title: Chernihiv Oblast

text: Most of Ukraine's oblasts are named after their capital cities, officially referred to as "oblast centers" (, translit. "oblasnyi tsentr"). The name of each oblast is a relative adjective, formed by adding a feminine suffix to the name of respective centre city: "Chernihiv" is the centre of the "Chernihivs’ka oblast’" (Chernihiv Oblast). Most oblasts are also sometimes referred to in a feminine noun form, following the convention of traditional regional place names, ending with the suffix "-shchyna", as is the case with the Chernihiv Oblast, "Chernihivshchyna".


title: Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod

text: Česká zbrojovka a.s. Uherský Brod (CZUB) is an engineering company based in Uherský Brod, Czech Republic whose main activities include the production of service, hunting and sports firearms. It is owned by the Czech holding company Colt CZ Group SE, which also owns other brands with related production programmes.


title: Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod

text: CZUB currently has around 1800 employees. It is one of the highest volume exporters in the Czech Republic, sending its products to more than 100 countries around the world. The company is among the top ten small arms manufacturers in the world and five that manufactures automatic firearms. In 2021, CZUB acquired the Colt's Manufacturing Company; the following year, the parent company changed its name to Colt CZ Group.


title: Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod

text: In 1919 Jihočeská zbrojovka was founded in Strakonice. Today's Česká zbrojovka a.s. was built as part of a large-scale transfer of strategically important production capacities of the former Czechoslovakia as far as possible from the western borders threatened by Nazi Germany. In Uherský Brod in the south-east of Moravia, a brand new arms factory was established in 1936, which was one of the most modern and most efficient factory at the time. In the first years of its existence it was successfully engaged primarily in the highly demanding production of aircraft machine guns.


title: Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod

text: After World War II, the joint-stock company Česká zbrojovka was nationalized and its branch factory in Uherský Brod, which became independent in 1950, gradually became the main Czechoslovak manufacturer of small firearms. Its most famous products from the immediate post-war period were the Sa vz. 23 submachine guns, chambered in the common 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge (Later the 7.62×25mm Tokarev in vz. 24/26 after Czechoslovakia joined the Warsaw Pact). The Sa vz. 23 were the first production-model submachine guns with a telescoping bolt, which the bolt wraps around the barrel, which made the vz. 26 shorter and more compact than the other submachine guns at the time. By 1953, 545,000 were produced in Uherský Brod, 345,000 of which were of the 7.62 mm Tokarev variants.


title: Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod

text: The vz. 58 assault rifle chambered in the 7.62×39 mm cartridge, was a Czechoslovak alternative to the Soviet's AK-47 with an original design. This firearm was produced in Uherský Brod for the national armed forces as well as for export until 1984 and the total production volume reached about 920,000 units.


title: Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod

text: In 1961 Sa vz. 61 Škorpion machine pistol was introduced to fill the gap between submachine guns and semi-automatic pistols. More than 200,000 of these machine pistols in the standard .32 ACP cartridge were produced in Uherský Brod until 2000, and small batches of these machine pistols in the .380 ACP version were produced in the 1990s.


title: Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod

text: The CZ 75 semi-automatic pistol, revolutionary in a number of aspects, was the work of the well-known designer František Koucký, who worked on its development based on an assignment of today's Česká zbrojovka a.s since 1969. This firearm with perfect ergonomics and unique double-action trigger mechanism co-defined the category of Wonder Nines, i.e. large capacity SA/DA pistols chambered in 9×19mm Parabellum, and has long been one of the most popular of them.


title: Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod

text: In 1992 Česká zbrojovka was privatized and transformed it into a joint-stock company, which concentrates its activities in its main plant in Uherský Brod on the development and production of high-quality firearms, while utilizing its remaining capacity for the production of high-precision components for the automotive and aerospace industry. The position of Česká zbrojovka, a.s. on the world's firearms market has significantly strengthened by the establishment of the subsidiary distribution and service company CZ-USA in 1997. This subsidiary started its activities in California, but in 1998 it relocated to Kansas City, Kansas, where it still operates. Within the creation of the international holding Česká zbrojovka Group (now Colt CZ Group), CZ-USA became an independent business entity.


title: Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod

text: In order to preserve the famous tradition of firearms production in Brno, Česká zbrojovka a.s began preparing to take over the firearms division of Zbrojovka Brno, a.s. The newly created company, originally named BRNO RIFLES, started its activities at the turn of 2006 and its domain was the production and development of break action firearms. In 2008 it became a subsidiary company of Česká zbrojovka a.s. In 2010 the company was renamed to Zbrojovka BRNO, s.r.o. In 2005 CZ became the owner of Dan Wesson Firearms through its subsidiary CZ-USA. This company, originally a revolver maker founded in 1968 by Daniel B. Wesson II, a grandson of Daniel B. Wesson, soon became one of the most distinguished manufacturers of modern M1911 pistol.


title: Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod

text: In 2011 the company began production of the new generation of CZ 805 BREN A1/A2 assault rifles, CZ SCORPION EVO 3 A1 submachine guns and CZ 805 BREN G1 grenade launchers for the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic. Česká zbrojovka a.s significantly penetrated foreign markets by opening a separate space for the assembly and repairs of CZ pistols at the FAME army plant in Lima, Peru. The Czech company participated in the project by supplying modern equipment and tools and training of technical personnel. This enabled the Peruvian company to assemble CZ guns, provide service and sell them on the Peruvian market and then throughout Latin America. It was the first case of technological transfer of Česká zbrojovka a.s to this promising region.


title: Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod

text: Since 2018, Česká zbrojovka a.s has been part of the international holding Česká zbrojovka Group SE that, in addition to the parent plant in Uherský Brod, gradually incorporates other companies with related production and development programmes. In cooperation with CZ-USA, the production of the first CZ firearms was launched in Kansas City, Kansas. These include selected models of the successful CZ P-10 series of pistols. In 2021 CZ bought Colt's Manufacturing Company and their Colt Canada subsidiary.


title: Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod

text: Over the years Česká zbrojovka has developed several revolutionary or highly influential designs in various fields of small arms, most notably:


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4 or Global Goal 4) is about quality education and is among the 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations in September 2015. The full title of SDG 4 is "Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all".


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: SDG 4 has ten targets which are measured by 11 indicators. The seven "outcome-oriented targets" are: free primary and secondary education; equal access to quality pre-primary education; affordable technical, vocational and higher education; increased number of people with relevant skills for financial success; elimination of all discrimination in education; universal literacy and numeracy; and education for sustainable development and global citizenship. The three "means of achieving targets" are: build and upgrade inclusive and safe schools; expand higher education scholarships for developing countries; and increase the supply of qualified teachers in developing countries.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: SDG 4 aims to provide children and young people with quality and easy access to education plus other learning opportunities. One of its targets is to achieve universal literacy and numeracy. A major component in acquiring knowledge and valuable skills in the learning environment. Hence, the urgent need to build more educational facilities and also upgrade the present ones to provide safe, inclusive, and effective learning environments for all.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: The prevalence of extreme poverty, insurgency, communal conflicts, and other factors has significantly reduced the progress in many developing countries. Children from poor households have a higher probability of dropping out of school than their counterparts from rich backgrounds. Disparities between rural and urban areas remain high. In Western Asia and North Africa, the ongoing armed conflict has seen an increase in the number of children who are not attending school. Sub-Saharan Africa made the greatest progress in primary school enrolment among all developing regions – from 52 percent in 1990, up to 78 percent in 2012, but large disparities still remain.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: "Education for All" has been a popular slogan and has been given attention through different international development courses ever since 1990. It was considered critical at the inception of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and tagged SDG 4. Education is seen as a force for sustainable development, nation-building and peace. Children and young people who gain certain skills such as reading, writing, or counting are more likely to have a better future than their peers who lack these skills. The world is changing and globalization requires the world population to quickly adapt and learn to work with newer technologies.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: The role of education in ensuring sustainable development is not limited to developing regions; but the whole world at large. The major aim of Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) is to provide an inclusive and high-quality education that will improve the learner's standard of living and the community's future.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: Major progress has been made in promoting access to education, specifically at the primary school level, for both boys and girls. Sub-Saharan African countries experienced an increase in primary education completion rate from 49 percent in 2000 to 60 percent in 2006.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: However, increased access does not always translate to improved quality of education or completion of primary school. During the implementation of the MDGs, increment in school enrolment did not translate to improved educational outcomes as 1 out of 4 countries still failed to meet the minimum math proficiency standards.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: At the end of 2019, there were still millions of children out of school. The closure of schools in 2020 as part of the measures taken to slow the spread of COVID-19 is having an adverse impact on the learning outcome. It has affected more than 90 percent of the world's student population, with an estimated 1.5 billion children and young people having disrupted access to education. Across the world, limited access to the internet has also adversely impacted students' ability to engage in learning opportunities. It is estimated that at least a third of the world's children do not have the technology they need to participate in remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting widespread school closures. The pandemic has also resulted to an increase in educational inequalities with a completion rate of 79% for the well off and 34% for the poor households.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: SDG 4 consists of 7 targets, 3 means of actual application, and 12 indicators. Eight of them are supposed to be achieved by 2030, while one is to be achieved by 2020 and the rest have no target years. Each of the targets has one or more indicators to measure progress. The targets include free primary and secondary education (4.1), equal access to quality pre-primary education (4.2), equal access to affordable technical, vocational and higher education (4.3), increase the number of people with relevant skills for financial success (4.4), eliminate all discrimination in education (4.5), universal literacy and numeracy (4.6), education for sustainable development and global citizenship (4.7), build and upgrade inclusive and safe schools (4. a), expand higher education scholarships for developing countries (4. b) and increase the supply of qualified teachers in developing countries (4. c)


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: The main mission of this target is: "By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to a relevant and effective learning outcome."


