title: Mass surveillance

text: The FRA has been contested since the change in its legislation, mainly because of the public perception the change would enable mass surveillance. The FRA categorically deny this allegation, as they are not allowed to initialize any surveillance on their own, and has no direct access to communication lines. All SIGINT has to be authorized by a special court and meet a set of narrow requirements, something Minister for Defence Sten Tolgfors have been quoted as saying, "should render the debate on mass surveillance invalid". Due to the architecture of Internet backbones in the Nordic area, a large portion of Norwegian and Finnish traffic will also be affected by the Swedish wiretapping.


title: Mass surveillance

text: Syria is one of the five countries on Reporters Without Borders' March 2013 list of "State Enemies of the Internet", countries whose governments are involved in active, intrusive surveillance of news providers, resulting in grave violations of freedom of information and human rights. Syria has stepped up its web censorship and cyber-monitoring as the country's civil war has intensified. At least 13 Blue Coat proxy servers are in use, Skype calls are intercepted, and social engineering techniques, phishing, and malware attacks are all in use.


title: Mass surveillance

text: In October 2016, "The Intercept" released a report detailing the experience of an Italian security researcher Simone Margaritelli, of allegedly being hired for mass surveillance operations run by United Arab Emirates. According to Margaritelli, he was called for an interview with the Abu Dhabi-based cybersecurity firm called DarkMatter. Margaritelli says he declined the offer and instead wrote a blog post titled "How the United Arab Emirates Intelligence Tried to Hire Me to Spy on Its People". In response to The Intercept inquiries, DarkMatter responded by stating: "No one from DarkMatter or its subsidiaries have ever interviewed Mr. Margaritelli." Kevin Healy, director of communications for DarkMatter, wrote in an email responding to The Intercept that the man Margaritelli says interviewed him was previously only an advisory consultant to DarkMatter and is currently no longer an advisor to the company. Dark Matter responded by saying "While we respect an author's right to express a personal opinion, we do not view the content in question as credible, and therefore have no further comment."


title: Mass surveillance

text: In January 2019, Reuters released a detailed account of a 2014 state-surveillance operation – dubbed as Project Raven – led by the United Arab Emirates with the help of former NSA officials like Lori Stroud, an ex-NSA cyberspy. Counter-terrorism strategy was the primary motive of setting up the unit. However, soon the project began being used as a surveillance program to spy on rival leaders, critical dissidents and journalists.


title: Mass surveillance

text: In December 2019, Google Play Store and Apple App Store removed an Emirati messaging application called ToTok following allegations that it was a state surveillance application, according to "The New York Times" report. The application's privacy policy clearly stated that it may share personal data of the users with "regulatory agencies, law enforcement, and other lawful access requests". The allegations were denied by the co-founders of ToTok, Giacomo Ziani and Long Ruan, respectively. The application was restored on Google Play Store later on.


title: Mass surveillance

text: In July 2020, the United Arab Emirates came under renewed questions about mass surveillance amidst the coronavirus outbreak. Experts highlighted that the country has one of the highest per capita concentrations of surveillance cameras in the world. In a statement, the Emirati government acknowledged that cameras are used to counter the threat of terrorism and have helped the country rank as one of the safest countries in the world.


title: Mass surveillance

text: State surveillance in the United Kingdom has formed part of the public consciousness since the 19th century. The postal espionage crisis of 1844 sparked the first panic over the privacy of citizens. However, in the 20th century, electronic surveillance capabilities grew out of wartime signal intelligence and pioneering code breaking. In 1946, the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) was formed. The United Kingdom and the United States signed the bilateral UKUSA Agreement in 1948. It was later broadened to include Canada, Australia and New Zealand, as well as cooperation with several "third-party" nations. This became the cornerstone of Western intelligence gathering and the "Special Relationship" between the UK and the US.


title: Mass surveillance

text: After the growth of the Internet and development of the World Wide Web, a series of media reports in 2013 revealed more recent programs and techniques involving GCHQ, such as Tempora.


title: Mass surveillance

text: The use of these capabilities is controlled by laws made in the UK Parliament. In particular, access to the content of private messages (that is, interception of a communication) must be authorized by a warrant signed by a Secretary of State. In addition European Union data privacy law applies in UK law. The UK exhibits governance and safeguards as well as use of electronic surveillance.


title: Mass surveillance

text: The Investigatory Powers Tribunal, a judicial oversight body for the intelligence agencies, ruled in December 2014 that the legislative framework in the United Kingdom does not breach the European Convention on Human Rights. However, the Tribunal stated in February 2015 that one particular aspect, the data sharing arrangement that allowed UK Intelligence services to request data from the US surveillance programs Prism and Upstream, had been in contravention of human rights law prior to this until two paragraphs of additional information, providing details about the procedures and safeguards, were disclosed to the public in December 2014.


title: Mass surveillance

text: In its December 2014 ruling, the Investigatory Powers Tribunal found that the legislative framework in the United Kingdom does not permit mass surveillance and that while GCHQ collects and analyses data in bulk, it does not practice mass surveillance. A report on Privacy and Security published by the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament also came to this view, although it found past shortcomings in oversight and said the legal framework should be simplified to improve transparency. This view is supported by independent reports from the Interception of Communications Commissioner. However, notable civil liberties groups continue to express strong views to the contrary and plan to appeal the ruling to the European Court of Human Rights, while others have criticised these viewpoints in turn.


title: Mass surveillance

text: The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (RIP or RIPA) is a significant piece of legislation that granted and regulated the powers of public bodies to carry out surveillance and investigation. In 2002 the UK government announced plans to extend the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act so that at least 28 government departments would be given powers to access metadata about citizens' web, e-mail, telephone and fax records, without a warrant and without a subject's knowledge.


title: Mass surveillance

text: The Protection of Freedoms Act 2012 includes several provisions related to controlling and restricting the collection, storage, retention, and use of information in government databases.


title: Mass surveillance

text: Supported by all three major political parties, the UK Parliament passed the Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act in July 2014 to ensure police and security services retain existing powers to access phone and Internet records.


title: Mass surveillance

text: This was superseded by the Investigatory Powers Act 2016, a comprehensive statute which made public a number of previously secret powers (equipment interference, bulk retention of metadata, intelligence agency use of bulk personal datasets), and enables the Government to require internet service providers and mobile phone companies to maintain records of (but not the content of) customers' Internet connections for 12 months. In addition, it created new safeguards, including a requirement for judges to approve the warrants authorised by a Secretary of State before they come into force. The Act was informed by two reports by David Anderson QC, the UK's Independent Reviewer of Terrorism Legislation: A Question of Trust (2015) and the report of his Bulk Powers Review (2016), which contains a detailed appraisal (with 60 case studies) of the operational case for the powers often characterised as mass surveillance. It may yet require amendment as a consequence of legal cases brought before the Court of Justice of the European Union and the European Court of Human Rights.


title: Mass surveillance

text: Many advanced nation-states have implemented laws that partially protect citizens from unwarranted intrusion, such as the Human Rights Act 1998, the Data Protection Act 1998, (updated as the Data Protection Act 2018, to include the General Data Protection Regulation), and the Privacy and Electronic Communications (EC Directive) Regulations 2003 in the United Kingdom, and laws that require a formal warrant before private data may be gathered by a government.


title: Mass surveillance

text: The vast majority of video surveillance cameras in the UK are not operated by government bodies, but by private individuals or companies, especially to monitor the interiors of shops and businesses. According to 2011 Freedom of Information Act requests, the total number of local government operated CCTV cameras was around 52,000 over the entirety of the UK. The prevalence of video surveillance in the UK is often overstated due to unreliable estimates being requoted; for example one report in 2002 extrapolated from a very small sample to estimate the number of cameras in the UK at 4.2 million (of which 500,000 in London). More reliable estimates put the number of private and local government operated cameras in the United Kingdom at around 1.85 million in 2011.


title: Mass surveillance

text: Historically, mass surveillance was used as part of wartime censorship to control communications that could damage the war effort and aid the enemy. For example, during the world wars, every international telegram from or to the United States sent through companies such as Western Union was reviewed by the US military. After the wars were over, surveillance continued in programs such as the Black Chamber following World War I and project Shamrock following World War II. COINTELPRO projects conducted by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) between 1956 and 1971 targeted various "subversive" organizations, including peaceful anti-war and racial equality activists such as Albert Einstein and Martin Luther King Jr.


title: Mass surveillance

text: Billions of dollars per year are spent, by agencies such as the National Security Agency (NSA) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), to develop, purchase, implement, and operate systems such as Carnivore, ECHELON, and NarusInsight to intercept and analyze the immense amount of data that traverses the Internet and telephone system every day.


title: Mass surveillance

text: Under the Mail Isolation Control and Tracking program, the U.S. Postal Service photographs the exterior of every piece of paper mail that is processed in the United States – about 160 billion pieces in 2012. The U.S. Postmaster General stated that the system is primarily used for mail sorting, but the images are available for possible use by law enforcement agencies. Created in 2001 following the anthrax attacks that killed five people, it is a sweeping expansion of a 100-year-old program called "mail cover" which targets people suspected of crimes.


title: Mass surveillance

text: The FBI developed the computer programs "Magic Lantern" and CIPAV, which they can remotely install on a computer system, in order to monitor a person's computer activity.


title: Mass surveillance

text: The NSA has been gathering information on financial records, Internet surfing habits, and monitoring e-mails. They have also performed extensive analysis of social networks such as Myspace.


title: Mass surveillance

text: The PRISM special source operation system legally immunized private companies that cooperate voluntarily with U.S. intelligence collection. According to "The Register", the FISA Amendments Act of 2008 "specifically authorizes intelligence agencies to monitor the phone, email, and other communications of U.S. citizens for up to a week without obtaining a warrant" when one of the parties is outside the U.S. PRISM was first publicly revealed on 6 June 2013, after classified documents about the program were leaked to "The Washington Post" and "The Guardian" by American Edward Snowden.


