title: Alex Reid (fighter)

text: In April 2021, Reid was sentenced to eight weeks, half of which to be served in prison, for contempt of court after making a false statement in a claim for compensation after a car crash.


title: Eucalyptus deglupta

text: Eucalyptus deglupta is a species of tall tree, commonly known as the rainbow eucalyptus, Mindanao gum, or rainbow gum that is native to the Philippines, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea. It is the only "Eucalyptus" species that usually lives in rainforest, with a natural range that extends into the northern hemisphere. It is characterized by multi-colored bark.


title: Eucalyptus deglupta

text: "Eucalyptus deglupta" is a fast-growing tree that typically reaches a height of with the trunk up to in diameter and with buttresses up to high. It has smooth, orange-tinted bark that sheds in strips, revealing streaks of pale green, red, orange, grey, and purplish brown. The branchlets are roughly square in cross section, often with narrow wings on the corners. The leaves are arranged in opposite pairs, mostly long and wide on a short petiole. The flower buds are arranged in a branching inflorescence in leaf axils, or on the end of branchlets, each branch with groups of seven buds, the individual buds on a pedicel about long. Mature buds are pale green or cream-colored, roughly spherical in shape and in diameter with a hemispherical operculum with a small point on the top. Flowering time depends on location, and the stamens that give the flowers their colour are white and pale yellow. The fruit is a woody, brown, hemispherical capsule about long and wide, with three or four valves extending beyond the rim of the fruit. Each cell of the fruit contains between three and twelve minute brown seeds, each with a small wing.


title: Eucalyptus deglupta

text: "Eucalyptus deglupta" was first formally described in 1850 by Carl Ludwig Blume who published the description in his book "Museum Botanicum Lugduno-Batavum sive stirpium Exoticarum, Novarum vel Minus Cognitarum ex Vivis aut Siccis Brevis Expositio et Descriptio" from material collected in mountain forests in the Celebes. The specific epithet ("deglupta") is a Latin word meaning "peeled off, husked or shelled".


title: Eucalyptus deglupta

text: In 1914, Adolph Daniel Edward Elmer described "Eugenia binacag" in "Leaflets of Philippine Botany", the specific epithet "binacag" a local name for the tree, but in 1915 changed the name to "Eucalyptus binacag". However, the species had already been named "E. deglupta" by Blume in 1850 and "E. binacag" is now regarded as a synonym.


title: Eucalyptus deglupta

text: In 1854, Asa Gray described "Eucalyptus multiflora" in "United States Exploring Expedition - Botany, Phanerogamia" from an unpublished description by Louis Claude Richard, but is a nomen illegitimum because the name was already in use for a different species ("Eucalyptus multiflora" ) now known as "Eucalyptus robusta". "Eucalyptus multiflora" is also a synonym of "E. deglupta".


title: Eucalyptus deglupta

text: "Eucalyptus sarassa" and "E. versicolor", first described in 1850 by Blume in his book "Museum botanicum Lugduno-Batavum", and "E. schlechteri" first described by Ludwig Diels in Adolf Engler's book "Botanische Jahrbücher für Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie" are also considered to be synonyms of "E. deglupta" by Plants of the World Online.


title: Eucalyptus deglupta

text: The rainbow eucalyptus grows in lowland and lower montane rainforest from sea level to altitudes of up to . It is native to Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the Philippines, but has been widely planted in many other countries.


title: Eucalyptus deglupta

text: This tree is grown widely around the world in tree plantations, mainly for pulpwood used in making white paper. It is the dominant species used for pulpwood plantations in the Philippines.


title: Eucalyptus deglupta

text: "E. deglupta" are commonly planted as ornamental trees in frost-free climates such as Hawaii, Southern California, Texas and Florida. It is planted in at least three locations in coastal Los Angeles County, including Santa Monica and San Marino at the Huntington Botanical Garden. These trees were still growing, but relatively young at approximately 30–40 years in 1988, at the UCLA Botanic Garden and as a LA City street tree.


title: Eucalyptus deglupta

text: If grown from seed, the temperature should be around . Plants can be grown from cuttings of trees younger than 5 years old. Once a tree reaches 5 years of age, root inhibition prevents the generation of roots from cuttings. It thrives in rich medium-to-wet soil in full sun and is intolerant of frost. In botanical gardens such as Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in Florida, the tree does show the intense color range as seen in the tree's normal range.


title: Heavy tank

text: Heavy tank is a term used to define a class of tanks produced from World War I through the end of the Cold War. These tanks generally sacrificed mobility and maneuverability for better armour protection and equal or greater firepower than tanks of lighter classes.


title: Heavy tank

text: Heavy tanks achieved their greatest, albeit limited, success when fighting lighter tanks and destroying fortifications. Heavy tanks often saw limited combat in their intended roles, instead becoming mobile pillboxes or defensive positions, such as the German Tiger designs, or the Russian KV designs


title: Heavy tank

text: Heavy tanks feature very heavy armor and weapons relative to lighter tanks. Many heavy tanks shared components from lighter tanks. For example, the M103 heavy tank shared many components with lighter Patton tanks, including transmission and engine. As a result, they tend to be either underpowered and comparatively slow, or have engine and drive train reliability issues. In case of an entirely new design development, which was the case with the German Tiger I, designs often became needlessly complex and costly, resulting in low production numbers. Although it is often assumed that heavy tanks suffered inferior mobility to medium tanks, this was not always the case, as many of the more sophisticated heavy tank designs featured advanced suspension and transmissions to counteract this drawback. As mentioned previously, heavy tanks are often extremely expensive and resource-intensive to produce and operate. The German Tiger I, for example, had similar speed and better terrain-handling characteristics when compared to its main competitor, the significantly lighter Panzer IV medium tank. However, low reliability and limited resources meant that just 1,347 were produced, compared to roughly 8,800 Pz.Kpfw. IV.


title: Heavy tank

text: The origins of the class date to World War I and the first tank designs, which were intended to operate in close concert with infantry.


title: Heavy tank

text: Virtually all early tanks possessed thick armor to allow them to survive in no man's land. As lighter and more maneuverable designs were introduced during the Interwar period, these larger vehicles with stronger defensive and offensive capabilities became known as "heavy" tanks.


title: Heavy tank

text: Heavy tanks had gradually progressed from their trench warfare and bunker destroying role to dedicated anti-tank purposes by the onset of World War II. Heavy tanks saw limited deployment by France at the beginning of the war, and were only ever used in conflict by Nazi Germany and the USSR from about 1943 to the war's end.


title: Heavy tank

text: This tank type remained a decisive factor in the early years of the Cold War. The purpose of heavies would not change until their replacement by the main battle tank. Often referred to as MBTs, these designs effectively filled all roles required by armies, thus rendering more specialized designs obsolete.


title: Heavy tank

text: The first British tank, the Mark I of World War I, was introduced to break through German defensive lines of trenches and barbed wire. When lighter, faster tanks were introduced, the larger tanks were classified as heavy.


title: Heavy tank

text: The Char 2C was one of the largest tanks ever produced. At the start of World War II, France and the Soviet Union were the only countries to have inventories of heavy tanks, such as the Char B1, T-35, and KV-1. The Matilda II was designed under the British infantry tank concept which is similar to the heavy tank having thick armour and tending to weigh more than their other tanks. It’s usually separate because they have less firepower with their cruiser tanks (comparable to mediums) at the time having the same main armament but more machine guns. Later war examples were the German Tiger I and II, as well as the Soviet IS series. Note that "heavy" versus "medium" is more a question of tactical roles than weight; the Panther, for example, was a "medium" tank that outweighed most Allied "heavy" tanks.


title: Heavy tank

text: American forces rarely fielded heavy tanks, as they still held on to the infantry-support doctrine like the British; in addition, the Americans recognized the logistical and mobility issues that came with possessing a heavy tank force and did not want to compromise its 3,000 mile supply line to Europe. The M6 heavy tank was designed in 1940 but held few advantages over medium tanks and planned production of several thousand was stopped. The Anglo-American T14 Heavy Tank project started in 1941 did not deliver a pilot model until 1944.


title: Heavy tank

text: The US preferred to use tank destroyers (mobile but relatively lightly armoured vehicles) for anti-tank defence, and prior to 1944 there were few indications that the M4 Sherman was outclassed in terms of armor and weapons by German heavy tanks which were few in number. Near the end of World War II, a few early model M26 Pershing were sent to Europe to gain combat experience. Aside from these the closest the Americans came to putting a heavy tank into service were up-armored M4 Sherman "Jumbos" which were used as assault guns.


title: Heavy tank

text: Both the US and UK developed very well-armoured and armed tanks intended for assaulting heavily defended areas - the T28 GMC and 'Tortoise' had casement designs and weighed around 80 tonnes but did not enter service.


title: Heavy tank

text: The immediate post-war period saw the final fielding of heavy tanks, including the US M103 heavy tank, the British FV214 Conqueror, and the French ARL 44 (in very limited numbers for the ARL 44), all in response to the Soviet heavy tanks of the period. The largest tank guns were approaching maximum calibre whose shell could still be handled by the crew, even using awkward two-part ammunition (separate projectile and propellant case, similar to battleship guns), which greatly slowed their rate of fire. Thanks to improved shell designs and fire control technology improving accuracy, postwar medium tanks were catching up to heavy tanks in firepower. The tactical value of heavy tanks thus declined to the point that no new designs were fielded; the heavily armed mediums came to be known as the main battle tank (MBT). Doctrine held that less expensive self-propelled artillery could serve in the infantry support role. The weight of MBTs quickly increased during the Cold War, and most third generation MBTs including the M1 Abrams, Challenger 2, Leopard 2, Merkava, Arjun MBT, and Type 99 have weights similar to those of 1950s heavy tanks.


title: Heavy tank

text: Older heavy tanks with steel armour were rendered obsolete by anti-tank guided missiles and high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) ammunition. The much more flexible missiles are effective at ranges beyond a tank gun's range, and sheer armour mass was no longer a guarantee of survivability against the largest HEAT warheads of tank guns or missiles.


title: Entombed (band)

text: Entombed is a Swedish death metal band formed in 1987 under the name of Nihilist. Entombed began their career as an early pioneer of Scandinavian death metal which initially differed from its American counterpart by its distinct "buzzsaw" guitar tone. However, by the early 1990s their sound had broadened to include garage rock and other influences. This new style would eventually be described as death 'n' roll. Entombed has been influenced by bands such as Slayer, Exodus, Black Sabbath, Celtic Frost, Autopsy, Repulsion, Kiss, The Misfits, Motörhead, Discharge, Death and Testament. Along with Dismember, Grave and Unleashed, Entombed has been referred to as one of the "big four" of Swedish death metal.