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: In choosing this mission, different issues were considered, with the mission statement itself stipulating that: students are publicly-funded, engaged through inclusive education regardless of their differences, resources, and means are equitably distributed, education has to be instrumental towards a profound learning outcome regardless of race, gender or ethnicity.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: Non-proficiency rates remain disturbingly high despite steady growth in enrollment over the years. 88 percent of children (202 million) of primary and lower secondary school age were not proficient in reading, and 84 percent (193 million) were not proficient in Mathematics in 2015 in sub-Saharan Africa.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: School closures and constrained finances due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 are likely to exacerbate these inequalities. Girls are at particular risk of not returning to school. This will work against achieving SDG 10, to reduce inequality. Remote learning opportunities could help but are beyond the reach of many students (less than one-third of the population across Africa has broadband access.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: The importance of SDG 4 in this target lies in strategically working on the learner's character and academic level for a better world.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: The full main aim of this target is: "By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and pre‑primary education so that they are ready for primary education."


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: At the global level, the participation rate in early childhood education was 69 percent in 2017, up from 63 percent in 2010. However, considerable disparities were found among least developed countries with rates ranging from 7 percent to nearly 100 percent. Sub-Saharan Africa faces the biggest challenges in the provision of basic school resources.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: As much as the emphasis is laid on the imbalances between compared countries, the crucial aspect of gender equality even in education should not be overlooked.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: It has been proposed in 2020 that Indicator 4.2.1 should be deleted: "the portion of the indicator that measures progress for children 0-23 months that is currently tier III is proposed to be deleted".


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: The full title of this target is: "By 2030, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university."


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: This target has one indicator: Indicator 4.3.1 is "Participation rate of youth and adults in formal and non-formal education and training in the previous 12 months, by sex".


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: In terms of the progress made, global participation in tertiary education reached 224 million in 2018, equivalent to a gross enrollment ratio of 38%. North Africa and West Asia are among the top regions with the most rapid expansion of tertiary education participation since 2013.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: Studies have shown that investment to education boost a positive mainstream for children to study at schools. In addition, computer-assisted learning had more positive effect compared to having new teaching materials.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: The full title of this target is: "By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship."


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: This target has one Indicator: Indicator 4.4.1 is the "Proportion of youth and adults with information and communications technology (ICT) skills, by type of skill".


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: The full title of this target is: "By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations."


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: This target has one indicator: Indicator 4.5.1 is "Parity indices (female/male, rural/urban, bottom/top wealth quintile and others such as disability status, indigenous peoples and conflict-affected, as data become available) for all education indicators"


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: In 2016, two-thirds of 750 million adults are illiterate women. Adult literacy rates are lowest in sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia. Southern Asia alone is home to nearly half (49 percent) of the global population who are illiterate. The agenda can be challenging for those regions or countries to reach the goal by 2030 because income and gender inequality are seen more often in higher educational levels.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: While disabled students are increasing in higher educational institutions, many institutions, while disabled students face barriers on a daily bases, are not ready to support those students yet.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: The full title of this target is: "By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men, and women, achieve literacy and numeracy."


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: This target has one indicator: Indicator 4.6.1 is the "Proportion of population in a given age group achieving at least a fixed level of proficiency in functional (a) literacy and (b) numeracy skills, by sex".


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: Population census and household surveys regarding simple sentences used in daily life will identify literacy data. It is one of the processes to recognize the current literacy data in order to achieve the goals set forth by the SDGs. “Despite the steady rise in literacy rates over the past 50 years, there are still 773 million illiterate adults around the world, most of whom are women”.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: To facilitate the expansion of comprehensively designed basic learning programs, providing a variety of learning methods and setting standards for gradual progression by ability are required. In order to expand the learning programs, more precise information collection is required. To collect this information, Global Alliance to Monitor Learning (GAML) is developing the necessary tools for methodology and standardization.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: The full title of this target is: "By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture's contribution to sustainable development."


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: This target has one indicator: Indicator 4.7.1 is the "Extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable development, including gender equality and human rights, are mainstreamed at all levels in (a) national education policies; (b) curricula; (c) Teacher education; and (d) student assessment"


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: The Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) has proposed a SDG Global Monitoring Indicators arranged for SDG 4.7 to calculate the percentage of girls and boys achieving proficiency in literacy and mathematics, by the end of lower secondary schooling cycle based on national benchmarks. This indicator can be used to compare across countries and see the improvements from previous years.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: Education plays an important role in improving the human capital of the labor force and it “is considered as an important determinant of sustainable economic growth”.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: While organizations around the world are putting efforts to achieve this goal, some critics suggest the UN Decade might seem too ideal. Some scholars also pointed out that although higher educational institutions are striving for sustainable development, they are still on their early stage.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: The full title of this target is: "Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive and provide safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all."


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: This target has one indicator: Indicator 4.a.1 is the "Proportion of schools with access to (a) electricity; (b) the Internet for pedagogical purposes; (c) computers for pedagogical purposes; (d) adapted infrastructure and materials for students with disabilities; (e) basic drinking water; (f) single-sex basic sanitation facilities; and (g) basic hand-washing facilities (as per the WASH indicator definitions)"


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: The full title of this target is: "By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States and African countries, for enrollment in higher education, including vocational training and information and communications technology, technical, engineering and scientific programs, in developed countries and other developing countries."


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: This target has one indicator: Indicator 4.b.1 is "Volume of official development assistance (ODA) flows for scholarships"


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: The full title of this target is: "By 2030, substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through international cooperation for Teacher training in developing countries, especially least developed countries and small island developing States."


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: This target has one indicator: Indicator 4.c.1 is "Proportion of teachers in) pre-primary; (b) primary; (c) lower secondary; and (d) upper secondary education who have received at least the minimum organized teacher training (e.g. pedagogical training) pre-service or in-service required for teaching at the relevant level in a given country"


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: Sub-Saharan Africa is behind with the lowest percentages of trained teachers in pre-primary (48 percent), primary (64 percent), and secondary (50 percent) education in 2017.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: A report from 2020 found that the percentage of primary school teachers receiving the minimum pedagogical training according to national standards has stagnated at 85 percent since 2015. The percentage is lowest in sub-Saharan Africa (64 percent) and Southern Asia (72 percent).


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: The custodian agency for most of the indicators of the targets is UNESCO-UIS. In addition, UNESCO is the custodian agency for some of the indicators. The International Telecommunication Union is the custodian agency for Indicator 4.4.1. OECD is the custodian agency for Indicator 4.b.1. UNESCO-ED/PSD/ESD is the custodian agency for indicator 4.7.1.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: Just as all SDGs, achieving SDG 4—for inclusive and equitable access to education—is likely to be missed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. There is a projection that more than 200 million children will still be out of education by 2030. COVID-19 highlighted the significance of health literacy and the system's failure to provide an equal opportunity of education for everyone. Health literacy can be described as the ability of an individual to make decisions based on healthcare provider’s advice. Actions are called to include health literacy in basic educational curriculum systems to foster educated individuals to slow down the spread of diseases such as COVID-19.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: After the pandemic hit, school closure (including universities) starting in April 2020 affected up to 91 percent of enrolled learners. Most of the world's children were deprived of formal education during the COVID-19 outbreak—a legacy that could threaten the SDGs' underlying ambition to leave no one behind (LNOB).


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: Many educational institutions are attempting to maintain programs through online education. In OECD countries, although the impact of COVID-19 was huge, there are also possibilities to generate new types of education system. However, equity remains a major constraint on access to distance learning, as many students in developing countries do not either have access to the internet or a safe and supportive learning environment appropriate for e-learning.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: To foster international collaboration and ensure that education never stops, UNESCO in March 2020 launched the COVID-19 Global Education Coalition, a multi-sector partnership between the UN family, civil society organizations, media, and IT partners to design and deploy innovative solutions.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: Achieving SDG 4 will help to achieve these other SDGs: eradicate poverty (SDG 1), achieve gender equality (SDG 5), ensure good health and wellbeing (SDG 3), reduce inequalities among countries (SDG 10), promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth and decent work for all (SDG 8), build resilient infrastructure and foster innovation (SDG 9), ensure access to information and awareness for sustainable consumption and style of production in harmony with nature (SDG 12), provide education and awareness toward taking urgent action to combat climate change (SDG 13), and promote peaceful and inclusive societies (SDG 16).