title: Mass surveillance

text: The Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) requires that all U.S. telecommunications and Internet service providers modify their networks to allow easy wiretapping of telephone, VoIP, and broadband Internet traffic.


title: Mass surveillance

text: In early 2006, "USA Today" reported that several major telephone companies were providing the telephone call records of U.S. citizens to the National Security Agency (NSA), which is storing them in a large database known as the NSA call database. This report came on the heels of allegations that the U.S. government had been conducting electronic surveillance of domestic telephone calls without warrants. In 2013, the existence of the Hemisphere Project, through which AT&T provides telephone call data to federal agencies, became publicly known.


title: Mass surveillance

text: Traffic cameras, which were meant to help enforce traffic laws at intersections, may be used by law enforcement agencies for purposes unrelated to traffic violations. Some cameras allow for the identification of individuals inside a vehicle and license plate data to be collected and time stamped for cross reference with other data used by police. The Department of Homeland Security is funding networks of surveillance cameras in cities and towns as part of its efforts to combat terrorism.


title: Mass surveillance

text: The New York City Police Department infiltrated and compiled dossiers on protest groups before the 2004 Republican National Convention, leading to over 1,800 arrests.


title: Mass surveillance

text: Modern surveillance in the United States was thought of more of a wartime effort before Snowden disclosed in depth information about the National Security Agency in June 2013. The constant development and improvements of the Internet and technology has made it easier for mass surveillance to take hold. Such revelations allow critical commentators to raise questions and scrutinize the implementation, use, and abuse of networking technologies, devices, and software systems that partake in a "global surveillant assemblage" (Bogard 2006; Collier and Ong 2004; Haggerty and Ericson 2000; Murakami Wood 2013). The NSA collected millions of Verizon user's telephone records in between 2013 and 2014. The NSA also collected data through Google and Facebook with a program called 'Prism'. Journalists through Snowden published nearly 7,000 top-secret documents since then, yet the information disclosed seems to be less than 1% of the entire information. Having access to every individual's private records seems to directly contradict the fourth amendment.


title: Mass surveillance

text: Vietnam is one of the five countries on Reporters Without Borders' March 2013 list of "State Enemies of the Internet", countries whose governments are involved in active, intrusive surveillance of news providers, resulting in grave violations of freedom of information and human rights. Most of the country's 16 service providers are directly or indirectly controlled by the Vietnamese Communist Party. The industry leader, Vietnam Posts and Telecommunications Group, which controls 74 per cent of the market, is state-owned. So is Viettel, an enterprise of the Vietnamese armed forces. FPT Telecom is a private firm, but is accountable to the Party and depends on the market leaders for bandwidth.


title: Mass surveillance

text: Service providers are the major instruments of control and surveillance. Bloggers monitored by the government frequently undergo man-in-the-middle attacks. These are designed to intercept data meant to be sent to secure (https) sites, allowing passwords and other communication to be intercepted. According to a July 2012 Freedom House report, 91 percent of survey respondents connected to the Internet on their mobile devices and the government monitors conversations and tracks the calls of "activists" or "reactionaries." In 2018, the Vietnam National Assembly also passed a cybersecurity law closely resembling one passed in China, requiring localisation of user data and censorship of anti-state content.


title: Mass surveillance

text: As a result of the digital revolution, many aspects of life are now captured and stored in digital form. Concern has been expressed that governments may use this information to conduct mass surveillance on their populations. Commercial mass surveillance often makes use of copyright laws and "user agreements" to obtain (typically uninformed) 'consent' to surveillance from consumers who use their software or other related materials. This allows gathering of information which would be technically illegal if performed by government agencies. This data is then often shared with government agencies, thereby, in practice, defeating the purpose of such privacy protections.


title: Mass surveillance

text: One of the most common forms of mass surveillance is carried out by commercial organizations. Many people are willing to join supermarket and grocery loyalty card programs, trading their personal information and surveillance of their shopping habits in exchange for a discount on their groceries, although base prices might be increased to encourage participation in the program.


title: Mass surveillance

text: Through programs like Google's AdSense, OpenSocial and their increasing pool of so-called "web gadgets", "social gadgets", and other Google-hosted services many web sites on the Internet are effectively feeding user information about sites visited by the users, and now also their social connections, to Google. Facebook also keep this information, although its acquisition is limited to page views within Facebook. This data is valuable for authorities, advertisers and others interested in profiling users, trends and web site marketing performance. Google, Facebook and others are increasingly becoming more guarded about this data as their reach increases and the data becomes more all inclusive, making it more valuable.


title: Mass surveillance

text: New features like geolocation give an even increased admission of monitoring capabilities to large service providers like Google, where they also are enabled to track one's physical movements while users are using mobile devices, especially those which are syncing without any user interaction. Google's Gmail service is increasingly employing features to work as a stand-alone application which also might activate while a web browser is not even active for synchronizing; a feature mentioned on the Google I/O 2009 developer conference while showing the upcoming HTML5 features which Google and others are actively defining and promoting.


title: Mass surveillance

text: In 2008 at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Google CEO Eric Schmidt, said: "The arrival of a truly mobile Web, offering a new generation of location-based advertising, is set to unleash a 'huge revolution'". At the Mobile World Congress in Barcelona on 16 February 2010, Google presented their vision of a new business model for mobile operators and trying to convince mobile operators to embrace location-based services and advertising. With Google as the advertising provider, it would mean that every mobile operator using their location-based advertising service would be revealing the location of their mobile customers to Google.


title: Mass surveillance

text: Organizations like the Electronic Frontier Foundation are constantly informing users on the importance of privacy, and considerations about technologies like geolocation.


title: Mass surveillance

text: Computer company Microsoft patented in 2011 a product distribution system with a camera or capture device that monitors the viewers that consume the product, allowing the provider to take "remedial action" if the actual viewers do not match the distribution license.


title: Mass surveillance

text: Reporters Without Borders' March 2013 "Special report on Internet Surveillance" contained a list of "Corporate Enemies of the Internet", companies that sell products that are liable to be used by governments to violate human rights and freedom of information. The five companies on the initial list were: Amesys (France), Blue Coat Systems (U.S.), Gamma Group (UK and Germany), Hacking Team (Italy), and Trovicor (Germany), but the list was not exhaustive and is likely to be expanded in the future.


title: Mass surveillance

text: EFF found that a company by the name of Fog Data Science purchases location data from apps and sells it to the law enforcement agencies in the U.S. without requiring a warrant or a court order.


title: Mass surveillance

text: A surveillance state is a country where the government engages in pervasive surveillance of large numbers of its citizens and visitors. Such widespread surveillance is usually justified as being necessary for national security, such as to prevent crime or acts of terrorism, but may also be used to stifle criticism of and opposition to the government.


title: Mass surveillance

text: Examples of early surveillance states include the former Soviet Union and the former East Germany, which had a large network of informers and an advanced technology base in computing and spy-camera technology. However, these states did not have today's technologies for mass surveillance, such as the use of databases and pattern recognition software to cross-correlate information obtained by wire tapping, including speech recognition and telecommunications traffic analysis, monitoring of financial transactions, automatic number plate recognition, the tracking of the position of mobile telephones, and facial recognition systems and the like which recognize people by their appearance, gait, DNA profiling, etc.


title: Mass surveillance

text: The development of smart cities has seen the increased adoption of surveillance technologies by governments, although the primary purpose of surveillance in such cities is to use information and communication technologies to control the urban environment. The implementation of such technology by a number of cities has resulted in increased efficiencies in urban infrastructure as well as improved community participation. Sensors and systems monitor a smart city's infrastructure, operations and activities and aim to help it run more efficiently. For example, the city could use less electricity; its traffic run more smoothly with fewer delays; its citizens use the city with more safety; hazards can be dealt with faster; citizen infractions of rules can be prevented, and the city's infrastructure; power distribution and roads with traffic lights for example, dynamically adjusted to respond to differing circumstances.


title: Mass surveillance

text: The development of smart city technology has also led to an increase in potential unwarranted intrusions into privacy and restrictions upon autonomy. The widespread incorporation of information and communication technologies within the daily life of urban residents results in increases in the surveillance capacity of states – to the extent that individuals may be unaware of what information is being accessed, when the access occurs and for what purpose. It is possible that such conditions could give rise to the development of an electronic police state. Shanghai, Amsterdam, San Jose, Dubai, Barcelona, Madrid, Stockholm, and New York are all cities that use various techniques from smart city technology.


title: Mass surveillance

text: An electronic police state is a state in which the government aggressively uses electronic technologies to record, collect, store, organize, analyze, search, and distribute information about its citizens. Electronic police states also engage in mass government surveillance of landline and cellular telephone traffic, mail, email, web surfing, Internet searches, radio, and other forms of electronic communication as well as widespread use of video surveillance. The information is usually collected in secret.


title: Mass surveillance

text: The crucial elements are not politically based, so long as the government can afford the technology and the populace will permit it to be used, an electronic police state can form. The continual use of electronic mass surveillance can result in constant low-level fear within the population, which can lead to self-censorship and exerts a powerful coercive force upon the populace.


title: Mass surveillance

text: Seventeen factors for judging the development of an electronic police state were suggested in "The Electronic Police State: 2008 National Rankings":


title: Mass surveillance

text: The list includes factors that apply to other forms of police states, such as the use of identity documents and police enforcement, but go considerably beyond them and emphasize the use of technology to gather and process the information collected.


title: Mass surveillance

text: The concept of being monitored by our governments collects a large audience of curious citizens. Mass surveillance has been prominently featured in a wide array of books, films, and other media. Advances in technology over the last century have led to possible social control through the Internet and the conditions of late capitalism. Many directors and writers have been enthralled with the potential stories that could come from mass surveillance. Perhaps the most iconic example of fictional mass surveillance is George Orwell's 1949 novel "Nineteen Eighty-Four", which depicts a dystopian surveillance state.