title: Entombed (band)

text: Entombed are rooted in the band Nihilist who were formed by drummer Nicke Andersson, guitarist Alex Hellid and bassist Leif Cuzner, who formed the band in 1987. After using a number of temporary vocalists for their initial shows, the band eventually recruited L.G. Petrov, who was the drummer for the band Morbid, which featured Mayhem vocalist Dead. The band also recruited Morbid's session guitarist Uffe Cederlund as a second guitarist, and recorded a number of demos with tracks that would eventually appear on Entombed's debut album. Following increased tensions between band members, the majority of the band decided to rename themselves as Entombed rather than force these members out.


title: Entombed (band)

text: Entombed's debut album "Left Hand Path" was released in 1990, a cult favorite that established them as a popular Swedish death metal band. "Left Hand Path" and its follow-up, "Clandestine", were unique in that they featured what was sometimes referred to as a "buzz saw" guitar sound. Prior to the recording of "Clandestine", Petrov was fired from the band due to personal disputes. The vocals on the album were recorded by Andersson instead, and for the tour following the album's release in 1991, the band hired vocalist Johnny Dordevic, previously a member of the band Carnage.


title: Entombed (band)

text: Petrov eventually reconciled with the band after releasing an album with the band Comecon, and the band eventually released "Wolverine Blues" in 1993. The album featured a departure of sound from the band's previous work, with a greater influence of hard rock and heavy metal alongside their initial death metal stylings, in a style now often referred to as death 'n' roll. Although the release was divisive amongst the band's fanbase, it established their mainstream and critical reputation. "Wolverine Blues" is considered a classic of early 1990s death metal.


title: Entombed (band)

text: 1998's "Same Difference" was the band's first album without drummer and founding member Nicke Andersson, who left the band to concentrate on his new project The Hellacopters. He was replaced by Peter Stjärnvind. In 2000, Entombed released "Uprising", followed a year later by "Morning Star".


title: Entombed (band)

text: In 2001, the band worked with performance artists Carina Reich and Bogdan Szyberb, and the Royal Swedish Ballet. The production was entitled "Unreal Estate".


title: Entombed (band)

text: 2003 saw the release of "Inferno", which was the last album with guitarist Uffe Cederlund (who joined Disfear), bassist Jörgen Sandström and drummer Peter Stjärnvind.


title: Entombed (band)

text: Nico Elgstrand (who produced the album "Uprising") joined as bassist in 2004, Olle Dahlstedt (of Alpha Safari and ex–Misery Loves Co.), replaced Stjärnvind in 2006. When Uffe Cederlund left in 2005, no new guitarist was recruited and Alex Hellid remained as the only guitarist.


title: Entombed (band)

text: "Serpent Saints – The Ten Amendments" was released on 9 July 2007. The album featured a greater influence from traditional death metal and was the band's first release with drummer Olle Dahlstedt and bassist Nico Elgstrand.


title: Entombed (band)

text: In 2010, Victor Brandt joined as bass player and Nico Elgstrand switched to guitars so the band once again had two guitarists.


title: Entombed (band)

text: In April 2013, Entombed performed a set with the Sundsvall Chamber Orchestra at the Nordfest festival.


title: Entombed (band)

text: In 2014, L.G. Petrov, Olle Dahlstedt, Nico Elgstrand and Victor Brandt formed Entombed A.D. as a result of the band's trademark being held by Hellid.


title: Entombed (band)

text: Hellid, Cederlund, and Säfström reunited to perform "Clandestine" in its entirety with the 65-piece Gävle Symphonic Orchestra and a 40-piece choir in February 2014. Thomas von Wachenfeldt played bass. Nicke Andersson intended to participate, but was prevented by scheduling conflicts.


title: Entombed (band)

text: Hellid, Andersson and Cederlund reunited to perform as Entombed in October 2016. They were joined by Robert Andersson (vocals) and Nicke Andersson's half brother Edvin Aftonfalk (bass), both formerly of the Swedish death metal band Morbus Chron. Their first performance was at the Close-Up Båten festival cruise. In November they performed a double set in Malmö to celebrate the 25th anniversary of "Clandestine", where the album was performed in its entirety twice. The first set was a performance by Hellid, Cederlund, Andersson with Säfström and von Wachenfeldt and the Malmö Symphony Orchestra and the second set was a regular performance with Andersson and Aftonfalk.


title: Entombed (band)

text: On 7 March, 2021, former vocalist Lars-Göran Petrov died after a battle with cholangiocarcinoma, aged 49.


title: Entombed (band)

text: On July 14, 2022, Entombed performed at Gefle Metal Festival. The band consisted of Alex Hellid, Nicke Andersson, Uffe Cederlund and Jörgen Sandström. Vocals were performed by Sandström and guest vocalists Tomas Lindberg, Scott Carlson, Johnny Hedlund, Urskogr, and Cronos. Former Entombed drummer Peter Stjärnvind was guest on drums.


title: Cornelius the Centurion

text: Cornelius (; ) was a Roman centurion who is considered by Christians to be the first Gentile to convert to the faith, as related in Acts of the Apostles (see Ethiopian eunuch for the competing tradition). The baptism of Cornelius is an important event in the history of the early Christian church. He may have belonged to the gens Cornelia, a prominent Roman family.


title: Cornelius the Centurion

text: Cornelius was a centurion in the Cohors II Italica Civium Romanorum, mentioned as "Cohors Italica" in the Vulgate. He was stationed in Caesarea, the capital of Roman Iudaea province. He is depicted in the New Testament as a God-fearing man who always prayed and was full of good works and deeds of alms. Cornelius receives a vision in which an angel of God tells him that his prayers have been heard; he understands that he has been chosen for a higher alternative. The angel then instructs Cornelius to send the men of his household to Joppa, where they will find Simon Peter, who is residing with a tanner by the name of Simon (ff).


title: Cornelius the Centurion

text: The conversion of Cornelius comes after a separate vision given to Simon Peter himself (). In the vision, Simon Peter sees all manner of beasts and fowl being lowered from Heaven in a sheet. A voice commands Simon Peter to eat. When he objects to eating those animals that are unclean according to Mosaic Law, the voice tells him not to call unclean that which God has cleansed.


title: Cornelius the Centurion

text: When Cornelius' men arrive, Simon Peter understands that through this vision the Lord commanded the Apostle to preach the Word of God to the Gentiles. Peter accompanies Cornelius' men back to Caesarea. When Cornelius meets Simon Peter, he falls at Peter's feet. Simon Peter raises the centurion and the two men share their visions. Simon Peter tells of Jesus' ministry and the Resurrection; the Holy Spirit descends on everyone at the gathering. The Jews among the group are amazed that Cornelius and other uncircumcised should begin speaking in tongues, praising God. Thereupon Simon Peter commands that Cornelius and his followers, "kinsmen and near friends", be baptized.


title: Cornelius the Centurion

text: The controversial aspect of Gentile conversion is taken up later at the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15).


title: Cornelius the Centurion

text: Taking into account that Judea had been within the Hellenic orbit since the conquest of Alexander the Great, there was time for wise men and philosophers, both Greek and Jewish, to exchange knowledge, thus beginning the syncretism between Hellenism and Judaism, a phenomenon that occurred in the rest of his empire. Later with the arrival of the Romans (already Hellenized), there were no problems of religious tolerance (except in the case of the Zealots), since thanks to the interpretatio graeca exported by the Macedonians, it was possible to identify Caelus (Roman god) or Uranus (his Greek equivalent) and Yahweh as the Supreme God himself, allowing conversion cases like Cornelius.


title: Cornelius the Centurion

text: The baptism of Cornelius is an important event in the history of the early Christian church, along with the conversion and baptism of the Ethiopian eunuch. The Christian church was first formed around the original disciples and followers of Jesus, all of whom, including Jesus himself, were Galilean, except for Judas, who was Judean. All males in the Judean community were Jews: they were circumcised and observed the Law of Moses. The reception of Cornelius sparked a debate among the leaders of the new community of followers of Jesus, culminating in the decision to allow Gentiles to become Christians without conforming to Jewish requirements for circumcision, as recounted in Acts 15.


title: Cornelius the Centurion

text: Certain traditions hold Cornelius as becoming either the first bishop of Caesarea, or the bishop of Scepsis in Mysia.


title: Cornelius the Centurion

text: His feast day on the new Martyrologium Romanum is 20 October. He is commemorated in the Orthodox tradition on 13 September.


title: Cornelius the Centurion

text: Cornelius is honored on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America on February 4. When Governors Island in New York City was a military installation, the Episcopal Church maintained a stone chapel there dedicated to him.


title: Fricassee

text: Fricassee or fricassée is a stew made with pieces of meat that have been browned in butter then served in a sauce flavoured with the cooking stock. Fricassee is usually made with chicken, veal or rabbit, with variations limited only by what ingredients the cook has at hand.


title: Fricassee

text: Fricassee is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. It is a word of French origin, although the exact etymology is unclear. It is theorized to be a compound of the French "frire" (to fry) and "casser" or "quasser" (to break in pieces).


title: Fricassee

text: By the general description of frying and then braising in liquid, there are recipes for fricassee as far back as the earliest version of the medieval French cookbook "Le Viandier", circa 1300. In 1490, it is first referred to specifically as "friquassée" in the print edition of "Le Viandier".


title: Fricassee

text: The 16th-century cookery book "The Good Huswifes Jewell" contains "For fricasies of a lambes head and purtenance." "The perfect English cooke" contains instructions to prepare a "Fregacy of Lamb or Veal". Jean-Baptiste Tavernier describes "a lusty Fricassie" in his late 17th-century "Travels through Turkey to Persia".


title: Fricassee

text: English fricassees were usually thickened with egg yolks, while Italian "fricassea" used a mixture of lemon and egg yolks. By the 18th century the egg yolks had started to be replaced by flour in English and American cuisines. In Martha Washington's recipe for chicken fricassee, the chicken was stewed in gravy, then a sauce was made with cream and egg yolks.