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: An annual report is prepared by the Secretary-General of the United Nations evaluating the progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: Established in 2002, the Global Education Monitoring Report is an editorially independent report, hosted and published by UNESCO. At the 2015 World Education Forum, it received a mandate from 160 governments to monitor and report on progress on education in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), with particular reference to the SDG 4 monitoring framework. It also monitors the implementation of national and international strategies to help hold all relevant partners to account for their commitments, as part of the overall SDG follow-up and review process. Five reports have been published since 2015.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: Progress is difficult to track as 75 percent of countries have no or insufficient data to track progress towards SDG Goal 4 targets for learning outcomes (target 1), early childhood education (target 2), and effective learning environments. Data on learning outcomes and pre-primary school are particularly scarce; about 70% of countries partially or fully lack adequate data to evaluate progress made so far, this includes countries with high income that are expected to have achieved the target or to be on track to achieve it. 40 percent of nations around the world have insufficient accessible data concerning organized learning at least a year before their primary education. This makes it hard to analyze and identify the children at greatest risk of being left behind. A 2019 study used computer modeling to estimate educational attainment for men and women from 2000 to 2017, mapping the results for each country to help identify areas lagging behind.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: Massive open online courses (MOOCs) are free open education offered through online platforms. The initial philosophy of MOOCs was to open up quality Higher Education to a wider audience. As such, MOOCs are an important tool to achieve SDG 4. At the same time, MOOCs also contribute to Goal 5, in that they are gender-neutral and can give women and girls improved access to education.


title: Sustainable Development Goal 4

text: In the US there are over sixty-one thousand tax-exempt organizations working on issues related to UN SDG 4, according to data filed with the Internal Revenue Service –IRS and aggregated by X4Impact. X4Impact, with the support of the Rockefeller Foundation, Ford Foundation, Hewlett Foundation, and Giving Tech Labs, created a free online interactive tool Quality Education in the US. This online tool enables users to see education-related indicators nationally and by state, as well as relevant information for over sixty-one thousand tax-exempt organizations in the US working on issues related to UN SDG 4. The nonprofit data in the tool is updated every 15 days while the indicators are updated annually.


title: Elisabeth Volkenrath

text: Elisabeth Volkenrath (née Mühlau; 5 September 1919 – 13 December 1945) was a German supervisor at several Nazi concentration camps during World War II.


title: Elisabeth Volkenrath

text: Volkenrath, née Mühlau, was an "ungelernte Hilfskraft" (unskilled worker) when she volunteered for service in a concentration camp. She began in October 1941 at Ravensbrück concentration camp as a simple "Aufseherin". In March 1942, she was sent to Auschwitz Birkenau where she worked in the same function as at Ravensbrück. At Auschwitz, she met "SS-Rottenführer" Heinz Volkenrath, who had worked there since 1941 as "SS-Blockführer". The couple married in 1943. Elisabeth Volkenrath participated in the selection of prisoners for the gas chambers and, in November 1944, was promoted to "Oberaufseherin" for all camp sections for female prisoners at Auschwitz.


title: Elisabeth Volkenrath

text: Elisabeth Volkenrath was transferred to Bergen-Belsen when Auschwitz was closed. From February 1945, she was "Oberaufseherin" (supervising wardress) at Bergen-Belsen.


title: Elisabeth Volkenrath

text: In April 1945, Volkenrath was arrested by the British Army, and was tried in the Belsen trial, at which she was convicted of war crimes. Sentenced to death, she was executed by hanging at Hamelin Prison by Albert Pierrepoint on 13 December 1945 she was executed in the same prison that Irma Grese (The Hyena of Auschwitz) was in.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: Disturbing Behavior is a 1998 teen science fiction psychological horror film starring James Marsden, Katie Holmes, and Nick Stahl. The film was directed by David Nutter, who was a director and producer on "The X-Files", and the screenplay was written by Scott Rosenberg. The plot follows a group of high school outcasts who discover their seemingly perfect "Blue Ribbon" classmates are part of an elaborate mind control experiment.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: The film, which contains nods to 1975 thriller "The Stepford Wives," premiered on July 24, 1998 and received negative reviews. The film went through numerous studio-mandated cuts from MGM prior to theatrical release in response to negative test screenings. There has been considerable fan support for the release of a director's cut version that restores deleted scenes.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: High school senior Steve Clark is new to Cradle Bay, a picturesque island community in Washington state's Puget Sound. His family has moved from Chicago after the suicide of eldest son Allen, a loss that continues to haunt Steve. On his first day at the local high school, Steve befriends three outcast students: Gavin Strick, U.V., and Rachel Wagner. Steve is also introduced to school psychologist Dr. Edgar Caldicott, who is aware of Steve’s loss and suggests he make new friends by joining a program called the Blue Ribbons, which is described as a “motivational workshop.”


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: The Blue Ribbons are a clique of preppy, clean-cut overachievers who organize bake sales and car washes. Members attempt to recruit Steve into their fold, but Gavin, who is viewed with contempt by the clique, steers him away. Gavin claims they are a murderous cult that has been “hypnotized, lobotomized and brainwashed” by Caldicott and that the whole town is in on it, but Steve thinks Gavin is exaggerating.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: Outside a store where Gavin tries to score alcohol, Rachel is approached by Chug, a jock Blue Ribbon member with a thing for her. After catching sight of Rachel in her midriff-baring outfit, Chug suddenly snaps into a rage and starts savagely beating up a guy inside the store. Chug nearly kills him while the town’s police chief, Officer Cox, simply looks on. When Steve asks his new friends what just happened, Rachel says it must be 'roid rage. Gavin insists again on his mind control theory, producing photos of his former burnout friends who were “reprogrammed” into Blue Ribbons.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: Gavin takes Steve to a school hideout where they eavesdrop on a PTA meeting presided over by Caldicott. During the meeting, Gavin learns his parents volunteered him for Caldicott’s program. A fearful Gavin brandishes a gun that he plans to use on potential abductors, but Steve calls him paranoid and wrestles the gun away from him. The following day, Gavin shows up to school as a clean-cut Blue Ribbon, with his long hair now cut short, his grungy clothing replaced by a preppy style, and his friendship with Rachel and U.V. coldly tossed aside.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: Steve's attempts to reach Gavin are met with hostility from other Blue Ribbons. He is beaten up by the clique, with Gavin landing the final blow. When Steve returns home, he finds Blue Ribbon member Lorna in his living room, having just tutored his younger sister Lindsay. Lorna attempts to seduce him, but in her arousal she flies into a violent rage as her right eye glows red. Repeating the words “wrong, bad”, she smashes a wall mirror with her head and attacks Steve with a shard, but he subdues her and she snaps out of her episode, acting as if nothing happened.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: Meanwhile, Steve befriends Mr. Newberry, the school janitor who also harbors suspicions about the Blue Ribbons. He demonstrates a device to Steve that emits a soft, high-pitched whine intended to repel rats. Later, Rachel is cornered in the boiler room by Chug in an attempted rape, but Newberry’s rat-catching device goes off and sends Chug into a frenzy. Rachel escapes and Chug finds the device, destroying it. Newberry, having witnessed the incident, realizes the device acts as an irritant on Blue Ribbons.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: In search of answers, Steve and Rachel venture to Bishop Flats, a nearby mental hospital. Their investigation confirms Gavin’s theory about the Blue Ribbons and mind control: Caldicott is implanting brain microchips on Cradle Bay teenagers with the approval of their parents, who want to reprogram their kids from juvenile delinquents into well-behaved model citizens. However, Caldicott could not turn off the teenagers’ hormones, resulting in momentary violent fits whenever the subjects’ sexual urges act up. Steve and Rachel attempt to get Lindsay so they can flee town, but they are ambushed by Caldicott and Steve’s parents, who reveal the reason the family moved to Cradle Bay was to sign Steve up for the program. Multiple Blue Ribbons capture Steve and Rachel, and Steve wakes up at the programming place. Steve is strapped into a chair and a technician prepares to reprogram him, but Steve gets hold of a scalpel and frees himself and Rachel.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: On their way out, they encounter Chug, but Rachel is able to strike him with a pipe, killing him. Rescued by Lindsay and U.V. in Rachel’s truck, they rush to catch an outgoing ferry but run into a roadblock where a horde of Blue Ribbons—Caldicott amongst them—is assembled. Newberry suddenly drives up in his car and activates the multiple rat-catching devices strapped to his vehicle, scrambling the mind control tech inside the Blue Ribbons’ heads and sending them maniacally chasing after him.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: While U.V., Lindsay, and Rachel head for the ferry, Steve follows Newberry on a motorcycle. Newberry, fatally wounded by a gunshot from Caldicott and with multiple Blue Ribbons swarming him, drives his car off of a cliff, taking most of the Ribbons down with him. Steve encounters Caldicott and the two fight, ending with the doctor being pushed off the cliff. Steve rides the motorcycle to the ferry and reunites with Rachel in a kiss. The four teens leave Cradle Bay to begin a new life without their parents.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: A final scene cuts to a classroom in an inner-city high school where kids are playing loud music and acting rowdily. A principal walks in the room to introduce a new student teacher. The teacher turns around to face the students and reveals his identity—a survived Gavin, still programmed with the Blue Ribbon technology.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: An international co-production between Australia, The United States and Canada. Scott Rosenberg's script for "Disturbing Behavior" was acquired by MGM in August 1997, with Beacon Pictures signing on to produce. James Marsden was cast in December of that year.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: The film underwent numerous studio-mandated recuts and a reshoot of the original ending due to negative test screenings. Many of the cuts were to scenes providing plot and character development. After the first test audience screening, Nutter cut the backstory for Steve’s brother Allen as well as a love scene between Steve and Rachel, but when the film again tested below studios’ expectations, MGM proceeded to take full control of the film and hired another editor, George Folsey, Jr., to make further cuts. Nutter was instructed to shoot a new ending in which the character of Gavin survives, as test audiences had disliked the plot line where Gavin dies. Cuts made to the film were so severe that Nutter considered having his name removed from the credits, but decided not to out of respect for his cast and crew.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: Director David Nutter said he envisioned the film as an atmospheric "X-Files"-style thriller, but the studio wanted a "Scream"-style teen horror. He commented, “Their attitude was ‘Let’s just get to the fright beats.' They felt teenagers wouldn’t sit through a picture that was more than 90 minutes.”


