ft) (and even that was considered borderline compared to the earlier Ki-27).


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: To address these concerns, Kawasaki staged a fly-off between two Ki-61 prototypes and the Nakajima Ki-43-I, a pre-production Nakajima Ki-44-I, a defector-flown Lavochkin-Gorbunov-Goudkov LaGG-3, a Messerschmitt Bf 109E-7, and a captured Curtiss P-40E Warhawk. The Ki-61 proved the fastest of all the aircraft and was inferior only to the Ki-43 in manoeuvrability.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: The Ki-61 was the last of the fighters powered by the DB-601 or its foreign derivatives, and it was soon overshadowed by fighters with more powerful engines. By the time it first flew in December 1941, one year after the Macchi C.202's first flight and three years after the first Bf 109E, the engine was already underpowered compared to the new 1,120 kW (1,500 hp) inline or 1,491 kW (2,000 hp) radial engines being developed (and already nearing the mass-production stage) to power the next generation of combat aircraft such as the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt. Moreover, the inline Ha-40 engine proved to be an unreliable powerplant.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: The DB-601 engine required precise and sophisticated manufacturing; the Ha-40 was lighter by roughly 30 kg (70 lb) and required even higher manufacturing standards. Reaching these standards proved difficult for Japanese manufacturers, an issue further complicated by the variable quality of materials, fuel, and the lubricants needed to run a sensitive, high-performance engine. The Japanese equivalent of the more powerful DB-605 engine was the Kawasaki Ha-140, which was fitted onto the Type 3 to produce the Ki-61-II high-altitude interceptor.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: Compared to the Ki-61-I, the Ki-61-II had 10% greater wing area, used more armour and was powered by the Kawasaki Ha-140 engine generating 1,120 kW (1,500 hp). After overcoming initial fuselage and wing stability problems, the new interceptor reverted to the original wing and was put into service as the Ki-61-II-KAI. However, the Ha-140 engine had severe reliability problems that were never fully resolved, and around half of the first batch of engines delivered were returned to the factory to be re-built. A US bombing raid on 19 January 1945 destroyed the engine factory in Akashi, Hyōgo, and 275 Ki-61-II-KAI airframes without engines were converted to use the Mitsubishi Ha-112-II radial engine, resulting in the Ki-100. While the Ha-112 solved the problems encountered with the Ha-140, the new engine still had a major weakness: a lack of power at altitude, which diminished its ability to intercept high-flying B-29 Superfortresses relative to the Ki-61-II.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: During testing, the "Hien" proved capable, but several shortcomings were subsequently revealed in operational service, namely the armor protection that was insufficient against larger guns and a sub-standard engine that eventually led to a new engine being considered.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: The Ki-61 looked so different from the usual radial-engined Japanese fighters that the Allies at first believed it to be of German or Italian origin, possibly a license-built Messerschmitt Bf 109. The first Ki-61 seen by Allied aircrew had been misidentified as a Bf 109 by USAAF Capt. C. Ross Greening during the Doolittle Raid. In early reports, when it was thought to have been a German fighter, the Ki-61 had been code-named "Mike". The final, and better known code name adopted was "Tony", because the Ki-61 looked like an Italian aircraft.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: The new Ki-61 "Hien" fighters entered service with a special training unit, the 23rd "Chutai", and entered combat for the first time in early 1943, during the New Guinea campaign. The first "Sentai" (Air Group/Wing) fully equipped with the "Hien" was the 68th in Wewak, New Guinea, followed by the 78th "Sentai" stationed at Rabaul. Both units were sent into a difficult theatre where jungles and adverse weather conditions, coupled with a lack of spares, quickly undermined the efficiency of both men and machines. Because the Ki-61 was so new, and had been rushed into service, it inevitably suffered from teething problems. Almost all of the modern Japanese aircraft engines, especially the Ki-61's liquid-cooled engines, suffered a disastrous series of failures and ongoing problems, which resulted in the obsolescent Ki-43 still forming the bulk of the JAAF's fighter capability.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: Initially, this campaign went successfully for the Japanese Army Air Force (JAAF), but when the Allies re-organized and enhanced the combat capabilities of their air forces, they gained the upper hand against the JAAF. High non-combat losses were also experienced by the Japanese during this campaign. For example, while in transit between Truk and Rabaul, the 78th lost 18 of its 30 Ki-61s.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: Even with these problems, there was some concern in Allied aviation circles regarding the "Hien." The new Japanese fighter caused some pain and consternation among Allied pilots, particularly when they found out the hard way that they could no longer go into a dive and escape as they had from lighter Japanese fighters. General George Kenney, the Allied air forces commander in the Southwest Pacific, found his Curtiss P-40s completely outclassed, and begged for more Lockheed P-38 Lightnings to counter the threat of the new enemy fighter.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: However, the increasing numerical strength of Allied bomber units, along with inadequate anti-aircraft systems, imposed crippling losses on Japanese units. Approximately 174 out of 200 Japanese aircraft based in the Wewak area were lost during the attacks of August 17–21 1943. By the end of the campaign, nearly 2,000 Japanese aircraft had been lost in air attacks from up to 200 Allied aircraft at a time, around half of which were Consolidated B-24 Liberators and North American B-25 Mitchells armed with fragmentation bombs. After the Japanese retreat, over 340 aircraft wrecks were later found at Hollandia.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: The Ki-61 was also utilised in Southeast Asia, Okinawa, China and as an interceptor during US bombing raids over the Japanese home islands, including against Boeing B-29 Superfortresses. The Ki-61 was notable for many reasons: initially identified as of either German or Italian origin, these aircraft were capable of matching Allied aircraft such as the P-40 in speed, and as evaluation had already shown, were superior in almost every respect. However, the armament of the early "Hien" was lighter, but still sufficient for most purposes. Some authors claim that the Lockheed P-38 Lightning was measurably superior. The Ki-61 carried a great deal of fuel, but due to having self-sealing fuel tanks it was not considered readily flammable, as many other Japanese aircraft were.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: Owing to the additional weight, the Ki-61's performance and agility suffered when its armament was increased, but it still remained capable with a 580 km/h (313 kn) maximum speed. The cannon armament was needed to counter the Allied bombers, which proved to be difficult to shoot down with only 12.7 mm (.50 in) machine guns. The empty and maximum weights for the Ki-61 prototype (2 × 12.7 mm/0.50 in + 2 × 7.7 mm/0.303 in) were 2,238 kg (4,934 lb) and 2,950 kg (6,504 lb), respectively; for the Ki-61-I basic (4 × 12.7 mm/.50 in) 3,130 kg (6,900 lb); and for the Ki-61-KAI (2 × 12.7 mm/0.50 in + 2 × 20 mm), 2,630 kg (5,798 lb) and 3,470 kg (6,750 lb).


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: A number of Ki-61s were also used in "Tokkotai" ("kamikaze") missions launched toward the end of the war. The Ki-61 was delivered to 15th "Sentai" (group/wing), as well as some individual "Chutaicho" (Squadron Leaders) in other "Sentai", and even to operational training units in the JAAF. The aircraft was largely trouble-free in service except for the liquid-cooled engine which tended to overheat when idling on the ground and suffered from oil circulation and bearing problems.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: The tactic of using aircraft to ram American Boeing B-29 Superfortresses was first recorded in late August 1944, when B-29s from Chinese airfields attempted to bomb the steel factories at Yawata. Sergeant Shigeo Nobe of the 4th "Sentai" intentionally flew his Kawasaki Ki-45 into a B-29; debris from the explosion severely damaged another B-29, which also went down. Other attacks of this nature followed, as a result of which individual pilots determined it was a practicable way of destroying B-29s.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: On 7 November 1944, the officer commanding the 10th "Hiko Shidan" (Air division) made ramming attacks a matter of policy by forming ramming attack flights specifically to oppose the B-29s at high altitude. The aircraft were stripped of their fuselage armament and protective systems in order to attain the required altitudes. Although the term ""kamikaze"" is often used to refer to the pilots undertaking these attacks, the word was not used by the Japanese military.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: The units assigned to the 10th "Hiko Shidan" included the 244th "Hiko Sentai" (Fighter group), then commanded by Captain Takashi Fujita, who organised a ramming flight called ""Hagakure-Tai"" ("Special Attack Unit"), which was composed out of volunteers from the three "Chutai" (squadrons) of the 244th: the 1st "Chutai" ""Soyokaze"", 2nd "Chutai" ""Toppu"", and the 3rd "Chutai" known as ""Mikazuki"".


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: First Lieutenant Toru Shinomiya was selected to lead the "Hagakure-Tai". On 3 December 1944, Shinomiya – along with Sergeant Masao Itagaki and Sergeant Matsumi Nakano – intercepted a B-29 raid; Shinomaya rammed one B-29, but was able to land his damaged Ki-61, which had lost most of the port outer wing, back at base. After attacking another B-29 Itagaki had to parachute from his damaged fighter, while Nakano rammed and damaged "Long Distance" of the 498th BG and crash-landed his stripped-down Ki-61 in a field. Shinomaya's damaged Ki-61 was later displayed inside Tokyo's "Matsuya" department store while Nakano's Ki-61 was displayed outside, alongside of a life-size cut-away drawing of the forward fuselage of a B-29. These three pilots were the first recipients of the "Bukosho", Japan's equivalent to the Victoria Cross or Medal of Honor, which had been inaugurated on 7 December 1944 as an Imperial Edict by Emperor Hirohito (there are 89 known recipients, most of whom fought and scored against B-29s). The existence of the ramming unit had been kept confidential until then, but it was officially disclosed in the combat results announcement and officially named ""Shinten Seiku Tai"" ("Body Attack Detachment") by the Defense GHQ. On 27 January 1945, Itakagi survived another ramming attack on a B-29, again parachuting to safety, and received a second "Bukosho"; he survived the war as only one of two known double-"Bukosho" recipients. Sergeant Shigeru Kuroishikawa was another distinguished member of the unit.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: Despite their successful attacks, these pilots gained no reprieve, and were obliged to continue these deadly and dangerous ramming tactics until they were killed, or else wounded so badly that they could no longer fly. They were regarded as doomed men and were celebrated among the ranks of those who were going to certain death as "Tokkotai" ("kamikaze") pilots.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: Some other Ki-61 pilots also achieved renown, among them Major Teruhiko Kobayashi of the 244th Sentai, who was credited by some with a dozen victories mostly due to conventional attacks against B-29s.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: Note: "Ko, Otsu, Hei" and "Tei" are the Japanese equivalents to a, b, c, d. "Kai" ('modified' or 'improved') was also used for some models of the Ki-61.


title: Kawasaki Ki-61

text: The "Hiko Sentai", usually referred to as "Sentai", was the basic operational unit of the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force, composed of three or more "Chutai" (companies or squadrons). A "Sentai" had 27 to 49 aircraft, with each "Chutai" having 16 aircraft and pilots plus a maintenance and repair unit. Several "sentai" had other units under their operational control, most notably the "Hagakure-Tai" ("Special Attack Units") of the 244th "Sentai". By 1944, with the depredations of Allied attacks on supply lines and airfields, as well as the loss of pilots and aircraft through combat attrition and accidents, few "sentai" were able to operate at full strength.


title: Volatility (chemistry)

text: In chemistry, volatility is a material quality which describes how readily a substance vaporizes. At a given temperature and pressure, a substance with high volatility is more likely to exist as a vapour, while a substance with low volatility is more likely to be a liquid or solid. Volatility can also describe the tendency of a vapor to condense into a liquid or solid; less volatile substances will more readily condense from a vapor than highly volatile ones. Differences in volatility can be observed by comparing how fast substances within a group evaporate (or sublimate in the case of solids) when exposed to the atmosphere. A highly volatile substance such as rubbing alcohol (isopropyl alcohol) will quickly evaporate, while a substance with low volatility such as vegetable oil will remain condensed. In general, solids are much less volatile than liquids, but there are some exceptions. Solids that sublimate (change directly from solid to vapor) such as dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) or iodine can vaporize at a similar rate as some liquids under standard conditions.


title: Volatility (chemistry)

text: Volatility itself has no defined numerical value, but it is often described using vapor pressures or boiling points (for liquids). High vapor pressures indicate a high volatility, while high boiling points indicate low volatility. Vapor pressures and boiling points are often presented in tables and charts that can be used to compare chemicals of interest. Volatility data is typically found through experimentation over a range of temperatures and pressures.


title: Volatility (chemistry)

text: Vapor pressure is a measurement of how readily a condensed phase forms a vapor at a given temperature. A substance enclosed in a sealed vessel initially at vacuum (no air inside) will quickly fill any empty space with vapor. After the system reaches equilibrium and no more vapor is formed, this vapor pressure can be measured. Increasing the temperature increases the amount of vapor that is formed and thus the vapor pressure. In a mixture, each substance contributes to the overall vapor pressure of the mixture, with more volatile compounds making a larger contribution.


title: Volatility (chemistry)

text: Boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the surrounding pressure, causing the liquid to rapidly evaporate, or boil. It is closely related to vapor pressure, but is dependent on pressure. The normal boiling point is the boiling point at atmospheric pressure, but it can also be reported at higher and lower pressures.


title: Volatility (chemistry)

text: An important factor influencing a substance's volatility is the strength of the interactions between its molecules. Attractive forces between molecules are what holds materials together, and materials with stronger intermolecular forces, such as most solids, are typically not very volatile. Ethanol and dimethyl ether, two chemicals with the same formula (CHO), have different volatilities due to the different interactions that occur between their molecules in the liquid phase: ethanol molecules are capable of hydrogen bonding while dimethyl ether molecules are not. The result in an overall stronger attractive force between the ethanol molecules, making it the less volatile substance of the two.


title: Volatility (chemistry)

text: In general, volatility tends to decrease with increasing molecular mass because larger molecules can participate in more intermolecular bonding, although other factors such as structure and polarity play a significant role. The effect of molecular mass can be partially isolated by comparing chemicals of similar structure (i.e. esters, alkanes, etc.). For instance, linear alkanes exhibit decreasing volatility as the number of carbons in the chain increases.


title: Volatility (chemistry)

text: Knowledge of volatility is often useful in the separation of components from a mixture. When a mixture of condensed substances contains multiple substances with different levels of volatility, its temperature and pressure can be manipulated such that the more volatile components change to a vapor while the less volatile substances remain in the liquid or solid phase. The newly formed vapor can then be discarded or condensed into a separate container. When the vapors are collected, this process is known as distillation.


title: Volatility (chemistry)

text: The process of petroleum refinement utilizes a technique known as fractional distillation, which allows several chemicals of varying volatility to be separated in a single step. Crude oil entering a refinery is composed of many useful chemicals that need to be separated. The crude oil flows into a distillation tower and is heated up, which allows the more volatile components such as butane and kerosene to vaporize. These vapors move up the tower and eventually come in contact with cold surfaces, which causes them to condense and be collected. The most volatile chemical condense at the top of the column while the least volatile chemicals to vaporize condense in the lowest portion. On the right is a picture illustrating the design of a distillation tower.


title: Volatility (chemistry)

text: The difference in volatility between water and ethanol has traditionally been used in the refinement of drinking alcohol. In order to increase the concentration of ethanol in the product, alcohol makers would heat the initial alcohol mixture to a temperature where most of the ethanol vaporizes while most of the water remains liquid. The ethanol vapor is then collected and condensed in a separate container, resulting in a much more concentrated product.


title: Volatility (chemistry)

text: Volatility is an important consideration when crafting perfumes. Humans detect odors when aromatic vapors come in contact with receptors in the nose. Ingredients that vaporize quickly after being applied will produce fragrant vapors for a short time before the oils evaporate. Slow-evaporating ingredients can stay on the skin for weeks or even months, but may not produce enough vapors to produce a strong aroma. To prevent these problems, perfume designers carefully consider the volatility of essential oils and other ingredients in their perfumes. Appropriate evaporation rates are achieved by modifying the amount of highly volatile and non-volatile ingredients used.


title: Claud Cockburn

text: Francis Claud Cockburn ( ; 12 April 1904 – 15 December 1981) was a British journalist. His saying "believe nothing until it has been officially denied" is widely quoted in journalistic studies, but he did not claim credit for originating it. He was the second cousin, once removed, of the novelists Alec Waugh and Evelyn Waugh. He lived at Brook Lodge, Youghal, County Cork, Ireland.


title: Claud Cockburn

text: Cockburn was "a leading British Communist Party member", and by the 1940s, he was reputed to be a prominent figure in "the Comintern in Western Europe".


title: Claud Cockburn

text: Cockburn was born in Peking (present-day Beijing), China, on 12 April 1904, the son of Henry Cockburn, a British Consul General, and wife Elizabeth Gordon (née Stevenson). His paternal great-grandfather was Scottish judge/biographer Henry Cockburn, Lord Cockburn. Cockburn was educated at Berkhamsted School, Berkhamstead, Hertfordshire, and Keble College, Oxford, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts. At Oxford he was part of the Hypocrites' Club.


title: Claud Cockburn

text: He became a journalist with "The Times" and worked as a foreign correspondent in Germany and the United States before he resigned in 1933 to start his own newsletter, "The Week". It has been claimed that during his spell as a sub-editor on "The Times", Cockburn and colleagues competed (with a small prize for the winner) to write the dullest printed headline. Cockburn only once claimed the honours, with "Small Earthquake in Chile, Not many dead". No copy of "The Times" featuring that headline has been located although it finally appeared decades after the recollection in "Not the Times", a spoof version of the newspaper produced by several journalists at "The Times" in 1979 during the paper's year-long absence because of an industrial dispute.


title: Claud Cockburn

text: Under the alias Frank Pitcairn, Cockburn contributed to the British communist newspaper, the "Daily Worker". In 1936, Harry Pollitt, General Secretary of the Communist Party of Great Britain, asked him to cover the Spanish Civil War. Cockburn joined the Fifth Regiment to report the war as a soldier. While in Spain, he published "Reporter in Spain". According to the editor of a volume of his writings on Spain, Cockburn formed a personal relationship with Mikhail Koltsov, "then the foreign editor of "Pravda" and, in Cockburn's view, 'the confidant and mouthpiece and direct agent of Stalin in Spain'".


title: Claud Cockburn

text: Cockburn's reporting in Spain, as "Frank Pitcairn", was heavily criticised by George Orwell in his 1938 memoir "Homage to Catalonia". Orwell accused Cockburn of being under the control of Stalinist handlers and was critical of Cockburn's depiction of the Barcelona May Days in which Orwell had taken part and during which anti-Stalinist communists and anarchists were caught and executed by NKVD operatives. Specifically, to undermine anti-Stalinist factions on the Republican side, Cockburn falsely reported that the anti-Stalinist figurehead Andrés Nin, who had been tortured and executed by the NKVD, was alive and well after escaping to fascist territory.


title: Claud Cockburn

text: According to writer Adam Hochschild, Cockburn functioned as Stalinist propagandist during the war "on [Communist] Party orders". In one instance, Cockburn claimed to have been an eyewitness to a battle that he totally invented. This hoax was intended to persuade the French prime minister that Francisco Franco's forces were weaker than they appeared and thus make the Republicans seem worthier candidates for help in obtaining arms. The ruse worked, and the French border was opened for a previously-stalled artillery shipment.


title: Claud Cockburn

text: In the late 1930s, Cockburn published a private newspaper, "The Week", which was highly critical of Neville Chamberlain. Cockburn maintained in the 1960s that much of the information in "The Week" had been leaked to him by Sir Robert Vansittart, Permanent Under-Secretary of the Foreign Office.