title: Fricassee

text: The early 19th-century cookery book "A New System of Domestic Cookery" by Maria Rundell says white sauce can be used for fricassee of "Fowls, Rabbits, White Meat Fish, of Vegetables". Broth made with chicken necks or feet, or used to boil meats, or similar is simmered with herbs and lemon peel, then thickened with cream (or egg yolk), flour and butter to make into a sauce.


title: Fricassee

text: Simone Beck, Louisette Bertholle and Julia Child in their "Mastering the Art of French Cooking" describe it as "halfway between a sauté and a stew" in that a sauté has no liquid added, while a stew includes liquid from the beginning. In a fricassee, cut-up meat is first sauteed (but not browned), then liquid is added and it is simmered to finish cooking. Cookbook author James Peterson notes that some modernized versions of the recipe call for the meat to be thoroughly browned before braising, but the classical version requires that both meat and vegetables remain with no caramelization.


title: Fricassee

text: In the early 19th-century cookery book "A New System of Domestic Cookery" by Maria Rundell, a fricassee of cold roast beef is made with very thinly sliced beef cooked in butter and broth with parsley and an onion, the sauce thickened with egg yolks, wine and vinegar. Fricassee of cold roast beef was among the recipes published in the popular women's magazine "Godey's Lady Book" during the American Civil War.


title: Fricassee

text: Chicken fricassee has been described as "a standard old-fashioned American dish". It was one of Abraham Lincoln's favorite dishes. It's the typical "comfort food" of Cajun cuisine.


title: Fricassee

text: A 1734 American recipe by Mrs. John Burroughs calls for birds seasoned with nutmeg, parsley, onion and mace, dredged in flour and browned in butter, then stewed in the pan with gravy, egg yolks, wine and nutmeg to make a sauce with the consistency of thickened cream.


title: Fricassee

text: A 19th century recipe from California for "Fricasa de pollos a la española" (Spanish-style chicken fricasse) was prepared by frying chickens in lard with chopped onion, shallots, garlic and mushrooms. Tomato juice is added with olives, fresh herbs, and olive oil to make a thick stew.


title: Fricassee

text: In the Spanish Caribbean, one of the more popular dishes is "fricasé de pollo" (chicken fricassee). It was brought to the islands by settlers from the south of France and Spain. Unlike French style fricassee, it has a tomato-based sauce usually with red wine.


title: Fricassee

text: Hannah Glasse's rabbit fricassee is made with small pieces of breaded rabbit fried in butter and served with red wine gravy.


title: Fricassee

text: Jewish fricassee is nearly always made from poultry (most commonly goose or chicken), generally from offal and other chicken scraps, and sometimes includes meatballs. In Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine, it is called "gehakte hindl" (chopped chicken), and may include gizzards, chicken neck, wing tips, and feet. Sephardic cooks may refer to the dish as "armin de poyo", or (in Morocco) "fricassada". Whereas non-Jewish cooks used dairy fat (such as butter) or lard to cook their fricassee, Jews used schmaltz (in the Ashkenazi lands) or olive oil (in the Sephardic world) as a cooking fat, due to the prohibition on mixing meat and dairy products. Fricassee should result in a thick, saucy gravy. The dish is served alongside rice, noodles, barley farfel, or dumplings.


title: Choreography

text: Choreography is the art or practice of designing sequences of movements of physical bodies (or their depictions) in which motion or form or both are specified. "Choreography" may also refer to the design itself. A choreographer is one who creates choreographies by practising the art of choreography, a process known as choreographing. It most commonly refers to dance choreography.


title: Choreography

text: In dance, "choreography" may also refer to the design itself, which is sometimes expressed by means of dance notation. Dance choreography is sometimes called "dance composition". Aspects of dance choreography include the compositional use of organic unity, rhythmic or non-rhythmic articulation, theme and variation, and repetition. The choreographic process may employ improvisation for the purpose of developing innovative movement ideas. In general, choreography is used to design dances that are intended to be performed as concert dance.


title: Choreography

text: The art of choreography involves the specification of human movement and form in terms of space, shape, time and energy, typically within an emotional or non-literal context. Movement language is taken from the dance techniques of ballet, contemporary dance, jazz dance, hip hop dance, folk dance, techno, K-pop, religious dance, pedestrian movement, or combinations of these.


title: Choreography

text: The word "choreography" literally means "dance-writing" from the Greek words "χορεία" (circular dance, see choreia) and "γραφή" (writing). It first appeared in the American English dictionary in the 1950s, and "choreographer" was first used as a credit for George Balanchine in the Broadway show "On Your Toes" in 1936. Before this, stage credits and movie credits used phrases such as "ensembles staged by", "dances staged by", or simply "dances by" to denote the choreographer.


title: Choreography

text: In Renaissance Italy, dance masters created movements for social dances which were taught, while staged ballets were created in a similar way. In 16th century France, French court dances were developed in an artistic pattern. In the 17th and 18th centuries, social dance became more separated from theatrical dance performances. During this time the word "choreography" was applied to the written record of dances, which later became known as dance notation, with the meaning of "choreography" shifting to its current use as the composition of a sequence of movements making up a dance performance.


title: Choreography

text: The ballet master or choreographer during this time became the "arranger of dance as a theatrical art", with one well-known master being of the late 18th century being Jean-Georges Noverre, with others following and developing techniques for specific types of dance, including Gasparo Angiolini, Jean Dauberval, Charles Didelot, and Salvatore Viganò. Ballet eventually developed its own vocabulary in the 19th century, and romantic ballet choreographers included Carlo Blasis, August Bournonville, Jules Perrot and Marius Petipa.


title: Choreography

text: Modern dance brought a new, more naturalistic style of choreography, including by Russian choreographer Michel Fokine (1880-1942) and Isadora Duncan (1878-1927), and since then styles have varied between realistic representation and abstraction. Merce Cunningham, George Balanchine, and Sir Frederick Ashton were all influential choreographers of classical or abstract dance, but Balanchine and Ashton, along with Martha Graham, Leonide Massine, Jerome Robbins and others also created representational works. Isadora Duncan loved natural movement and improvisation. The work of Alvin Ailey (1931-1989), an African-American dancer, choreographer, and activist, spanned many styles of dance, including ballet, jazz, modern dance, and theatre.


title: Choreography

text: Today, the main rules for choreography are that it must impose some kind of order on the performance, within the three dimensions of space as well the fourth dimension of time and the capabilities of the human body.


title: Choreography

text: In the performing arts, choreography applies to human movement and form. In dance, choreography is also known as dance choreography or dance composition. Choreography is also used in a variety of other fields, including opera,


title: Choreography

text: cheerleading, theatre, marching band, synchronized swimming, cinematography, ice skating, gymnastics, fashion shows, show choir, cardistry, video game production, and animated art.


title: Choreography

text: The International Choreographic Competition Hannover, Hanover, Germany, is the longest-running choreography competition in the world (started ), organised by the Ballett Gesellschaft Hannover e.V. It took place online during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and 2021, returning to the stage at the Theater am Aegi in 2022. Gregor Zöllig, head choreographer of dance at the Staatstheater Braunschweig was appointed artistic director of the competition in 2020. The main conditions of entry are that entrants must be under 40 years of age, and professionally trained. The competition has been run in collaboration with the Tanja Liedtke Foundation since her death in 2008, and from 2021 a new production prize has been awarded by the foundation, to complement the five other production awards. The new award is presented by Marco Goecke, director of ballet at the Staatstheater Hannover.


title: Choreography

text: There are a number of other international choreography competitions, mostly focused on modern dance. These include:


title: Choreography

text: The International Online Dance Competition (IODC) was introduced in 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, with a Grand Prix worth .


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: The T206 Honus Wagner baseball card depicts the Pittsburgh Pirates' Honus Wagner, known as "The Flying Dutchman,” a dead-ball era baseball player who is widely considered to be one of the best players of all time. The card was designed and issued by the American Tobacco Company (ATC) from 1909 to 1911 as part of its T206 series. Wagner refused to allow production of his baseball card to continue, either because he did not want children to buy cigarette packs to get his card, or because he wanted more compensation from the ATC. The ATC ended production of the Wagner card, and a total of only 50 to 200 cards were ever distributed to the public (the exact number is unknown), as compared to the "tens or hundreds of thousands" of T206 cards, over three years in sixteen brands of cigarettes, for any other player. In 1933, the card was first listed at a price value of US$50 in Jefferson Burdick's "The American Card Catalog" (), making it the most expensive baseball card in the world at the time.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: The most famous T206 Honus Wagner is the "Gretzky T206 Honus Wagner" card. The card's odd texture and shape led to speculation that it was altered. The Gretzky T206 Wagner was first sold by Alan Ray to a baseball memorabilia collector named Bill Mastro, who sold the card two years later to Jim Copeland for nearly four times the price he had originally paid. Copeland's sizable transaction revitalized interest in the sports memorabilia collection market. In 1991, Copeland sold the card to ice hockey figures Wayne Gretzky and Bruce McNall for $451,000. Gretzky resold the card four years later to Walmart and Treat Entertainment for $500,000 for use as the top prize in a promotional contest.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: The next year, a Florida postal worker won the card and auctioned it at Christie's for $640,000 to collector Michael Gidwitz. In 2000, the card was sold via Robert Edward Auctions to card collector Brian Seigel for $1.27 million. In February 2007, Seigel sold the card privately to an anonymous collector for $2.35 million. Less than six months later, the card was sold to another anonymous collector for $2.8 million. In April 2011, that anonymous purchaser was revealed to be Ken Kendrick, owner of the Arizona Diamondbacks. A different card, named the "Jumbo Wagner", was sold at auction again in 2016 for a record $3.12 million. These transactions have made the Wagner card the most valuable baseball card in history. However, this record was recently broken when a Mike Trout 2009 Bowman Chrome Draft Prospects Superfractors series rookie card with a card count of 1 sold in August 2020 for a record setting $3.93 million, and pushed further back by a 1952 Topps Mickey Mantle card that sold for $5.2 million in November 2020, making Wagner the third most valuable baseball card in the world. Another example sold for $6.6 million in August 2021, making it the most expensive sports card. That is, until August 2022 when another 1952 Topps Mickey Mantle card sold for $12.6 million becoming the most expensive piece of sports memorabilia in history.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: In October 2013, Bill Mastro, CEO of Mastro Auctions (the owner of Robert Edward Auctions) pleaded guilty to mail fraud in U.S. District Court and later admitted to the court that he had trimmed the "Gretzky" Wagner card to sharply increase its value.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: Other T206 Wagners, both legitimate and fake, have surfaced in recent years. Some of the real cards have fetched hundreds of thousands of dollars in auctions. One particular T206 Honus Wagner owned by John Cobb and Ray Edwards has attracted media controversy over its authenticity.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: The American Tobacco Company was formed as a result of an 1889 merger of five major cigarette manufacturers: W. Duke & Sons & Company, Allen & Ginter, Goodwin & Company, F. S. Kinney Company and William S. Kimball & Company. Because the company came to monopolize the tobacco industry, ATC did not have to conduct advertising or promotions for its products. Since baseball cards were primarily used as a sales promotion, ATC removed them from its tobacco packs, almost driving the cards into obsolescence. During the presidency of "trust-buster" Theodore Roosevelt, the ATC was subjected to legal action from the government, in hopes of shutting down the monopoly in the industry.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: Thereafter, the ATC was back in competition with other tobacco companies, so it reinserted baseball cards into cigarette packs. In 1909, the company introduced the T206 series – also known as the "white border set" – of baseball cards of 524 players into its cigarette packs. The cards were printed at seven factories in New York, North Carolina, Ohio and Virginia. Two years later, the ATC was broken up into several major companies as part of the United States Supreme Court ruling in "United States v. American Tobacco Company", 221 U.S. 106 (1911).