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: The studio ultimately cut 31 minutes' worth of film from Nutter's 115-minute version, resulting in an 84-minute theatrical cut.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: Negative reviews cited the film's derivative feel, with many claiming it appeared to take well-worn tropes from other horror and science-fiction films like "The Stepford Wives", "A Clockwork Orange", and "Village of the Damned". Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" said the film "could have worked as an eerie fable about teen-age identity and social stratification in the age of Prozac" but descends into "a paint-by-numbers creep show that can't muster enough energy to be the tiniest bit scary." Multiple reviews said the film lacked in scares.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: Positive reviews praised parts of the dialogue, particularly the cafeteria scene where the different school cliques are introduced. The performance of Nick Stahl as rebel outsider Gavin was also cited as being one of the film's highlights. Lisa Schwarzbaum of "Entertainment Weekly" wrote, "But for all its influences, "Disturbing Behavior" establishes a semi-real, semi-supernatural, part-mocking, part-commiserating genre of its own—a state so precarious that those expecting chillier frights or warmer laughs may be disappointed."


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: Other reviews noted a lack of coherence in the story and unevenness in tone. "Sight & Sound" wrote “Ultimately, the same schizophrenic impulse pervades the entire film: it's too pompous to be camp, but too silly to be genuinely engaging.”


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: The film opened at No. 7 at the North American box office making $7 million USD in its opening weekend. It had a 57% decline in earnings the following week, falling to No. 12.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: According to an interview with "Fangoria", David Nutter was close to getting a director's cut release on DVD, but MGM prevented him from finishing the restoration. In 2000, MGM released "Disturbing Behavior" on DVD. Included are a director's audio commentary in addition to eleven deleted scenes not seen in the theatrical version, which includes the original ending where Gavin meets a different fate than the one used in the theatrical release. The deleted scenes exist as an extra feature and are not reinserted into the film.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: A Blu-ray version which carries over existing extras was released by Shout! Factory on March 22, 2016. This version of the film has subsequently gone out of print. The film was eventually re-released on Blu-Ray through the MVD Rewind Collection on October 11, 2022. This version again carries over existing extras from the original DVD release.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: The United States cable networks Syfy Universal and Comet (TV network) have been known to air a somewhat unofficial director's cut of the film, with the deleted scenes reinstated, although the film is still shown with the theatrical ending.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: Although a director's cut was never released, there has been online circulation of fan edit versions which use the DVD's deleted scenes including the film's original ending.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: A 2019 review for "Gizmodo" noted the film "really "wants" to offer a youthful new twist on some classic sci-fi themes [and] had the potential to be something more." "Cinapse" also stated, "In spite of all the hacking the studio inflicted upon "Disturbing Behavior", many of the filmmakers’ core themes of high school life in the late ’90s manage to shine through. The film does indeed speak to teen conformity, the pressures to fit in amongst peers and to live up to parental expectations."


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: The soundtrack for the film was released July 28, 1998 and features 12 songs from the genres of alternative rock and post-grunge.


title: Disturbing Behavior

text: The music video for the song "Got You (Where I Want You)” by The Flys contains scenes from the film and features Katie Holmes and James Marsden. Not included in the soundtrack is the song “Flagpole Sitta” by Harvey Danger, which can be heard in the film’s mental hospital scene and was used in trailers and TV spots for the film. A soundtrack of the film's score composed by Mark Snow was also released.


title: Angle of repose

text: The angle of repose, or critical angle of repose, of a granular material is the steepest angle of descent or dip relative to the horizontal plane to which a material can be piled without slumping. At this angle, the material on the slope face is on the verge of sliding. The angle of repose can range from 0° to 90°. The morphology of the material affects the angle of repose; smooth, rounded sand grains cannot be piled as steeply as can rough, interlocking sands. The angle of repose can also be affected by additions of solvents. If a small amount of water is able to bridge the gaps between particles, electrostatic attraction of the water to mineral surfaces will increase the angle of repose, and related quantities such as the soil strength.


title: Angle of repose

text: When bulk granular materials are poured onto a horizontal surface, a conical pile will form. The internal angle between the surface of the pile and the horizontal surface is known as the angle of repose and is related to the density, surface area and shapes of the particles, and the coefficient of friction of the material. Material with a low angle of repose forms flatter piles than material with a high angle of repose.


title: Angle of repose

text: The term has a related usage in mechanics, where it refers to the maximum angle at which an object can rest on an inclined plane without sliding down. This angle is equal to the arctangent of the coefficient of static friction "μ" between the surfaces.


title: Angle of repose

text: The angle of repose is sometimes used in the design of equipment for the processing of particulate solids. For example, it may be used to design an appropriate hopper or silo to store the material, or to size a conveyor belt for transporting the material. It can also be used in determining whether or not a slope (of a stockpile, or uncompacted gravel bank, for example) will likely collapse; the talus slope is derived from angle of repose and represents the steepest slope a pile of granular material will take. This angle of repose is also crucial in correctly calculating stability in vessels.


title: Angle of repose

text: It is also commonly used by mountaineers as a factor in analysing avalanche danger in mountainous areas.


title: Angle of repose

text: There are numerous methods for measuring angle of repose and each produces slightly different results. Results are also sensitive to the exact methodology of the experimenter. As a result, data from different labs are not always comparable. One method is the triaxial shear test, another is the direct shear test.


title: Angle of repose

text: If the coefficient of static friction is known of a material, then a good approximation of the angle of repose can be made with the following function. This function is somewhat accurate for piles where individual objects in the pile are minuscule and piled in random order.


title: Angle of repose

text: This method is appropriate for fine-grained, non-cohesive materials with individual particle size less than 10 mm. The material is placed within a box with a transparent side to observe the granular test material. It should initially be level and parallel to the base of the box. The box is slowly tilted until the material begins to slide in bulk, and the angle of the tilt is measured.


title: Angle of repose

text: The material is poured through a funnel to form a cone. The tip of the funnel should be held close to the growing cone and slowly raised as the pile grows, to minimize the impact of falling particles. Stop pouring the material when the pile reaches a predetermined height or the base a predetermined width. Rather than attempt to measure the angle of the resulting cone directly, divide the height by half the width of the base of the cone. The inverse tangent of this ratio is the angle of repose.


title: Angle of repose

text: The material is placed within a cylinder with at least one transparent end. The cylinder is rotated at a fixed speed and the observer watches the material moving within the rotating cylinder. The effect is similar to watching clothes tumble over one another in a slowly rotating clothes dryer. The granular material will assume a certain angle as it flows within the rotating cylinder. This method is recommended for obtaining the dynamic angle of repose, and may vary from the static angle of repose measured by other methods.


title: Angle of repose

text: Different supports will modify the shape of the pile, in the illustrations below sand piles, though angles of repose remain the same.


title: Angle of repose

text: The larvae of the antlions and the unrelated wormlions Vermileonidae trap small insects such as ants by digging conical pits in loose sand, such that the slope of the walls is effectively at the critical angle of repose for the sand. They achieve this by flinging the loose sand out of the pit and permitting the sand to settle at its critical angle of repose as it falls back. Thus, when a small insect, commonly an ant, blunders into the pit, its weight causes the sand to collapse below it, drawing the victim toward the center where the predator that dug the pit lies in wait under a thin layer of loose sand. The larva assists this process by vigorously flicking sand out from the center of the pit when it detects a disturbance. This undermines the pit walls and causes them to collapse toward the center. The sand that the larva flings also pelts the prey with so much loose, rolling material as to prevent it from getting any foothold on the easier slopes that the initial collapse of the slope has presented. The combined effect is to bring the prey down to within grasp of the larva, which then can inject venom and digestive fluids.