title: Nissan Primera

text: The is a large family car which was produced by the Japanese automaker Nissan from 1990 to 2007, for the markets in Japan and Europe. In Japan, it replaced the Auster/Stanza, and was exclusive to "Nissan Prince Store" locations. In North America, it was the entry level luxury sports sedan for the Infiniti brand. The word ""primera"" in Spanish means "first", in its female form.


title: Nissan Primera

text: Since 1986, Nissan had been building Bluebirds — essentially a rebadged home market Auster/Stanza – for the market in Europe at its factory in Washington, Tyne and Wear, England. Nissan showcased the Primera X concept car at the 1989 Tokyo Motor Show as part of Project 901 (Nissan's performance vision for 1990), and concept car UV.X at the 1989 Frankfurt Motor Show.


title: Nissan Primera

text: Having originally launched in Japan in February 1990, Nissan replaced the United Kingdom's Bluebird with the slightly smaller Primera in September that year. It had a conventional front wheel drive chassis and five speed manual gearbox, with some versions getting the option of a four speed automatic.


title: Nissan Primera

text: Power came from 1.6-litre carbureted (not available in Japan) and 1.8-litre and 2.0-litre injection petrol engines; in Europe, a 2.0-litre diesel followed from 1992 onwards, a 1.6-litre injection gasoline was introduced at the end of 1993. The 1.8 was originally a single point injection model (SR18Di); a multi point injection with more power was added in 1991.


title: Nissan Primera

text: The 1.8-litre version was not built with left-hand drive and was not sold in the rest of Europe. Bodystyles were four- and five-door saloons. A five-door estate was also offered as the Primera Traveller; however, it was based on the slightly different sheet metal of the Nissan Avenir and was only made in Japan. With exception of the UK GT, only the four-door model was available in Japan.


title: Nissan Primera

text: Nissan had targeted the car at the market in Europe. The Primera saw Nissan's multi link front suspension applied to front-wheel drive for the first time. The 2.0-litre gasoline engine received a power upgrade in 1992, which gave the then ZXe (later renamed the eGT) 150 bhp from the standard 2.0-litre engine and a top speed of around 219 km/h (137 mph).


title: Nissan Primera

text: Some five door British, RHD Primeras were exported back to Japan (under the name of Primera UK GT), Russia and Ireland. In the United States, cars built in Japan was rebadged as the Infiniti G20, part of Nissan's upper scale Infiniti brand. The G20 was based on the Japanese model Primera, which featured a narrower body to remain within the Japanese compact class tax bracket with width limit at ; the Japanese-spec UK GTs also feature the narrower body to comply with the tax bracket.


title: Nissan Primera

text: The Primera range came in six trim levels at launch: L, LS, SLX, GS, GSX and ZX. The 1.6-litre engine was available in L, LS and LSX trim and the 2.0-litre engine was available in LS, GS and GSX trim. The ZX model had a 2.0-litre engine. From 1992 onwards, the range was facelifted and new L, LX, SLX, SGX and eGT trim levels replaced the original naming scheme. A 2.0-litre diesel version was available from 1992.


title: Nissan Primera

text: The L cars were basic, and had 1.6-litre petrol engines only. The LX was slightly plusher, but 2.0-litre petrol and diesel versions were also available. SLX was the mid range model, and these also had a choice of 1.6 and 2.0 petrol, or 2.0 diesel engines. The SGX trim level was the luxury specification version; powered by the 2.0-litre engine.


title: Nissan Primera

text: The eGT was the sporting version, with a 2.0-litre engine. Engine power was slightly increased during 1994, with the 1.6 model producing and the 2.0 model, .


title: Nissan Primera

text: From 1994, the range received another facelift, and the trim levels were almost the same; although Equation replaced the basic L as the entry level trim; like its predecessor, it had a 1.6 petrol engine, but there was no diesel option. A rare AWD option was available, known as a T4, with . At this time, the SE replaced the SGX.


title: Nissan Primera

text: A new "hot hatch" version, the SRi joined the line up from 1994, and this had a choice of 1.6- or 2.0-litre petrol engines. There was also a very rare version of the P10 built and tuned by Japanese tuning company Autech: these models came with special Autech suspension and interior packages and a tuned SR20DE 2.0-litre engine, making .


title: Nissan Primera

text: The second generation Nissan Primera was launched in the end of 1995 in Japan, and in the autumn of 1996 in Europe. Unique in its class, the new Primera featured multi link beam rear suspension with multi-link front suspension.


title: Nissan Primera

text: As before, in Europe the Primera was sold with 1.6 L and 2.0 L petrol engines and a 2.0 L diesel, with hatchback, saloon and estate bodystyles. While the estate was now based on the Primera's platform, it was assigned a model code of WP11.


title: Nissan Primera

text: In Japan, the Primera was initially offered with the SR18DE, SR20DE and SR20VE engines, and initially only as a sedan; these models (including the British-built UK GT models for sale in Japan) were slightly narrower at to remain within the Japanese compact class tax bracket, and was Nissan's car for the Supertouring era of Japanese Touring Car Championship, although it failed to recapture the title or Skyline GT-R's dominant glory of the Group A era.


title: Nissan Primera

text: The hatchback assembled in the United Kingdom was available only with the SR20DE engine and automatic transmission and began production from November 1997, a captive import known as the Primera "UK GT". Estate began production from September 1997.


title: Nissan Primera

text: Alongside the original Primera, the Nissan Primera Camino was launched as a badge engineered model for different dealer networks.


title: Nissan Primera

text: The models for Japan also introduced a CVT automatic transmission during the P11 series, including a six-speed tiptronic version in the M6 G-V and Autech edition wagons and Te-V saloon. The Te-V was equipped with SR20VE and CVT M6 transmissions only.


title: Nissan Primera

text: Nissan continued selling the Primera in the United States as the Infiniti G20 from 1998 until 2002, when it was replaced by a rebadged version of the Nissan Skyline V35 as the Infiniti G35. The G20 used the same grille and rear lamp alterations from the Primera Camino.


title: Nissan Primera

text: In 1998, Nissan New Zealand released a limited edition Primera SMX with association with Steve Millen (Stillen Sports Parts). Features include cross drilled brakes, Eibach springs and a more aggressive body kit. There were a total of 26 (including the prototype numbered 000) made in five colour choices (the prototype was the only white one made).


title: Nissan Primera

text: This was because until 1998 (due to lifting of import tariffs on cars) Nissan had an automotive assembly operation in New Zealand, and for a short time between 1997 and 1998 the P11 Primera was assembled in Wiri, Auckland.


title: Nissan Primera

text: The Primera won the British Touring Car Championship manufacturer's and team titles thanks to RML in 1998 and 1999 with backing from the factory, as well as the Independents' Cup in 1999 and 2000.


title: Nissan Primera

text: To celebrate the two victories in 1998, Nissan UK released a limited edition of 400 GTSE models, with 16" AZEV alloy wheels, two tone "flip" ChromaFlair "Mystic" green paint, following the special theme to the interior which featured full leather seating with green piping seats, steering wheel and a Momo gearknob.


title: Nissan Primera

text: To celebrate the 1999 "clean sweep", they released a limited edition GTLE model with 16" multi spoke Enkei alloy wheels, a full leather interior with silver piping, a Momo gearknob and a colour choice of Flame Red, Kuro Black, Starburst Silver, and Nordic Blue.


title: Nissan Primera

text: In August 1999, Nissan gave the Primera a facelift, giving it a more modern front end with clear style headlamps featuring projector units, instead of the traditional Fresnel lens type. Nissan also introduced their "corporate identity" front, with the "flying wing" grille. The new code name for this model was "P11-144".


title: Nissan Primera

text: Along with the exterior changes, improved specification levels were present; with the entry level models such as the "S" featuring automatic climate control, driver, passenger, and side airbags. Further up the model range, other features were seen such as xenon headlamps.


title: Nissan Primera

text: A new "lean burn" 1.8 L petrol engine, the QG18DE was added to the range. This facelift was not generally applied outside Europe and was not available in Japan when Nissan "formalized" the fronts of other Primeras and Caminos instead, bringing them into line with the look of the American model of Infiniti. Production ended in June 2002.


title: Nissan Primera

text: The Primera STCC Edition (named for the Swedish Touring Car Championship) is a limited production model based on the Primera Sport. One hundred examples were made. It had the same engine as the Primera Sport, but it was lowered , had headlight "goggles" and had a bigger wing.


title: Nissan Primera

text: Nissan introduced the third generation Nissan Primera on January 30, 2001, its first all new car since the alliance with Renault was formed two years earlier. The new Primera was more radically styled than previous versions. No Infiniti equivalent was released; the Skyline-based Infiniti G35 replaced the G20 in the United States.


title: Nissan Primera

text: New Zealand Primeras were introduced in 2002, and were all equipped with continuously variable transmissions; there was no manual option. Originally, Japanese-built sedans and wagons were available in New Zealand. This remained true until 2006, when liftbacks and estates assembled in the United Kingdom became available instead. The CVT is also available in the European 2.0 L and the Japanese-made 2.0 and 2.5 L versions (the larger engine was not available in Europe).


title: Nissan Primera

text: Falling sales caused the Primera to be withdrawn from sale in the United Kingdom in November 2006. LHD production, however, kept up until 2007. In Japan, production of RHD Primeras also continued until 2007. In 2011, a large number of brand new Primeras appeared in the market in Ireland, after apparently having been in storage since 2006.


title: Nissan Primera

text: The 2.0 L six-speed manual Nissan Primera 20V has Nissan's SR20VE Neo VVL engine with variable valve lift and timing. It produces of power at 7,200 rpm and of torque at 5,200 rpm.


title: Nissan Primera

text: Speculation in the motoring press suggested that a "tweaked" version of the Nissan Altima would be the replacement, but this did not happen. In August 2006, "Auto Express" reported pictures of a disguised, Sentra-based prototype testing in Germany.