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: The typical card in the T206 series had a width of and a height of . Some cards were awkwardly shaped or irregularly sized, which prompted a belief that many of the cards in the series had been altered at one point or another. In his work "Inside T206: A Collector Guide to the Classic Baseball Card Set", Scot A. Reader wrote that "[i]t is not at all uncommon to find T206 examples that have been altered at some point during their near-century of existence." These discrepancies were taken advantage of by so-called "card doctors", who trimmed corners and dirty edges to improve the appearance of the card. The front of all T206 series cards, including the Wagner card, displayed a lithograph of the player created by a multi-stage printing process in which a number of colors were printed on top of each other to create a lithograph with the appropriate design. The backs of the cards featured the monochromatic colors of the 16 tobacco brands for which the cards were printed. The Wagner cards in particular advertised the Piedmont and Sweet Caporal brands of cigarettes and were produced at Factory 25 in Virginia, as indicated by the factory stamp imprinted on the back of the cards.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: Starting from January 1909, the ATC sought authorization from baseball players for inclusion in the T206 series, which would feature 524 major league players, 76 of whom would later be inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame. Wagner had been at the top of his game throughout the decade, and was even considered to be the game's greatest player at the time. He had appeared on advertisements for a number of other products such as chewing gum, gunpowder, and soft drinks. Unsurprisingly, the ATC asked for Wagner's permission to have his picture on a baseball card. According to an October 12, 1912, issue of "The Sporting News", Wagner did not give his consent to appear on the baseball card. In response to the authorization request letter sent by John Gruber, a Pittsburgh sportswriter hired by the ATC to seek Wagner's permission, Wagner wrote that he "did not care to have his picture in a package of cigarettes." He threatened to seek legal action against ATC if they went ahead and distributed his baseball card.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: The reasons for Wagner's strong negative reaction to the ATC's request have been the subject of much speculation. The most commonly told account is that Wagner rejected the deal because he did not want young baseball fans to purchase the tobacco packs for his baseball card. Wagner held his fans in high regard, particularly the younger ones. His granddaughter, Blair, remarked that "[h]e loved children. He wanted to teach kids good sportsmanship. When it came time for that card to come out, it wasn't that he wasn't paid. He didn't want kids to have to buy tobacco to get his card." However, Wagner chewed tobacco, and he had previously appeared in advertisements for many tobacco products, including a cigar baseball trading card in 1899 and a newspaper ad for Murad cigarettes during the 1909 World Series.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: Another explanation surmised is that Wagner did not consent because he felt he was not receiving just compensation from the ATC for his baseball card. Wagner had a history of being a tough negotiator; he had announced his retirement from baseball in December 1907, but returned shortly before the start of the 1908 baseball season after receiving a $10,000 contract, double his salary from the 1907 season. This theory has its flaws, however, since Wagner sent Gruber a check for $10 to compensate him for the fee ATC would have paid him if Wagner had given permission to create his baseball card. Michael O'Keeffe and Teri Thompson, authors of "The Card: Collectors, Con Men, and the True Story of History's Most Desired Baseball Card", asked why Wagner would compensate Gruber for $10, a substantial amount of money at the time (approximately equal to $275 in 2016), if he refused authorization for monetary reasons. The ATC had already produced a number of T206 Honus Wagner baseball cards; the exact number is unknown, but is speculated to be between 50 and 200. They stopped production of the card, however, after Wagner denied authorization.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: In 1991, National Hockey League player Wayne Gretzky purchased a mint condition 1909 T206 Honus Wager baseball card, with a Piedmont cigarette brand back, at a Sotheby's auction. The card became known as the "Gretzky T206 Wagner" to the public. The Professional Sports Authenticator (PSA) company graded this card a PSA 8 Near Mint-Mint (NM-MT) on their 10-point scale, the highest grade given to a T206 Honus Wagner card. Bill Hughes was the official grader of the card, working for PSA at the time. Hughes admitted to knowing that the card had been altered when he graded it.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: The Gretzky T206 Wagner first came to attention in 1985, when small-time Hicksville, New York card collector Alan Ray contacted Bob Sevchuk, the owner of a Long Island sports memorabilia store, to arrange a potential $25,000 deal for his T206 Honus Wagner card. Bill Mastro, a sports memorabilia dealer who later founded Mastro Auctions and became one of the most powerful figures in the industry, heard the news, and immediately jumped on the offer. Mastro, with the financial backing of friend Rob Lifson, sought to improve the offer and had Ray add 50 to 75 of his other T206 series cards, including the rare T206 Eddie Plank, into the deal. Ray, who later stated he "had a money situation," agreed to Mastro's terms of the deal.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: The circumstances regarding how Ray came into possession of the Gretzky T206 Wagner have been shrouded in mystery. He tried to avoid answering any questions regarding the matter but, in a 2001 interview, claimed to have received it from a relative, whose name he did not disclose. Inside the memorabilia community, there was speculation that the card had been cut from a printing sheet during the deal made with Mastro. Mastro has told colleagues in the memorabilia circuit that he purchased the card from a printer, which was not Ray's profession. Ray personally stated that Mastro might have been doing this to prevent others from trying to trace the card. Some also claim that Mastro bought the card from Sevchuk, not Ray.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: After the transaction was completed, Mastro went back to his car and showed the Gretzky T206 Wagner to Lifson. Mastro offered one of the other T206 Wagner cards in his personal collection to Lifson as payment for the $25,000 that Lifson fronted him for the Gretzky T206 Wagner—claiming that Lifson could sell the lower quality one for $30,000 and make a quick $5,000 profit. Lifson was skeptical, but he took Mastro's word and accepted the deal, successfully selling this other Wagner card to New Jersey businessman Barry Halper for $30,000. (Halper sold that card and 200 other baseball memorabilia items in 1998 to Major League Baseball for over $5,000,000.)


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: In 1987, Mastro sold the Gretzky T206 Wagner to Jim Copeland, a San Luis Obispo, California, sporting-goods chain owner, for $110,000. With that transaction, there was a sudden renewed interest in baseball card collecting. As Lifson commented, the Copeland deal revitalized the industry and "created an incentive to sell these great cards."


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: Within five years, Copeland decided it was time to sell his card collection; he chose to sell his entire 873-piece collection in a single sale, through Mastro. Mastro contacted Sotheby's, the renowned New York auction house, and asked them to accept the Copeland memorabilia collection on consignment. Sotheby's advertised Copeland's items as the "Copeland Collection of Important Baseball Cards and Sports Memorabilia" to attract hobbyists and other potential clients. The March 1991 auction attracted nearly 800 collectors who were interested in purchasing some of Copeland's rare memorabilia. The bidding prices far exceeded the pre-auction estimates, as a 1952 Topps Mickey Mantle card sold for $49,500, more than three times the initial pre-auction price estimate. Pre-auction estimates placed Copeland's T206 Honus Wagner at a price of $114,000. Within minutes of the opening bid for the T206 Wagner card, the highest bidder had put down $228,000, twice the pre-auction estimate. A bidding competition between Mike Gidwitz, Mark Friedland and an unknown phone bidder ensued. Gidwitz dropped out of the competition when the bidding reached the $300,000 mark. As Friedland made each bid, the phone bidder would counter with a bid $5,000 or $10,000 higher. Friedland dropped out of the competition after the phone bidder countered with a $410,000 bid for the card. With Sotheby's 10% buyer's premium, the final price of the card came out to $451,000 (), nearly four times the pre-auction estimate. The phone bidder was Wayne Gretzky, who purchased the card with advice and financial backing from his 'boss' Bruce McNall, the owner of the NHL's Los Angeles Kings. Copeland received around $5 million for the entire collection. The publicity coverage of the Sotheby's auction renewed interest in the hobby of sports memorabilia collecting. Mastro worked with Sotheby's for the next four years to facilitate sports memorabilia auctions and established himself as a leading card dealer in the industry. In 1993, illusionist David Copperfield used the popularity of the card as part of a magic trick which he performed during a TV Special. Copperfield had Gretzky sign a reprint of the card, then proceeded to tear the card into four pieces, after which he restored it and magically removed the signature.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: Gretzky, who was not a major card collector, said he purchased it because he thought "the market would remain strong," thus making for a valuable investment. McNall orchestrated the plan to buy the card. In a 2005 interview, McNall stated his "philosophy was, if you buy something that is absolutely the best in the world, you'd be okay because there is always another buyer for something at the top end."