title: Amira Casar

text: Amira is the daughter of a Kurdish father and a Russian mother. She was born in London and was subsequently raised in England, Ireland, and France. She studied drama at the Conservatoire National d'Art Dramatique de Paris between 1991 and 1994. She is fluent in both English and French and has worked in German, Italian, and Spanish.


title: Amira Casar

text: Casar's first role was in the 1989 film "" ("Error of Youth") by . She played Sandra Benzakhem in the 1997 film "La Vérité si je mens !", for which she was nominated for a César Award for Most Promising Actress. She later appeared in the film's two sequels, in 2001 and 2012.


title: Amira Casar

text: Casar portrayed Myriem in "How I Killed My Father" (2001) by Anne Fontaine; Assia Wevill in "Sylvia" (2003) by Christine Jeffs; the lead role of The Woman in the Catherine Breillat erotic film "Anatomy of Hell" (2004); and Eva in "To Paint or Make Love" (2005) by Arnaud and Jean-Marie Larrieu, which was nominated for the Palme d'Or at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival.


title: Amira Casar

text: Other roles include Marianne in "Hypnotized and Hysterical" (2002), a film by which won the Grand Golden Rail at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival; Malvina van Stille in "The Piano Tuner of Earthquakes" by the Brothers Quay (2005); and Marie in Tony Gatlif's "Transylvania" in 2006.


title: Amira Casar

text: In 2007, Casar appeared in installation artist Sophie Calle's Venice Biennale piece "Prenez soin de vous" ("Take Care of Yourself").


title: Amira Casar

text: In 2008, she played Dolorès in Laetitia Masson's ', and portrayed Irene in Werner Schroeter's last film, "Nuit de chien". Casar played the lead role of Anna Di Baggio in the film ' in 2009.


title: Amira Casar

text: She won the Best Actress award at La Rochelle Television Film Festival for her portrayal of Dora Maar in ' in 2010. In 2011, Casar played Irène in ', and Deniz in "Playoff". In 2013, she appeared in the Arnaud des Pallières film "Michael Kohlhaas", and portrayed Anne-Marie Munoz in Bertrand Bonello's "Saint Laurent" in 2014.


title: Amira Casar

text: In 2015, Casar appeared in" The Forbidden Room" by Canadian director Guy Maddin. and portrayed Béatrice, Madame de Clermont, in the TV series "Versailles". In 2017, she played Annella Perlman in the film "Call Me by Your Name". She also appeared in the 2019 Caroline Fourest film "Sisters in Arms", about a team of female Kurdish soldiers and volunteers.


title: Amira Casar

text: In 2022, Casar appeared in the film "The Contractor". She will next portray Edith Frank, the mother of Anne Frank, in the upcoming Disney+ series "A Small Light".


title: Amira Casar

text: On stage, Casar's work includes the Almeida Theatre production of "Aunt Dan and Lemon"; the title role in "Hedda Gabler" at Le Petit Théâtre de Paris; and Olivier Py's 2009 production of "Les Enfants de Saturne" at the Theatre National de L'Odéon, Paris. In 2011, she appeared in the title role of Petra in "The Bitter Tears of Petra von Kant", and received critical acclaim in Arthur Honegger's "Jeanne d'Arc au bûcher" at the Barbican Centre with the London Symphony Orchestra.


title: EHF Champions League

text: The EHF Champions League is the most important club handball competition for men's teams in Europe and involves the leading teams from the top European nations. The competition is organised every year by EHF. The official name for the men's competition is the EHF Champions League Men.


title: EHF Champions League

text: Each year, the EHF publishes a ranking list of its member federations. The first 9 nations are automatically permitted to participate in the tournament with their national champion. The national federation ranked one in the EHF European League currently Germany, is awarded a second qualification berth for the domestic runner-up. The remaining 6 positions are designated through wildcards, with each national federation without 2 teams already qualified able to submit a single applicant. The wildcards are judged on five criteria: venue, TV, spectators, results in past EHF competitions and product management and digital.


title: EHF Champions League

text: Each year, the EHF publishes a ranking list of its member federations. The first nine nations are allowed to participate in the tournament with their national champion. In addition, the tenth spot is reserved for the best ranked national federation of the EHF European League Men. The national federations are allowed to request upgrades for their teams eligible to play in the EHF European League and based on the criteria list the EHF Executive Committee approves six upgrades.


title: EHF Champions League

text: The EHF Champions League is divided into four stages. All participating teams enter the competition in the group phase.


title: EHF Champions League

text: Since the 2020/21 season, the format sees two groups formed, with eight teams each in Group A and B. All the teams in each group play each other twice, in home and away matches (14 rounds in total). The first two teams in Groups A and B advance directly to the quarter-finals, while teams from positions three to six in each of these groups proceed to the playoff. The season is over for the last two teams in each group after the completion of the group phase.


title: EHF Champions League

text: The pairings for the playoff are decided by the placement of the teams at the end of the group phase (A6 vs B3, B6 vs A3, A5 vs B4 and B5 vs A4). Each pairing is decided via a home and away format, with the aggregate winners over the two legs advancing to the quarter-finals. The higher ranked teams in the group phase have the home right advantage in the second leg.


title: EHF Champions League

text: The pairings for the quarter-finals are also decided by the placement in the group phase (Winner of A5/B4 vs A1, Winner B5/A4 vs B1, Winner A6/B3 vs A2, Winner B6/A3 vs B2). The ties are decided through a home and away format, with the four winners over the two legs played in each pairing advancing to the EHF FINAL4. The higher ranked teams in the group phase have the home right advantage in the second leg.


title: EHF Champions League

text: The official name for the men's EHF FINAL4 is the EHF FINAL4 Men. The participating EHF FINAL4 teams are paired for the semifinals through a draw and play the last two matches of the season over a single weekend at one venue. The two semi-finals are played on a Saturday, with the third-place game and final on a Sunday.


title: EHF Champions League

text: Much like the visual brand identity, the brand sound identity will acoustically connect the various leagues and tournaments which fit under the EHF umbrella. For the EHF Brand Sound, the authors got to the core of "The Sound of Handball" and created a handball sound DNA as the recurring element across all audio-visual applications. The jump shot was identified as the most iconic and defining handball movement.


title: EHF Champions League

text: Through video analysis and motion tracking, the jump shot was extracted into a rhythmic design pattern. There are numerous application opportunities of the brand sound, which will be developed over time. First implementations of the new EHF Brand Sound will be heard in the EHF Champions League. The premium character of this tournament was translated into a modern sound design through a new EHF Champions League sound logo and anthem. Both will come to life in the arena and will consistently complement all audio-visual communications.


title: EHF Champions League

text: The previous anthem for the EHF Champions League is "Hymn of the Champions", used until the end of the 2019/20 season and exclusively written by Austrian film composer Roman Kariolou in 2007. The recording played during the entry ceremony before every game was performed by the Bratislava Symphony Orchestra, conducted by David Hernando.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: The just-world hypothesis or just-world fallacy is the cognitive bias that assumes that "people get what they deserve" – that actions will have morally fair and fitting consequences for the actor. For example, the assumptions that noble actions will eventually be rewarded and evil actions will eventually be punished fall under this hypothesis. In other words, the just-world hypothesis is the tendency to attribute consequences to—or expect consequences as the result of— either a universal force that restores moral balance or a universal connection between the nature of actions and their results. This belief generally implies the existence of cosmic justice, destiny, divine providence, desert, stability, and/or order. It is often associated with a variety of fundamental fallacies, especially in regard to rationalizing suffering on the grounds that the sufferers "deserve" it.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: The hypothesis popularly appears in the English language in various figures of speech that imply guaranteed punishment for wrongdoing, such as: "you got what was coming to you", "what goes around comes around", "chickens come home to roost", "everything happens for a reason", and "you reap what you sow". This hypothesis has been widely studied by social psychologists since Melvin J. Lerner conducted seminal work on the belief in a just world in the early 1960s. Research has continued since then, examining the predictive capacity of the hypothesis in various situations and across cultures, and clarifying and expanding the theoretical understandings of just-world beliefs.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Many philosophers and social theorists have observed and considered the phenomenon of belief in a just world, going back to at least as early as the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus, writing "circa" 180 CE, who argued against this belief. Lerner's work made the just-world hypothesis a focus of research in the field of social psychology. Aristotelian ethics views "justice" as the chief of the virtues, moral sense being deeply rooted in the nature of humans as social and rational animals.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Lerner was prompted to study justice beliefs and the just-world hypothesis in the context of social psychological inquiry into negative social and societal interactions. Lerner saw his work as extending Stanley Milgram's work on obedience. He sought to answer the questions of how regimes that cause cruelty and suffering maintain popular support, and how people come to accept social norms and laws that produce misery and suffering.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Lerner's inquiry was influenced by repeatedly witnessing the tendency of observers to blame victims for their suffering. During his clinical training as a psychologist, he observed treatment of mentally ill persons by the health care practitioners with whom he worked. Although Lerner knew them to be kindhearted, educated people, they often blamed patients for the patients' own suffering. Lerner also describes his surprise at hearing his students derogate (disparage, belittle) the poor, seemingly oblivious to the structural forces that contribute to poverty. The desire to understand the processes that caused these phenomena led Lerner to conduct his first experiments on what is now called the just-world hypothesis.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: In 1966, Lerner and his colleagues began a series of experiments that used shock paradigms to investigate observer responses to victimization. In the first of these experiments conducted at the University of Kansas, 72 female participants watched what appeared to be a confederate receiving electrical shocks for her errors during a learning task (learning pairs of nonsense syllables). Initially, these observing participants were upset by the victim's apparent suffering. But as the suffering continued and observers remained unable to intervene, the observers began to reject and devalue the victim. Rejection and devaluation of the victim was greater when the observed suffering was greater. But when participants were told the victim would receive compensation for her suffering, the participants did not derogate the victim. Lerner and colleagues replicated these findings in subsequent studies, as did other researchers.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: To explain these studies' findings, Lerner theorized that there was a prevalent belief in a just world. A just world is one in which actions and conditions have predictable, appropriate consequences. These actions and conditions are typically individuals' behaviors or attributes. The specific conditions that correspond to certain consequences are socially determined by a society's norms and ideologies. Lerner presents the belief in a just world as functional: it maintains the idea that one can influence the world in a predictable way. Belief in a just world functions as a sort of "contract" with the world regarding the consequences of behavior. This allows people to plan for the future and engage in effective, goal-driven behavior. Lerner summarized his findings and his theoretical work in his 1980 monograph "The Belief in a Just World: A Fundamental Delusion".