title: Nissan Primera

text: However, it was actually the new Nissan Sentra, which was built in Spain rather than at Sunderland for European buyers. Such was the success of the Nissan Qashqai crossover in Europe, that Nissan did not launch a direct replacement for the Primera, despite earlier plans for such a model to be developed for at least some markets in Europe.


title: Swagger (TV series)

text: Swagger is an American sports drama television series created by Reggie Rock Bythewood. Loosely inspired by the experiences of current NBA player Kevin Durant, the series premiered on October 29, 2021 on Apple TV+. In June 2022, the series was renewed for a second season.


title: Swagger (TV series)

text: "Swagger" has garnered critical acclaim from critics for its writing, acting (primarily Jackson's and Hill's), production values and social commentary.


title: Swagger (TV series)

text: "Swagger" explores the world of youth basketball, and the players, their families and coaches who walk the fine line between dreams and ambition, and opportunism and corruption.


title: Swagger (TV series)

text: Apple began developing the project in February 2018, and it was ordered in December 2018 as a sports drama television series titled "Swagger" from Kevin Durant and Reggie Rock Bythewood. Bythewood will be the showrunner, writer, director, and executive producer with Durant, Brian Grazer, Francie Calfo, Rich Kleiman, and Samantha Corbin Miller executive producing. On June 15, 2022, Apple renewed the series for a second season.


title: Swagger (TV series)

text: In October 2019, "Deadline Hollywood" reported that Winston Duke was cast as the lead, but in February 2020, Duke suffered an injury on set and was replaced with O’Shea Jackson Jr. On July 9, 2020, Quvenzhané Wallis joined the series in the role of Crystal, and on January 15, 2021, Isaiah Hill, Shinelle Azoroh, Tristan Mack Wilds, Caleel Harris, Tessa Ferrer, Jason Rivera, Solomon Irama, Ozie Nzeribe, and James Bingham were all revealed to have been cast. On August 11, 2022, Orlando Jones and Shannon Brown joined the cast as series regulars, while Christina Jackson and Sean Baker were promoted to series regulars for the second season.


title: Swagger (TV series)

text: Alongside the casting of Winston Duke, "Deadline Hollywood" reported that filming would occur in October 2019. After Duke’s injury in February 2020, filming was delayed due to recasting, and was then delayed even further due to the COVID-19 pandemic. By December 2020, filming restarted in Richmond, Virginia, with filming also taking place in Hopewell, Virginia in March 2021. In April 2021, filming wrapped for the series.


title: Ana Rezende

text: Ana Maria de Rezende Versiani dos Anjos (born 19 March 1983) is a Brazilian film director and musician. She is the guitarist and keyboardist of the rock band CSS.


title: Ana Rezende

text: Rezende is responsible for the direction of CSS's first music video in Brazil, "Off The Hook", filmed at Adriano Cintra's and Carolina Parra's house.


title: Soxhlet extractor

text: A Soxhlet extractor is a piece of laboratory apparatus invented in 1879 by Franz von Soxhlet. It was originally designed for the extraction of a lipid from a solid material. Typically, Soxhlet extraction is used when the desired compound has a "limited" solubility in a solvent, and the impurity is insoluble in that solvent. It allows for unmonitored and unmanaged operation while efficiently recycling a small amount of solvent to dissolve a larger amount of material.


title: Soxhlet extractor

text: A Soxhlet extractor has three main sections: a percolator (boiler and reflux) which circulates the solvent, a thimble (usually made of thick filter paper) which retains the solid to be extracted, and a siphon mechanism, which periodically empties the thimble.


title: Soxhlet extractor

text: The solvent is heated to reflux. The solvent vapour travels up a distillation arm, and floods into the chamber housing the thimble of solid. The condenser ensures that any solvent vapour cools, and drips back down into the chamber housing the solid material. The chamber containing the solid material slowly fills with warm solvent. Some of the desired compound dissolves in the warm solvent. When the Soxhlet chamber is almost full, the chamber is emptied by the siphon. The solvent is returned to the distillation flask. The thimble ensures that the rapid motion of the solvent does not transport any solid material to the still pot. This cycle may be allowed to repeat many times, over hours or days.


title: Soxhlet extractor

text: During each cycle, a portion of the non-volatile compound dissolves in the solvent. After many cycles the desired compound is concentrated in the distillation flask. The advantage of this system is that instead of many portions of warm solvent being passed through the sample, just one batch of solvent is recycled.


title: Soxhlet extractor

text: After extraction the solvent is removed, typically by means of a rotary evaporator, yielding the extracted compound. The non-soluble portion of the extracted solid remains in the thimble, and is usually discarded.


title: Soxhlet extractor

text: Very similar to the Soxhlet extractor, the Kumagawa extractor has a specific design where the thimble holder/chamber is directly suspended inside the solvent flask (having a vertical large opening) above the boiling solvent. The thimble is surrounded by hot solvent vapour and maintained at a higher temperature compared to the Soxhlet extractor, thus allowing better extraction for compounds with higher melting points such as bitumen. The removable holder/chamber is fitted with a small siphon side arm and, in the same way as for Soxhlet, a vertical condenser ensures that the solvent drips back down into the chamber which is automatically emptied at every cycle.


title: Soxhlet extractor

text: William B. Jensen notes that the earliest example of a continuous extractor is archaeological evidence for a Mesopotamian hot-water extractor for organic matter dating from approximately 3500 BC. The same mechanism is present in the Pythagorean cup. Before Soxhlet, the French chemist Anselme Payen also pioneered with continuous extraction in the 1830s.


title: Rachel Dennison

text: Rachel Ann George-Parton (formerly Dennison, née Parton; born August 31, 1959) is an American retired singer and actress and the youngest sister of entertainer Dolly Parton.


title: Rachel Dennison

text: Parton was raised in the Church of God. She is the youngest of twelve children born to Avie Lee Caroline (née Owens; 1923–2003) and Robert Lee Parton Sr. (1921–2000). As well as Dolly Parton, her other celebrity siblings include older brother, entertainer Randy and sister Stella Parton.


title: Rachel Dennison

text: As a child, she enjoyed wearing make-up and imitating her favorite stars. She later recalled, "I was the only girl in the first grade that routinely powdered and rouged my face." Dennison also remembered, "I never really wanted to be in show business. I just wanted to raise my kids and keep house, but I guess being in the business is just a 'family tradition'." She quit school after the eighth grade and toured the country with her family, often doing her elder sisters' make-up and occasionally singing backup. At age fifteen, she performed solo on stage for the first time. During her first performance, as she remembers, "right off I saw this new piano man (pianist Richard Dennison) and knew he was the fella for me." She and Dennison were married three years later.


title: Rachel Dennison

text: In 1982, Parton landed her first and only acting role in the ABC television sitcom incarnation of "9 to 5". Before the show premiered, she stated in a "People" magazine interview: "I'm sure people will compare me to Dolly—it's only human nature." Her role, as bombshell secretary Doralee Rhodes, had been originated by her older sister, Dolly Parton, in the hit 1980 theatrical film of the same name. "9 to 5" was shot before a live studio audience and co-starred Rita Moreno and Valerie Curtin. The series had an impressive beginning in the ratings, but after a retooling (including the addition of Leah Ayres to the cast), the series was canceled by ABC after 33 episodes in 1983. The sitcom proved popular in reruns, leading producers to revive it in first-run syndication in 1986. Sally Struthers joined the cast, and the sitcom's popularity revived, producing another 52 episodes before ending in 1988.


title: Rachel Dennison

text: Dennison never acted again after "9 to 5" was canceled in 1983. During the network run of the series, she and her fellow cast members appeared on an episode of "Battle of the Network Stars" in 1983. She performed alongside her sister in a 1987 episode of her sister's variety series "Dolly". Dennison's last appearance on camera was during an episode of "Bravo Profiles" titled "Dolly Parton: Diamond in a Rhinestone World" in 1999. Dennison has since retired from acting. Occasionally, she will sing with her siblings.


title: Division algorithm

text: A division algorithm is an algorithm which, given two integers N and D, computes their quotient and/or remainder, the result of Euclidean division. Some are applied by hand, while others are employed by digital circuit designs and software.


title: Division algorithm

text: Division algorithms fall into two main categories: slow division and fast division. Slow division algorithms produce one digit of the final quotient per iteration. Examples of slow division include restoring, non-performing restoring, non-restoring, and SRT division. Fast division methods start with a close approximation to the final quotient and produce twice as many digits of the final quotient on each iteration. Newton–Raphson and Goldschmidt algorithms fall into this category.


title: Division algorithm

text: Variants of these algorithms allow using fast multiplication algorithms. It results that, for large integers, the computer time needed for a division is the same, up to a constant factor, as the time needed for a multiplication, whichever multiplication algorithm is used.


title: Division algorithm

text: The simplest division algorithm, historically incorporated into a greatest common divisor algorithm presented in Euclid's "Elements", Book VII, Proposition 1, finds the remainder given two positive integers using only subtractions and comparisons:


title: Division algorithm

text: The proof that the quotient and remainder exist and are unique (described at Euclidean division) gives rise to a complete division algorithm, applicable to both negative and positive numbers, using additions, subtractions, and comparisons:


title: Division algorithm

text: This procedure always produces R ≥ 0. Although very simple, it takes Ω(Q) steps, and so is exponentially slower than even slow division algorithms like long division. It is useful if Q is known to be small (being an output-sensitive algorithm), and can serve as an executable specification.


title: Division algorithm

text: Long division is the standard algorithm used for pen-and-paper division of multi-digit numbers expressed in decimal notation. It shifts gradually from the left to the right end of the dividend, subtracting the largest possible multiple of the divisor (at the digit level) at each stage; the multiples then become the digits of the quotient, and the final difference is then the remainder.


