title: Affine space

text: Given two affine spaces and whose associated vector spaces are formula_1 and formula_28, an "affine map" or "affine homomorphism" from to is a map


title: Affine space

text: Therefore, since for any given in , for a unique , is completely defined by its value on a single point and the associated linear map formula_40.


title: Affine space

text: An "affine transformation" or "endomorphism" of an affine space formula_41 is an affine map from that space to itself. One important family of examples is the translations: given a vector formula_42, the translation map formula_43 that sends formula_44 for every formula_45 in formula_41 is an affine map. Another important family of examples are the linear maps centred at an origin: given a point formula_47 and a linear map formula_48, one may define an affine map formula_49 by


title: Affine space

text: After making a choice of origin formula_47, any affine map may be written uniquely as a combination of a translation and a linear map centred at formula_47.


title: Affine space

text: Every vector space may be considered as an affine space over itself. This means that every element of may be considered either as a point or as a vector. This affine space is sometimes denoted for emphasizing the double role of the elements of . When considered as a point, the zero vector is commonly denoted (or , when upper-case letters are used for points) and called the "origin".


title: Affine space

text: If is another affine space over the same vector space (that is formula_55) the choice of any point in defines a unique affine isomorphism, which is the identity of and maps to . In other words, the choice of an origin in allows us to identify and up to a canonical isomorphism. The counterpart of this property is that the affine space may be identified with the vector space in which "the place of the origin has been forgotten".


title: Affine space

text: Euclidean spaces (including the one-dimensional line, two-dimensional plane, and three-dimensional space commonly studied in elementary geometry, as well as higher-dimensional analogues) are affine spaces.


title: Affine space

text: Indeed, in most modern definitions, a Euclidean space is defined to be an affine space, such that the associated vector space is a real inner product space of finite dimension, that is a vector space over the reals with a positive-definite quadratic form . The inner product of two vectors and is the value of the symmetric bilinear form


title: Affine space

text: In older definition of Euclidean spaces through synthetic geometry, vectors are defined as equivalence classes of ordered pairs of points under equipollence (the pairs and are "equipollent" if the points (in this order) form a parallelogram). It is straightforward to verify that the vectors form a vector space, the square of the Euclidean distance is a quadratic form on the space of vectors, and the two definitions of Euclidean spaces are equivalent.


title: Affine space

text: In Euclidean geometry, the common phrase "affine property" refers to a property that can be proved in affine spaces, that is, it can be proved without using the quadratic form and its associated inner product. In other words, an affine property is a property that does not involve lengths and angles. Typical examples are parallelism, and the definition of a tangent. A non-example is the definition of a normal.


title: Affine space

text: Equivalently, an affine property is a property that is invariant under affine transformations of the Euclidean space.


title: Affine space

text: Now suppose instead that the field elements satisfy formula_63. For some choice of an origin , denote by formula_64 the unique point such that


title: Affine space

text: The point formula_64 is called the barycenter of the formula_70 for the weights formula_71. One says also that formula_64 is an affine combination of the formula_70 with coefficients formula_71.


title: Affine space

text: For any subset of an affine space , there is a smallest affine subspace that contains it, called the affine span of . It is the intersection of all affine subspaces containing , and its direction is the intersection of the directions of the affine subspaces that contain .


title: Affine space

text: The affine span of is the set of all (finite) affine combinations of points of , and its direction is the linear span of the for and in . If one chooses a particular point , the direction of the affine span of is also the linear span of the for in .


title: Affine space

text: One says also that the affine span of is generated by and that is a generating set of its affine span.


title: Affine space

text: A set of points of an affine space is said to be ' or, simply, independent, if the affine span of any strict subset of is a strict subset of the affine span of . An ' or barycentric frame (see , below) of an affine space is a generating set that is also independent (that is a minimal generating set).


title: Affine space

text: Recall that the "dimension" of an affine space is the dimension of its associated vector space. The bases of an affine space of finite dimension are the independent subsets of elements, or, equivalently, the generating subsets of elements. Equivalently, } is an affine basis of an affine space if and only if } is a linear basis of the associated vector space.


title: Affine space

text: Let be an affine space of dimension over a field , and formula_86 be an affine basis of . The properties of an affine basis imply that for every in there is a unique -tuple formula_87 of elements of such that


title: Affine space

text: The formula_71 are called the barycentric coordinates of over the affine basis formula_86. If the are viewed as bodies that have weights (or masses) formula_71, the point is thus the barycenter of the , and this explains the origin of the term "barycentric coordinates".


title: Affine space

text: The barycentric coordinates define an affine isomorphism between the affine space and the affine subspace of defined by the equation formula_88.


title: Affine space

text: For affine spaces of infinite dimension, the same definition applies, using only finite sums. This means that for each point, only a finite number of coordinates are non-zero.


title: Affine space

text: An affine frame of an affine space consists of a point, called the "origin", and a linear basis of the associated vector space. More precisely, for an affine space with associated vector space formula_1, the origin belongs to , and the linear basis is a basis of formula_1 (for simplicity of the notation, we consider only the case of finite dimension, the general case is similar).


title: Affine space

text: Example: In Euclidean geometry, Cartesian coordinates are affine coordinates relative to an orthonormal frame, that is an affine frame such that is an orthonormal basis.


title: Affine space

text: Barycentric coordinates and affine coordinates are strongly related, and may be considered as equivalent.


title: Affine space

text: are the barycentric coordinates of a point over the barycentric frame, then the affine coordinates of the same point over the affine frame are


title: Affine space

text: are the affine coordinates of a point over the affine frame, then its barycentric coordinates over the barycentric frame are


title: Affine space

text: Therefore, barycentric and affine coordinates are almost equivalent. In most applications, affine coordinates are preferred, as involving less coordinates that are independent. However, in the situations where the important points of the studied problem are affinely independent, barycentric coordinates may lead to simpler computation, as in the following example.


title: Affine space

text: The vertices of a non-flat triangle form an affine basis of the Euclidean plane. The barycentric coordinates allows easy characterization of the elements of the triangle that do not involve angles or distances:


title: Affine space

text: The vertices are the points of barycentric coordinates , and . The lines supporting the edges are the points that have a zero coordinate. The edges themselves are the points that have one zero coordinate and two nonnegative coordinates. The interior of the triangle are the points whose coordinates are all positive. The medians are the points that have two equal coordinates, and the centroid is the point of coordinates .


title: Affine space

text: The image of is the affine subspace of , which has formula_110 as associated vector space. As an affine space does not have a zero element, an affine homomorphism does not have a kernel. However, for any point of , the inverse image is an affine subspace of , of direction formula_111. This affine subspace is called the fiber of .


title: Affine space

text: An important example is the projection parallel to some direction onto an affine subspace. The importance of this example lies in the fact that Euclidean spaces are affine spaces, and that these kinds of projections are fundamental in Euclidean geometry.


title: Affine space

text: More precisely, given an affine space with associated vector space formula_112, let be an affine subspace of direction formula_113, and be a complementary subspace of formula_113 in formula_112 (this means that every vector of formula_112 may be decomposed in a unique way as the sum of an element of formula_113 and an element of ). For every point of , its projection to parallel to is the unique point in such that


title: Affine space

text: Although kernels are not defined for affine spaces, quotient spaces are defined. This results from the fact that "belonging to the same fiber of an affine homomorphism" is an equivalence relation.


title: Affine space

text: Let be an affine space, and be a linear subspace of the associated vector space formula_112. The quotient of by is the quotient of by the equivalence relation such that and are equivalent if


title: Affine space

text: For every affine homomorphism formula_124, the image is isomorphic to the quotient of by the kernel of the associated linear map. This is the first isomorphism theorem for affine spaces.


title: Affine space

text: Affine spaces are usually studied by analytic geometry using coordinates, or equivalently vector spaces. They can also be studied as synthetic geometry by writing down axioms, though this approach is much less common. There are several different systems of axioms for affine space.


title: Affine space

text: As well as affine planes over fields (or division rings), there are also many non-Desarguesian planes satisfying these axioms. gives axioms for higher-dimensional affine spaces.


title: Affine space

text: Purely axiomatic affine geometry is more general than affine spaces and is treated in a separate article.


title: Affine space

text: Affine spaces are contained in projective spaces. For example, an affine plane can be obtained from any projective plane by removing one line and all the points on it, and conversely any affine plane can be used to construct a projective plane as a closure by adding a line at infinity whose points correspond to equivalence classes of parallel lines. Similar constructions hold in higher dimensions.


title: Affine space

text: Further, transformations of projective space that preserve affine space (equivalently, that leave the hyperplane at infinity invariant as a set) yield transformations of affine space. Conversely, any affine linear transformation extends uniquely to a projective linear transformation, so the affine group is a subgroup of the projective group. For instance, Möbius transformations (transformations of the complex projective line, or Riemann sphere) are affine (transformations of the complex plane) if and only if they fix the point at infinity.


title: Affine space

text: In algebraic geometry, an affine variety (or, more generally, an affine algebraic set) is defined as the subset of an affine space that is the set of the common zeros of a set of so-called "polynomial functions over the affine space". For defining a "polynomial function over the affine space", one has to choose an affine frame. Then, a polynomial function is a function such that the image of any point is the value of some multivariate polynomial function of the coordinates of the point. As a change of affine coordinates may be expressed by linear functions (more precisely affine functions) of the coordinates, this definition is independent of a particular choice of coordinates.


title: Affine space

text: The choice of a system of affine coordinates for an affine space formula_125 of dimension over a field induces an affine isomorphism between formula_125 and the affine coordinate space . This explains why, for simplification, many textbooks write formula_127, and introduce affine algebraic varieties as the common zeros of polynomial functions over .


title: Affine space

text: As the whole affine space is the set of the common zeros of the zero polynomial, affine spaces are affine algebraic varieties.


title: Affine space

text: By the definition above, the choice of an affine frame of an affine space formula_125 allows one to identify the polynomial functions on formula_125 with polynomials in variables, the "i"th variable representing the function that maps a point to its th coordinate. It follows that the set of polynomial functions over formula_125 is a -algebra, denoted formula_131, which is isomorphic to the polynomial ring formula_132.