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Lerner hypothesized that the belief in a just world is crucially important for people to maintain for their own well-being. But people are confronted daily with evidence that the world is not just: people suffer without apparent cause. Lerner explained that people use strategies to eliminate threats to their belief in a just world. These strategies can be rational or irrational. Rational strategies include accepting the reality of injustice, trying to prevent injustice or provide restitution, and accepting one's own limitations. Non-rational strategies include denial, withdrawal, and reinterpretation of the event.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: There are a few modes of reinterpretation that could make an event fit the belief in a just world. One can reinterpret the outcome, the cause, and/or the character of the victim. In the case of observing the injustice of the suffering of innocent people, one major way to rearrange the cognition of an event is to interpret the victim of suffering as deserving. Specifically, observers can blame victims for their suffering on the basis of their behaviors and/or their characteristics. Much psychological research on the belief in a just world has focused on these negative social phenomena of victim blaming and victim derogation in different contexts.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: An additional effect of this thinking is that individuals experience less personal vulnerability because they do not believe they have done anything to deserve or cause negative outcomes. This is related to the self-serving bias observed by social psychologists.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Many researchers have interpreted just-world beliefs as an example of causal attribution. In victim blaming, the causes of victimization are attributed to an individual rather than to a situation. Thus, the consequences of belief in a just world may be related to or explained in terms of particular patterns of causal attribution.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Others have suggested alternative explanations for the derogation of victims. One suggestion is that derogation effects are based on accurate judgments of a victim's character. In particular, in relation to Lerner's first studies, some have hypothesized that it would be logical for observers to derogate an individual who would allow himself to be shocked without reason. A subsequent study by Lerner challenged this alternative hypothesis by showing that individuals are only derogated when they actually suffer; individuals who agreed to undergo suffering but did not were viewed positively.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Another alternative explanation offered for the derogation of victims early in the development of the just-world hypothesis was that observers derogate victims to reduce their own feelings of guilt. Observers may feel responsible, or guilty, for a victim's suffering if they themselves are involved in the situation or experiment. In order to reduce the guilt, they may devalue the victim. Lerner and colleagues claim that there has not been adequate evidence to support this interpretation. They conducted one study that found derogation of victims occurred even by observers who were not implicated in the process of the experiment and thus had no reason to feel guilty.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Alternatively, victim derogation and other strategies may only be ways to alleviate discomfort after viewing suffering. This would mean that the primary motivation is not to restore a belief in a just world, but to reduce discomfort caused by empathizing. Studies have shown that victim derogation does not suppress subsequent helping activity and that empathizing with the victim plays a large role when assigning blame. According to Ervin Staub, devaluing the victim should lead to lesser compensation if restoring belief in a just world was the primary motive; instead, there is virtually no difference in compensation amounts whether the compensation precedes or follows devaluation. Psychopathy has been linked to the lack of just-world maintaining strategies, possibly due to dampened emotional reactions and lack of empathy.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: After Lerner's first studies, other researchers replicated these findings in other settings in which individuals are victimized. This work, which began in the 1970s and continues today, has investigated how observers react to victims of random calamities like traffic accidents, as well as rape and domestic violence, illnesses, and poverty. Generally, researchers have found that observers of the suffering of innocent victims tend to both derogate and blame victims for their suffering. Observers thus maintain their belief in a just world by changing their cognitions about the victims' character.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: In the early 1970s, social psychologists Zick Rubin and Letitia Anne Peplau developed a measure of belief in a just world. This measure and its revised form published in 1975 allowed for the study of individual differences in just-world beliefs. Much of the subsequent research on the just-world hypothesis used these measurement scales.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: These studies on victims of violence, illness, and poverty and others like them have provided consistent support for the link between observers' just-world beliefs and their tendency to blame victims for their suffering. As a result, the existence of the just-world hypothesis as a psychological phenomenon has become widely accepted.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Researchers have looked at how observers react to victims of rape and other violence. In a formative experiment on rape and belief in a just world by Linda Carli and colleagues, researchers gave two groups of subjects a narrative about interactions between a man and a woman. The description of the interaction was the same until the end; one group received a narrative that had a neutral ending and the other group received a narrative that ended with the man raping the woman. Subjects judged the rape ending as inevitable and blamed the woman in the narrative for the rape on the basis of her behavior, but not her characteristics. These findings have been replicated repeatedly, including using a rape ending and a 'happy ending' (a marriage proposal).


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Other researchers have found a similar phenomenon for judgments of battered partners. One study found that observers' labels of blame of female victims of relationship violence increase with the intimacy of the relationship. Observers blamed the perpetrator only in the least intimate case of violence, in which a male struck an acquaintance.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Researchers have employed the just-world hypothesis to understand bullying. Given other research on beliefs in a just world, it would be expected that observers would derogate and blame bullying victims, but the opposite has been found: individuals high in just-world belief have stronger anti-bullying attitudes. Other researchers have found that strong belief in a just world is associated with lower levels of bullying behavior. This finding is in keeping with Lerner's understanding of belief in a just world as functioning as a "contract" that governs behavior. There is additional evidence that belief in a just world is protective of the well-being of children and adolescents in the school environment, as has been shown for the general population.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Other researchers have found that observers judge sick people as responsible for their illnesses. One experiment showed that persons suffering from a variety of illnesses were derogated on a measure of attractiveness more than healthy individuals were. In comparison to healthy people, victim derogation was found for persons presenting with indigestion, pneumonia, and stomach cancer. Moreover, derogation was found to be higher for those suffering from more severe illnesses, except for those presenting with cancer. Stronger belief in a just world has also been found to correlate with greater derogation of AIDS victims.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: More recently, researchers have explored how people react to poverty through the lens of the just-world hypothesis. Strong belief in a just world is associated with blaming the poor, with weak belief in a just world associated with identifying external causes of poverty including world economic systems, war, and exploitation.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Some research on belief in a just world has examined how people react when they themselves are victimized. An early paper by Dr. Ronnie Janoff-Bulman found that rape victims often blame their own behavior, but not their own characteristics, for their victimization. It was hypothesized that this may be because blaming one's own behavior makes an event more controllable.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Subsequent work on measuring belief in a just world has focused on identifying multiple dimensions of the belief. This work has resulted in the development of new measures of just-world belief and additional research. Hypothesized dimensions of just-world beliefs include belief in an unjust world, beliefs in immanent justice and ultimate justice, hope for justice, and belief in one's ability to reduce injustice. Other work has focused on looking at the different domains in which the belief may function; individuals may have different just-world beliefs for the personal domain, the sociopolitical domain, the social domain, etc. An especially fruitful distinction is between the belief in a just world for the self (personal) and the belief in a just world for others (general). These distinct beliefs are differentially associated with positive mental health.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Researchers have used measures of belief in a just world to look at correlates of high and low levels of belief in a just world.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Limited studies have examined ideological correlates of the belief in a just world. These studies have found sociopolitical correlates of just-world beliefs, including right-wing authoritarianism and the Protestant work ethic. Studies have also found belief in a just world to be correlated with aspects of religiousness.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Studies of demographic differences, including gender and racial differences, have not shown systemic differences, but do suggest racial differences, with black people and African Americans having the lowest levels of belief in a just world.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: The development of measures of just-world beliefs has also allowed researchers to assess cross-cultural differences in just-world beliefs. Much research conducted shows that beliefs in a just world are evident cross-culturally. One study tested beliefs in a just world of students in 12 countries. This study found that in countries where the majority of inhabitants are powerless, belief in a just world tends to be weaker than in other countries. This supports the theory of the just-world hypothesis because the powerless have had more personal and societal experiences that provided evidence that the world is not just and predictable.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Belief in unjust world has been linked to increased self-handicapping, criminality, defensive coping, anger and perceived future risk. It may also serve as ego-protective belief for certain individuals by justifying maladaptive behavior.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Although much of the initial work on belief in a just world focused on its negative social effects, other research suggests that belief in a just world is good, and even necessary, for mental health. Belief in a just world is associated with greater life satisfaction and well-being and less depressive affect. Researchers are actively exploring the reasons why the belief in a just world might have this relationship to mental health; it has been suggested that such beliefs could be a personal resource or coping strategy that buffers stress associated with daily life and with traumatic events. This hypothesis suggests that belief in a just world can be understood as a positive illusion. In line with this perspective, recent research also suggests that belief in a just world may explain the known statistical association between religiosity/spirituality and psychological well-being