title: Division algorithm

text: When used with a binary radix, this method forms the basis for the (unsigned) integer division with remainder algorithm below. Short division is an abbreviated form of long division suitable for one-digit divisors. Chunking also known as the partial quotients method or the hangman method is a less-efficient form of long division which may be easier to understand. By allowing one to subtract more multiples than what one currently has at each stage, a more freeform variant of long division can be developed as well.


title: Division algorithm

text: The following algorithm, the binary version of the famous long division, will divide "N" by "D", placing the quotient in "Q" and the remainder in "R". In the following pseudo-code, all values are treated as unsigned integers.


title: Division algorithm

text: Restoring division operates on fixed-point fractional numbers and depends on the assumption 0 < "D" < "N".


title: Division algorithm

text: -- Where: N = numerator, D = denominator, n = #bits, R = partial remainder, q(i) = bit #i of quotient


title: Division algorithm

text: Non-performing restoring division is similar to restoring division except that the value of 2R is saved, so "D" does not need to be added back in for the case of R < 0.


title: Division algorithm

text: Non-restoring division uses the digit set {−1, 1} for the quotient digits instead of {0, 1}. The algorithm is more complex, but has the advantage when implemented in hardware that there is only one decision and addition/subtraction per quotient bit; there is no restoring step after the subtraction, which potentially cuts down the numbers of operations by up to half and lets it be executed faster. The basic algorithm for binary (radix 2) non-restoring division of non-negative numbers is:


title: Division algorithm

text: Following this algorithm, the quotient is in a non-standard form consisting of digits of −1 and +1. This form needs to be converted to binary to form the final quotient. Example:


title: Division algorithm

text: If the −1 digits of formula_3 are stored as zeros (0) as is common, then formula_4 is formula_3 and computing formula_6 is trivial: perform a one's complement (bit by bit complement) on the original formula_3.


title: Division algorithm

text: Finally, quotients computed by this algorithm are always odd, and the remainder in R is in the range −D ≤ R < D. For example, 5 / 2 = 3 R −1. To convert to a positive remainder, do a single restoring step "after" Q is converted from non-standard form to standard form:


title: Division algorithm

text: The actual remainder is R » n. (As with restoring division, the low-order bits of R are used up at the same rate as bits of the quotient Q are produced, and it is common to use a single shift register for both.)


title: Division algorithm

text: SRT division is a popular method for division in many microprocessor implementations. The algorithm is named after D.W. Sweeney of IBM, James E. Robertson of University of Illinois, and K. D. Tocher of Imperial College London. They all developed the algorithm independently at approximately the same time (published in February 1957, September 1958, and January 1958 respectively).


title: Division algorithm

text: SRT division is similar to non-restoring division, but it uses a lookup table based on the dividend and the divisor to determine each quotient digit.


title: Division algorithm

text: The most significant difference is that a "redundant representation" is used for the quotient. For example, when implementing radix-4 SRT division, each quotient digit is chosen from "five" possibilities: { −2, −1, 0, +1, +2 }. Because of this, the choice of a quotient digit need not be perfect; later quotient digits can correct for slight errors. (For example, the quotient digit pairs (0, +2) and (1, −2) are equivalent, since 0×4+2 = 1×4−2.) This tolerance allows quotient digits to be selected using only a few most-significant bits of the dividend and divisor, rather than requiring a full-width subtraction. This simplification in turn allows a radix higher than 2 to be used.


title: Division algorithm

text: Like non-restoring division, the final steps are a final full-width subtraction to resolve the last quotient bit, and conversion of the quotient to standard binary form.


title: Division algorithm

text: The Intel Pentium processor's infamous floating-point division bug was caused by an incorrectly coded lookup table. Five of the 1066 entries had been mistakenly omitted.


title: Division algorithm

text: Newton–Raphson uses Newton's method to find the reciprocal of formula_8 and multiply that reciprocal by formula_9 to find the


title: Division algorithm

text: In order to apply Newton's method to find the reciprocal of formula_8, it is necessary to find a function formula_16 that has a zero at formula_17. The obvious such function is formula_18, but the Newton–Raphson iteration for this is unhelpful, since it cannot be computed without already knowing the reciprocal of formula_8 (moreover it attempts to compute the exact reciprocal in one step, rather than allow for iterative improvements). A function that does work is formula_20, for which the Newton–Raphson iteration gives


title: Division algorithm

text: which can be calculated from formula_22 using only multiplication and subtraction, or using two fused multiply–adds.


title: Division algorithm

text: From a computation point of view, the expressions formula_23 and formula_24 are not equivalent. To obtain a result with a precision of 2"n" bits while making use of the second expression, one must compute the product between formula_22 and formula_26 with double the given precision of formula_22("n" bits). In contrast, the product between formula_22 and formula_29 need only be computed with a precision of "n" bits, because the leading "n" bits (after the binary point) of formula_29 are zeros.


title: Division algorithm

text: This squaring of the error at each iteration step the so-called quadratic convergence of Newton–Raphson's method has the effect that the number of correct digits in the result roughly "doubles for every iteration", a property that becomes extremely valuable when the numbers involved have many digits (e.g. in the large integer domain). But it also means that the initial convergence of the method can be comparatively slow, especially if the initial estimate formula_10 is poorly chosen.


title: Division algorithm

text: For the subproblem of choosing an initial estimate formula_10, it is convenient to apply a bit-shift to the divisor "D" to scale it so that 0.5 ≤ "D" ≤ 1; by applying the same bit-shift to the numerator "N", one ensures the quotient does not change. Then one could use a linear approximation in the form


title: Division algorithm

text: to initialize Newton–Raphson. To minimize the maximum of the absolute value of the error of this approximation on interval formula_36, one should use


title: Division algorithm

text: The coefficients of the linear approximation are determined as follows. The absolute value of the error is formula_38. The minimum of the maximum absolute value of the error is determined by the Chebyshev equioscillation theorem applied to formula_39. The local minimum of formula_40 occurs when formula_41, which has solution formula_42. The function at that minimum must be of opposite sign as the function at the endpoints, namely, formula_43. The two equations in the two unknowns have a unique solution formula_44 and formula_45, and the maximum error is formula_46. Using this approximation, the absolute value of the error of the initial value is less than


title: Division algorithm

text: It is possible to generate a polynomial fit of degree larger than 1, computing the coefficients using the Remez algorithm. The trade-off is that the initial guess requires more computational cycles but hopefully in exchange for fewer iterations of Newton–Raphson.


title: Division algorithm

text: steps are enough to calculate the value up to formula_49 binary places. This evaluates to 3 for IEEE single precision and 4 for both double precision and double extended formats.


title: Division algorithm

text: For example, for a double-precision floating-point division, this method uses 10 multiplies, 9 adds, and 2 shifts.


title: Division algorithm

text: The Newton-Raphson division method can be modified to be slightly faster as follows. After shifting "N" and "D" so that "D" is in [0.5, 1.0], initialize with


title: Division algorithm

text: This is the best quadratic fit to 1/"D" and gives an absolute value of the error less than or equal to 1/99. It is chosen to make the error equal to a re-scaled third order Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind. The coefficients should be pre-calculated and hard-coded.


title: Division algorithm

text: If the loop is performed until X agrees with 1/"D" on its leading "P" bits, then the number of iterations will be no more than


title: Division algorithm

text: Using higher degree polynomials in either the initialization or the iteration results in a degradation of performance because the extra multiplications required would be better spent on doing more iterations.


title: Division algorithm

text: Goldschmidt division (after Robert Elliott Goldschmidt) uses an iterative process of repeatedly multiplying both the dividend and divisor by a common factor "F", chosen such that the divisor converges to 1. This causes the dividend to converge to the sought quotient "Q":


title: Division algorithm

text: The Goldschmidt method is used in AMD Athlon CPUs and later models. It is also known as Anderson Earle Goldschmidt Powers (AEGP) algorithm and is implemented by various IBM processors. Although it converges at the same rate as a Newton–Raphson implementation, one advantage of the Goldschmidt method is that the multiplications in the numerator and in the denominator can be done in parallel.


title: Division algorithm

text: After formula_64 steps formula_65, the denominator formula_66 can be rounded to formula_67 with a relative error


title: Division algorithm

text: which is maximum at formula_69 when formula_70, thus providing a minimum precision of formula_71 binary digits.


title: Division algorithm

text: Methods designed for hardware implementation generally do not scale to integers with thousands or millions of decimal digits; these frequently occur, for example, in modular reductions in cryptography. For these large integers, more efficient division algorithms transform the problem to use a small number of multiplications, which can then be done using an asymptotically efficient multiplication algorithm such as the Karatsuba algorithm, Toom–Cook multiplication or the Schönhage–Strassen algorithm. The result is that the computational complexity of the division is of the same order (up to a multiplicative constant) as that of the multiplication. Examples include reduction to multiplication by Newton's method as described above, as well as the slightly faster Burnikel-Ziegler division, Barrett reduction and Montgomery reduction algorithms. Newton's method is particularly efficient in scenarios where one must divide by the same divisor many times, since after the initial Newton inversion only one (truncated) multiplication is needed for each division.


title: Division algorithm

text: Since the denominator is constant, so is its reciprocal (1/"D"). Thus it is possible to compute the value of (1/"D") once at compile time, and at run time perform the multiplication "N"·(1/"D") rather than the division "N/D". In floating-point arithmetic the use of (1/"D") presents little problem, but in integer arithmetic the reciprocal will always evaluate to zero (assuming |"D"| > 1).


title: Division algorithm

text: It is not necessary to use specifically (1/"D"); any value ("X"/"Y") that reduces to (1/"D") may be used. For example, for division by 3, the factors 1/3, 2/6, 3/9, or 194/582 could be used. Consequently, if "Y" were a power of two the division step would reduce to a fast right bit shift. The effect of calculating "N"/"D" as ("N"·"X")/"Y" replaces a division with a multiply and a shift. Note that the parentheses are important, as "N"·("X"/"Y") will evaluate to zero.


title: Division algorithm

text: However, unless "D" itself is a power of two, there is no "X" and "Y" that satisfies the conditions above. Fortunately, ("N"·"X")/"Y" gives exactly the same result as "N"/"D" in integer arithmetic even when ("X"/"Y") is not exactly equal to 1/"D", but "close enough" that the error introduced by the approximation is in the bits that are discarded by the shift operation. Barrett reduction uses powers of 2 for the value of "Y" to make division by "Y" a simple right shift.


title: Division algorithm

text: As a concrete fixed-point arithmetic example, for 32-bit unsigned integers, division by 3 can be replaced with a multiply by , a multiplication by 2863311531 (hexadecimal 0xAAAAAAAB) followed by a 33 right bit shift. The value of 2863311531 is calculated as , then rounded up. Likewise, division by 10 can be expressed as a multiplication by 3435973837 (0xCCCCCCCD) followed by division by 2 (or 35 right bit shift). OEIS provides sequences of the constants for multiplication as and for the right shift as .


title: Division algorithm

text: For general formula_72-bit unsigned integer division where the divisor formula_8 is not a power of 2, the following identity converts the division into two formula_72-bit addition/subtraction, one formula_72-bit by formula_72-bit multiplication (where only the upper half of the result is used) and several shifts, after precomputing formula_77 and formula_78:


title: Division algorithm

text: In some cases, division by a constant can be accomplished in even less time by converting the "multiply by a constant" into a series of shifts and adds or subtracts. Of particular interest is division by 10, for which the exact quotient is obtained, with remainder if required.


title: Intraocular lens

text: Intraocular lens (IOL) is a lens implanted in the eye as part of a treatment for cataracts or myopia. If the natural lens is left in the eye, the IOL is known as phakic, otherwise it is a pseudophakic, or false lens. Such a lens is typically implanted during cataract surgery, after the eye's cloudy natural lens (cataract) has been removed. The pseudophakic IOL provides the same light-focusing function as the natural crystalline lens. The phakic type of IOL is placed over the existing natural lens and is used in refractive surgery to change the eye's optical power as a treatment for myopia (nearsightedness). This is an alternative to LASIK.


title: Intraocular lens

text: IOLs usually consist of a small plastic lens with plastic side struts, called haptics, to hold the lens in place in the capsular bag inside the eye. IOLs were conventionally made of an inflexible material (PMMA), although this has largely been superseded by the use of flexible materials, such as silicone. Most IOLs fitted today are fixed monofocal lenses matched to distance vision. However, other types are available, such as a multifocal intraocular lens that provide multiple-focused vision at far and reading distance, and adaptive IOLs that provide limited visual accommodation. Multifocal IOLs can further be, Trifocal IOLs or extended depth of focus (EDOF) lenses.


title: Intraocular lens

text: More than six million lenses are implanted annually. The procedure can be done under local or topical anesthesia with the patient awake throughout the operation. The use of a flexible IOL enables the lens to be rolled for insertion into the capsular bag through a very small incision, thus avoiding the need for stitches. This procedure usually takes less than 30 minutes in the hands of an experienced ophthalmologist, and the recovery period is about 2–3 weeks. After surgery, patients should avoid strenuous exercise or anything else that significantly increases blood pressure. They should visit their ophthalmologists regularly for 3 weeks to monitor the implants.


title: Intraocular lens

text: IOL implantation carries several risks associated with eye surgeries, such as infection, loosening of the lens, lens rotation, inflammation and nighttime halos, but a systematic review of studies has determined that the procedure is safer than conventional laser eye treatment. Though IOLs enable many patients to have reduced dependence on glasses, most patients still rely on glasses for certain activities, such as reading. These reading glasses may be avoided if Multifocal IOLs, Trifocal IOLs or EDOF lenses are used.


title: Intraocular lens

text: Intraocular lenses have been used since 1999 for correcting larger errors in near-sighted, far-sighted, and astigmatic eyes. This type of IOL is also called phakic intraocular lens (PIOL), as it is implanted without removing the patient's natural crystalline lens.


title: Intraocular lens

text: Phakic IOL appear to be less dangerous than excimer laser surgery (LASIK) in those with significant nearsightedness.


title: Intraocular lens

text: More commonly IOLs are implanted via "Clear Lens Extraction And Replacement" (CLEAR) surgery. During CLEAR, the crystalline lens is extracted and an IOL replaces it in a process that is very similar to cataract surgery: both involve lens replacement, local anesthesia, last approximately 30 minutes, and require making a small incision in the eye for lens insertion. People recover from CLEAR surgery 1–7 days after the operation. During this time, they should avoid strenuous exercise or anything else that significantly raises blood pressure. They should visit their ophthalmologists regularly for several weeks to monitor the IOL implants.


title: Intraocular lens

text: CLEAR has a 90% success rate (risks include wound leakage, infection, inflammation, and astigmatism). CLEAR can be performed only on patients ages 40 and older. This is to ensure that eye growth, which disrupts IOL lenses, will not occur post-surgery.


title: Intraocular lens

text: Once implanted, IOL lenses have three major benefits. First, they are an alternative to the excimer laser procedure (LASIK), a form of eye surgery that does not work for people with serious vision problems. Effective IOL implants also eliminate the need for glasses or contact lenses post-surgery for most patients. The cataract will not return, as the lens has been removed. The disadvantage is that the eye's ability to change focus (accommodate) has generally been reduced or eliminated, depending on the kind of lens implanted.


title: Intraocular lens

text: One of the causes of the risks above is that the lens can rotate inside the eye if the PIOL is too short, if the eye was incorrectly measured, or because the sulcus has a slightly oval shape (the height is slightly smaller than the width). Toric IOLs must be powered and aligned inside the eye on a meridian that corrects the patient's preexisting astigmatism. Again, these lenses can rotate inside the eye postoperatively or be placed incorrectly by the operating surgeon. Either way, the patient's preexisting astigmatism may not be corrected completely or may even increase.


title: Intraocular lens

text: When standard IOLs are implanted with a CLEAR procedure, in substitution of the patient's crystalline, astigmatism is typically not corrected, as astigmatism is mainly attributable to a deformation of the cornea. Toric IOLs may be used during the CLEAR procedure to correct astigmatism.


title: Intraocular lens

text: The surgeon can ascertain the astigmatic, or steepest, meridian in a number of ways, including manifest refraction or corneal topography. Manifest refraction is the familiar test where the eye doctor rotates lenses in front of the eye, asking the patient, "Which is better (or clearer), this one or this one?" Corneal topography is considered a more quantitative test, and for purposes of aligning a toric IOL, most surgeons use a measurement called simulated keratometry (SimK), which is calculated by the internal programming of the corneal topography machine, to determine the astigmatic meridian on the surface of the cornea. The astigmatic meridian can also be identified using corneal wavefront technology or paraxial curvature matching.


title: Intraocular lens

text: Many aphakic and pseudophakic IOLs such as anterior chamber IOLs or 3 piece posterior chamber IOLs can be used interchangeably. The exception are one piece IOLs, which must be placed within the capsular bag at the time of cataract surgery and hence cannot be used as secondary implants.


title: Intraocular lens

text: Pseudophakic IOLs are lenses implanted during cataract surgery, immediately after removal of the patient's crystalline lens.


title: Intraocular lens

text: Monofocal IOLs are standard lenses used in cataract surgery. One of the major disadvantages of these conventional IOLs is that they can only be focused for one particular distance - either optical infinity (rendering the eye emmetropic) or a fixed finite distance (rendering the eye myopic). Patients who undergo a standard IOL implantation no longer experience clouding from cataracts, but they are unable to accommodate (change focus from near to far, far to near, and to distances in between). This is not a concern for most cataract surgeries, as they are primarily performed on elderly people that are already completely presbyopic. However, it can be a problem for patients that are not yet presbyopic (or are in the early stages of presbyopia) undergoing refractive lens exchange for the sake of correcting refractive errors. Monovision, in which one eye is made emmetropic and the other myopic, can partially compensate for the loss of accommodation and enable clear vision at multiple distances. More versatile types of lenses (multifocal and accommodating IOLs) were introduced in 2003 in the United States, with the approval by the Food and Drug Administration. These come at an additional cost to the recipient beyond what Medicare will pay and each has advantages and disadvantages.


title: Intraocular lens

text: Multifocal IOLs attempt to provide simultaneous viewing of distance vision and near vision. Trifocal IOLs can provide intermediate vision. Many multifocal IOL designs attempt to achieve this simultaneous viewing focus using a concentric ring design, which alternates distance and near focal points. However, many concentric ring multifocal lenses used today are prone to glare and mildly compromised focus at all ranges of vision.


title: Intraocular lens

text: People who have a multifocal IOL after their cataract is removed may be less likely to need additional glasses compared with people who have standard monofocal lenses. However, people receiving multifocal lenses may experience more visual problems than with monofocal lenses.


title: Intraocular lens

text: The most common adverse visual effects from multifocal IOLs include glare, halos (rings around lights), and a loss of contrast sensitivity in low-light conditions.


title: Intraocular lens

text: An adjustable IOL is unlike any other lens as its prescription power can be adjusted after surgery once all healing is complete. All other IOLs require surgeons to use pre-surgery measurements to determine a patient's post-surgery lens power. The drawback of this is that pre-surgery measurements are taken while a patient still has cataracts, and they can't account for minuscule shifts that occur during healing. An adjustable IOL allows surgeons to implant it and then, once healing is complete, use an Ultra Violet light delivery device to fine tune it until it suits the patient. An early example being the (RxSight) Light Adjustable Lens (LAL).


title: Intraocular lens

text: Some newer lens designs attempt to allow the eye to regain some partial focusing ability in order to change focus from distance to near (accommodation). However, many accommodating IOLs used today only achieve a very limited improvements in near vision which reduced over time. Accommodative intraocular lenses may also have a slightly higher risk of developing posterior capsule opacification (PCO), though there is some uncertainty around this finding. PCO is a common side-effect of many cataract surgeries and is easily treatable with a one-time laser capsulotomy procedure (see below).


title: Intraocular lens

text: Accommodating IOLs interact with ciliary muscles and zonules, using hinges at both ends to "latch on" and move forward and backward inside the eye using the same mechanism as normal accommodation. These IOLs have a 4.5-mm square-edged optic and a long hinged plate design with polyimide loops at the end of the haptics. The hinges are made of an advanced silicone called BioSil that was thoroughly tested to make sure it was capable of unlimited flexing in the eye.


title: Intraocular lens

text: A toric IOL is a type of toric lens used to correct preexisting corneal astigmatism at the time of cataract surgery. Astigmatism can also be treated with limbal relaxing incisions or an excimer laser procedure. About 40% of Americans have significant astigmatism and thus may be candidates for a toric IOL. Cataract surgery with implantation of a toric IOL is essentially the same as cataract surgery with a conventional IOL. Like toric contact lenses, toric IOLs have different powers in different meridians of the lens, and they must be positioned on the correct meridian to reverse the preexisting astigmatism. If the toric IOL is not on the correct meridian, it may need to be repositioned in a second procedure.


title: Intraocular lens

text: Standard toric IOLs are monofocal, permanently focused on distant objects. Multifocal toric IOLs are also available. These lenses provide the patient not only with correction of preexisting astigmatism, but also with multiple-focused vision at far and reading distance


title: Intraocular lens

text: Phakic IOLs (PIOLs) are intraocular lenses which are placed in an eye that still contains a natural human crystalline lens. PIOLs are sometimes referred to as an 'implantable contact lenses' (ICLs). As with other IOLs, PIOLs can be either spheric or toric. Toric PIOLs have to be aligned with the meridian of astigmatism; toric IOL misalignment or rotation can lead to residual or even greater astigmatism postoperatively.


title: Intraocular lens

text: Blue light filtering IOLs filter the UV and high-energy blue light present in natural and artificial light, both of which can cause vision problems; however too much filtering of blue light can increase depression, especially in the winter months (SAD). The trademarked "Natural Yellow" material is available in three hydrophilic IOLs. Dr. Patrick H. Benz of Benz Research and Development created the first IOL material to incorporate the same UV-A blocking and violet light filtering chromophore that's present in the human crystalline lens in order to attempt to protect the retina after cataract extraction of the natural crystalline lens.


title: Intraocular lens

text: A Cochrane Review found little evidence of important differences between blue‐light filtering and non‐blue‐light filtering lenses for protecting the macula (back of the eye) after cataract surgery. This was due to studies being too small and too short‐term to provide reliable results.


title: Intraocular lens

text: Posterior capsule opacification (PCO), often referred to as "after cataract", is the most common complication of cataract surgery.


title: Intraocular lens

text: In a small percentage of patients, posterior chamber intraocular lenses may form PCOs a few months after implantation. They are easily treatable, and typically only require a one-time capsulotomy procedure (using a ) to clarify.


title: Intraocular lens

text: The materials that have been used to manufacture intraocular lens implants include polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), silicone, hydrophobic acrylate, hydrophilic acrylate and collamer. Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) was the first material to be used successfully in intraocular lenses. British ophthalmologist Sir Harold Ridley observed that Royal Air Force pilots who sustained eye injuries during World War II involving PMMA windshield material did not show any rejection or foreign body reaction. Deducing that the transparent material was inert and useful for implantation in the eye, Ridley designed and implanted the first intraocular lens in a human eye.


title: Intraocular lens

text: Advances in technology have brought about the use of silicone and acrylic glass, both of which are soft foldable inert materials. This allows the lens to be folded and inserted into the eye through a smaller incision. Specifically, acrylic lenses are a better choice in people who have a history of uveitis or are likely to have to undergo retinal surgery requiring vitrectomy with replacement by silicone oil, such as persons with proliferative diabetic retinopathy or who are at high risk of retinal detachment, such as persons with high myopia. A study found that in participants with a history of uveitis, eyes treated with hydrophobic acrylic IOLs were over twice as likely to have a best corrected visual acuity of 20/40 or more, compared to eyes treated with silicone IOLs.


title: Intraocular lens

text: Sir Harold Ridley was the first to successfully implant an intraocular lens on 29 November 1949, at St Thomas' Hospital at London. That lens was manufactured by the Rayner company of Brighton, East Sussex, England from Perspex CQ polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) made by ICI (Imperial Chemical Industries). It is said the idea of implanting an intraocular lens came to him after an intern asked him why he was not replacing the lens he had removed during cataract surgery. The acrylic plastic material was chosen because Ridley noticed it was inert after seeing RAF (Royal Air Force) pilots of World War II with pieces of shattered canopies in their eyes (this acrylic resin is known by several trade names including Lucite and Plexiglas).


title: Intraocular lens

text: The intraocular lens did not find widespread acceptance in cataract surgery until the 1970s, when further developments in lens design and surgical techniques had come about.


title: Intraocular lens

text: As of the early 2000s, more than a million IOLs were implanted annually in the United States. That number was estimated by the World Health Organization to have increased to 20 million annually worldwide by 2010 (for cataract surgery), and has projected increased IOL surgeries to reach 32 million worldwide by 2020.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: "Triple talaq" (instant divorce) and "talaq-e-mughallazah" (irrevocable divorce) are now banned means of Islamic divorce previously available to Muslims in India, especially adherents of Hanafi Sunni Islamic schools of jurisprudence. A Muslim man could legally divorce his wife by proclaiming three times consecutively the word "talaq" (the Arabic word for "divorce") (in spoken, written or, more recently, electronic form).


title: Triple talaq in India

text: The use and status of triple talaq in India has been a subject of controversy and debate. Those questioning the practice have raised issues of justice, gender equality, human rights and secularism. The debate has involved the Government of India and the Supreme Court of India, and is connected to the debate about a uniform civil code (Article 44) in India. On 22 August 2017, the Indian Supreme Court deemed instant triple talaq ("talaq-e-biddah") unconstitutional. Three of the five judges in the panel concurred that the practice of triple talaq is unconstitutional. The remaining two declared the practice to be constitutional. Three of India's neighbouring countries — Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka — are among the 23 countries worldwide that have banned triple talaq. The Quran describes mechanisms for avoiding hasty divorces, prescribing two waiting periods of three months before the divorce is final in order to give the husband time to reconsider his decision. On 30 July 2019, the Parliament of India declared the practice of Triple Talaq illegal and unconstitutional and made it a punishable act from 1 August 2019.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: However, Muslim men are still allowed to be polygamous and can also give a divorce easily by paying paltry sums.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act, 2019 passed on 30 July 2019 after a very long discussion and opposition finally got the verdict (the Indian Supreme Court judgement of August 2017 described below) to all women. It made triple talaq illegal in India on 1 August 2019, replacing the triple talaq ordinance promulgated in February 2019. It stipulates that instant triple talaq (talaq-e-biddat) in any form – spoken, written, or by electronic means such as email or SMS – is illegal and void, with up to three years in jail for the husband. Under the new law, an aggrieved woman is entitled to demand maintenance for her dependent children.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: The Government first introduced the bill to Parliament on 22 August 2017. MPs from Rashtriya Janata Dal, All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen, Biju Janata Dal, All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, Indian National Congress and All India Muslim League opposed the bill. Several Opposition lawmakers called for it to be sent to a select committee for scrutiny. It was passed on 28 December 2017 by the Lok Sabha, or lower house of the Indian Parliament, where the ruling BJP held the majority of seats.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: In a major political win for the BJP government, the Rajya Sabha, or upper house of Parliament, where the ruling NDA did not have a majority, approved the bill (99–84) on 30 July 2019 after a lengthy debate.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: The bill followed a 2017 Supreme Court ruling that the practice of instant triple talaq is unconstitutional and a divorce pronounced by uttering "talaq" three times in one sitting is void and illegal.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: Muslim triple talaq petitioner Ishrat Jahan welcomed the Bill when it was presented. Also Arif Mohammad Khan welcomed and appreciated the decision taken by Government and Parliament of India.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: The triple talaq bill proposed by the previous Modi government lapsed when an election was called and the Lok Sabha was dissolved before the bill was sent to the Rajya Sabha for approval.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: Triple talaq is a form of divorce that was practised in Islam, whereby a Muslim man could legally divorce his wife by pronouncing "talaq" (the Arabic word for divorce) three times. The pronouncement could be oral or written, or, in recent times, delivered by electronic means such as telephone, SMS, email or social media. The man did not need to cite any cause for the divorce and the wife need not have been present at the time of pronouncement. After a period of "iddat", during which it was ascertained whether the wife is pregnant, the divorce became irrevocable. In the recommended practice, a waiting period was required before each pronouncement of "talaq", during which reconciliation was attempted. However, it had become common to make all three pronouncements in one sitting. While the practice was frowned upon, it was not prohibited.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: A divorced woman could not remarry her divorced husband unless she first married another man, a practice called "nikah halala".


title: Triple talaq in India

text: The practice of "talaq-e-biddat" is said to have been around since the period of Caliph Umar, more than 1400 years ago. The Supreme Court described it as "manifestly arbitrary" and said that it allows a man to "break down [a] marriage whimsically and capriciously".


title: Triple talaq in India

text: Instant divorce is termed "talaq-e-bid'at". A hadith by An-Nasa'i stated that Muhammad had accused a man of mocking the Quran by uttering divorce thrice in one go. Talaq pronounced thrice simultaneously from Muhammad to the first two years of Umar's reign as caliph was only considered as a single divorce according to Sahih Muslim. The latter however allowed it, upon seeing the people did not observe the iddah, but also had men using such divorce flogged.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: Abu Hanifa and Malik ibn Anas considered it irrevocable despite its illegality. Al-Shafi'i considered it permissible but Ahmad ibn Hanbal considered it to be invalid.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: Triple talaq is not mentioned in the Quran. It is also largely disapproved by Muslim legal scholars. Many Islamic nations have barred the practice, including Pakistan and Bangladesh, although it is technically legal in Sunni Islamic jurisprudence. Triple talaq, in Islamic law, is based upon the belief that the husband has the right to reject or dismiss his wife with good grounds.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: The All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB), a non-governmental organisation, had told the Supreme Court that women could also pronounce triple talaq, and could execute "nikahnamas" that stipulated conditions so that the husbands could not pronounce triple talaq. According to AIMPLB, "Sharia grants right to divorce to husbands because Islam grants men a greater power of decision-making."


title: Triple talaq in India

text: Muslim family affairs in India are governed by the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937 (often called the "Muslim Personal Law"). It was one of the first acts to be passed after the Government of India Act 1935 became operational, introducing provincial autonomy and a form of dyarchy at the federal level. It replaced the so-called "Anglo-Mohammedan Law" previously operating for Muslims, and became binding on all of India's Muslims.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: The sharia is open to interpretation by the ulama (class of Muslim legal scholars). The ulama of Hanafi Sunnis considered this form of divorce binding, provided the pronouncement was made in front of Muslim witnesses and later confirmed by a sharia court. However, the ulama of Ahl-i Hadith, Twelver and Musta'li persuasions did not regard it as proper. Scholar Aparna Rao states that, in 2003, there was an active debate among the ulama.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: In traditional Islamic jurisprudence, triple talaq is considered to be a particularly disapproved, but legally valid, form of divorce. Changing social conditions around the world have led to increasing dissatisfaction with traditional Islamic law of divorce since the early 20th century and various reforms have been undertaken in different countries. Contrary to practices adopted in most Muslim-majority countries, Muslim couples in India are not required to register their marriage with civil authorities. Muslim marriages in India are considered to be a private matter, unless the couple decided to register their marriage under the Special Marriage Act of 1954. Owing to these historical factors, the checks that have been placed on the husband's unilateral right of divorce by governments of other countries and the prohibition of triple talaq were not implemented in India.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: The practice faced opposition from Muslim women, some of whom filed a public interest litigation in the Supreme Court against the practice, terming it "regressive". The petitioners asked for section 2 of the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937, to be scrapped, describing it as being against Article 14 of the Constitution (equality before the law).


title: Triple talaq in India

text: On 13 May 2017, during the hearings before its final judgment, the Supreme Court described instant triple talaq as the "worst form of marriage dissolution". It noted that the custom is banned in the Muslim-majority countries of Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. On 8 December 2016, the Allahabad High Court observed in a ruling that the practice of instant triple talaq was unconstitutional and violated the rights of Muslim women.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: In March 2017, over 1 million Indian Muslims, a majority of whom were women, signed a petition to end instant triple talaq. The petition was started by the Muslim Rashtriya Manch, an Islamic organisation affiliated to the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh. The petitioners against instant triple talaq have given evidence showing how instant triple talaq is simply an innovation that does not have much to do with Quranic beliefs. This is supported by the interpretation of Quranic text by many Islamic scholars, historical evidence and legal precedent.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: On 10 May 2017, senior cleric Maulana Syed Shahabuddin Salafi Firdausi denounced triple talaq and "nikah halala", calling them un-Islamic practices and instruments to oppress women. The practice was also opposed by Hindu nationalists and Muslim liberals. Congress leader Kapil Sibal tweeted: "Absence of consensus in Court makes it more difficult to forge consensus within communities. Glad that Court set aside a 'sinful' practice." However, Sibal also made statements supporting triple talaq (see the following section).


title: Triple talaq in India

text: Over the year women organisations like Bharatiya Muslim Mahila Andolan and several others opposed this practice in particular and further demanded more reforms in Muslim personal laws.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: Triple talaq has been supported by the All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB), a non-governmental body that supervises the application of Muslim personal law. It believes that the State does not have the right to intervene in religious matters. The AIMPLB's lawyer Kapil Sibal had said that though instant talaq can be thought of as a sin by some, but that "setting the validity of customs and practices of a community is a slippery slope". Kapil Sibal cited Article 371A to state that even the Constitution does intend to protect matters of practice, tradition and customs of communities. However, Sibal has also made statements opposing the practice (see previous section).


title: Triple talaq in India

text: The All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB) defends the practice. In April 2017, citing a report prepared by Muslim Mahila Research Kendra in co-ordination with Shariah Committee for Women, AIMPLB claimed that Muslims have a lower rate of divorce compared to other religious communities, countering the argument that Muslims have the highest number of divorces in the country due to the practice of triple talaq. It also claimed that it had received forms from 35 million Muslim women across the country, supporting shariat and triple talaq.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: AIMPLB issued a code of conduct in April 2017 regarding talaq in response to the controversy over the practice of triple talaq. It warned that those who divorce for reasons not prescribed under shariat will be socially boycotted, in addition to calling for boycott of those who use triple talaq recklessly and without justification. It also stated that it should be delivered in three sittings with a gap of at least one month each.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: The bench that heard the controversial triple talaq case in 2017 was made up of multifaith members. The five judges from five different communities are Chief Justice J. S. Khehar (a Sikh), and Justices Kurian Joseph (a Christian), R. F. Nariman (a Parsi), U. U. Lalit (a Hindu) and S. Abdul Nazeer (a Muslim).


title: Triple talaq in India

text: The Supreme Court examined whether Triple talaq has the protection of the constitution—if this practice is safeguarded by Article 25(1) in the constitution that guarantees all the fundamental right to "profess, practice and propagate religion". The Court wanted to establish whether or not triple talaq is an essential feature of Islamic belief and practice.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: In a 397-page ruling, though two judges upheld validity of instant triple talaq ("talaq-e-biddat"), the three other judges held that it was unconstitutional, thus barring the practice by a 3–2 majority. One judge argued that instant triple talaq violated Islamic law. The bench asked the central government to promulgate legislation within six months to govern marriage and divorce in the Muslim community. The court said that until the government formulates a law regarding instant triple talaq, there would be an injunction against husbands pronouncing instant triple talaq on their wives.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: According to "The Economist", "Constitutional experts said [the judges] legal reasoning fell short of upholding personal rights over religious laws", whilst noting "The judgment did not ban other forms of Muslim divorce that favour men, only the instant kind."


title: Triple talaq in India

text: The Government formulated a bill and introduced it in the Parliament after 100 cases of instant triple talaq in the country since the Supreme Court judgement in August 2017. On 28 December 2017, the Lok Sabha passed The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Bill, 2017. The bill was planned to make instant triple talaq ("talaq-e-biddah") in any form — spoken, in writing or by electronic means such as email, SMS and WhatsApp illegal and void, with up to three years in jail for the husband. MPs from RJD, AIMIM, BJD, AIADMK, and AIML opposed the bill, calling it arbitrary in nature and a faulty proposal, while Congress supported the Bill tabled in the Lok Sabha by law minister Ravi Shankar Prasad. 19 amendments were moved in the Lok Sabha but all were rejected.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: On the grounds that practice of instant triple talaq was continuing unabated despite the SC striking it, the government issued an ordinance to make the practice illegal and void.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: As the triple talaq ordinance of 2018 was to expire on 22 January 2019, the government introduced a fresh bill in the Lok Sabha on 17 December 2018 to replace the ordinance.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: The bill was passed by Lok Sabha on 27 December 2018. However, the bill remained stuck in the Rajya Sabha due to the opposition's demand to send it to a select committee.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: As the triple talaq ordinance of 2018 was to expire on 22 January 2019 and also because the triple talaq bill of 2018 could not be passed in the parliament session, the government repromulgated the ordinance on 10 January 2019. On 12 January 2019, the president of India Ram Nath Kovind approved the ordinance of 2019.


title: Triple talaq in India

text: The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act, 2019 became law on 31 July 2019, replacing the earlier ordinance.


title: History of baseball

text: The history of baseball can be broken down into various aspects: by era, by locale, by organizational-type, game evolution, as well as by political and cultural influence. The game evolved from older bat-and-ball games already being played in England by the mid-18th century. This game was brought by immigrants to North America, where the modern version developed. By the late 19th century, baseball was widely recognized as the national sport of the United States. Baseball is popular in North America and parts of Central and South America, the Caribbean, and East Asia, particularly in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.


title: History of baseball

text: References to baseball date back to the 1700s where in England it was referenced in 1744 in the children's book "A Little Pretty Pocket-Book." In the early 1800s "baseball" and a game first mentioned in 1828 as "rounders" may have been the same or very similar. During the 1830s and 1840s organized amateur club baseball grew up in eastern United States cities, and the rules innovations made by New York City clubs became the basis for the modern game, far removed from its English ancestor. These clubs formed a national governing body with uniform rules in 1858, the National Association of Base Ball Players. In 1871 the first professional league, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, was founded. Five years later, the National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs (National League) was created; it was followed by the American League in 1901. The first World Series between the champions of the two major leagues was held in 1903, and by 1905 it became an annual event. Baseball early in the 20th century was characterized by low-scoring games, but the dead-ball era ended in the early 1920s with rule changes and the rise of power hitter Babe Ruth. The major leagues had a color barrier that lasted until 1947, when Jackie Robinson made his debut. The major leagues began the process of expansion in 1961 and attendance increased from the mid-1970s to 1994, when a work stoppage led to the cancellation of the World Series.


title: History of baseball

text: Professional baseball leagues featured teams from Canada as early as 1877, and the sport spread to numerous countries in the 1800s and 1900s. It was played in the Olympics as a medal sport from 1992 to 2008. Other competitions between national teams include the Baseball World Cup and the World Baseball Classic, which was first held in 2006.