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: In 1995, Gretzky sold the card to Walmart and Treat Entertainment for $500,000 (). The two companies intended to use the card as the grand prize in a promotional contest. The card was sent all across the United States, as part of Walmart's plan to rejuvenate the baseball card market. On February 24, 1996 (the 122nd anniversary of Wagner's birthday), the grand prize drawing for the card was held on CNN's "Larry King Weekend". At around 9:00p.m., Hall of Fame third baseman Brooks Robinson, one of King's guests on the show, pulled out the name of one Patricia Gibbs, a postal worker living in Hollywood, Florida. After spending hours unsuccessfully trying to contact Gibbs, King's staff finally got through to her phone, and informed Gibbs of her prize. Treat Entertainment and Walmart gave the card to Gibbs a few weeks later at a Walmart store in Miramar, Florida. Gibbs could not afford the taxes on the card, so she decided to consign the card to an auction later on. She consigned the card to Christie's, a New York-based auction house better known for selling famous artworks.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: Michael Gidwitz, the same individual who battled with Gretzky and Mark Friedland for the card at the Copeland auction in 1991, won the Christie's auction with a bid of $641,500 in 1996 (). Four years later, on July 5, 2000, Gidwitz partnered with eBay and Robert Edwards Auctions to start a 10-day online auction for the card. Robert Edwards Auctions, a division of MastroNet, set up a registration system in which they approved prospective individuals before they actually made bids. These individuals had to wire a $100,000 deposit to iEscrow.com in order to be pre-approved to make bids for the card. On July 15, the card was sold to Brian Seigel, a collector from California, for $1.265 million (equivalent to $ million in ). In February 2007, the Associated Press announced that Seigel had sold the card privately and directly to an anonymous collector from Southern California for $2.35 million (equivalent to $ million in ). Less than six months later, on September 6, 2007, SCP Auctions announced that the card had been sold once again to another anonymous collector for $2.8 million (equivalent to $ million in ). The anonymous collector was later revealed to be Arizona Diamondbacks owner Ken Kendrick.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: Shortly after Gretzky's 1991 purchase, previously ignored allegations that the card had once been subject to alteration flared up again. This is when Gretzky approached the Professional Sports Authenticator (PSA) company to grade the card, resulting in the aforementioned PSA 8 NM-MT grading. Despite PSA company president David Hall's personal statement that the card was "superb" and a "fantastic card in every way," a number of people in the memorabilia industry were not convinced that the card had not been altered at some point.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: Soon afterward, Alan Ray came back into the picture, claiming that he had proof the card had been doctored by Mastro at one point after the initial $25,000 trade in 1985. He had a photograph of the card taken before the transaction with Mastro and claimed that the card in the photo looked significantly different from the photo of Gretzky's card. He sent the comparison of the two photos to both McNall and Sotheby's, but never received a response from them. Some memorabilia collectors have dismissed Ray's claims, saying that the photo hardly proves any doctoring was ever done on the card.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: On December 4, 2012, Mastro was indicted on federal fraud charges, and entered a plea of not guilty. In 2013, Mastro pleaded guilty, having entered into a plea agreement with federal prosecutors, and admitted to trimming the Honus Wagner card in the mid-1980s to increase its value. Mastro's plea agreement was rejected by a judge. In August 2015, Mastro was sentenced to 20 months in federal prison under a new plea agreement. Mastro was released in May 2017.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: A similar but unaltered card, the 'Jumbo Wagner', also has a NM-MT grade quality for the majority of the card, but the lower quality edges have not been trimmed, lowering it from NM-MT to an overall grade of PSA 5 – one of only three (along with Mastro's trimmed card) rated PSA 5 or better – sold at a 2013 auction for $2,105,770.50.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: The Honus Wagner card was first reissued by Topps in 2002, with variations on its background color. The card was printed with the original 1909 orange color (#179), and also in blue (#307) and red (#456). In 2020, a new Honus Wagner card was issued by the company (#45) as part of the second wave (of 5) released that year.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: Another T206 Wagner card owned by two Cincinnati men was dismissed as a fake by Bill Mastro and PSA president Joe Orlando. The two men, John Cobb and Ray Edwards, have tried to prove that their Piedmont-backed card is not a fake and, due to its excellent condition, should fetch over $1 million in an auction. Cobb and Edwards also have alleged that they have been dismissed because they are inner city black men in a hobby that has been dominated by successful white men. Cobb, like Mastro back in the late 1980s, does not divulge the exact details of how he came to own the card. He has variously stated he purchased the card at an estate sale from "an old couple" for $1,800 in 1983 or 1984; he claimed not to know who Honus Wagner was at the time of purchase. When Cobb and Edwards tried to sell the card on eBay in 2002, an attorney from Newport, Kentucky (part of the Cincinnati metro) filed a police report against the two men because he believed the card was a reprint that was stolen from his office months earlier. The police launched an investigation, but found no evidence of wrongdoing. An outraged Edwards dismissed the accusations as "bullshit," adding that they would not have been made "if we were white."


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: Card Collector Services graded the card and officially ruled that it was indeed a reprint. Cobb and Edwards dismissed the findings and went to Integrated Paper Services (IPS), an independent paper testing and analysis lab, in February 2003 to have their card's paper tested. An IPS expert determined that the card dated back to 1910, which would be consistent to the time period when the card was distributed. The expert ruled that the "paper stock was consistent with the time that card would have been made." Cobbs and Edwards later went to an Ohio paper industry consultant who confirmed that the card was from 1909. The consultant stated that a decent counterfeit of the card could only be produced from a "master pressman with 5–10 years experience, and would require a machine which would cost between $500,000 and $2 million." Afterwards, an appraiser named Bob Connelly valued the card at $850,000, based on the two previous paper analysis reports. In November 2005, Cobb and Edwards put the card up for sale on eBay. They had to shut down the sale, however, because Connelly only agreed to appraise the card if his report was printed in its entirety at the eBay card listing.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: A few months after the sale, Edwards asked Connelly if he would accept the card for his auction. Connelly consented and took the card across the country to prospective buyers. Meanwhile, HBO's "Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel" decided to cover the progress of Cobb and Edwards' struggles with the card. Connelly met a card dealer in New York City, Mike Mangasarian, who was sent on behalf of a prominent collector to check the card out. Mr. Mangasarian said the card seemed authentic and stated he would attend the auction for the card later on if the card could be taken out of the thick lucite holder for a closer examination. A promise was made that this could be done the day of the auction in Binghamton, NY. After the auction and by not bidding on the card Mr. Mangasarian revealed to HBO that he felt the back of the card was indeed real but in his opinion the front was not. He explained that all T-206s have dark brown letters printed for the team's name and player's name and this one was in black. Additionally, he stated that he was not comfortable with the print process exhibited on the card's front. Meanwhile, a number of card collectors who doubted the card contacted eBay and demanded that the card's listing on the website be removed. eBay officials finally pulled the plug the day before the actual auction was to begin. As a result, a number of previously interested collectors decided not to bid for the card at the auction the next day. As Connelly pointed out, the collectors chose not to make bids because "[w]hen eBay pulled the card ... it raised too many questions about its authenticity."


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: As a result of the publicity generated from the financially successful Gretzky T206 Honus Wagner, a number of previously undiscovered legitimate T206 Wagner cards have surfaced. There are fewer than 60 authenticated Wagner cards in existence.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: An authentic card is part of the Leopold Morse Goulston Baseball Collection in The New York Public Library's George Arents Collection.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: In 2010, a rare Honus Wagner was found in a box left by the brother of Sister Virginia Muller, who left all her possessions to the Baltimore-based School Sisters of Notre Dame. The card came with her brother's handwritten note: "Although damaged, the value of this baseball card should increase exponentially throughout the 21st century!" The Roman Catholic nuns auctioned the card, which despite its poor condition was expected to fetch between $150,000 and $200,000. On November 4, 2010, the final sale price exceeded the expectations of auctioneers at Dallas-based Heritage Auctions and sold for $262,000 to Doug Walton, a collector and card-shop owner. Walton, however, never paid, and Heritage Auctions subsequently contacted one of its longtime clients, Nicholas DePace, a New Jersey cardiologist, who immediately agreed to buy the card for the same price. On December 20, 2010, after taking its 19.5 percent buyer's premium, the auction house sent $220,000 by bank wire to the School Sisters of Notre Dame. The religious order had already announced that the proceeds from the sale would go to its ministries in more than 30 countries. In May 2020, Gregorio Amor and a team of investors, purchased the card. It is currently on display in the Rally Rd Showroom in the Soho section of New York City.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: Many of the remaining T206 Honus Wagner cards in existence have rated low on the PSA grading scale. Only three existing Wagner cards received a PSA rating of EX [5] or better. One such example is known in the industry as the 'Jumbo Wagner' [shown on the right]. Graded EX 5 (MC) on the PSA grading scale, the card has unusually ample borders due to a miscut. These dimensions far exceed the standard size for a T206 baseball card, virtually preserving a Near Mint example within its boundaries.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: President of PSA, Joe Orlando said "The PSA EX 5 (MC) 1909-11 T206 Honus Wagner (serial number 15385994) is, without question, one of the top examples of this historic card known. The technical grade includes the MC qualifier. The card was given this designation by PSA due to its oversized nature. This particular T206 Honus Wagner stands out from other known examples and therefore gives it placement as a top-notch specimen."


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: Initially sold at auction for $1.62M in 2008, the 'Jumbo Wagner' was featured by Goldin Auctions in their 2013 Winter Auction, which closed on April 5, 2013. Historical price increases and the state of the sports collectible market contributed to projections that the auction could set a new overall price record for the sale of a T206 Honus Wagner. The card ultimately sold for $2,105,770.50, including the buyer's premium, a record price for a baseball card in a public auction.


title: T206 Honus Wagner

text: In April 2013, Robert Edward Auctions was scheduled to begin an auction of a T206 Honus Wagner that was once owned by actor Charlie Sheen. Sheen had loaned the card to the All Star Cafe where it was stolen and later recovered by the FBI. It is graded PSA 1. It sold in March of 2022 for $3,136,500, setting a record for a PSA 1 example.


title: Hold the Line

text: "Hold the Line" is a song by American rock band Toto from their 1978 eponymous debut studio album. Written by the band's keyboardist David Paich, the lead vocals on the song were performed by Bobby Kimball.


title: Hold the Line

text: "Hold the Line" was released as the band's debut single and lead single from the "Toto" album on October 2, 1978, by Columbia Records. It became a huge hit for the band, reaching number five on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number 14 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Hold the Line

text: Hold the Line' was a perfect example of what people will describe as your heavy metal chord guitar licks, your great triplet A-notes on the piano, your 'Sly'-hot-fun-in-the-summertime groove, all mishmashed together with a boy from New Orleans singing... and it really crossed over a lot of lines."


title: Hold the Line

text: Keyboardist David Paich noted that the song was relatively easy to develop. He began with the piano riff, which would become the song's intro and chorus. After toying with the piano riff one night, he started singing "Hold the line, love isn't always on time", and found the lyric to be a suitable fit. The verses were subsequently finished two hours later.


title: Hold the Line

text: "That was me trying to play like Sly Stone's original drummer, Greg Errico, who played drums on "Hot Fun In The Summertime." The hi-hat is doing triplets, the snare drum is playing 2 and 4 backbeats, and the bass drum is on 1 and the & of 2. That 8th note on the second beat is an 8th-note triplet feel, pushed. When we did the tune, I said, "Gee, this is going to be a heavy four-on-the-floor rocker, but we want a Sly groove." The triplet groove of the tune was David's writing. It was taking the Sly groove and meshing it with a harder rock caveman approach."


title: Hold the Line

text: "I flipped the first time I heard myself on the radio. My mom called me up and said, "Turn on KLOS." It was the song "Hold the Line," and I started running around the house in my underwear, screaming, "I'm on the radio!" My wife was cracking up. It was just a thrill." (Steve Lukather, Guitar Player magazine, April 1984)


title: Hold the Line

text: "I was asleep, I had my alarm clock set for noon because we were gonna do something in the studio, some promo and when the alarm came on there was the radio and "Hold The Line" was playing. And my room was totally black and I was looking for the telephone and I called Paich and I heard him scream, he was living over there with his girlfriend and he was screaming around and falling over trying to get to the radio."


title: Hold the Line

text: "Cash Box" said it has a "simple emphatic piano part, heavy surging guitars, pleasant turns, fine singing and strong chorus."


title: Hold the Line

text: "Hold the Line" has been a live staple at Toto shows. Steve Lukather played the song live with Ringo Starr & His All-Starr Band during tours in 2012 and 2022. Bobby Kimball has performed the song on all of his solo tours since 2009.


title: Hold the Line

text: In 1981, Bosnian-born Serbian singer Zdravko Čolić released a cover version of this song in the Serbian language, with lyrics "Oktobar je, počinje sezona kiša" ("This is October, the rain season begins"). Belgian blues band Blue Blot covered the song on their album "Where Do We Go".


title: Gaulish

text: Gaulish was an ancient Celtic language spoken in parts of Continental Europe before and during the period of the Roman Empire. In the narrow sense, Gaulish was the language of the Celts of Gaul (now France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switzerland, Northern Italy, as well as the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine). In a wider sense, it also comprises varieties of Celtic that were spoken across much of central Europe ("Noric"), parts of the Balkans, and Anatolia ("Galatian"), which are thought to have been closely related. The more divergent Lepontic of Northern Italy has also sometimes been subsumed under Gaulish.


title: Gaulish

text: Together with Lepontic and the Celtiberian spoken in the Iberian Peninsula, Gaulish helps form the geographic group of Continental Celtic languages. The precise linguistic relationships among them, as well as between them and the modern Insular Celtic languages, are uncertain and a matter of ongoing debate because of their sparse attestation.


title: Gaulish

text: Gaulish is found in some 800 (often fragmentary) inscriptions including calendars, pottery accounts, funeral monuments, short dedications to gods, coin inscriptions, statements of ownership, and other texts, possibly curse tablets. Gaulish was first written in Greek script in southern France and in a variety of Old Italic script in northern Italy. After the Roman conquest of those regions, writing shifted to Latin script. During his conquest of Gaul, Caesar reported that the Helvetii were in possession of documents in the Greek script, and all Gaulish coins used the Greek script until about 50 BC.


title: Gaulish

text: Gaulish in Western Europe was supplanted by Vulgar Latin and various Germanic languages from around the 5th century AD onward. It is thought to have gone extinct some time around the late 6th century.


title: Gaulish

text: It is estimated that during the Bronze Age, Proto-Celtic started splitting into distinct languages, including Celtiberian and Gaulish. Due to the expansion of Celtic tribes in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, closely related forms of Celtic came to be spoken in a vast arc extending from Britain and France through the Alpine region and Pannonia in central Europe, and into parts of the Balkans and Anatolia. Their precise linguistic relationships are uncertain due to fragmentary evidence.


title: Gaulish

text: The Gaulish varieties of central and eastern Europe and of Anatolia (called Noric and Galatian, respectively) are barely attested, but from what little is known of them it appears that they were quite similar to those of Gaul and can be considered dialects of a single language. Among those regions where substantial inscriptional evidence exists, three varieties are usually distinguished.


title: Gaulish

text: The relationship between Gaulish and the other Celtic languages is also debated. Most scholars today agree that Celtiberian was the first to branch off from other Celtic. Gaulish, situated in the centre of the Celtic language area, shares with the neighboring Brittonic languages of Britain, the change of the Indo-European labialized voiceless velar stop /kʷ/ > /p/, while both Celtiberian in the south and Goidelic in Ireland retain /kʷ/. Taking this as the primary genealogical isogloss, some scholars divide the Celtic languages into a "q-Celtic" group and a "p-Celtic" group, in which the p-Celtic languages Gaulish and Brittonic form a common "Gallo-Brittonic" branch. Other scholars place more emphasis on shared innovations between Brittonic and Goidelic and group these together as an Insular Celtic branch. discusses a composite model, in which the Continental and Insular varieties are seen as part of a dialect continuum, with genealogical splits and areal innovations intersecting.


title: Gaulish

text: Though Gaulish personal names written by Gauls in Greek script are attested from the region surrounding Massalia by the 3rd century BC, the first true inscriptions in Gaulish appeared in the 2nd century BC.


title: Gaulish

text: At least 13 references to Gaulish speech and Gaulish writing can be found in Greek and Latin writers of antiquity. The word "Gaulish" ("gallicum") as a language term is first explicitly used in the "Appendix Vergiliana" in a poem referring to Gaulish letters of the alphabet. Julius Caesar says in his "Commentarii de Bello Gallico" of 58 BC that the Celts/Gauls and their language are separated from the neighboring Aquitani and Belgae by the rivers Garonne and Seine/Marne, respectively. Caesar relates that census accounts written in Greek script were found among the Helvetii. He also notes that as of 53 BC the Gaulish druids used the Greek alphabet for private and public transactions, with the important exception of druidic doctrines, which could only be memorised and were not allowed to be written down. According to the "Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises", nearly three quarters of Gaulish inscriptions (disregarding coins) are in the Greek alphabet. Later inscriptions dating to Roman Gaul are mostly in Latin alphabet and have been found principally in central France.


title: Gaulish

text: Latin was quickly adopted by the Gaulish aristocracy after Roman conquest to maintain their elite power and influence, trilingualism in southern Gaul being noted as early as the 1st century BC.


title: Gaulish

text: Early references to Gaulish in Gaul tend to be made in the context of problems with Greek or Latin fluency until around 400, whereas after c. 450, Gaulish begins to be mentioned in contexts where Latin has replaced "Gaulish" or "Celtic" (whatever the authors meant by those terms), though at first these only concerned the upper classes. For Galatia (Anatolia), there is no source explicitly indicating a 5th-century language replacement:


title: Gaulish

text: Despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture, the Gaulish language is held to have survived and coexisted with spoken Latin during the centuries of Roman rule of Gaul. The exact time of the final extinction of Gaulish is unknown, but it is estimated to have been about the sixth century AD, after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire.


title: Gaulish

text: The language shift was uneven in its progress and shaped by sociological factors. Although there was a presence of retired veterans in colonies, these did not significantly alter the linguistic composition of Gaul's population, of which 90% was autochthonous; instead, the key Latinizing class was the coopted local elite, who sent their children to Roman schools and administered lands for Rome. In the fifth century, at the time of the Western Roman collapse, the vast majority (non-elite and predominantly rural) of the population remained Gaulish speakers, and acquired Latin as their native speech only after the demise of the Empire, as both they and the new Frankish ruling elite adopted the prestige language of their urban literate elite.


title: Gaulish

text: Bonnaud maintains that while Latinisation occurred earlier in Provence and in major urban centers, while Gaulish persisted longest, possibly as late as the tenth century with evidence for continued use according to Bonnaud continuing into the ninth century, in Langres and the surrounding regions, the regions between Clermont, Argenton and Bordeaux, and in Armorica. Fleuriot, Falc'hun, and Gvozdanovic likewise maintained a late survival in Armorica and language contact of some form with the ascendant Breton language; however, it has been noted that there is little uncontroversial evidence supporting a relatively late survival specifically in Brittany whereas there is uncontroversial evidence that supports the relatively late survival of Gaulish in the Swiss Alps and in regions in Central Gaul. Drawing from these data, which include the mapping of substrate vocabulary as evidence, Kerkhof argues that we may "tentatively" posit a survival of Gaulish speaking communities in the "at least into the sixth century" in pockets of mountainous regions of the Central Massif, the Jura, and the Swiss Alps.


title: Gaulish

text: According to "Recueil des inscriptions gauloises", more than 760 Gaulish inscriptions have been found throughout France, with the notable exception of Aquitaine, and in northern Italy. Inscriptions include short dedications, funerary monuments, proprietary statements, and expressions of human sentiments, but also some longer documents of a legal or magical-religious nature, the three longest being the Larzac tablet, the Chamalières tablet and the Lezoux dish. The most famous Gaulish record is the Coligny calendar, a fragmented bronze tablet dating from the 2nd century AD and providing the names of Celtic months over a five-year span; it is a lunisolar calendar trying to synchronize the solar year and the lunar month by inserting a thirteenth month every two and a half years.


title: Gaulish

text: Many inscriptions are only a few words (often names) in rote phrases, and many are fragmentary. They provide some evidence for morphology and better evidence for personal and mythological names. Occasionally, marked surface clausal configurations provide some evidence of a more formal, or poetic, register. It is clear from the subject matter of the records that the language was in use at all levels of society.


title: Gaulish

text: Other sources contribute to knowledge of Gaulish: Greek and Latin authors mention Gaulish words, personal and tribal names, and toponyms. A short Gaulish-Latin vocabulary (about 20 entries headed "De nominib[us] Gallicis") called "Endlicher's Glossary", is preserved in a 9th-century manuscript (Öst. Nationalbibliothek, MS 89 fol. 189v).


title: Gaulish

text: French has Gaulish loanwords. French now has about 150 to 180 words known to be of Gaulish origin, most of which concern pastoral or daily activity. If dialectal and derived words are included, the total is about 400 words. Though overall low, this is still the highest number among the Romance languages.


title: Gaulish

text: The longest known Gaulish text is the Larzac tablet, found in 1983 in l'Hospitalet-du-Larzac, France. It is inscribed in Roman cursive on both sides of two small sheets of lead. Probably a curse tablet (), it clearly mentions relationships between female names, for example (Aia, daughter of Adiega... Adiega, mother of Aia) and seems to contain incantations regarding one Severa Tertionicna and a group of women (often thought to be a rival group of witches), but the exact meaning of the text remains unclear.


title: Gaulish

text: The Coligny calendar was found in 1897 in Coligny, France, with a statue identified as Mars. The calendar contains Gaulish words but Roman numerals, permitting translations such as evidently meaning days, and month. Months of 30 days were marked , "lucky", months of 29 days , "unlucky", based on comparison with Middle Welsh and , but the meaning could here also be merely descriptive, "complete" and "incomplete".


title: Gaulish

text: The pottery at La Graufesenque is our most important source for Gaulish numerals. Potters shared furnaces and kept tallies inscribed in Latin cursive on ceramic plates, referring to kiln loads numbered 1 to 10:


title: Gaulish

text: The lead inscription from Rezé (dated to the 2nd century, at the mouth of the Loire, northwest of La Graufesenque) is evidently an account or a calculation and contains quite different ordinals:


title: Gaulish

text: Other Gaulish numerals attested in Latin inscriptions include "*petrudecametos" "fourteenth" (rendered as "petrudecameto", with Latinized dative-ablative singular ending) and "*triconts" "thirty" (rendered as "tricontis", with a Latinized ablative plural ending; compare Irish ). A Latinized phrase for a "ten-night festival of (Apollo) Grannus", "decamnoctiacis Granni", is mentioned in a Latin inscription from Limoges. A similar formation is to be found in the Coligny calendar, in which mention is made of a "trinox[...] Samoni" "three-night (festival?) of (the month of) Samonios". As is to be expected, the ancient Gaulish language was more similar to Latin than modern Celtic languages are to modern Romance languages. The ordinal numerals in Latin are "prīmus"/"prior", "secundus"/"alter" (the first form when more than two objects are counted, the second form only when two, "alius", like "alter" means "the other", the former used when more than two and the latter when only two), "tertius", "quārtus", "quīntus", "sextus", "septimus", "octāvus", "nōnus", and "decimus".


title: Gaulish

text: A number of short inscriptions are found on spindle whorls and are among the most recent finds in the Gaulish language. Spindle whorls were apparently given to girls by their suitors and bear such inscriptions as:


title: Gaulish

text: Inscriptions found in Switzerland are rare. The most notable inscription found in Helvetic parts is the "Bern zinc tablet", inscribed ΔΟΒΝΟΡΗΔΟ ΓΟΒΑΝΟ ΒΡΕΝΟΔΩΡ ΝΑΝΤΑΡΩΡ ("Dobnorēdo gobano brenodōr nantarōr") and apparently dedicated to Gobannus, the Celtic god of metalwork. Furthermore, there is a statue of a seated goddess with a bear, Artio, found in Muri bei Bern, with a Latin inscription DEAE ARTIONI LIVINIA SABILLINA, suggesting a Gaulish "Artiū" "Bear (goddess)".


title: Gaulish

text: Some coins with Gaulish inscriptions in the Greek alphabet have also been found in Switzerland, e.g. RIG IV Nos. 92 (Lingones) and 267 (Leuci). A sword, dating to the La Tène period, was found in Port, near Biel/Bienne, with its blade inscribed with KORICIOC ("Korisos"), probably the name of the smith.


title: Gaulish

text: The diphthongs all transformed over the historical period. "Ai" and "oi" changed into long "ī" and "eu" merged with "ou", both becoming long "ō". "Ei" became long "ē". In general, long diphthongs became short diphthongs and then long vowels. Long vowels shortened before nasals in coda.


title: Gaulish

text: Other transformations include unstressed "i" became "e", "ln" became "ll", a stop + "s" became "ss", and a nasal + velar became /ŋ/ + velar.


title: Gaulish

text: The lenis plosives seem to have been voiceless, unlike in Latin, which distinguished lenis occlusives with a voiced realization from fortis occlusives with a voiceless realization, which caused confusions like "Glanum" for "Clanum", "vergobretos" for "vercobreto", "Britannia" for "Pritannia".


title: Gaulish

text: The alphabet of Lugano does not distinguish voicing in stops: P represents /b/ or /p/, T is for /d/ or /t/, K for /g/ or /k/.


title: Gaulish

text: Z is probably for /t/. U /u/ and V /w/ are distinguished in only one early inscription. Θ is probably for /t/ and X for /g/ (Lejeune 1971, Solinas 1985).


title: Gaulish

text: G and K are sometimes used interchangeably (especially after R). "Ð"/"ð", "ds" and "s" may represent /ts/ and/or /dz/. X, "x" is for [x] or /ks/. Q is only used rarely ("Sequanni", "Equos") and may represent an archaism (a retained *k) or, as in Latin, an alternate spelling of "-cu-" (for original /kuu/, /kou/, or /kom-u/). Ð and ð are used to represent the letter ("tau gallicum", the Gaulish dental affricate). In March, 2020 Unicode added four characters to represent "tau gallicum":


title: Gaulish

text: There was some areal (and genetic, see Indo-European and the controversial Italo-Celtic hypothesis) similarity to Latin grammar, and the French historian Ferdinand Lot argued that it helped the rapid adoption of Vulgar Latin in Roman Gaul.


title: Gaulish

text: Gaulish had seven cases: the nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative, instrumental and the locative case. Greater epigraphical evidence attests common cases (nominative and accusative) and common stems (-o- and -a- stems) than for cases less frequently used in inscriptions or rarer -i-, -n- and -r- stems. The following table summarises the reconstructed endings for the words "*toṷtā" "tribe, people", "*mapos" "boy, son", "*ṷātis" "seer", "*gutus" "voice", "*brātīr" "brother".


title: Gaulish

text: In some cases, a historical evolution is attested; for example, the dative singular of a-stems is "-āi" in the oldest inscriptions, becoming first *"-ăi" and finally "-ī" as in Irish "a"-stem nouns with attenuated ("slender") consonants: nom. "lámh" "hand, arm" (cf. Gaul. "lāmā") and dat. "láimh" (< *"lāmi"; cf. Gaul. "lāmāi" > *"lāmăi" > "lāmī"). Further, the plural instrumental had begun to encroach on the dative plural (dative "atrebo" and "matrebo" vs. instrumental "gobedbi" and "suiorebe"), and in the modern Insular languages, the instrumental form is known to have completely replaced the dative.


title: Gaulish

text: For o-stems, Gaulish also innovated the pronominal ending for the nominative plural -"oi" and genitive singular -"ī" in place of expected -"ōs" and -"os" still present in Celtiberian (-"oś", -"o"). In a-stems, the inherited genitive singular -"as" is attested but was subsequently replaced by "-ias" as in Insular Celtic. The expected genitive plural -"a-om" appears innovated as "-anom" (vs. Celtiberian -"aum").


title: Gaulish

text: There also appears to be a dialectal equivalence between -"n" and -"m" endings in accusative singular endings particularly, with Transalpine Gaulish favouring -"n", and Cisalpine favouring -"m". In genitive plurals the difference between -"n" and -"m" relies on the length of the preceding vowel, with longer vowels taking -"m" over -"n" (in the case of -"anom" this is a result of its innovation from -"a-om").


title: Gaulish

text: Gaulish verbs have present, future, perfect, and imperfect tenses; indicative, subjunctive, optative and imperative moods; and active and passive voices. Verbs show a number of innovations as well. The Indo-European s-aorist became the Gaulish t-preterit, formed by merging an old 3rd personal singular imperfect ending -"t"- to a 3rd personal singular perfect ending -"u" or -"e" and subsequent affixation to all forms of the t-preterit tense. Similarly, the s-preterit is formed from the extension of -"ss" (originally from the third person singular) and the affixation of -"it" to the third person singular (to distinguish it as such). Third-person plurals are also marked by addition of -s in the preterit.


title: Gaulish

text: Some, however, have patterns such as verb–subject–object (as in living Insular Celtic languages) or with the verb last. The latter can be seen as a survival from an earlier stage in the language, very much like the more archaic Celtiberian language.


title: Gaulish

text: Sentences with the verb first can be interpreted, however, as indicating a special purpose, such as an imperative, emphasis, contrast, and so on. Also, the verb may contain or be next to an enclitic pronoun or with "and" or "but", etc. According to J. F. Eska, Gaulish was certainly not a verb-second language, as the following shows:


title: Gaulish

text: Whenever there is a pronoun object element, it is next to the verb, as per Vendryes' Restriction. The general Celtic grammar shows Wackernagel's Rule, so putting the verb at the beginning of the clause or sentence. As in Old Irish and traditional literary Welsh, the verb can be preceded by a particle with no real meaning by itself but originally used to make the utterance easier.


title: Gaulish

text: According to Eska's model, Vendryes' Restriction is believed to have played a large role in the development of Insular Celtic verb-subject-object word order. Other authorities such as John T. Koch, dispute that interpretation.


title: Gaulish

text: Considering that Gaulish is not a verb-final language, it is not surprising to find other "head-initial" features:


title: Gaulish

text: Subordinate clauses follow the main clause and have an uninflected element ("jo") to show the subordinate clause. This is attached to the first verb of the subordinate clause.


title: Gaulish

text: This element is found residually in the Insular Celtic languages and appears as an independent inflected relative pronoun in Celtiberian, thus:


title: Gaulish

text: Disjunctive pronouns also occur as clitics: "mi, tu, id". They act like the emphasizing particles known as "notae augentes" in the Insular Celtic languages.


title: Gaulish

text: Clitic doubling is also found (along with left dislocation), when a noun antecedent referring to an inanimate object is nonetheless grammatically animate. (There is a similar construction in Old Irish.)


title: Gaulish

text: In an interview, Swiss folk metal band Eluveitie said that some of their songs are written in a reconstructed form of Gaulish. The band asks scientists for help in writing songs in the language. The name of the band comes from graffiti on a vessel from Mantua (c. 300 BC). The inscription in Etruscan letters reads "eluveitie," which has been interpreted as the Etruscan form of the Celtic "(h)elvetios" ("the Helvetian"), presumably referring to a man of Helvetian descent living in Mantua.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: It was once widely distributed across Great Britain, but the population has declined drastically since the turn of the 20th century due to habitat loss and persecution. It is now limited to northern and eastern Scotland. Camera-trapping surveys carried out in the Scottish Highlands between 2010 and 2013 revealed that wildcats live foremost in mixed woodland, whereas feral and domestic cats ("Felis catus") were photographed mostly in grasslands.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: It is listed as Critically Endangered in the United Kingdom and is threatened by hybridization with domestic cats. Since all individuals sampled in recent years showed high levels of hybridisation, this population is thought to undergo extinction.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: "Felis grampia" was the scientific name proposed by Gerrit Smith Miller Jr. in 1907 who first described the skin and the skull of a wildcat specimen from Scotland. He argued that this male specimen from Invermoriston was the same in size as the European wildcat ("Felis silvestris"), but differed by a darker fur with more pronounced black markings and black soles of the paws.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: In 1912, Miller considered it a subspecies, using "Felis silvestris grampia" after reviewing 22 skins from Scotland in the collection of the Natural History Museum, London.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: When Reginald Innes Pocock reviewed the taxonomy of the genus "Felis" in the late 1940s, he had more than 40 Scottish wildcat specimens in the collection of the Museum at his disposal. He recognized "Felis silvestris grampia" as a valid taxon.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: Results of morphological and genetic analyses indicate that the Scottish wildcat descended from the European wildcat. The Great Britain population became isolated from the continental population about 7,000 to 9,000 years ago due to a rise of sea level after the last glacial maximum.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: Since 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group recognizes "Felis silvestris silvestris" as the valid scientific name for all European wildcat populations and "F. s. grampia" as a synonym, arguing that it is doubtful that the Scottish wildcat is sufficiently distinct to accord it separate subspecific status.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: The male Scottish wildcat has a head-to-body length ranging from with long tails and of females from with long tails. Condylobasal length of skulls of females varies from and of males from . Males weigh , while females are smaller at .


title: Scottish wildcat

text: The Scottish wildcat's fur is distinctly striped with a solid tabby patterning. Its ringed tail is bushy with a black tip. It differs from the domestic cat by stripes on the cheeks and hind legs, the absence of spots, white markings and coloured backs of the ears. It is heavier than a domestic cat, has longer limb bones and a more robust skull. It is also larger in body size, but with a shorter gastrointestinal tract.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: The Scottish wildcat has been present in Britain since the early Holocene, when the British Isles were connected to continental Europe via Doggerland.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: In southern England, it likely became locally extinct during the 16th century. By the mid-19th century, its range had declined to west-central Wales and Northumberland due to persecution, and by 1880 to western and northern Scotland. By 1915, it occurred only in northwestern Scotland.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: Following the decreasing number of gamekeepers after World War I and a re-forestation programme, the wildcat population increased again to its current range. Urbanisation and industrialisation prevented further expansion to the southern parts of Scotland.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: Its current distribution includes the Cairngorms, the Black Isle, Aberdeenshire, the Angus Glens and Ardnamurchan.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: It lives in wooded habitats, shrubland and near forest edges, but avoids heather moorland and gorse scrub. It prefers areas away from agriculturally used land and avoids snow deeper than .


title: Scottish wildcat

text: Between March 1995 and April 1997, thirty-one Scottish wildcats were fitted with radio-collars in the area of the Angus Glens and tracked for at least five months. In all seasons, they were most active by night with activity decreasing at low moonlight and in windy weather.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: Home ranges of male wildcats overlap with home ranges of one or more females, whereas female ranges rarely overlap. Adult cats maintain larger territories than juveniles. They mark and defend their home ranges using scent marking through their scat.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: The wildcats mainly prey on European rabbits ("Oryctolagus cuniculus") and field voles ("Microtus agrestis"). Scats collected in Drumtochty Forest and two more sites in the Scottish Highlands contained remains of rabbits, wood mice ("Apodemus sylvaticus"), field and bank voles ("Myodes glareolus") and birds. Any uneaten remnants of a kill will be buried in a cache to save for later.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: Male Scottish wildcats reach sexual maturity at around 10 months of age and the female at an age of less than 12 months. A female had one estrous in early March and a litter was born in early May after a gestation period of 63–68 days. Another estrous occurred about one month later and the second litter was born in August. Kittens open their eyes at 10–13 days old; their eyes are initially blue and change to green around seven weeks of age.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: In the wild, mating occurs between January and March. Litter size varies from one to eight kittens, with a mean litter size of 4.3 young. Females rarely give birth in winter.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: Kittens are born in a den, which is hidden within a cairn, among brush piles and under tree roots. They begin learning how to hunt at 10–12 weeks and are fully weaned by 14 weeks of age. They leave their mothers around six months of age. Kitten mortality during the winter of 1975−1978 was high; most starved.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: Captive Scottish wildcats have lived for 15 years, but the lifespan in the wild is much shorter due to road accidents and disease transmitted from feral domestic cats.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: Continued threats to the Scottish wildcat population include habitat loss, interbreeding with domestic cats, and being hunted as vermin.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: An extended controversy in Aberdeenshire pits Swedish energy firm Vattenfall Wind Power against the Scottish wildcat. Clashindarroch Forest, outside the town of Huntly, is considered by the Scottish government to be a "wildcat wonderland." The group Wildcat Haven state that the energy giant's efforts to raze the primeval forest for their wind farm would wipe out the cats there. These number at least 35 according to the group, a substantial proportion of the known surviving population. As of 2021, an online petition circulated by the activists had garnered more than 800,000 signatures in support of protecting the forest. Vattenfall, however, has claimed that there is no threat.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: Hybridization with domestic cats is regarded as a threat to the population. It is likely that all Scottish wildcats today have at least some domestic cat ancestry. Domestic cats also transmit diseases to the Scottish wildcat such as feline calicivirus, feline coronavirus, feline foamy virus, feline herpesvirus, feline immunodeficiency virus and feline leukemia virus.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: Scottish wildcats have also often been killed to protect game species of bird and they were once considered vermin.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: The Scottish wildcat was given protected status under the United Kingdom's Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. Since 2007, it has been listed in the U.K. Biodiversity Action Plan as a priority species.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: The Scottish Wildcat Conservation Action Plan was developed by the Scottish Wildcat Conservation Action Group (SWCAG), which set national action priorities and defined responsibilities of agencies and funding priorities for the group's conservation efforts between 2013 and 2019. Its implementation is coordinated by Scottish Natural Heritage.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: In the wild, efforts to conserve wildcats include neutering feral cats and euthanizing diseased feral cats to prevent hybridization and the spread of disease.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: By 2014, the project members had researched nine potential action areas, settling on six, which were considered as having the highest likelihood of conservation success, with work planned beginning in 2015: Morvern, Strathpeffer, Strathbogie, Strathavon, Dulnain and the Angus Glens. An area of the remote and largely undisturbed Ardnamurchan Peninsula was designated a Scottish wildcat sanctuary, a project of The Aspinall Foundation and scientist Paul O'Donoghue. Part of their effort involves neutering local domestic cats to prevent breeding with wildcats.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: In 2018, the official efforts fell under the auspices of Scottish Wildcat Action, a coalition including government and academic institutions, with an updated list of five priority areas: Strathbogie, the Angus Glens, Northern Strathspey, Morvern and Strathpeffer. In 2019, a report for Scottish Wildcat Action found that the wildcat population in Scotland was no longer viable and the species was at the verge of extinction.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: A captive breeding programme for the Scottish wildcat has been established in the frame of the Scottish Wildcat Conservation Action Plan, with wild-caught individuals that pass genetic and morphological tests to be considered wildcats with less than 5% hybridization. Participating institutions include the Alladale Wilderness Reserve, Chester Zoo, British Wildlife Centre, Port Lympne Wild Animal Park, Highland Wildlife Park, New Forest Wildlife Park and Aigas Field Centre.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: This captive breeding programme has drawn criticism from animal-rights organizations like the Captive Animals Protection Society, which stated that the breeding programme has "little to do with conservation and everything to do with these zoos stocking their cages".


title: Scottish wildcat

text: From 2011 to 2016, there have been 15 surviving Scottish wildcat kittens born at the Highland Wildlife Park.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: Within the conservation community, there are some political divides over proper actions and strategies. In 2014, the Scottish Wildcat Association and Wildcat Haven challenged the efforts of Scottish Natural Heritage. In 2017, Scottish Wildcat Action, the official government organisation, defended itself from what it called unfair criticism by Wildcat Haven.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: The Scottish wildcat is traditionally an icon of the Scottish wilderness. The Scottish wildcat or Kellas cat is the likely inspiration of the mythological Scottish creature . Since the 13th century, it has been a symbol of Clan Chattan. Most of the members of Clan Chattan have the Scottish wildcat on their crest badges, and their motto is "Touch not the cat bot a glove", meaning 'without'. The motto is a reference to the ferocity of the Scottish wildcat. Clan Chattan has participated in Scottish wildcat conservation efforts since 2010.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: In 2010, as part of the International Year of Biodiversity, the Royal Mail issued a series of 10 stamps celebrating at-risk mammals, one of which depicted the Scottish wildcat.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: The Scottish wildcat was the subject of a documentary film titled "The Tigers of Scotland" that was issued in 2017.


title: Scottish wildcat

text: In 2019, Scottish wildcats were the central theme of the first issue of the "Journal of Matters Relating to Felines", a student-led general interest magazine produced at the University of Aberdeen.


title: You Are Not My Mother

text: You Are Not My Mother is a 2021 Irish psychological horror film written and directed by Kate Dolan. The film stars Hazel Doupe as Char, a young woman at odds with her grandmother Rita (Ingrid Craigie) after her mother Angela (Carolyn Bracken) briefly goes missing, only to return soon afterward with a radically changed personality.


title: You Are Not My Mother

text: The film premiered in the Midnight Madness stream at the 2021 Toronto International Film Festival, where it was named first runner up for the .


title: You Are Not My Mother

text: An opening flashback scene shows Rita Delani taking her infant granddaughter Charlotte (“Char”) into the woods, while the baby’s mother Angela protests. In the wood, Rita sits the baby on the ground and lights a ring of fire around her. She watches as the baby screams.


title: You Are Not My Mother

text: In the present day, the teenage Char lives with her mother and grandmother; her uncle Aaron lives nearby and visits occasionally. The household is somewhat dysfunctional; Rita is in poor health, Angela is depressed and spends much of her time in bed, and there is no food in the house.


title: You Are Not My Mother

text: Char attends a girls’ Catholic high school. Although academically gifted, she does not fit in with the other students, who consider her their social inferior, and she is subjected to bullying.


title: You Are Not My Mother

text: One morning, driving Char to school, Angela tells her daughter that "she can't do this anymore". Her car is later found abandoned, with no sign of Angela.