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Some studies also show that beliefs in a just world are correlated with internal locus of control. Strong belief in a just world is associated with greater acceptance of and less dissatisfaction with negative events in one's life. This may be one way in which belief in a just world affects mental health. Others have suggested that this relationship holds only for beliefs in a just world for oneself. Beliefs in a just world for others are related instead to the negative social phenomena of victim blaming and victim derogation observed in other studies.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: Belief in a just world has also been found to negatively predict the perceived likelihood of kin favoritism. The perspective of the individual plays an important role in this relationship, such that when people imagine themselves as mere observers of injustice, general belief in a just world will be the stronger predictor, and when they imagine themselves as victims of injustice, personal belief in a just world will be the stronger predictor. This further supports the distinction between general and personal belief in a just world.


title: Just-world hypothesis

text: More than 40 years after Lerner's seminal work on belief in a just world, researchers continue to study the phenomenon. Belief in a just world scales have been validated in several countries such as Iran, Russia, Brazil, and France. Work continues primarily in the United States, Europe, Australia, and Asia. Researchers in Germany have contributed disproportionately to recent research. Their work resulted i a volume edited by Lerner and German researcher Leo Montada titled "Responses to Victimizations and Belief in a Just World".


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: Since Ukraine's independence in 1991, the country has used four main systems of vehicle registration plates.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: The first system was introduced in 1992 and was based on the last Soviet license plate conception, regulated by the 1977 standard, but with the addition of a new regional suffix corresponding to a Ukrainian province.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: In 1993, the left-hand side of the plate was modified with the addition of the national flag over the country code "UA".


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: 1995 saw the introduction of a completely new system consisting of five digits, with a dash between the third and fourth digit, combined with a two letter suffix. It also included a two-digit region code, situated under the National Flag on the left-hand side of the plate.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: In order to enable drivers using their vehicle abroad, and in order to adhere to the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, Ukrainian regular license plates use only those Cyrillic characters where the glyph resembles a letter from the Roman alphabet; a total of 12 characters: А, В, Е, І, К, М, Н, О, Р, С, Т, Х). Before 1995, the "Я" character was also used. For some types of black-background plates can be used completely Cyrillic characters.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: Some vehicles, like trolleybuses, are not required to have license plates, because they cannot leave the network they operate on and can be identified by a number painted on the vehicle and assigned to it by the local public transport authority.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: Between 1977 and 1993, Ukrainian registration plates were manufactured in accordance with the Soviet GOST 3207-77 standard. The alphanumeric sequence took the form of: codice_1, where x is a lowercase Cyrillic serial/counter letter; # is any digit in the range 0-9; and XX are two uppercase Cyrillic letters indicating where the vehicle was first registered.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: Current plates include a two-letter regional prefix followed by 4 digits then a two-letter serial suffix.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: The international vehicle registration code UA is situated in the national-flag-colored band, which also includes the coat of arms, all on the left-hand side of the plate.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: Two-line optimized by size license plate must be shaped to fit to montage place and could have length 220-400 mm and height 110-320 mm.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: Issuing of regular plates is done in Latin alphabet order (AA, AB, AC, AE, AH, AI, AK, AM, AO, AP, AT, AX, BA, BB...).


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: License plates for trailers look like a regular plate but with a suffix with leading "X" and these are issued in reverse order (XX, XT, XP, XO...).


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: According to a 2007 decree, 2004 standard regular plates for private automobiles with triple leading zero combinations or combinations with all identical digits (except prohibited quadruple zero) are recognized as cherished and officially cost from 7,500 to 20,000 UAH (approx. 240 to 640 €). Plate owner can choose any yet not assigned suffix within a region of vehicle registration. All other combinations are officially recognized as an ordinary, but virtually known that some of so-called "pretty" combinations were purchased.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: By the order of characters current plates completely repeat current Bulgarian and former, but still valid, Spanish systems. Because of this some plates may not be quickly recognized by nationality. This applies to the four regions of Spain with prefixes BA, BI, CA, IB; and mostly to the five regions of Bulgaria with prefixes BT, BH, CA, CB (Sofia again), CH, KH.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: Individualized license plates are an additional type of plate, available for personal vehicles and motorcycles. State automobile inspection requires a previous vehicle registration with issuing of regular plates before issuing individualized plates. Using both plate-sets at the same time is prohibited, as well as driving abroad with the individualized license plates.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: Individualized plates were first introduced in 1997 and included the numeric code of region. From 2004 have been issued plates with no region coding. Current (2007) individualized plates visually replicate the 1997 plates.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: Plate-owners can choose Cyrillic or Roman letters for creation of individualized plates followed by some digits. In addition to the characters, plate owners can choose any image to print on the right-hand side of the plate. As far as it is known, this option is only available in Ukraine, so Ukrainian individualized plates are unique in this sense.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: Prohibited to use any discriminatory or offensive phrases; any national, language, religious or gender self-identification; repeating the names and logos of official state's authorities; repeating the names and logos of foreign states and official foreign states' authorities; etc.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: After introducing the current system, regions' numeric codes were used in some non-regular plates (white-on-red temporary, white-on-blue ministry of internal affairs plates and black-on white personalized plates).


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: Current diplomatic plates is black-on-white, all combinations starts with "D"-prefix followed by six digits. Three-digit group following "D"-prefix is the code that indicates: in interval 001-199 - embassies by countries, 200-299 - international organizations, 300-399 - consular authority by countries. Last three digits is the serial number. Unofficially issues two-line optimize shaped diplomatic license plates.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: Former diplomatic plates is still valid. White-on-red plates consists|smaller font three-digit code (001-100), prefix (CDP for ambassadors, DP for embassy personnel, CC for consular corps, S for staff) and four or five serial digits. Earliest white-on-red diplomatic plates (1995) scheme included the same letter prefixes and four-six digits (depending from number|letters), where the first three was a country code.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: There were the same scheme black-on-yellow plates for non-diplomatic purposes (F or IT prefix for foreign companies). Earliest black-on-yellow (1995) scheme included prefix followed by six digits (F for foreign companies, C for foreigners, B for permanent export). In F-plates first three digits was a country code, in B and C-plates - a region code (from 649 to 673).


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: Military plates were white-on-black, while police plates were white-on-blue. Volunteer military organization plates were colored white-on-dark green.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: 1) Dealers issues trade plate with non-regional prefix in interval T0-T9. There three shapes of this plates: a) for cars, trucks, buses, trailers; b) for motorcycles; c) for mopeds.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: 2) Inter-district registration and examination departments (MREV) issues temporary plates with regional coded prefix (01-27) if the vehicle needs re-registration in another region or country. There three shapes of this plates: a) for cars, trucks, buses, trailers; b) for motorcycles; c) for mopeds.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Ukraine

text: 3) Special authorities issues temporary plates for an agricultural and self-propelled construction equipment with TP-prefix in "moped" shape.


title: Fad diet

text: A fad diet is a diet that becomes popular for a short time, similar to fads in fashion, without being a standard dietary recommendation, and often making unreasonable claims for fast weight loss or health improvements. There is no single definition of what is a fad diet. The term fad diet encompasses a variety of diets with different approaches and evidence bases, and thus different outcomes, advantages, and disadvantages.


title: Fad diet

text: Generally, fad diets promise an assortment of short-term changes requiring little to no effort; attracting the interests of uneducated consumers about whole-diet, whole-lifestyle changes necessary for sustainable health benefices. Fad diets are often promoted with exaggerated claims, such as rapid weight loss of more than 1 kg/week, improving health by "detoxification", or even dangerous claims, such as highly restrictive and nutritionally unbalanced food choices leading to malnutrition or eating non-food items like cotton wool. Highly restrictive fad diets should be avoided. At best, fad diets may offer novel and engaging ways to reduce caloric intake, but at worst they may be medically unsuitable to the individual, unsustainable, or even dangerous. Dietitian advice should be preferred before attempting any diet.