title: Affine space

text: When one changes coordinates, the isomorphism between formula_131 and formula_134 changes accordingly, and this induces an automorphism of formula_132, which maps each indeterminate to a polynomial of degree one. It follows that the total degree defines a filtration of formula_136, which is independent from the choice of coordinates. The total degree defines also a graduation, but it depends on the choice of coordinates, as a change of affine coordinates may map indeterminates on non-homogeneous polynomials.


title: Affine space

text: Affine spaces over topological fields, such as the real or the complex numbers, have a natural topology. The Zariski topology, which is defined for affine spaces over any field, allows use of topological methods in any case. Zariski topology is the unique topology on an affine space whose closed sets are affine algebraic sets (that is sets of the common zeros of polynomial functions over the affine set). As, over a topological field, polynomial functions are continuous, every Zariski closed set is closed for the usual topology, if any. In other words, over a topological field, Zariski topology is coarser than the natural topology.


title: Affine space

text: There is a natural injective function from an affine space into the set of prime ideals (that is the spectrum) of its ring of polynomial functions. When affine coordinates have been chosen, this function maps the point of coordinates formula_137 to the maximal ideal formula_138. This function is a homeomorphism (for the Zariski topology of the affine space and of the spectrum of the ring of polynomial functions) of the affine space onto the image of the function.


title: Affine space

text: The case of an algebraically closed ground field is especially important in algebraic geometry, because, in this case, the homeomorphism above is a map between the affine space and the set of all maximal ideals of the ring of functions (this is Hilbert's Nullstellensatz).


title: Affine space

text: This is the starting idea of scheme theory of Grothendieck, which consists, for studying algebraic varieties, of considering as "points", not only the points of the affine space, but also all the prime ideals of the spectrum. This allows gluing together algebraic varieties in a similar way as, for manifolds, charts are glued together for building a manifold.


title: Affine space

text: Like all affine varieties, local data on an affine space can always be patched together globally: the cohomology of affine space is trivial. More precisely, formula_139 for all coherent sheaves F, and integers formula_140. This property is also enjoyed by all other affine varieties. But also all of the étale cohomology groups on affine space are trivial. In particular, every line bundle is trivial. More generally, the Quillen–Suslin theorem implies that "every" algebraic vector bundle over an affine space is trivial.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: Ralph David Abernathy Sr. (March 11, 1926 – April 17, 1990) was an American civil rights activist and Baptist minister. He was ordained in the Baptist tradition in 1948. As a leader of the civil rights movement, he was a close friend and mentor of Martin Luther King Jr. He collaborated with King and E. D. Nixon to create the Montgomery Improvement Association, which led to the Montgomery bus boycott, and co-created and was an executive board member of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). He became president of the SCLC following the assassination of King in 1968, where he led the Poor People's Campaign in Washington, D.C., among other marches and demonstrations for disenfranchised Americans. He also served as an advisory committee member of the Congress on Racial Equality (CORE).


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: In 1971, Abernathy addressed the United Nations about world peace. He also assisted in brokering a deal between the FBI and American Indian Movement protestors during the Wounded Knee incident of 1973. He retired from his position as president of the SCLC in 1977 and became president emeritus. Later that year he unsuccessfully ran for the U.S. House of Representatives for the 5th district of Georgia. He later founded the Foundation for Economic Enterprises Development, and he testified before the U.S. Congress in support of extending of the Voting Rights Act in 1982.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: In 1989, Abernathy wrote "And the Walls Came Tumbling Down", a controversial autobiography about his and King's involvement in the civil rights movement. He was ridiculed for statements in the book about King's alleged marital infidelities. Abernathy eventually became less active in politics and returned to his work as a minister. He died of heart disease on April 17, 1990. His tombstone is engraved with the words "I tried".


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: Abernathy, 10th of William L. and Louivery Valentine Abernathy ( Bell)'s 12 children, was born on March 11, 1926, on their family farm in Linden, Alabama. Abernathy's father was the first African-American to vote in Marengo County, Alabama, and the first to serve on a grand jury there. Abernathy attended Linden Academy (a Baptist school founded by the First Mt. Pleasant District Association). At Linden Academy, Abernathy led his first demonstrations to improve the livelihoods of his fellow students.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: During World War II, he enlisted in the United States Army, and rose to the rank of Platoon Sergeant before being discharged. Afterwards, he enrolled at Alabama State University using the benefits from the G.I. Bill, which he earned with his service. As a sophomore, he was elected president of the student council, and led a successful hunger strike to raise the quality of the food served on the campus. While still a college student, Abernathy announced his call to the ministry, which he had envisioned since he was a small boy growing up in a devout Baptist family. He was ordained a Baptist minister in 1948, and preached his first sermon on Mother's Day (in honor of his recently deceased mother). In 1950 he graduated with a bachelor's degree in mathematics. During that summer Abernathy hosted a radio show and became the first black man on radio in Montgomery, Alabama. In the fall, he then went on to further his education at Atlanta University, earning his Master of Arts degree in sociology with High Honors in 1951. While enrolled at Alabama State Abernathy pledged and became an initiated brother of Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: He began his professional career in 1951, when he was appointed as the dean of men at Alabama State University. Later that year, he became the senior pastor of the First Baptist Church, the largest black church in Montgomery, where he served for ten years.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: He married Juanita Odessa Jones of Uniontown, Alabama, on August 31, 1952. Together they had five children: Ralph David Abernathy Jr., Juandalynn Ralpheda, Donzaleigh Avis, Ralph David Abernathy III, and Kwame Luthuli Abernathy. Their first child, Ralph Abernathy Jr., died suddenly on August 18, 1953, less than 2 days after his birth on August 16, while their other children lived on to adulthood. His grandson, Micah Abernathy, is currently an American football player for the Green Bay Packers.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: In 1954, Abernathy met Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., whoat the timewas just becoming a pastor himself at a nearby church. Abernathy mentored King and the two men eventually became close friends.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: After the arrest of Rosa Parks on December 1, 1955, for refusing to give up her seat on a bus to a white man, Abernathy (then a member of the Montgomery NAACP) collaborated with King to create the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA), which organized the Montgomery bus boycott. Along with fellow English professor Jo Ann Robinson, they called for and distributed flyers asking the black citizens of Montgomery to stay off the buses. The boycott attracted national attention, and a federal court case that ended on December 17, 1956, when the U.S. Supreme Court, in "Browder v. Gayle", upheld an earlier District Court decision that the bus segregation was unconstitutional. The 381-day transit boycott, challenging the "Jim Crow" segregation laws, had been successful. And on December 20, 1956, the boycott came to an end.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: After the boycotts, Abernathy's home and church were bombed. His family were barely able to escape their home, but they were unharmed. Abernathy's church, Mt. Olive Church, Bell Street Church, and the home of Robert Graetz were also bombed on that evening, while King, Abernathy, and 58 other black leaders from the south were meeting at the Southern Negro Leaders Conference on Transportation and Nonviolent Integration, in Atlanta.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: On January 11, 1957, after a two-day long meeting, the Southern Leaders Conference on Transportation and Non-violent Integration, was founded. On February 14, 1957, the Conference convened again in New Orleans. During that meeting, they changed the group's name to the Southern Leadership Conference and appointed the following executive board: King, president; Charles Kenzie Steele, vice president; Abernathy, Financial Secretary-Treasurer; T. J. Jemison, secretary; I. M. Augustine, general counsel. On August 8, 1957, the Southern Leadership Conference held its first convention, in Montgomery, Alabama. At that time, they changed the Conference's name for the final time to the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, and decided upon starting up voter registration drives for black people across the south.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: On May 20, 1961, the Freedom Riders stopped in Montgomery, Alabama while on their way from Washington, D.C. to New Orleans, Louisiana, to protest the still segregated buses across the south. Many of the Freedom Riders were beaten by a white mob once they arrived at the Montgomery bus station, causing several of the riders to be hospitalized. The following night Abernathy and King set up an event in support of the Freedom Riders, where King would make an address, at Abernathy's church. More than 1,500 people came to the event that night. The church was soon surrounded by a mob of white segregationists who laid siege on the church. King, from inside the church, called the Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, and pleaded for help from the federal government. There was a group of United States Marshals sent there to protect the event, but they were too few in number to protect the church from the angry mob, who had begun throwing rocks and bricks through the windows of the church. Reinforcements with riot experience, from the Marshals service, were sent in to help defend the perimeter. By the next morning, the Governor of Alabama, after being called by Kennedy, sent in the Alabama National Guard, and the mob was finally dispersed. After the success of the Freedom Riders in Montgomery, Birmingham, and Huntsville in 1961, King insisted that Abernathy assume the Pastorate of the West Hunter Street Baptist Church in Atlanta, and Abernathy did so, moving his family from Montgomery, Alabama, in 1962.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: The King/Abernathy partnership spearheaded successful nonviolent movements in Montgomery; Albany, Georgia; Birmingham; Mississippi; Washington D.C.; Selma, Alabama; St. Augustine; Chicago; and Memphis. King and Abernathy journeyed together, often sharing the same hotel rooms, and leisure times with their wives, children, family, and friends. And they were both jailed 17 times together, for their involvement in the movement.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: On April 3, 1968, at the Mason Temple, Abernathy introduced King before he made his last public address; King said at the beginning of his now famous "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech:


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: As I listened to Ralph Abernathy and his eloquent and generous introduction and then thought about myself, I wondered who he was talking about. It's always good to have your closest friend and associate to say something good about you, and Ralph Abernathy is the best friend that I have in the world.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: The following day, April 4, 1968, Abernathy was with King in the room (Room 306) they shared at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. At 6:01 p.m. while Abernathy was inside the room getting cologne, King was shot while standing outside on the balcony. Once the shot was fired Abernathy ran out to the balcony and cradled King in his arms as he lay unconscious. Abernathy accompanied King to St. Joseph's Hospital within fifteen minutes of the shooting. The doctors performed an emergency surgery, but he never regained consciousness. King was pronounced dead at 7:05 p.m. at age 39.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: Until King's assassination, Abernathy had served as Southern Christian Leadership Conference's first Financial Secretary/Treasurer and Vice President At-Large. After King's death, Abernathy assumed the presidency of the SCLC. One of his first roles was to take up the role of leading a march to support striking sanitation workers in Memphis, Tennessee which King and Abernathy had planned before King's assassination. In May 1968, Abernathy led the Poor People's Campaign in Washington, D.C.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: On the eve of the launch of Apollo 11, on July 15, 1969, Abernathy arrived at Cape Kennedy with several hundred members of the poor people campaign to protest against the spending by government on space exploration, while many Americans remained poor. He was met by Thomas O. Paine, the administrator of NASA, whom he told that in the face of such suffering, space flight represented an inhuman priority and funds should be spent instead to "feed the hungry, clothe the naked, tend the sick, and house the homeless". Paine told Abernathy that the advances in space exploration were "child's play" compared to the "tremendously difficult human problems" of society Abernathy was discussing. Despite protesting against the launch, Abernathy acknowledged that he was "profoundly moved by the nation's achievements in space and the heroism of the three men embarking for the moon", but added that "What we can do for space and exploration we demand that we do for starving people." Later in 1969, Abernathy also took part in a labor struggle in Charleston, South Carolina, on behalf of the hospital workers of the local union 1199B, which led to a living wage increase and improved working conditions for thousands of hospital workers.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: In 1973, Abernathy helped negotiate a peace settlement at the Wounded Knee uprising between the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the leaders of the American Indian Movement, Russell Means and Dennis Banks.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: Abernathy remained president of the SCLC for nine years following King's death in 1968. After King's death the organization lost the popularity it had under his leadership. By the time Abernathy left the organization the SCLC had become indebted, and critics stated that it wasn't as imaginative as the SCLC led by Dr. King. In 1977 Abernathy resigned from his leadership role at the SCLC, and was bestowed the title president emeritus.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: Abernathy addressed the United Nations in 1971 on World Peace. He was also a member of the board of directors of the Martin Luther King Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change. In 1977, he ran unsuccessfully for Georgia's 5th Congressional District seat, losing to Congressman Wyche Fowler. He founded the nonprofit organization Foundation for Economic Enterprises Development (FEED), which offered managerial and technical training, creating jobs, income, business and trade opportunities for underemployed and unemployed workers for underprivileged blacks.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: In 1979, Abernathy endorsed Senator Edward M. Kennedy's candidacy for the Presidency of the United States. However, he shocked critics a few weeks before the 1980 November election, when he endorsed the front-runner, Ronald Reagan, over the struggling presidential campaign of Jimmy Carter. Abernathy stated of his endorsement: "The Republican Party has too long ignored us and the Democratic Party has taken us for granted and so since all of my colleagues and the latter in various places across the country were supporting the Democratic Party, I felt that I should support Ronald Reagan." Abernathy withdrew his endorsement of Reagan in 1984, citing his disappointment with the Reagan Administration on civil rights and other areas.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: In 1982, Abernathy testified—along with his executive associate, James Peterson of Berkeley, California—before the Congressional Hearings calling for the Extension of the Voting Rights Act.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: Documents declassified in 2017 show that Abernathy was on the National Security Agency watchlist because of FBI leadership's hatred of the civil rights movement.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: In late 1989, HarperCollins published Abernathy's autobiography, "And the Walls Came Tumbling Down". It was his final published accounting of his close partnership with King and their work in the civil rights movement. In it he revealed King's marital infidelity, stating that King had sexual relations with two women on the night of April 3, 1968 (after his "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech earlier that day). The book's revelations became the source of much controversy, as did Abernathy. Jesse Jackson and other civil rights activists made a statement in October 1989—after the book's release—that the book was "slander" and that "brain surgery" must have altered Abernathy's perception.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: In the 1980s, the Unification Church hired Abernathy as a spokesperson to protest the news media's use of the term "Moonies", which they compared with the word "nigger". Abernathy also served as vice president of the Unification Church-affiliated group American Freedom Coalition, and served on two Unification Church boards of directors.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: Abernathy died at Emory Crawford Long Memorial Hospital on the morning of April 17, 1990, from two blood clots that traveled to his heart and lungs, five weeks after his 64th birthday. After his death, George H. W. Bush, then-President of the United States issued the following statement:


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: Barbara and I join with all Americans to mourn the passing of the Rev. Ralph Abernathy, a great leader in the struggle for civil rights for all Americans and a tireless campaigner for justice.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: He is entombed in the Chapel Mausoleum of Lincoln Cemetery in Atlanta, Georgia. At Abernathy's behest, his tomb has the simple inscription: "I TRIED."


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: During his lifetime, Abernathy was honored with more than 300 awards and citations, including five honorary doctorate degrees. He received a Doctor of Divinity from Morehouse College, a Doctor of Divinity from Kalamazoo College in Michigan, a Doctor of Laws from Allen University of South Carolina, a Doctor of Laws from Long Island University in New York, and a Doctor of Laws at Alabama State University.


title: Ralph Abernathy

text: Abernathy is played by Ernie Lee Banks in the 1978 miniseries "King". He was also portrayed by Terrence Howard in the HBO film "Boycott (2001 film)", and by Colman Domingo in the 2014 film "Selma", a film about the Selma to Montgomery marches, Martin Luther King Jr., and SCLC, and by Dohn Norwood in the 2016 film "All the Way".


title: Sunny (Bobby Hebb song)

text: "Sunny" is a soul jazz standard written by Bobby Hebb in 1963. It is one of the most performed and recorded popular songs, with hundreds of versions released. BMI rates "Sunny" No. 25 in its "Top 100 songs of the century".


title: Sunny (Bobby Hebb song)

text: Hebb's parents, William and Ovalla Hebb, were both blind musicians. Hebb and his older brother Harold performed as a song-and-dance duo in Nashville, beginning when Bobby was three and Harold was nine. Hebb performed on a TV show hosted by country music record producer Owen Bradley.


title: Sunny (Bobby Hebb song)

text: Hebb wrote the song after his older brother, Harold, was stabbed to death outside a Nashville nightclub. Hebb was devastated by the event and many critics say it inspired the lyrics and tune. According to Hebb, he merely wrote the song as an expression of a preference for a ""sunny"" disposition over a ""lousy"" disposition following the murder of his brother.


title: Sunny (Bobby Hebb song)

text: Events influenced Hebb's songwriting, but his melody, crossing over into R&B (#3 on U.S. R&B chart) and Pop (#2 on U.S. Pop chart), together with the optimistic lyrics, came from the artist's desire to express that one should always "look at the bright side". Hebb has said about "Sunny": "All my intentions were to think of happier times and pay tribute to my brother – basically looking for a brighter day – because times were at a low. After I wrote it, I thought 'Sunny' just might be a different approach to what Johnny Bragg was talking about in 'Just Walkin' in the Rain.'"


title: Sunny (Bobby Hebb song)

text: "Sunny" was first recorded by Mieko "Miko" Hirota – the "Connie Francis of Japan" and Billy Taylor trio (feat. Ben Tucker and Grady Tate) on the Columbia records release "Miko in New York" (1965), recorded in New York. It was also released on the audio album Hit Kit Miko, Vol. 2 (October 20, 1965).


title: Sunny (Bobby Hebb song)

text: In America it was released by marimbaphonist Dave Pike on Atlantic Records in 1966 on the "Jazz for the Jet Set" album, recorded in New York City on October 26 and November 2, 1965. Grady Tate, who played drums on Mieko Hirotas version, also played on this version.


title: Sunny (Bobby Hebb song)

text: The personnel on the Bobby Hebb recording included Joe Shepley, Burt Collins on trumpet, Micky Gravine on trombone, Artie Kaplan and Joe Grimaldi on sax, Artie Butler on piano, Joe Renzetti and Al Gorgoni on guitar, Paul (PB) Brown and Joe Macho on bass, Al Rogers on drums and George Devens on percussion. The song was recorded while the session was in overtime; many of the studio musicians booked for that date had to leave early for other recording sessions. Joe Renzetti was the arranger.


title: Sunny (Bobby Hebb song)

text: "Sunny" was originally part of an 18-song demo recorded by producer Jerry Ross, also famous for Spanky and Our Gang, Keith's "98.6" and "Apple, Peaches, Pumpkin Pie" by Jay & the Techniques (Hebb was offered this song but didn't want to be considered a novelty act and let the song go to Jay Proctor).


title: Sunny (Bobby Hebb song)

text: "Sunny" was recorded at Bell Sound Studios in New York City and released as a single in 1966. It met with immediate success, which resulted in Hebb touring in 1966 with the Beatles. The song peaked at No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in late August 1966.


title: Sunny (Bobby Hebb song)

text: "Sunny '76'" is a disco take on Bobby Hebb's song. Like the original 1966 version, it features Hebb; however, an updated disco beat was implemented with an eye to having it played in discos around the world. This version was arranged by Joe Renzetti, who also arranged the original record.


title: Sunny (Bobby Hebb song)

text: The 7-inch single was released in late 1975. The B-side featured another song of Hebb's called "Proud Soul Heritage".


title: Sunny (Bobby Hebb song)

text: Cher recorded the song for her third solo LP "Chér", an album of covers released in October 1966. It was released as the third single off the album for the European and Asian markets, achieving success mostly in Scandinavian countries. It is considered to be a tribute to her then husband, Sonny Bono.


title: Sunny (Bobby Hebb song)

text: Euro disco group Boney M. recorded the song for their 1976 debut album, "Take the Heat off Me", produced by Frank Farian and arranged by Stefan Klinkhammer in a Euro-disco arrangement. Following their breakthrough single "Daddy Cool", "Sunny" topped the German charts and reached the top ten in many other countries.


title: Sunny (Bobby Hebb song)

text: The single's B-side was "New York City", a reworked version of Gilla's (another Farian artist) 1976 hit single "Tu es!" and its English version "Why Don't You Do It", which had an intro borrowed from the Boney M. album track "Help Help". This was issued in some territories instead of "Baby Do You Wanna Bump" on "Take the Heat off Me".


title: Sunny (Bobby Hebb song)

text: The track was remixed and reissued several times in 1988, 1999 (it was a minor hit single in early 2000) and 2015, and was sampled by Boogie Pimps on their 2004 version. While Liz Mitchell sang the original lead vocals on Boney M.'s version, original member Maizie Williams recorded a solo version in 2006. The original version was also featured in the Umbrella Academy Season 2 soundtrack.


title: Sunny (Bobby Hebb song)

text: The final single from Boney M.'s remix album "20th Century Hits" which peaked at #80 in the Swiss charts. The CD single was released with 8 mixes. A "London Mix" was released on the promotional double-12" single.


title: Papaoutai

text: "Papaoutai" (, , French for ""Dad, where are you?"") is a song written and performed by Belgian singer Stromae. The song was released as a digital download in Belgium on 13 May 2013 as the lead single from his second studio album "Racine carrée" (2013). The song peaked at number one in Belgium and France and became the best selling single of 2013 in Belgium. A remix of the song featuring Angel Haze also appears on the album.


title: Papaoutai

text: The song was performed live at the 2013 NRJ Music Awards, where it featured American rapper will.i.am. The song is also featured on the 2014 dancing game Just Dance 2015 for PAL regions and is available as DLC for NTSC regions.


title: Papaoutai

text: The music video accompanying the release of "Papaoutai" was directed by Adam Nael and released on YouTube on 6 June 2013 at a total length of three minutes and fifty-two seconds. The video shows a young boy (played by Karl Ruben Noel) trying to interact with his father (played by Stromae), who sits motionless, his expression and body resembling that of a mannequin. Father and son are dressed in identical outfits consisting of garishly patterned aqua shirts and shorts, knee socks, and orange bowtie. The video has the ambiance and decor of the 1950s. The boy looks longingly through the window at other parents and children who likewise wear matching outfits that identify them as pairs: a mother and daughter dressed similarly to Dorothy Gale in "The Wizard of Oz" do a dance while walking their identical dogs; a garbageman and his son collect rubbish together while doing another dance; while still another father (played by Ceasare "Tight Eyez" Willis, one of the creators of Krumping) does an aggressive, threatening dance at his reluctant son before the boy finally begins to imitate him.


title: Papaoutai

text: Frustrated, the son does various dances in front of his own father until one of his efforts provokes the father to smile. Outside, father and son do their own dance together, but it is soon revealed that the boy is dancing alone and his father is still stiff and unresponsive. In frustration, the son joins Stromae on the sofa, assuming a rigid, lifeless position identical to his father's.


title: Papaoutai

text: The song and video refers to the absence of Stromae's father — who had little presence in Stromae's life even before being killed in the 1994 Rwandan genocide — and to Stromae's fear of being unable to be an effective father with no memory of ever having a father of his own. As of May 2022, the video has received over 900 million views on YouTube, and is the most popular Francophone video on the platform.


title: Papaoutai

text: The title of the song is an intentionally misspelled form of the phrase , which translates as "Dad, where are you?". also means "to trick someone" in old slang.


title: Papaoutai

text: The lyrics of the song are about a boy living with his mother who suspects something is wrong when he no longer sees his father. The mother tries to make up excuses to prevent the narrator from discovering the truth about the whereabouts of his father of which even the mother is unaware.


title: Papaoutai

text: The chorus of the song repeats the words "Où t'es papa, où t'es?", translating to "Where are you Dad, where are you?". The song continues with the narrator pondering about the day he would become a father and the worries that would arise from the pressure of being a parent, as heard in the lines: "Tout le monde sait comment on fait des bébés ; mais personne ne sait comment on fait des papas" ("Everyone knows how to make babies; but no one knows how to make fathers"). His worries also consist of whether he will be loved or hated by his children and how he will be able to take up the role. From this, it goes back to the chorus and ends with a repetition of the song before the first chorus, going back to his interaction with his mother about the whereabouts of his father.


title: Papaoutai

text: American A cappella group Pentatonix and violinist Lindsey Stirling covered the song on Pentatonix's album "PTX Vol. 3", released on 23 September 2014.


title: Papaoutai

text: Erza Muqoli performed this song with self-accompaniment on piano for her audition for the ninth season (2014–2015) of the French television show "La France a un incroyable talent".


title: Papaoutai

text: "Lamaoutai" ("Llama, where are you?") is a spoof created in November 2013 about the kidnapping of Serge the Llama from a circus in Bordeaux.


title: Papaoutai

text: Kenza Blanka covered the song on series 8 of The Voice UK on 9 February 2019, singing it in English and Arabic, and French.


title: Bull and terrier

text: Bull and terrier was a common name for bulldog and terrier crossbreeds of the early 1800s. Other names included half-and-halfs and half-breds. It was a time in history when, for thousands of years, dogs were classified by use or function, unlike the modern pets of today that were bred to be conformation show dogs and family pets. Bull and terrier crosses were originally bred to function as fighting dogs for bull and bear baiting, and other popular blood sports during the Victorian era. The sport of bull baiting required a dog with attributes such as tenacity and courage, a wide frame with heavy bone, and a muscular, protruding jaw. By crossing bulldogs with various terriers from Ireland and Great Britain, breeders introduced "gameness and agility" into the hybrid mix.


title: Bull and terrier

text: Little is known about the pedigrees of bull and terrier crosses, or any other crosses that originated during that time. The types and styles of dogs varied geographically depending on individual preferences. Breeders in one area may have preferred a cross with a higher percentage of terrier than bulldog. Some early anecdotal reports indicate that bulldog to terrier was preferred over bull and terrier to bull terrier, which was likely to have resulted in at least half or more bulldog blood. The bull and terrier was never a bona fide breed; rather, it referred to a heterogeneous group of dogs that may include purebreds involving different breeds, as well as dogs believed to be crosses of those breeds. Those crossbreeds or hybrids are considered the forerunner of several modern standardised breeds.


title: Bull and terrier

text: In the mid-1830s, when enforcement of the ban on bull baiting had begun, the popularity of the original purebred bulldogs declined, and a major shift in canine genetics was occurring. The appearance of certain dogs were being altered by crossbreeding to better suit function. Not only were appearances of dogs changing, so was the terminology used to describe various breeds and dog types as recorded in ancient records. Such changes began casting doubts over the bulldog's earliest known ancestors.


title: Bull and terrier

text: One example of how changing terminology over the centuries has caused confusion is the ubiquitous misuse of descriptors. For example, mastiff is a common descriptor for all large dogs, which created a cloud over the earliest origins of the bulldog. The Alaunt was once believed to be the likely ancestor of bulldogs and mastiffs, both of which came from Asia; others believed bulldogs descended only from mastiffs.


title: Bull and terrier

text: Over the centuries, hybrid bull and terrier crosses have been labeled with several aliases, such as "half-and-half", "half-bred", "pit dog", "bulldog terrier" and "pit bulldog". The most popular name was "bull-terrier", a name later applied to the breed James Hinks was developing in the latter half of the 19th century. There are also many paintings, texts, and engravings created during or prior to this period that labeled the bull-and-terrier only as "bull-terrier". Hinks was still developing his new bull terrier, nicknamed "White Cavalier", which he presented at the Birmingham show in May 1862.


title: Bull and terrier

text: The term "pit bull terrier" was sometimes applied, though later applied when naming the American Pit Bull Terrier, a modern standardised breed. The term "pit bull" is a ubiquitous term that is often misused to infer that the pit bull is a bona fide breed of dog, when it actually refers to a diverse group of dogs that may include purebred dogs of many breeds as well as dogs that are assumed to be blends of those breeds. These types of descriptors vary, depending on the recognized breeds and observers' perspectives. Despite anecdotal misinformation and incorrect visual identification, dog owners, animal shelters, veterinarians and the general public routinely use the term "pit bull" in casual and official papers as though it denotes a single, recognized breed.


title: Bull and terrier

text: Bulldogs of the 1800s were described as having a "round head, short nose, small ears and wide, muscular frame and legs." Their temperament has been described as being more aggressive and ferocious than other dogs of the time. It is believed their ancestors may have been mastiffs of Asian descent because of their aggressive tendencies and strength, but the term "mastiff" was used as a general reference for large dogs. Whether or not they were crossed with Pugs to make them better at bull baiting remains controversial.


title: Bull and terrier

text: It is assumed that bull and terrier hybrids were crossed with several varieties of bulldogs and terriers, the types of which depended on location. A 2016 genetic assessment verified that bulldogs were descendants of mastiffs, but it also discovered pugs in the cross. The assessment, which analyzed a particular group of individual English bulldogs, used DNA rather than pedigrees to confirm that genetic diversity actually still exists. It further confirmed a substantial loss of genetic diversity in the breed resulting from a small founder population of about 68 individuals. The impact of focused selection for breeding dogs with specific physical traits created artificial genetic bottlenecks.


title: Bull and terrier

text: In Ireland, they used the old Irish bulldog with different terriers and some insertion of hunting sighthound/terrier crosses. In England, there were several varieties such as the Walsall and the Cradley Heath types. Phil Drabble reported that among the various types of bull and terrier, the type from Cradley Heath was recognised as a separate breed to be named the Staffordshire Bull Terrier. In the 19th century, the Walsall type was carried by immigrants to the United States, where it served as an important component for the genetic basis of the American Pit Bull Terrier breed, through specimens such as the dog Lloyd's Pilot and the Colby bloodline, strongly combined with Irish strains. The anatomy of the bull and terrier is the result of selective breeding for the purpose of hunting, dog fighting and baiting.


title: Bull and terrier

text: In “Popular and Illustrated Dog Encyclopaedia” (1934-5), Major Mitford Price wrote, “The original Bull Terrier, or Bull-and-Terrier, as he was then styled, bred for fighting in the pits, bore a far closer resemblance to the Bulldog of that day than to his terrier forbears: for there exists scores of old prints as evidence that the old Bulldog, as well as the Bull-and-Terrier had the unexaggerated (in comparison with the absurd modern standards) Bulldog head, and the legs, straight and longer, of the terrier. At the same time that the new Bull-and-Terrier made its appearance, the Bulldog fanciers began breeding their animals heavier and lower to the ground, so that the Bulldog acquired a new type.


title: Bull and terrier

text: Six distinct breeds descended from the bull and terrier hybrids, five of which were recognized by the American Kennel Club (AKC) in the following order: Bull Terrier, Boston Terrier, American Staffordshire Terrier (AmStaff), Staffordshire Bull Terrier, Miniature Bull Terrier. All five breeds have also been recognized by the Canadian Kennel Club (CKC), and Fédération cynologique internationale (FCI). The American Pit Bull Terrier (APBT) is recognized by the United Kennel Club (UKC), Canadian Kennel Club, and American Dog Breeders Association. The Kennel Club recognizes four of the named breeds but does not accept the AmStaff or APBT.


title: Bull and terrier

text: Geneticists have been able to further refine the sparse historical aspects of breed formation, and the time of hybridization. A 2017 genome-wide research study suggests the following: "In this analysis, all of the bull and terrier crosses map to the terriers of Ireland and date to 1860-1870. This coincides perfectly with the historical descriptions that, though they do not clearly identify all breeds involved, report the popularity of dog contests in Ireland and the lack of stud book veracity, hence undocumented crosses, during this era of breed creation (Lee, 1894)."


title: Bull and terrier

text: It also confirms that the bull and terrier was a heterogeneous group of dogs that may include purebreds involving different breeds, as well as dogs believed to be crosses of those breeds. By 1874, in Britain the first "Kennel Club Stud Book" was published, which included Bull Terriers and Bulldogs.


title: Bull and terrier

text: Some believe that the courage of most terriers, both past and present, to bear the bites of badgers and other prey they are meant to corner, dig for, or attack is derived from having a quarter to an eighth of Old English Bulldog ancestry. Other terriers that were not developed by crossing Old English Bulldogs and earth-working dogs were believed to be of inferior quality and were valued far less. There are earth-working dogs who by default and definition are called terriers because they have the ability to go to ground; however, the best earth-working and hunting terriers were regarded as the progeny of bulldogs bred to earth-working dogs (terriers), with the offspring known as "bull-terriers" or "half-bred" dogs, among other names.


title: Bull and terrier

text: Walsh also wrote of the Fox Terrier (or, rather, of its cross-breed ancestor): "The field fox-terrier, used for bolting the fox when gone to ground, was of this breed [bull and terrier]." Not only is the Fox Terrier the progeny of the bull-and-terrier, but so is the Airedale Terrier, rat-working terriers, working black and tan terriers and most all other vermin-hunting terriers. James Rodwell described in his book titled "The Rat: Its History and Destructive Nature", that the great object, among the various breeders of bull-and-terrier dogs for hunting vermin and rats, was to have them as nearly thorough-bred bull as possible, but at the same time preserving all the outward appearances of the terrier as to size, shape and colour.


title: Bull and terrier

text: In the 19th century, breeders crossed Bulldogs and English White Terriers to produce fighting dogs that were the forebears of the modern Bull Terrier breed. When blood sports were banned in the early 1800s, breeders continued with their clandestine dog fights in discreet venues, such as basements and warehouses. A major shift in canine genetics occurred during the Victorian era, at which time the appearance of certain dogs were being actively altered. The early bulldogs of the 1800s were described as having a "round head, short nose, small ears and wide, muscular frame and legs." In the 1830s, the ban on bull baiting was being strictly enforced, and with it, a noticeable decline in the popularity of the original bulldogs. Breeders had already begun crossing bulldogs with terriers for clandestine pit fighting.


title: Bull and terrier

text: James Hinks, a dog breeder in Birmingham, is credited for his role in helping to standardize the bull and terrier hybrid. Hinks introduced new blood, presumably Collies to add length to the muzzle. His version was becoming a more streamlined version of the bulldog and terrier hybrid while still maintaining substance. Hink's son said that, early on, his father also used Dalmatians to create the Bull Terrier's striking all-white coat. Others have suggested that Hinks straightened the bulldog's tendency for bowed legs by adding Pointer blood, or possibly Greyhound. Hink's son recalled, “In short, they became the old fighting dog civilized, with all of his rough edges smoothed down without being softened; alert, active, plucky, muscular, and a real gentleman.” Hink's early Bull Terriers were white which gave rise to congenital sensorineural deafness (CSD), a genetic condition linked to coat colour phenotypes in English bull terriers with genetic variations that go beyond coat colour. The appearance of the Bull Terrier continued to change over time, and by the 20th century its egg-shaped head had become more prominent, soon to be standardized along with the various colors that had been introduced.


title: Bull and terrier

text: According to accounts in "Sporting Magazine" from the year 1804, a bull and terrier named Trusty (owned by Thomas Pitt, 2nd Baron Camelford) was just as famous throughout England as the Emperor Napoleon. Trusty went undefeated in 104 dog fights. In 1812, "Sporting Magazine" described another a famous and talented dog, Dustman, as representing the optimal bull-and-terrier type.


title: Bull and terrier

text: A celebrated bull and terrier named Billy, weighing approximately 26 pounds; "his most notable feat was killing 100 rats in 5 min 30 sec at the Cockpit in Tufton Street, Westminster, London, UK on 23 April 1825."


title: Hamartia

text: The term hamartia derives from the Greek , from "hamartánein", which means "to miss the mark" or "to err". It is most often associated with Greek tragedy, although it is also used in Christian theology. The term is often said to depict the flaws or defects of a character and portraying these as the reason of a potential downfall. However, other critics point to the term's derivation and say that it refers only to a tragic but random accident or mistake, with devastating consequences but with no judgment implied as to the character.


title: Hamartia

text: "Hamartia" as it pertains to dramatic literature was first used by Aristotle in his "Poetics". In tragedy, "hamartia" is commonly understood to refer to the protagonist's error that leads to a chain of actions which culminate in a reversal of events from felicity to disaster.


title: Hamartia

text: What qualifies as the error or flaw varies, and can include an error resulting from ignorance, an error of judgment, an inherent flaw in the character, or a wrongdoing. The spectrum of meanings has invited debate among critics and scholars and different interpretations among dramatists.


title: Hamartia

text: Hamartia is first described in the subject of literary criticism by Aristotle in his "Poetics". The source of "hamartia" is at the juncture between character and the character's actions or behaviors as described by Aristotle.


title: Hamartia

text: In his introduction to the S. H. Butcher translation of "Poetics", Francis Fergusson describes "hamartia" as the inner quality that initiates, as in Dante's words, a "movement of spirit" within the protagonist to commit actions which drive the plot towards its tragic end, inspiring in the audience a build of pity and fear that leads to a purgation of those emotions, or catharsis.


title: Hamartia

text: Jules Brody, however, argues that "it is the height of irony that the idea of the tragic flaw should have had its origin in the Aristotelian notion of "hamartia". Whatever this problematic word may be taken to mean, it has nothing to do with such ideas as fault, vice, guilt, moral deficiency, or the like. "Hamartia" is a morally neutral non-normative term, derived from the verb "hamartano", meaning 'to miss the mark', 'to fall short of an objective'. And by extension: to reach one destination rather than the intended one; to make a mistake, not in the sense of a moral failure, but in the nonjudgmental sense of taking one thing for another, taking something for its opposite. "Hamartia" may betoken an error of discernment due to ignorance, to the lack of an essential piece of information. Finally, "hamartia" may be viewed simply as an act which, for whatever reason, ends in failure rather than success."


title: Hamartia

text: In a Greek tragedy, for a story to be "of adequate magnitude" it involves characters of high rank, prestige, or good fortune. If the protagonist is too worthy of esteem, or too wicked, his/her change of fortune will not evoke the ideal proportion of pity and fear necessary for catharsis. Here Aristotle describes "hamartia" as the quality of a tragic hero that generates that optimal balance.


title: Hamartia

text: "Hamartia" is also used in Christian theology because of its use in the Septuagint and New Testament. The Hebrew ("chatá") and its Greek equivalent ("àµaρtίa"/"hamartia") both mean "missing the mark" or "off the mark".


title: Hamartia

text: Aristotle mentions "hamartia" in "Poetics". He argues that it is a powerful device to have a story begin with a rich and powerful hero, neither exceptionally virtuous nor villainous, who then falls into misfortune by a mistake or error ("hamartia"). Discussion among scholars centers mainly on the degree to which hamartia is defined as "tragic flaw" or "tragic error".


title: Hamartia

text: Poetic justice describes an obligation of the dramatic poet, along with philosophers and priests, to see that their work promotes moral behavior. 18th-century French dramatic style honored that obligation with the use of "hamartia" as a vice to be punished "Phèdre", Racine's adaptation of Euripides' "Hippolytus", is an example of French Neoclassical use of "hamartia" as a means of punishing vice. Jean Racine says in his Preface to "Phèdre", as translated by R.C. Knight:


title: Hamartia

text: The play is a tragic story about a royal family. The main characters' respective vices—rage, lust and envy—lead them to their tragic downfall.


title: Hamartia

text: In her 1963 "Modern Language Review" article, "The Tragic Flaw: Is it a Tragic Error?", Isabel Hyde traces the twentieth-century history of "hamartia" as tragic flaw, which she argues is an incorrect interpretation. Hyde draws upon the language in Butcher's interpretation of "Poetics" regarding "hamartia" as both error and "defect in character". Hyde points out a footnote in which Butcher qualifies his second definition by saying it is not a "natural" expression to describe a flaw in behavior. Hyde calls upon another description from A.C. Bradley's "Shakespearean Tragedy" of 1904 which she contends is misleading:


title: Hamartia

text: Hyde goes on to elucidate interpretive pitfalls of treating "hamartia" as tragic flaw by tracing the tragic flaw argument through several examples from well-known tragedies including "Hamlet" and "Oedipus Rex".


title: Hamartia

text: Hyde observes that students often state "thinking too much" as Hamlet's tragic flaw upon which his death in the story depends. That idea does not, however, offer explanation for the moments when Hamlet does act impulsively and violently. It also embarks down a trail of logic that suggests he ought to have murdered Claudius right away to avoid tragedy, which Hyde asserts is problematic.


title: Hamartia

text: In "Oedipus Rex", she observes that the ideas of Oedipus' hasty behavior at the crossroads or his trust in his intellect as being the qualities upon which the change of fortune relies is incomplete. Instead, to focus on his ignorance of the true identity of his parents as the foundation of his downfall takes into account all of his decisions that lead to the tragic end. Rather than a flaw in character, error, in Oedipus' case based upon lack of information, is the more complete interpretation.


title: Hamartia

text: In his 1978 "Classical World" article "Hamartia, Atë, and Oedipus", Leon Golden compares scholarship that examines where to place "hamartia's" definition along a spectrum connecting the moral, flaw, and the intellectual, error. His goal is to revisit the role, if any, Atë, or divine intervention, plays in "hamartia". The Butcher translation of "Poetics" references "hamartia" as both a "single great error", and "a single great defect in character", prompting critics to raise arguments.


title: Hamartia

text: Mid-twentieth-century scholar Phillip W. Harsh sees "hamartia" as tragic flaw, observing that Oedipus assumes some moral ownership of his demise when he reacts excessively with rage and murder to the encounter at the crossroads. Van Braam, on the other hand, notes of Oedipus' "hamartia", "no specific sin attaching to him as an individual, but the universally human one of blindly following the light of one's own intellect." He adds that a defining feature of tragedy is that the sufferer must be the agent of his own suffering by no conscious moral failing on his part in order to create a tragic irony.


title: Hamartia

text: O. Hey's observations fall into this camp as well. He notes that the term refers to an action that is carried out in good moral faith by the protagonist, but as he has been deprived of key pieces of information, the action brings disastrous results. J.M. Bremer also conducted a thorough study of "hamartia" in Greek thought, focusing on its usage in Aristotle and Homer. His findings lead him, like Hyde, to cite "hamartia" as an intellectual error rather than a moral failing.


title: Hamartia

text: J.M. Bremer and Dawe both conclude that the will of the gods may factor into Aristotelian "hamartia". Golden disagrees. Bremer observes that the Messenger in "Oedipus Rex" says, "He was raging - one of the dark powers pointing the way, ...someone, something leading him on - he hurled at the twin doors and bending the bolts back out of their sockets, crashed through the chamber,". Bremer cites Sophocles' mention of Oedipus being possessed by "dark powers" as evidence of guidance from either divine or daemonic force.


title: Hamartia

text: Dawe's argument centers around tragic dramatists' four areas from which a protagonist's demise can originate. The first is fate, the second is wrath of an angry god, the third comes from a human enemy, and the last is the protagonist's frailty or error. Dawe contends that the tragic "dénouement" can be the result of a divine plan as long as plot action begets plot action in accordance with Aristotle.


title: Hamartia

text: Golden cites Van Braam's notion of Oedipus committing a tragic error by trusting his own intellect in spite of Tiresias' warning as the argument for human error over divine manipulation. Golden concludes that "hamartia" principally refers to a matter of intellect, although it may include elements of morality. What his study asserts is separate from "hamartia", in a view that conflicts with Dawe's and Bremer's, is the concept of divine retribution.


title: Forgiveness

text: Forgiveness, in a psychological sense, is the intentional and voluntary process by which one who may initially feel victimized or wronged, goes through a change in feelings and attitude regarding a given offender, and overcomes the impact of the offense including negative emotions such as resentment and a desire for vengeance (however justified it might be). Theorists differ, however, in the extent to which they believe forgiveness also implies replacing the negative emotions with positive attitudes (i.e. an increased ability to tolerate the offender). In certain legal contexts, forgiveness is a term for absolving or giving up all claims on account of debt, loan, obligation, or other claims.


title: Forgiveness

text: On the psychological level, forgiveness is different from simple condoning (viewing an action as harmful, yet to be “forgiven” or overlooked for certain reasons of “charity”), excusing or pardoning (merely releasing the offender from responsibility for an action), or forgetting (attempting to somehow remove from one's conscious mind, the memory of a given “offense"). In some schools of thought, it involves a personal and "voluntary" effort at the self-transformation of one's own half of a relationship with another, such that one's own self is restored to peace and ideally to what psychologist Carl Rogers has referred to as “unconditional positive regard” towards the other.


title: Forgiveness

text: As a psychological concept and virtue, the benefits of forgiveness have been explored in religious thought, social sciences and medicine. Forgiveness may be considered simply in terms of the person who forgives including forgiving themselves, in terms of the person forgiven or in terms of the relationship between the forgiver and the person forgiven. In most contexts, forgiveness is granted without any expectation of restorative justice, and without any response on the part of the offender (for example, one may forgive a person who is incommunicado or dead). In practical terms, it may be necessary for the offender to offer some form of acknowledgment, an apology, or even just ask for forgiveness, in order for the wronged person to believe themselves able to forgive as well.


title: Forgiveness

text: Social and political dimensions of forgiveness involves the strictly private and religious sphere of "forgiveness". The notion of "forgiveness" is generally considered unusual in the political field. However, Hannah Arendt considers that the "faculty of forgiveness" has its place in public affairs. The philosopher believes that forgiveness can liberate resources both individually and collectively in the face of the irreparable. During an investigation in Rwanda on the discourses and practices of forgiveness after the 1994 genocide, sociologist Benoit Guillou illustrated the extreme polysemy (multiple meanings) of the word "forgiveness" but also the eminently political character of the notion. By way of conclusion of his work, the author proposes four main figures of forgiveness to better understand, on the one hand, ambiguous uses and, on the other hand, the conditions under which forgiveness can mediate a resumption of social link.


title: Forgiveness

text: Most world religions include teachings on the nature of forgiveness, and many of these teachings provide an underlying basis for many varying modern day traditions and practices of forgiveness. Some religious doctrines or philosophies place greater emphasis on the need for humans to find some sort of divine forgiveness for their own shortcomings, others place greater emphasis on the need for humans to practice forgiveness of one another, yet others make little or no distinction between human and divine forgiveness.


title: Forgiveness

text: The term forgiveness can be used interchangeably and is interpreted many different ways by people and cultures. This is specifically important in relational communication because forgiveness is a key component in communication and the overall progression as an individual and couple or group. When all parties have a mutual viewing for forgiveness then a relationship can be maintained. "Understanding antecedents of forgiveness, exploring the physiology of forgiveness, and training people to become more forgiving all imply that we have a shared meaning for the term".


title: Forgiveness

text: Although there is presently no consensus for a psychological definition of forgiveness in research literature, agreement has emerged that forgiveness is a process, and a number of models describing the process of forgiveness have been published, including one from a radical behavioral perspective.


title: Forgiveness

text: Dr. Robert Enright from the University of Wisconsin–Madison founded the International Forgiveness Institute and is considered the initiator of forgiveness studies. He developed a 20-Step Process Model of Forgiveness. Recent work has focused on what kind of person is more likely to be forgiving. A longitudinal study showed that people who were generally more neurotic, angry, and hostile in life were less likely to forgive another person even after a long time had passed. Specifically, these people were more likely to still avoid their transgressor and want to enact revenge upon them two and a half years after the transgression.


title: Forgiveness

text: Studies show that people who forgive are happier and healthier than those who hold resentments. The first study to look at how forgiveness improves physical health discovered that when people think about forgiving an offender it leads to improved functioning in their cardiovascular and nervous systems. Another study at the University of Wisconsin found the more forgiving people were, the less they suffered from a wide range of illnesses. The less forgiving people reported a greater number of health problems.


title: Forgiveness

text: The research of Dr. Fred Luskin of Stanford University, and author of the book "Forgive for Good" presented evidence that forgiveness can be learned (i.e. can be a teachable skill, with practice) based on research projects into the effects of teaching forgiveness: giving empirical validity to the concept that forgiveness is powerful as well as excellent for your health. In three separate studies, including one with Catholics and Protestants from Northern Ireland whose family members were murdered in the political violence, he found that people who are taught how to forgive become less angry, feel less hurt, are more optimistic, become more forgiving in a variety of situations, and become more compassionate and self-confident. His studies show a reduction in experience of stress, physical manifestations of stress, and an increase in vitality.


title: Forgiveness

text: The psychologist Wanda Malcolm writes a chapter in "Women's Reflections on the Complexities of Forgiveness" titled "the Timeliness of Forgiveness Interventions" where she outlines reasons why forgiveness takes time: when work on self (care/healing) takes priority (i.e. therapy, medical injuries, etc.), when issues of relational safety need to be addressed, and where facilitating forgiveness may be premature immediately after an interpersonal offense. Malcolm explains that "premature efforts to facilitate forgiveness may be a sign of our reluctance to witness our client’s pain and suffering and may unwittingly reinforce the client’s belief that the pain and suffering is too much to bear and must be suppressed or avoided."


title: Forgiveness

text: Worthington (et al.) observed that “anything done to promote forgiveness has little impact unless substantial time is spent at helping participants think through and emotionally experience their forgiveness”. Efforts to facilitate forgiveness may be premature immediately after an interpersonal injury, if not harmful.


title: Forgiveness

text: Indeed, if you make forgiveness a goal, it remains elusive, like a carrot on a stick; just when you think you've got it, it's out of reach again. But when you focus on self-compassion and develop your core-values, forgiveness sneaks up on you. If you realize that you've forgiven your betrayer, it will be after the fact (of detachment or full emotional reinvestment), not before.


title: Forgiveness

text: Religion can have an impact on how someone chooses to forgive and the process they go through. Most have conceptualized religion's effect in three ways—through religious activity, religious affiliation and teachings, and imitation. There are several thousand religions in the world and each one can look at forgiveness a different way.


title: Forgiveness

text: In Judaism, if a person causes harm, but then sincerely and honestly apologizes to the wronged individual and tries to rectify the wrong, the wronged individual is encouraged, but not required, to grant forgiveness:


title: Forgiveness

text: In Judaism, one must go "to those he has harmed" in order to be entitled to forgiveness. [One who sincerely apologizes three times for a wrong committed against another has fulfilled their obligation to seek forgiveness. (Shulchan Aruch) OC 606:1] This means that in Judaism a person cannot obtain forgiveness from God for wrongs the person has done to other people. This also means that, unless the victim forgave the perpetrator before he died, murder is unforgivable in Judaism, and they will answer to God for it, though the victims' family and friends can forgive the murderer for the grief they caused them. The "Tefila Zaka" meditation, which is recited just before Yom Kippur, closes with the following:


title: Forgiveness

text: Thus the "reward" for forgiving others is not God's forgiveness for wrongs done to others, but rather help in obtaining forgiveness from the other person.


title: Forgiveness

text: Sir Jonathan Sacks, chief rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth, summarized: "it is not that God forgives, while human beings do not. To the contrary, we believe that just as only God can forgive sins against God, so only human beings can forgive sins against human beings."


title: Forgiveness

text: Jews observe a Day of Atonement Yom Kippur on the day before God makes decisions regarding what will happen during the coming year. Just prior to Yom Kippur, Jews will ask forgiveness of those they have wronged during the prior year (if they have not already done so). During Yom Kippur itself, Jews fast and pray for God's forgiveness for the transgressions they have made against God in the prior year. Sincere repentance is required, and once again, God can only forgive one for the sins one has committed against God; this is why it is necessary for Jews also to seek the forgiveness of those people who they have wronged.


title: Forgiveness

text: Forgiveness is central to Christian ethics and is a frequent topic in sermons and theological works, because Christianity is about Christ, Christ is about redemption, and redemption is about forgiveness of sin.


title: Forgiveness

text: Unlike in Judaism, God can forgive sins committed by people against people, since he can forgive every sin except for the eternal sin, and forgiveness from one's victim is not necessary for salvation. The Parable of the Prodigal Son is perhaps the best known parable about forgiveness and refers to God's forgiveness for those who repent. Jesus asked for God's forgiveness of those who crucified him. "And Jesus said, 'Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do.'" – Luke 23:34


title: Forgiveness

text: Forgiving offenses is among the spiritual works of mercy, and forgiving others begets being forgiven by God. Considering Mark 11:25, and , that follows the Lord's Prayer, "For if you forgive men when they sin against you, your heavenly Father will also forgive you. But if you do not forgive men their sins, your Father will not forgive your sins," forgiveness is not an option to a Christian, rather one must forgive to be a Christian. Forgiveness in Christianity is a manifestation of submission to Christ and fellow believers.


title: Forgiveness

text: In the New Testament, Jesus speaks of the importance of forgiving or showing mercy toward others. This is based on the belief that God forgives sins through faith in the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ in his death (1 John 2:2) and that, therefore, Christians should forgive others (Ephesians 4:32). Jesus used the parable of the unmerciful servant (Matthew 18:21–35) to show that His followers (represented in the parable by the servant) should forgive because God (represented by the king) forgives much more.


title: Forgiveness

text: In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus repeatedly spoke of forgiveness: "Blessed are the merciful, for they will be shown mercy." (NIV) "Therefore, if you are offering your gift at the altar and there remember that your brother has something against you, leave your gift there in front of the altar. First go and be reconciled to your brother; then come and offer your gift." (NIV) "And when you stand praying, if you hold anything against anyone, forgive him, so that your Father in heaven may forgive you your sins." Mark 11:25 (NIV) "But I tell you who hear me: Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who mistreat you. If someone strikes you on one cheek, turn to him the other also." Luke 6:27–29 (NIV) "Be merciful, just as your Father is merciful." Luke 6:36 (NIV) "Do not judge, and you will not be judged. Do not condemn, and you will not be condemned. Forgive, and you will be forgiven." Luke 6:37 (NIV)


title: Forgiveness

text: Elsewhere, it is said "Then Peter came to Him and said, "Lord, how often shall my brother sin against me, and I forgive him? Up to seven times?" Jesus said to him, "I do not say to you, up to seven times, but up to seventy times seven." Matthew 18:21–22 (NKJV)


title: Forgiveness

text: Benedict XVI, on a visit to Lebanon in 2012, insisted that peace must be based on mutual forgiveness: "Only forgiveness, given and received, can lay lasting foundations for reconciliation and universal peace".


title: Forgiveness

text: Islam teaches that Allah is "Al-Ghaffur" "The Oft-Forgiving", and is the original source of all forgiveness ("ghufran" ). Seeking forgiveness from Allah with repentance is a virtue.


title: Forgiveness

text: Islam recommends forgiveness, because Allah values forgiveness. There are numerous verses in Quran and the Hadiths recommending forgiveness. However, Islam also allows revenge to the extent harm done, but forgiveness is encouraged, with a promise of reward from Allah.


title: Forgiveness

text: "Afw" ( is another term for forgiveness in Islam; it occurs 35 times in Quran, and in some Islamic theological studies, it is used interchangeably with "ghufran". "Afw" means to pardon, to excuse for a fault or an offense. According to Muhammad Amanullah, forgiveness ('Afw) in Islam is derived from three wisdoms. First and the most important wisdom of forgiveness is that it is merciful when the victim or guardian of the victim accepts money instead of revenge. The second wisdom of forgiveness is that it increases honor and prestige of the one who forgives. Forgiveness is not a sign of weakness, humiliation or dishonor. Forgiveness is honor, raises the merit of the forgiver in the eyes of Allah, and enables a forgiver to enter paradise. The third wisdom of forgiveness is that according to some scholars, such as al-Tabari and al-Qurtubi, forgiveness expiates ("kaffarah") the forgiver from the sins they may have committed at other occasions in life. Forgiveness is a form of charity ("sadaqat"). Forgiveness comes from taqwa (piety), a quality of God-fearing people.


title: Forgiveness

text: "Love the creatures for the sake of God and not for themselves. You will never become angry or impatient if you love them for the sake of God. Humanity is not perfect. There are imperfections in every human being, and you will always become unhappy if you look toward the people themselves. But if you look toward God, you will love them and be kind to them, for the world of God is the world of perfection and complete mercy. Therefore, do not look at the shortcomings of anybody; see with the sight of forgiveness."


title: Forgiveness

text: In Buddhism, forgiveness is seen as a practice to prevent harmful thoughts from causing havoc on one's mental well-being. Buddhism recognizes that feelings of hatred and ill-will leave a lasting effect on our mind karma. Instead, Buddhism encourages the cultivation of thoughts that leave a wholesome effect. "In contemplating the law of karma, we realize that it is not a matter of seeking revenge but of practicing mettā and forgiveness, for the victimizer is, truly, the most unfortunate of all." When resentments have already arisen, the Buddhist view is to calmly proceed to release them by going back to their roots. Buddhism centers on release from delusion and suffering through meditation and receiving insight into the nature of reality.


title: Forgiveness

text: Buddhism questions the reality of the passions that make forgiveness necessary as well as the reality of the objects of those passions. "If we haven’t forgiven, we keep creating an identity around our pain, and that is what is reborn. That is what suffers."


title: Forgiveness

text: Buddhism places much emphasis on the concepts of "Mettā" (loving kindness), "karuna" (compassion), "mudita" (sympathetic joy), and "upekkhā" (equanimity), as a means to avoiding resentments in the first place. These reflections are used to understand the context of suffering in the world, both our own and the suffering of others.


title: Forgiveness

text: In Vedic literature and epics of Hinduism, "Ksama" or "Kshyama" (Sanskrit: ) and fusion words based on it, describe the concept of forgiveness. The word "ksama" is often combined with "kripa" (tenderness), "daya" (kindness) and "karuna" (, compassion) in Sanskrit texts. In Rg Veda, forgiveness is discussed in verses dedicated to deity Varuna, both the context of the one who has done wrong and one who is wronged. Forgiveness is considered one of the six cardinal virtues in Hindu Dharma.


title: Forgiveness

text: The theological basis for forgiveness in Hindu Dharma is that a person who does not forgive carries a baggage of memories of the wrong, of negative feelings, of anger and unresolved emotions that affect their present as well as future. In Hindu Dharma, not only should one forgive others, but one must also seek forgiveness if one has wronged someone else. Forgiveness is to be sought from the individual wronged, as well as society at large, by acts of charity, purification, fasting, rituals and meditative introspection.


title: Forgiveness

text: The concept of forgiveness is further refined in Hindu Dharma by rhetorically contrasting it in feminine and masculine form. In feminine form, one form of forgiveness is explained through Lakshmi (called Goddess Sri in some parts of India); the other form is explained in the masculine form through her husband Vishnu. Feminine Lakshmi forgives even when the one who does wrong does not repent. Masculine Vishnu, on the other hand, forgives only when the wrongdoer repents. In Hindu Dharma, the feminine forgiveness granted without repentance by Lakshmi is higher and more noble than the masculine forgiveness granted only after there is repentance. In the Hindu epic Ramayana, Sita – the wife of King Rama – is symbolically eulogized for forgiving a crow even as it harms her. Later in the epic Ramayana, she is eulogized again for forgiving those who harass her while she has been kidnapped in Lanka. Many other Hindu stories discuss forgiveness with or without repentance.


title: Forgiveness

text: The concept of forgiveness is treated in extensive debates of Hindu literature. In some Hindu texts, certain sins and intentional acts are debated as naturally unforgivable; for example, murder and rape; these ancient scholars argue whether blanket forgiveness is morally justifiable in every circumstance, and whether forgiveness encourages crime, disrespect, social disorder and people not taking you seriously. Other ancient Hindu texts highlight that forgiveness is not same as reconciliation.


title: Forgiveness

text: Forgiveness in Hindu Dharma does not necessarily require that one reconcile with the offender, nor does it rule out reconciliation in some situations. Instead forgiveness in Hindu philosophy is being compassionate, tender, kind and letting go of the harm or hurt caused by someone or something else. Forgiveness is essential for one to free oneself from negative thoughts, and being able to focus on blissfully living a moral and ethical life ("dharmic" life). In the highest self-realized state, forgiveness becomes the essence of one's personality, where the persecuted person remains unaffected, without agitation, without feeling like a victim, free from anger ("akrodhi").


title: Forgiveness

text: In Jainism, forgiveness is one of the main virtues that needs to be cultivated by the Jains. "Kṣamāpanā" or supreme forgiveness forms part of one of the ten characteristics of "dharma". In the Jain prayer, ("pratikramana") Jains repeatedly seek forgiveness from various creatures—even from "ekindriyas" or single sensed beings like plants and microorganisms that they may have harmed while eating and doing routine activities. Forgiveness is asked by uttering the phrase, "Micchāmi dukkaḍaṃ." "Micchāmi dukkaḍaṃ" is a Prakrit language phrase literally meaning "may all the evil that has been done be fruitless." During "samvatsari"—the last day of Jain festival "paryusana"—Jains utter the phrase "Micchami Dukkadam" after "pratikraman". As a matter of ritual, they personally greet their friends and relatives "micchāmi dukkaḍaṃ" seeking their forgiveness. No private quarrel or dispute may be carried beyond samvatsari, and letters and telephone calls are made to the outstation friends and relatives asking their forgiveness.


title: Forgiveness

text: In their daily prayers and samayika, Jains recite "Iryavahi sutra" seeking forgiveness from all creatures while involved in routine activities:


title: Forgiveness

text: May you, O Revered One! Voluntarily permit me. I would like to confess my sinful acts committed while walking. I honour your permission. I desire to absolve myself of the sinful acts by confessing them. I seek forgiveness from all those living beings which I may have tortured while walking, coming and going, treading on living organism, seeds, green grass, dew drops, ant hills, moss, live water, live earth, spider web and others. I seek forgiveness from all these living beings, be they — one sensed, two sensed, three sensed, four sensed or five sensed. Which I may have kicked, covered with dust, rubbed with ground, collided with other, turned upside down, tormented, frightened, shifted from one place to another or killed and deprived them of their lives. (By confessing) may I be absolved of all these sins.


title: Forgiveness

text: By practicing "prāyaṣcitta" (repentance), a soul gets rid of sins, and commits no transgressions; he who correctly practises "prāyaṣcitta" gains the road and the reward of the road, he wins the reward of good conduct. By begging forgiveness he obtains happiness of mind; thereby he acquires a kind disposition towards all kinds of living beings; by this kind disposition he obtains purity of character and freedom from fear.


title: Forgiveness

text: Even the code of conduct amongst the monks requires the monks to ask forgiveness for all transgressions:


title: Forgiveness

text: If among monks or nuns occurs a quarrel or dispute or dissension, the young monk should ask forgiveness of the superior, and the superior of the young monk. They should forgive and ask forgiveness, appease and be appeased, and converse without restraint. For him who is appeased, there will be success (in control); for him who is not appeased, there will be no success; therefore one should appease one's self. 'Why has this been said, Sir? Peace is the essence of monasticism'.


title: Forgiveness

text: Hoʻoponopono is an ancient Hawaiian practice of reconciliation and forgiveness, combined with prayer. Similar forgiveness practices were performed on islands throughout the South Pacific, including Samoa, Tahiti and New Zealand. Traditionally Hoʻoponopono is practiced by healing priests or "kahuna lapaʻau" among family members of a person who is physically ill. Modern versions are performed within the family by a family elder, or by the individual alone.


title: Forgiveness

text: The need to forgive is widely recognized by the public, but they are often at a loss for ways to accomplish it. For example, in a large representative sampling of American people on various religious topics in 1988, the Gallup Organization found that 94% said it was important to forgive, but 85% said they needed some outside help to be able to forgive. However, not even regular prayer was found to be effective.


title: Forgiveness

text: Akin to forgiveness is mercy, so even if a person is not able to complete the forgiveness process they can still show mercy, especially when so many wrongs are done out of weakness rather than malice. The Gallup poll revealed that the only thing that was effective was "meditative prayer".


title: Forgiveness

text: Forgiveness as a tool has been extensively used in restorative justice programs, after the abolition of apartheid Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa), run for victims and perpetrators of Rwandan genocide, the violence in Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and Northern Ireland conflict, which has also been documented in film, "" (2012).


title: Forgiveness

text: Forgiveness theory can be found and applied to religion, relationships, health, individual, interventions, and much more. Forgiveness is an important trait to understand and possess because it is something that everyone has to experience in their both personal and professional life.


title: Forgiveness

text: Forgiveness is associated with the theory of emotion because it is largely drawn from a person's emotional connection and level with the situation. Forgiveness is something that most people are taught to understand and practice at a young age. Because forgiveness is an emotion there is not an exact originator of it but there are several theorists, psychologists, and sociologists who link it to other theories or apply theories to help understand the concept. The philosopher Joseph Butler ("Fifteen Sermons") defined forgiveness as "overcoming of resentment, the overcoming of moral hatred, as a speech act, and as forbearance".


title: Forgiveness

text: Forgiveness in marriage is an important aspect in a marriage. When two individuals are able to forgive each other it results in a long happy marriage. Forgiveness can help prevent problems from accruing in the married couple's future.


title: Forgiveness

text: In a 2005 study, researchers were interested in figuring out whether forgiveness is important in a marriage. When does forgiveness usually accrue? Does it accrue before an argument or after an argument? Does forgiveness take a role when a person breaks a promise? etc. Researchers found six components that were related to forgiveness in marriage and explains how each one relates to forgiveness. The six components are: satisfaction, ambivalence, conflict, attributions, empathy and commitment.


title: Forgiveness

text: Researchers provided an overview of forgiveness in marriage and how individuals in a relationship believe that if forgiveness accrues then you must forget what had happened. Moreover, based on the interventions and recommendations the researchers started to see how important forgiveness is in a relationship and how it can lead to a happy and healthy relationship.


title: Forgiveness

text: In a 2005 study, researchers mentioned that when couples forgive their spouses they sometimes need help from professionals to overcome their pain that might be left behind. Researchers also described the difference between how each individual perceives the situation based on who is in pain and who caused the pain. Also how the couple react to the situation based on their feelings and how they personally respond to the situation.


title: Forgiveness

text: The act and effects of forgiveness can vary depending on the relationship status between persons. Whether you are married, friends, or even just acquaintances, the process of forgiving is similar but not completely the same. When it comes to forgiving a friend,the friend's personal situation and feelings must also be considered. You must ask yourself if you were in the wrong or if the other person could already be going through some type of grief or suffering at the time of the incident. Consideration of other people's feelings plays a factor as to how much and how quickly a situation can be resolved.


title: Forgiveness

text: "Enright's model of forgiveness has received empirical support and sees forgiveness as a journey through four phases" which are:


title: Forgiveness

text: Furthermore, when married couples argue they tend to focus on who is right and who is wrong. Also couples tend to focus on who proves the other wrong which can cause more problems and can make the problem worse because it will make it harder to forgive one another.


title: Forgiveness

text: The researchers also came up with recommendation for practitioners and intervention to help individuals that are married on how to communicate with each other, how to resolve problems and how to make it easier to forgive each other.


title: Forgiveness

text: Some of the interventions of forgiveness in marriage has been a great success. It encouraged forgiveness and made couples happier together.


title: Forgiveness

text: Some of the recommendations that was given to practitioners was that the individuals had to explore and understand what forgiveness means before starting any intervention because the preconceived idea of forgiveness can cause problems with couples being open to forgive. For example, an individual not forgiving their spouse out of fear that the spouse might think that they are weak which can cause a conflict. It was stated that the couple must know the following:


title: Forgiveness

text: Furthermore, the researchers thought of ways to further help married couples in the future and suggested that they should explore the following:


title: Forgiveness

text: Relationships are at the sentiment aspect of our lives; with our families at home and friends outside. Relationships interact in schools and universities, with work mates and, with colleagues at the workplace and in our diverse communities. In the article it states, the quality of these relationships determines our individual well-being, how well we learn, develop and function, our sense of connectedness with others and the health so society.


title: Forgiveness

text: In 2002, two innovators of "Positive Psychology", Ed Diener and Martin Seligman, conducted a study at the University of Illinois on the 10% of students with the highest scores recorded on a survey of personal happiness. What they came up with was most salient characteristics shared by students who were very content and showed positive life styles were the ones who "their strong ties to friends and family and commitment to spending time with them."


title: Forgiveness

text: A study done in 2000, identified as a key study that taken part and examined two natures of relationships (friends and family) and at what age does the support switch importance from one to the other. The study showed that people whom had good family relationship were able to have more positive outside relationships with friends. Through the family relationship and friendships, the character of the individual was built to forgive and learn from the experience in the family.


title: Forgiveness

text: In 2001, Charlotte vanOyen Witvliet asked people to think about someone who had hurt, wronged, or offended them. As they thought to answer, she observed their reaction. She observed their blood pressure, heart rate, facial muscle tension, and sweat gland activity. To deliberate on an old misdemeanor is to practice unforgiveness. The outcome to the recall of the grudge the candidates’ blood pressure and heart rate increased, and they sweated more. Pondering about their resents was stressful, and subjects found the rumination unpleasant. When they adept forgiveness, their physical stimulation glided downward. They showed no more of an anxiety reaction than normal wakefulness produces.


title: Forgiveness

text: In 2013, study on self-forgiveness with spouse forgiveness has a better outcome to a healthier life by Pelucchi, Paleari, Regalia and Fincham. This study investigates self-forgiveness for real hurts committed against the partner in a romantic relationship (168 couples). For both males and females, the mistaken partners were more content with their romantic relationship to the extent that they had more positive and less negative sentiment and thoughts toward themselves. In the study when looking at the victimized partners were more gratified with the relationship when the offending partner had less negative sentiment and thoughts towards themselves. It concludes that self-forgiveness when in a relationship has positive impact on both the offending and victimized partner.