title: Fad diet

text: Celebrity endorsements are frequently used to promote fad diets, which may generate significant revenue for the creators of the diets through the sale of associated products. Regardless of their evidence base, or lack thereof, fad diets are extremely popular, with over 1500 books published each year, and many consumers willing to pay into an industry worth $35 billion per year in the United States. About 14–15% Americans declare having used a fad diet for short-term weight loss.


title: Fad diet

text: Although fad diets may have a negative connotation for health professionals, some have scientific evidences and therapeutic applications, such as the ketogenic diet for epilepsy or caloric restriction and the Mediterranean diet for obesity and diabetes, and several producing similar benefits to commercial diets or standard care when done under professional supervision.


title: Fad diet

text: There is no single definition of what is a fad diet, encompassing a variety of diets with different approaches and evidence base, and thus different outcomes, advantages, and disadvantages. Furthermore, labeling a diet as a fad is ever-changing, varying socially, culturally, timely, and subjectively. However, a common definition lies in the popularity of a diet promoting short-term changes instead of lifelong changes, and that popularity (or lack thereof) has no association with a diet's effectiveness, nutritional soundness, or safety. The Federal Trade Commission defines fad diets as those that are highly restrictive and promoting energy dense foods that are often poor in nutrients.


title: Fad diet

text: Fad diets are generally restrictive, and are characterized by promises of fast weight loss or great physical health (notably by "detoxification"), and which are not grounded in sound science.


title: Fad diet

text: Some fad diets, such as diets purporting to be alternative cancer treatments, promise health benefits other than weight loss.


title: Fad diet

text: Commercial weight management organizations (CMWOs), such as Weight Watchers, were inappropriately associated with fad diets in the past.


title: Fad diet

text: Several factors can cause someone to start a fad diet, such as socio-cultural peer pressure on body image and self-esteem, including the effect of media, and economical cost of comprehensive programs.


title: Fad diet

text: Although not all fad diets are inherently detrimental to health, there are "red flags" of bad dietary advice, such as:


title: Fad diet

text: Fad diets have variable results as these include a variety of different diets. They tend to result in short-term weight loss, but afterwards, the weight is often regained.


title: Fad diet

text: The restrictive approach, regardless of whether the diet prescribes eating large amounts of high-fiber vegetables, no grains, or no solid foods, tend to be nutritionally unsound, and can cause serious health problems if followed for more than a few days.


title: Fad diet

text: A considerable disadvantage of fad diets is that they encourage the notion of a diet as a short-term behavior, instead of a sustainable lifelong change. Indeed, fad diets often fail to re-educate dieters about a healthy nutrition, portion control and under-emphasize efforts and especially physical activity, so that followers cannot acquire the skills and knowledge they need for long-term maintenance of their desired weight, even if that weight is achieved in the short-term. Several diets are also unsustainable in the long-term, and thus dieters revert to old habits after deprivation of some foods which may lead to binge eating. Fad diets generally fail to address the causes of poor nutrition habits, and thus are unlikely to change the underlying behavior and the long-term outcomes.


title: Fad diet

text: Some fad diets are associated with increased risks of cardiovascular diseases and mental disorders such as eating disorders and depression, and dental risks. For instance, long-term low-carbohydrate high-fat diets are associated with increased cardiac and non-cardiac mortality. Teenagers following fad diets are at risk of permanently stunted growth.


title: Fad diet

text: Some fad diets do however provide short-term and long-term results for individuals with specific illnesses such as obesity or epilepsy. Very-low-calorie diets, also known as crash diets, are efficient for liver fat reduction and weight loss before bariatric surgery. Low-calorie and very-low-calorie diets may produce initially faster weight loss within the first 1–2 weeks of starting compared to other diets, but this superficially faster loss is due to glycogen depletion and water loss in the lean body mass and regained quickly afterward.


title: Fad diet

text: Diet success in weight loss and health benefits is most predicted by adherence and negative energy balance, regardless of the diet type. Fad diets, with their popularity and variety, may be useful to introduce obese individuals via a dietary plan tailored to their food preferences and lifestyle into long-term dietary and lifestyle changes under supervision by nutrition professionals. Indeed, a wide variety of diets aiming at gentle caloric restriction under supervision, including commercial, fad, and standard care diets, have shown considerable and comparable success and safety, both in the short-term and long-term. Comprehensive diet programs are more effective than dieting without guidance. According to David L. Katz, "efforts to improve public health through diet are forestalled not for want of knowledge about the optimal feeding of Homo sapiens but for distractions associated with exaggerated claims, and our failure to convert what we reliably know into what we routinely do.


title: Fad diet

text: There is a commonly claimed figure that "95% of dieters regain their weight after a few years", but this is a "clinical lore" based on a 1953 primary study, with newer evidence demonstrating long-term weight loss after dieting under supervision, although a 2007 review found that one-third to two-thirds of dieters had slight to no long-term weight loss based on lesser quality trials, supporting the Health at Every Size according to its authors. A review reported that extended calorie restriction suppresses overall and specific food cravings.


title: Fad diet

text: Improving dietary habits is a societal issue that should be considered when preparing national policies, according to the World Health Organization. They propose a set of recommendations for a healthy diet:


title: Fad diet

text: The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans implement these recommendations in the US, as follows:


title: Fad diet

text: Contrary to the previous editions which mainly focused on dietary components such as food groups and nutrients, the latest offer a more global approach focusing on eating patterns and nutrients characteristics as "people do not eat food groups and nutrients in isolation but rather in combination, and the totality of the diet forms an overall eating pattern". Indeed, "the components of the eating pattern can have interactive and potentially cumulative effects on health", noting that "these patterns can be tailored to an individual's personal preferences, enabling Americans to choose the diet that is right for them".


title: Fad diet

text: Several diets have shown sufficient evidence of safety and constant beneficial effects to be recommended. These include the DASH diet for anyone but especially for cardiac risk prevention in obesity and diabetes, the Mediterranean diet with similar indications, the U.S. Department of Agriculture "MyPlate" for healthy diet guidelines, and the ketogenic diet for reducing risk of seizures in people who have epilepsy.


title: Fad diet

text: The word "diet" comes from the Greek "diaita", which described a whole lifestyle, including mental and physical, rather than a narrow weight-loss regimen. The Greek and Roman physicians considered that how a body functioned was largely dependent on the foods eaten, and that different foods could affect people in different way.


title: Fad diet

text: Western medical science at the time was founded on "diatetica", the "fundamental healing therapy of a regimen of certain foods". Overweight or being too slim were seen as signs of an unhealthy body, with an imbalance of its four essential "humours" (black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm).


title: Fad diet

text: The earliest diet known is from the oldest surviving medical document, the Ebers papyrus (circa 1550 BC), which described a recipe for an antidiabetic diet of wheat germ and okra. An early dietary fad is known from about 500–400 BC, when athletes and warriors consumed deer livers and lion hearts, thinking these products would impart benefits such as bravery, speed, or strength.


title: Fad diet

text: In the "Corpus Hippocraticum", Hippocrates, a Greek philosopher and physician c. 460–370 BC, describe his views on human health, as being primarily influenced by alimentation and the environment we inhabit. He thought that the underlying principles of health were food and exercise, what he called "work", and that a high food intake needed a lot of hard work to be properly assimilated. A failure to balance work and food intake would upset the body's metabolism and incur diseases. As he wrote: "Man cannot live healthily on food without a certain amount of exercise". He thought that changes in food intake should be made progressively to avoid upsetting the body. He made several recommendations, some of which being: walking or running after eating, wrestling, avoiding drinks outside of meals, dry foods for obese people, never missing a breakfast and eat only just one main meal a day, bathing in only lukewarm water, avoiding sex, and the more dangerous "induction of vomiting", which he considered particularly beneficial. Nowadays, these advices seem mixed, some sensible, others inadvisable or even dangerous, but they made sense at the time given the contemporary knowledge and practices. For example, induced vomiting was quite popular, almost an art form. The importance of foods was further established by one of his followers, who became extremely influential, the Greek physician Galen (129 – ca. 216 AD), with his work "On the Power of Foods", where he claimed that good doctors should also be good cooks, and provided several recipes.


title: Fad diet

text: In the classical world, what foods were eaten, and how much, played an important role in ethical, philosophical, and political teachings and thinking, centered on the ideas of luxury and corruption. Food was for sustenance alone, overindulging was morally and physically bad, at least a manifestation of a lack of self-control, but at worst leading to further passions and greed of other luxuries.


title: Fad diet

text: Fad diets as we know them really started during the Victorian era in the 19th century. A competitive market for "healthy diets" arose in the 19th-century developed world, as migration and industrialization and commodification of food supplies began eroding adherence to traditional ethno-cultural diets, and the health consequences of pleasure-based diets were becoming apparent. As Matt Fitzgerald describes it: