title: Seagrass

text: In addition to polysaccharides, glycoproteins of the hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein family, are important components of cell walls of land plants. The highly glycosylated arabinogalactan proteins are of interest because of their involvement in both wall architecture and cellular regulatory processes. Arabinogalactan proteins are ubiquitous in seed land plants and have also been found in ferns, lycophytes and mosses. They are structurally characterised by large polysaccharide moieties composed of arabinogalactans (normally over 90% of the molecule) which are covalently linked via hydroxyproline to relatively small protein/peptide backbones (normally less than 10% of the molecule). Distinct glycan modifications have been identified in different species and tissues and it has been suggested these influence physical properties and function. In 2020, AGPs were isolated and structurally characterised for the first time from a seagrass. Although the common backbone structure of land plant arabinogalactan proteins is conserved, the glycan structures exhibit unique features suggesting a role of seagrass arabinogalactan proteins in osmoregulation.


title: Seagrass

text: Further components of secondary walls of plants are cross-linked phenolic polymers called lignin, which are responsible for mechanical strengthening of the wall. In seagrasses, this polymer has also been detected, but often in lower amounts compared to angiosperm land plants. Thus, the cell walls of seagrasses seem to contain combinations of features known from both angiosperm land plants and marine macroalgae together with new structural elements. Dried seagrass leaves might be useful for papermaking or as insulating materials, so knowledge of cell wall composition has some technological relevance.


title: Seagrass

text: Despite only covering 0.1 - 0.2% of the ocean’s surface, seagrasses form critically important ecosystems. Much like many other regions of the ocean, seagrasses have been faced with an accelerating global decline. Since the late 19th century, over 20% of the global seagrass area has been lost, with seagrass bed loss occurring at a rate of 1.5% each year. Of the 72 global seagrass species, approximately one quarter (15 species) could be considered at a Threatened or Near Threatened status on the IUCN’s Red List of Threatened Species. Threats include a combination of natural factors, such as storms and disease, and anthropogenic in origin, including habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change.


title: Seagrass

text: By far the most common threat to seagrass is human activity. Up to 67 species (93%) of seagrasses are affected by human activity along coastal regions. Activities such as coastal land development, motorboating, and fishing practices like trawling either physically destroy seagrass beds or increase turbidity in the water, causing seagrass die-off. Since seagrasses have some of the highest light requirements of angiosperm plant species, they are highly affected by environmental conditions that change water clarity and block light.


title: Seagrass

text: Seagrasses are also negatively affected by changing global climatic conditions. Increased weather events, sea level rise, and higher temperatures as a result of global warming all have the potential to induce widespread seagrass loss. An additional threat to seagrass beds is the introduction of non-native species. For seagrass beds worldwide, at least 28 non-native species have become established. Of these invasive species, the majority (64%) have been documented to infer negative effects on the ecosystem.


title: Seagrass

text: Another major cause of seagrass disappearance is coastal eutrophication. Rapidly developing human population density along coastlines has led to high nutrient loads in coastal waters from sewage and other impacts of development. Increased nutrient loads create an accelerating cascade of direct and indirect effects that lead to seagrass decline. While some exposure to high concentrations of nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, can result in increased seagrass productivity, high nutrient levels can also stimulate the rapid overgrowth of macroalgae and epiphytes in shallow water, and phytoplankton in deeper water. In response to high nutrient levels, macroalgae form dense canopies on the surface of the water, limiting the light able to reach the benthic seagrasses. Algal blooms caused by eutrophication also lead to hypoxic conditions, which seagrasses are also highly susceptible to. Since coastal sediment is generally anoxic, seagrass must supply oxygen to their below-ground roots either through photosynthesis or by the diffusion of oxygen in the water column. When the water surrounding seagrass becomes hypoxic, so too do seagrass tissues. Hypoxic conditions negatively affect seagrass growth and survival with seagrasses exposed to hypoxic conditions shown to have reduced rates of photosynthesis, increased respiration, and smaller growth. Hypoxic conditions can eventually lead to seagrass die-off which creates a positive feedback cycle, where the decomposition of organic matter further decreases the amount of oxygen present in the water column.


title: Seagrass

text: Possible seagrass population trajectories have been studied in the Mediterranean sea. These studies suggest that the presence of seagrass depends on physical factors such as temperature, salinity, depth and turbidity, along with natural phenomena like climate change and anthropogenic pressure. While there are exceptions, regression was a general trend in many areas of the Mediterranean Sea. There is an estimated 27.7% reduction along the southern coast of Latium, 18%-38% reduction in the Northern Mediterranean basin, 19%-30% reduction on Ligurian coasts since the 1960s and 23% reduction in France in the past 50 years. In Spain the main reason for regression was due to human activity such as illegal trawling and aquaculture farming. It was found that areas with medium to high human impact suffered more severe reduction. Overall, it was suggested that 29% of known areal seagrass populations have disappeared since 1879. The reduction in these areas suggests that should warming in the Mediterranean basin continue, it may lead to a functional extinction of "Posidonia oceanica" in the Mediterranean by 2050. Scientists suggested that the trends they identified appear to be part of a large-scale trend worldwide.


title: Seagrass

text: Conservation efforts are imperative to the survival of seagrass species. While there are many challenges to overcome with respect to seagrass conservation there are some major ones that can be addressed. Societal awareness of what seagrasses are and their importance to human well-being is incredibly important. As the majority of people become more urbanized they are increasingly more disconnected from the natural world. This allows for misconceptions and a lack of understanding of seagrass ecology and its importance. Additionally, it is a challenge to obtain and maintain information on the status and condition of seagrass populations. With many populations across the globe, it is difficult to map the current populations. Another challenge faced in seagrass conservation is the ability to identify threatening activities on a local scale. Also, in an ever growing human population, there is a need to balance the needs of the people while also balancing the needs of the planet. Lastly, it is challenging to generate scientific research to support conservation of seagrass. Limited efforts and resources are dedicated to the study of seagrasses. This is seen in areas such as India and China where there is little to no plan in place to conserve seagrass populations. However, the conservation and restoration of seagrass may contribute to 16 of the 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals.


title: Seagrass

text: In a study of seagrass conservation in China, several suggestions were made by scientists on how to better conserve seagrass. They suggested that seagrass beds should be included in the Chinese conservation agenda as done in other countries. They called for the Chinese government to forbid land reclamation in areas near or in seagrass beds, to reduce the number and size of culture ponds, to control raft aquaculture and improve sediment quality, to establish seagrass reserves, to increase awareness of seagrass beds to fishermen and policy makers and to carry out seagrass restoration. Similar suggestions were made in India where scientists suggested that public engagement was important. Also, scientists, the public, and government officials should work in tandem to integrate traditional ecological knowledge and socio-cultural practices to evolve conservation policies.


title: Seagrass

text: World Seagrass Day is an annual event held on March 1 to raise awareness about seagrass and its important functions in the marine ecosystem.


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: Christian III (12 August 1503 – 1 January 1559) reigned as King of Denmark from 1534 and King of Norway from 1537 until his death in 1559. During his reign, Christian formed close ties between the church and the crown. He established Lutheranism as the state religion within his realms as part of the Protestant Reformation.


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: Christian was the eldest son of the future king, Frederick I of Denmark, and Anna of Brandenburg. He was born at Gottorf Castle in Schleswig which Frederick I had made as a primary residence. In 1514, when he was just ten years old, Christian's mother died. Four years later, his father remarried to Sophie of Pomerania (1498–1568). In 1523, Frederick I was elected King of Denmark in the place of his nephew, King Christian II of Denmark. The young Prince Christian's first public service after his father became king was gaining the submission of Copenhagen, which stood firm for the fugitive, King Christian II. As stadtholder of the Duchies of Holstein and Schleswig in 1526, and as viceroy of Norway in 1529, Christian III displayed considerable administrative ability.


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: Christian's earliest teacher, Wolfgang von Utenhof (ca. 1495–1542) and his Lutheran tutor, the military general Johann Rantzau (1492–1565), were both zealous reformers who had an influence on the young Prince. At their urging, while traveling in Germany in 1521, he made himself present at the Diet of Worms to hear Martin Luther speak. Luther's arguments intrigued him. The Prince made no secret of his Lutheran views. His outspokenness brought him into conflict, not only with the Roman Catholic dominated State Council ("Rigsraad"), but also with his cautious and temporizing father. At his own court at Schleswig, he did his best to introduce the Protestant Reformation, despite the opposition of the bishops. He made the Lutheran Church the State Church of Schleswig-Holstein, with the Church Ordinance of 1528.


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: After his father's death, in 1533, Christian was proclaimed king at an assembly in Rye, a town in eastern Jutland, in 1534. The Rigsraad, dominated by Roman Catholic bishops and nobles, refused to accept Duke Christian as king and turned to Count Christopher of Oldenburg in order to restore Christian II to the Danish throne. Christian II had supported both the Roman Catholics and Protestant Reformers at various times. In opposition to King Christian III, Count Christopher was proclaimed regent at the Ringsted Assembly ("landsting"), and at the Scania Assembly ("landsting") on St Liber's Hill ("Sankt Libers hög") near Lund Cathedral. This resulted in a two-year civil war, known as the Count's Feud ("Grevens Fejde") from 1534 to 1536, between Protestant and Catholic forces.


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: Count Christopher had the support of most of Zealand, Scania, the Hanseatic League, and the small farmers of northern Jutland and Funen. Christian III found his support among the nobles of Jutland. In 1534, peasants under Skipper Clement (c. 1484–1536) began an uprising in northern Jutland, pillaging the holdings of Lutheran nobles. An army of nobles and their vassals assembled at Svendstrup and suffered a terrible defeat at the hands of the peasants. Realizing his hold on the throne was in imminent danger, Christian III negotiated a deal with the Hansa States which allowed him to send his trusted advisor Johan Rantzau north with an army of Protestant German mercenaries. Clement and his army fled north, taking refuge inside the walls of Aalborg. In December, Rantzau's forces breached the walls and stormed the city. Clement managed to escape, but was apprehended a few days later. He was tried and beheaded in 1535.


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: With Jutland more or less secure, Christian next focused on gaining control of Scania. He appealed to the Protestant Swedish king Gustav Vasa for help in subduing the rebels. Gustav immediately obliged by sending two armies to ravage central Scania and Halland. The peasants suffered a bloody defeat at Loshult in Scania. The Swedes moved against Helsingborg Castle, which surrendered in January 1535 and was burned to the ground.


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: Rantzau moved his army to Funen and defeated Count Christopher's army at Øksnebjerg on Funen in June 1535. Count Christopher's forces held out in Malmø and Copenhagen until July 1536 when they surrendered after several months of siege by Christian III's forces. With their capitulation, Christian III was firmly placed upon Denmark's throne, and the Roman Catholic forces in Denmark were subdued.


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: A mutual confidence between a king who had conquered his kingdom and a people who had stood in arms against him was not attainable immediately. The circumstances under which Christian III ascended the throne exposed Denmark to the danger of foreign domination. It was with the help of the gentry of the Germanic duchies that Christian had captured Denmark. Holstein and German noblemen had led his armies and directed his diplomacy. The first six years of Christian III's reign were marked by a contest between the Danish "Rigsraadet" and the German counsellors, both of whom sought to rule through the king. Though the Danish party won a victory at the outset, by obtaining the insertion in the charter of provisions stipulating that only native-born Danes should fill the highest dignities of the state, the king's German counsellors continued paramount during his early reign.


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: The triumph of Christian III would eventually bring about an end to Roman Catholic Christianity in Denmark, but Roman Catholics still controlled the Council of State. Christian III ordered the arrest of three of the bishops on the State Council by his German mercenaries (12 August 1536).


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: Christian's debt for the Count's Feud was enormous and confiscating the Church lands (farmed by peasants who had been free from vassalage duties to the nobles) enabled him to pay down the debt to his creditors.


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: Christian's Protestant policies led Denmark toward the establishment of Lutheranism as the Danish National Church ("Folkekirke"). This occurred officially on 30 October 1536 when the reconstituted State Council adopted the Lutheran Ordinances designed by German theologian Johannes Bugenhagen (1485–1558), which outlined church organization, liturgy, and accepted religious practice. Monasteries, nunneries, and priories, were closed and the property taken by the crown (see Chronicle of the Expulsion of the Grayfriars). Vast tracts of land were handed out to the king's supporters, the royal land was rapidly expanded from one-sixth of the national land before the religious reform to 60% after the religious reform.


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: The dangers threatening Christian III from Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and other kinsmen of the imprisoned Christian II convinced him of the necessity to lessen the discontent in the land by relying on Danish magnates and nobles. At the High Court ("Herredag") of Copenhagen in 1542, the nobility of Denmark voted Christian a twentieth part of all their property to pay off his heavy debt to German mercenaries. The pivot of the foreign policy of Christian III was his alliance with the German Protestant princes. This provided a counterpoise to the persistent hostility of Charles V, who was determined to support the hereditary claims of his nieces, the daughters of Christian II, to the Scandinavian kingdoms. War was declared against Charles V in 1542, and, though the German Protestant princes proved faithless allies, the closing of the Sound against Dutch shipping proved such an effective weapon in King Christian's hand that the Netherlands compelled Charles V to make peace with Denmark at the diet of Speyer, on 23 May 1544.


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: Until this peace, Christian III also ruled the entire Duchies of Holstein and of Schleswig in the name of his then still minor half-brothers John "the Elder" ("Hans den Ældre") and Adolf. They determined their youngest brother Frederick for a career as Diocesan administrator of an ecclesiastical state within the Holy Roman Empire.


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: In 1544 the elder three brothers partitioned Holstein (a fief of the Holy Roman Empire) and Schleswig (a Danish fief). Following negotiations between the brothers and the Estates of the Realm of the duchies, the revenues of the duchies were divided into three equal shares by assigning the revenues of particular areas and landed estates to each of the three brothers, while other general revenues, such as taxes from towns and customs dues, were levied together but then shared among the brothers. The estates, whose revenues were assigned to the parties, made Holstein and Schleswig look like patchworks, technically inhibiting the emergence of separate new duchies.


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: The foreign policy of King Christian's later days was regulated by peace following the Treaty of Speyer (1544). He carefully avoided all foreign complications; refused to participate in the Schmalkaldic War of 1546; mediated between the Emperor and Saxony after the fall of Maurice of Saxony at the Battle of Sievershausen in 1553. In 1549, he began the building of Landskrona Citadel. He also rebuilt Sønderborg Castle, converting it from a fortress into a four-winged castle in the new Renaissance syle, between 1549 and 1557. In February 1555, he interceded successfully on the behalf of the English Bible translator and Bishop of Exeter, Miles Coverdale (1488–1569), who had been imprisoned for two and a half years by Queen Mary I of England. Coverdale was then released and allowed to leave England.


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: King Christian III died in 1559 on New Year's Day at Koldinghus, and was interred in Roskilde Cathedral in a funerary monument designed by Flemish sculptor Cornelis Floris de Vriendt (1514–1575).


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: King Christian III of Denmark received an honorary stone at the Walk of Fame at Landskrona which Swedish King Carl XVI Gustaf inaugurated in 2013.


title: Christian III of Denmark

text: Christian married Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg on 29 October 1525 at Lauenburg Castle. She was daughter of Magnus I, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg and Catherine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: Tribal sovereignty in the United States is the concept of the inherent authority of indigenous tribes to govern themselves within the borders of the United States.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: Originally, the U.S. federal government recognized American Indian tribes as independent nations, and came to policy agreements with them via treaties. As the U.S. accelerated its westward expansion, internal political pressure grew for "Indian removal", but the pace of treaty-making grew nevertheless. The Civil War forged the U.S. into a more centralized and nationalistic country, fueling a "full bore assault on tribal culture and institutions", and pressure for Native Americans to assimilate. In the Indian Appropriations Act of 1871, Congress prohibited any future treaties. This move was steadfastly opposed by Native Americans.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: Currently, the U.S. recognizes tribal nations as "domestic dependent nations" and uses its own legal system to define the relationship between the federal, state, and tribal governments.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: These constitutional provisions, and subsequent interpretations by the Supreme Court (see below), are today often summarized in three principles of U.S. Indian law:


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: The Marshall Trilogy is a set of three Supreme Court decisions in the early nineteenth century affirming the legal and political standing of Indian nations.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: Originally, the United States had recognized the Indian Tribes as independent nations, but after the Civil War, the U.S. suddenly changed its approach.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: The Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 had two significant sections. First, the Act ended United States recognition of additional Native American tribes or independent nations, and prohibited additional treaties. Thus it required the federal government no longer interact with the various tribes through treaties, but rather through statutes:


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: The 1871 Act also made it a federal crime to commit murder, manslaughter, rape, assault with intent to kill, arson, burglary, and larceny within any Territory of the United States.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: On April 10, 1883, five years after establishing Indian police powers throughout the various reservations, the Indian Commissioner approved rules for a "court of Indian offenses". The court provided a venue for prosecuting criminal charges, but afforded no relief for tribes seeking to resolve civil matters. The new courts' rules specifically targeted tribal religious practices which it called "heathenish rites" and the commissioner urged courts to "destroy the tribal relations as fast as possible". Another five years later, Congress began providing funds to operate the Indian courts.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: While U.S. courts clarified some of the rights and responsibilities of states and the federal government toward the Indian nations within the new nation's first century, it was almost another century before United States courts determined what powers remained vested in the tribal nations. In the interim, as a trustee charged with protecting their interests and property, the federal government was legally entrusted with ownership and administration of the assets, land, water, and treaty rights of the tribal nations.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: The 1871 Act was affirmed in 1886 by the U.S. Supreme Court, in "United States v. Kagama", which affirmed that the Congress has plenary power over all Native American tribes within its borders by rationalization that "The power of the general government over these remnants of a race once powerful ... is necessary to their protection as well as to the safety of those among whom they dwell". The Supreme Court affirmed that the U.S. Government "has the right and authority, instead of controlling them by treaties, to govern them by acts of Congress, they being within the geographical limit of the United States. ... The Indians owe no allegiance to a State within which their reservation may be established, and the State gives them no protection."


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: Passed by Congress in 1887, the "Dawes Act" was named for Senator Henry L. Dawes of Massachusetts, Chairman of the Senate's Indian Affairs Committee. It came as another crucial step in attacking the tribal aspect of the Indians of the time. In essence, the act broke up the land of most all tribes into modest parcels to be distributed to Indian families, and those remaining were auctioned off to white purchasers. Indians who accepted the farmland and became "civilized" were made American citizens. But the Act itself proved disastrous for Indians, as much tribal land was lost and cultural traditions destroyed. Whites benefited the most; for example, when the government made of Indian lands available in Oklahoma, 50,000 white settlers poured in almost instantly to claim it all (in a period of one day, April 22, 1889).


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: Evolution of relationships: The evolution of the relationship between tribal governments and federal governments has been glued together through partnerships and agreements. Also running into problems of course such as finances which also led to not being able to have a stable social and political structure at the helm of these tribes or states.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: The Revenue Act of 1924 (), also known as the Mellon tax bill after U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon, cut federal tax rates and established the U.S. Board of Tax Appeals, which was later renamed the United States Tax Court in 1942. The Revenue Act was applicable to incomes for 1924. The bottom rate, on income under $4,000, fell from 1.5% to 1.125% (both rates are after reduction by the "earned income credit"). A parallel act, the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 (), granted all non-citizen resident Indians citizenship. Thus the Revenue Act declared that there were no longer any "Indians, not taxed" to be not counted for purposes of United States congressional apportionment. President Calvin Coolidge signed the bill into law.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: In 1934 the "Indian Reorganization Act", codified as Title 25, Section 476 of the U.S. Code, allowed Indian nations to select from a catalogue of constitutional documents that enumerated powers for tribes and for tribal councils. Though the Act did not specifically recognize the Courts of Indian Offenses, 1934 is widely considered to be the year when tribal authority, rather than United States authority, gave the tribal courts legitimacy.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: In 1953, Congress enacted Public Law 280, which gave some states extensive jurisdiction over the criminal and civil controversies involving Indians on Indian lands. Many, especially Indians, continue to believe the law unfair because it imposed a system of laws on the tribal nations without their approval.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: In 1965 the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit concluded that no law had ever extended provisions of the U.S. Constitution, including the right of habeas corpus, to tribal members brought before tribal courts. Still, the court concluded, "it is pure fiction to say that the Indian courts functioning in the Fort Belknap Indian community are not in part, at least, arms of the federal government. Originally they were created by federal executive and imposed upon the Indian community, and to this day the federal government still maintains a partial control over them." In the end however, the Ninth Circuit limited its decision to the particular reservation in question and stated, "it does not follow from our decision that the tribal court must comply with every constitutional restriction that is applicable to federal or state courts."


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: While many modern courts in Indian nations today have established full faith and credit with state courts, the nations still have no direct access to U.S. courts. When an Indian nation files suit against a state in U.S. court, they do so with the approval of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. In the modern legal era, the courts and Congress have, however, further refined the often competing jurisdictions of tribal nations, states and the United States in regard to Indian law.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: In the 1978 case of "Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe", the Supreme Court, in a 6–2 opinion authored by Justice William Rehnquist, concluded that tribal courts do not have jurisdiction over non-Indians (the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court at that time, Warren Burger, and Justice Thurgood Marshall filed a dissenting opinion). But the case left unanswered some questions, including whether tribal courts could use criminal contempt powers against non-Indians to maintain decorum in the courtroom, or whether tribal courts could subpoena non-Indians.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: A 1981 case, "Montana v. United States", clarified that tribal nations possess inherent power over their internal affairs, and civil authority over non-members on fee-simple lands within its reservation when their "conduct threatens or has some direct effect on the political integrity, the economic security, or the health or welfare of the tribe."


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: Other cases of those years precluded states from interfering with tribal nations' sovereignty. Tribal sovereignty is dependent on, and subordinate to, only the federal government, not states, under "Washington v. Confederated Tribes of Colville Indian Reservation" (1980). Tribes are sovereign over tribal members and tribal land, under "United States v. Mazurie" (1975).


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: In "Duro v. Reina", , the Supreme Court held that a tribal court does not have criminal jurisdiction over a non-member Indian, but that tribes "also possess their traditional and undisputed power to exclude persons who they deem to be undesirable from tribal lands. ... Tribal law enforcement authorities have the power if necessary, to eject them. Where jurisdiction to try and punish an offender rests outside the tribe, tribal officers may exercise their power to detain and transport him to the proper authorities." In response to this decision, Congress passed the "'Duro" Fix', which recognizes the power of tribes to exercise criminal jurisdiction within their reservations over all Indians, including non-members. The "Duro" Fix was upheld by the Supreme Court in "United States v. Lara", .


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: In "Iron Crow v. Oglala Sioux Tribe", the United States Supreme Court concluded that two Oglala Sioux defendants convicted of adultery under tribal laws, and another challenging a tax from the tribe, were not exempted from the tribal justice system because they had been granted U.S. citizenship. It found that tribes "still possess their inherent sovereignty excepting only when it has been specifically taken from them by treaty or Congressional Act". This means American Indians do not have exactly the same rights of citizenship as other American citizens. The court cited case law from a pre-1924 case that said, "when Indians are prepared to exercise the privileges and bear the burdens of" "sui iuris", i.e. of one's own right and not under the power of someone else, "the tribal relation may be dissolved and the national guardianship brought to an end, but it rests with Congress to determine when and how this shall be done, and whether the emancipation shall be complete or only partial" ("U.S. v. Nice", 1916). The court further determined, based on the earlier "Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock" case, that "It is thoroughly established that Congress has plenary authority over Indians." The court held that, "the granting of citizenship in itself did not destroy ... jurisdiction of the Indian tribal courts and ... there was no intention on the part of Congress to do so." The adultery conviction and the power of tribal courts were upheld.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: Further, the court held that whilst no law had directly established tribal courts, federal funding "including pay and other expenses of judges of Indian courts" implied that they were legitimate courts.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: At the dawn of the 21st century, the powers of tribal courts across the United States varied, depending on whether the tribe was in a Public Law 280 (PL280) state (Alaska, California, Minnesota, Nebraska, Oregon, and Wisconsin).


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the 1978 decision "Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe" that tribes have no jurisdiction over non-Indians. Tribal courts maintain much criminal jurisdiction over their members, and because of the "Duro" fix, also over non-member Indians regarding crime on tribal land. The Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2013 expanded the criminal jurisdiction of tribes over non-Indian perpetrators of domestic violence that occur in Indian Country when the victim is Indian.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: The 1968 Indian Civil Rights Act limited tribal punishment to one year in jail and a $5,000 fine, but this was expanded by the Tribal Law and Order Act of 2010.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: In PL280 states, the state has been granted criminal and civil adjudicatory jurisdiction over activities in Indian country. In non-PL280 states, Indian-on-Indian crime in Indian country may be prosecuted in federal court if the crime is one of those listed in the Major Crimes Act (18 USC §1153; MCA). Indian on non-Indian crime in Indian country will be prosecuted in federal court, either from the MCA or the Indian Country Crimes Act (ICCA; §1152), unless the Indian was punished by the tribe. Non-Indian on Indian crime in Indian country is prosecuted in federal court under the ICCA. Non-Indian on non-Indian crime in Indian country is prosecuted by the state.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: While tribal nations do not enjoy direct access to U.S. courts to bring cases against individual states, as sovereign nations they do enjoy immunity against many lawsuits, unless a plaintiff is granted a waiver by the tribe or by congressional abrogation. The sovereignty extends to tribal enterprises and tribal casinos or gaming commissions. The Indian Civil Rights Act does not allow actions against an Indian tribe in federal court for deprivation of substantive rights, except for habeas corpus proceedings.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: Tribal and pueblo governments today launch far-reaching economic ventures, operate growing law enforcement agencies, and adopt codes to govern conduct within their jurisdiction, while the United States retains control over the scope of tribal law making. Laws adopted by Native American governments must also pass the Secretarial Review of the Department of Interior through the Bureau of Indian Affairs.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: With crime twice as high on Indian lands, federal funding of tribal courts has been criticized by the United States Commission on Civil Rights and the Government Accountability Office as inadequate to allow them to perform necessary judicial functions, such as hiring officials trained in law, and prosecuting cases neglected by the federal government.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: The United States Constitution specifically mentions American Indians three times. Article I, Section 2, Clause 3 and the Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment address the handling of "Indians not taxed" in the apportionment of the seats of the House of Representatives according to population and in so doing suggest that Indians need not "be" taxed. In Article I Section 8, Clause 3, Congress is empowered to "regulate commerce with foreign nations…states…and with the Indian tribes." Technically, Congress has no more power over Indian nations than it does over individual states. In the 1970s, Native American self-determination replaced Indian termination policy as the official United States policy towards Native Americans. Self-determination promoted the ability of tribes to self-govern and make decisions concerning their people. In dealing with Indian policy, a separate agency, the Bureau of Indian Affairs has been in place since 1824.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: The idea that tribes have an inherent right to govern themselves is at the foundation of their constitutional status – the power is not delegated by congressional acts. Congress can, however, limit tribal sovereignty. Unless a treaty or federal statute removes a power, however, the tribe is assumed to possess it. Current federal policy in the United States recognizes this sovereignty and stresses the government-to-government relations between the United States and Federally recognized tribes. However, most Native American land is held in trust by the United States, and federal law still regulates the economic rights of tribal governments and political rights. Tribal jurisdiction over persons and things within tribal borders are often at issue. While tribal criminal jurisdiction over Native Americans is reasonably well settled, tribes are still striving to achieve criminal jurisdiction over non-Native persons who commit crimes in Indian Country. This is largely due to the Supreme Court's ruling in 1978 in "Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe" that tribes lack the inherent authority to arrest, try and convict non-Natives who commit crimes on their lands (see below for additional discussion on this point.)


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: As a result of a pair of treaties in 1830s, two tribal nations (the Cherokee and Choctaw) each have the right to send non-voting members to the United States House of Representatives (similar to a non-state U.S. territory or the federal district); the Choctaw have never exercised their right to do so since they were given the power and the Cherokee had not done so until appointing a delegate in 2019, though this delegate has not been accepted by Congress.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: Another dispute over American Indian government is its sovereignty versus that of the states. The federal U.S. government has always been the government that makes treaties with Indian tribes – not individual states. Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution states that "Congress shall have the power to regulate Commerce with foreign nations and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes". This determined that Indian tribes were separate from the federal or state governments and that the states did not have power to regulate commerce with the tribes, much less regulate the tribes. The states and tribal nations have clashed over many issues such as Indian gaming, fishing, and hunting. American Indians believed that they had treaties between their ancestors and the United States government, protecting their right to fish, while non-Indians believed the states were responsible for regulating commercial and sports fishing. In the case "Menominee Tribe v. United States" in 1968, it was ruled that "the establishment of a reservation by treaty, statute or agreement includes an implied right of Indians to hunt and fish on that reservation free of regulation by the state". States have tried to extend their power over the tribes in many other instances, but federal government ruling has continuously ruled in favor of tribal sovereignty. A seminal court case was "Worcester v. Georgia". Chief Justice Marshall found that "England had treated the tribes as sovereign and negotiated treaties of alliance with them. The United States followed suit, thus continuing the practice of recognizing tribal sovereignty. When the United States assumed the role of protector of the tribes, it neither denied nor destroyed their sovereignty." As determined in the Supreme Court case "United States v. Nice" (1916), U.S. citizens are subject to all U.S. laws even if they also have tribal citizenship.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: In July 2020, the U.S Supreme Court ruled in "McGirt v. Oklahoma" that the state of Oklahoma acted outside its jurisdiction when trying a member of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation in 1997 for rape and that the case should have been tried in federal court since Congress had never officially dissolved the reservation in question. The ruling's expansion of jurisdiction sovereignty also opened the possibility for Native Americans to obtain more power in alcohol regulation and casino gambling.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: Similar to the promised non-voting tribal delegates in the United States House of Representatives, the Maine House of Representatives maintains three state-level non-voting seats for representatives of the Passamaquoddy, Maliseet, and the Penobscot. Two of the seats are currently not filled in protest over issues of tribal sovereignty and rights.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: Following industrialization, the 1800s brought many challenges to tribal sovereignty over tribal members’ occupied lands in the United States. In 1831, "Cherokee Nation v. Georgia" established a trust relationship between the United States and tribal territories. This gave the U.S. federal government primary jurisdictional authority over tribal land use, while maintaining tribal members’ rights to reside on their land and access its resources. Similarly, in 1841, a treaty between the U.S. federal government and the Mole Lake Band of Sokaogon Chippewa resulted in the Chippewa ceding extensive lands to the U.S., but maintaining usufructuary rights to fishing, hunting, and gathering in perpetuity on all ceded land.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: Wartime industry of the early 1900s introduced uranium mining and the need for weapons testing sites, for which the U.S. federal government often selected former and current tribal territories in the southwestern deserts. Uranium mines were constructed upstream of Navajo and Hopi reservations in Arizona and Nevada, measurably contaminating Native American water supply through the 1940s and 1950s with lasting impacts to this day. The Nevada desert was also a common nuclear testing site for the U.S. military through World War II and the Cold War, the closest residents being Navajo Nation members.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: In 1970, President Richard Nixon established the federal government’s Environmental Protection Agency (E.P.A.). In 1974, the E.P.A. became the first U.S. federal agency to release an Indian Policy, which established the model of environmental federalism operational today. Under this model, the federal E.P.A. sets water, air, and waste disposal standards, but delegates enforcement authority and the opportunity to design stricter environmental regulations to each state. Enforcement authority over Native American territory, however, remains under federal E.P.A. jurisdiction, unless a given tribe applies for and is granted Treatment as State (T.A.S.) status.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: With the emergence of environmental justice movements in the United States through the 1990s, President Bill Clinton released executive orders 12898 (1994) and 13007 (1996). E.O. 12898 affirmed disparate impacts of climate change as stratified by socioeconomic status; E.O. 13007 ordered the protection of Native American cultural sites. Since the passage of E.O. 12898 and E.O. 13007, tribal prosecutors have litigated extensively against the federal government and industry polluters over land use and jurisdiction with varying degrees of success.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: In 2007, the U.N. adopted the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People ("The Declaration"), despite the United States voting against it along with Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. In 2010, President Barack Obama revisited The Declaration and declared that the U.S. government now supported it; however, as of December 2022, the requirements of The Declaration have still not been adopted into U.S. law. As recently as 2015, the Gold King Mine contaminated three million gallons of water in the Colorado River which serves as drinking water for the Navajo and Hopi downstream. The federal E.P.A. appropriated $156,000 in reparations for Gold King Mine, while the Flint, Michigan water crisis in 2014 received $80 million in federal funds.


title: Tribal sovereignty in the United States

text: A recent challenge faced by Native Americans regarding land and natural resource sovereignty has been posed by the modern real estate market. While Native Nations have made substantial progress in land and resource sovereignty, such authority is limited to land classified as 'Native American owned.' In the private real estate market, however, big industry polluters and hopeful miners have made a practice of buying out individual land owners in Native American residential areas, subsequently using that land to build mines or factories which increase local pollution. There is not regulation or legislation in place to sufficiently curb this practice at the rate necessary to preserve Native American land and natural resources.


title: Depletion region

text: In semiconductor physics, the depletion region, also called depletion layer, depletion zone, junction region, space charge region or space charge layer, is an insulating region within a conductive, doped semiconductor material where the mobile charge carriers have been diffused away, or have been forced away by an electric field. The only elements left in the depletion region are ionized donor or acceptor impurities.


title: Depletion region

text: This region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the depletion region due to the depletion of carriers in this region.


title: Depletion region

text: The depletion region is so named because it is formed from a conducting region by removal of all free charge carriers, leaving none to carry a current. Understanding the depletion region is key to explaining modern semiconductor electronics: diodes, bipolar junction transistors, field-effect transistors, and variable capacitance diodes all rely on depletion region phenomena.


title: Depletion region

text: A depletion region forms instantaneously across a p–n junction. It is most easily described when the junction is in thermal equilibrium or in a steady state: in both of these cases the properties of the system do not vary in time; they have been called dynamic equilibrium.


title: Depletion region

text: Electrons and holes diffuse into regions with lower concentrations of them, much as ink diffuses into water until it is uniformly distributed. By definition, the N-type semiconductor has an excess of free electrons (in the conduction band) compared to the P-type semiconductor, and the P-type has an excess of holes (in the valence band) compared to the N-type. Therefore, when N-doped and P-doped semiconductors are placed together to form a junction, free electrons in the N-side conduction band migrate (diffuse) into the P-side conduction band, and holes in the P-side valence band migrate into the N-side valence band.


title: Depletion region

text: Following transfer, the diffused electrons come into contact with holes and are eliminated by recombination in the P-side. Likewise, the diffused holes are recombined with free electrons so eliminated in the N-side. The net result is that the diffused electrons and holes are gone. In a N-side region near to the junction interface, free electrons in the conduction band are gone due to (1) the diffusion of electrons to the P-side and (2) recombination of electrons to holes that are diffused from the P-side. Holes in a P-side region near to the interface are also gone by a similar reason. As a result, majority charge carriers (free electrons for the N-type semiconductor, and holes for the P-type semiconductor) are depleted in the region around the junction interface, so this region is called the depletion region or depletion zone. Due to the majority charge carrier diffusion described above, the depletion region is charged; the N-side of it is positively charged and the P-side of it is negatively charged. This creates an electric field that provides a force opposing the charge diffusion. When the electric field is sufficiently strong to cease further diffusion of holes and electrons, the depletion region reaches the equilibrium. Integrating the electric field across the depletion region determines what is called the built-in voltage (also called the junction voltage or barrier voltage or contact potential).


title: Depletion region

text: Physically speaking, charge transfer in semiconductor devices is from (1) the charge carrier drift by the electric field and (2) the charge carrier diffusion due to the spatially varying carrier concentration. In the P-side of the depletion region, where holes drift by the electric field with the electrical conductivity "σ" and diffuse with the diffusion constant "D", the net current density is given by


title: Depletion region

text: where formula_2 is the electric field, "e" is the elementary charge (1.6×10 coulomb), and "p" is the hole density (number per unit volume). The electric field makes holes drift along the field direction, and for diffusion holes move in the direction of decreasing concentration, so for holes a negative current results for a positive density gradient. (If the carriers are electrons, the hole density "p" is replaced by the electron density "n" with negative sign; in some cases, both electrons and holes must be included.) When the two current components balance, as in the p–n junction depletion region at dynamic equilibrium, the current is zero due to the Einstein relation, which relates "D" to "σ".


title: Depletion region

text: Forward bias (applying a positive voltage to the P-side with respect to the N-side) narrows the depletion region and lowers the barrier to carrier injection (shown in the figure to the right). In more detail, majority carriers get some energy from the bias field, enabling them to go into the region and neutralize opposite charges. The more bias the more neutralization (or screening of ions in the region) occurs. The carriers can be recombined to the ions but thermal energy immediately makes recombined carriers transition back as Fermi energy is in proximity. When bias is strong enough that the depletion region becomes very thin, the diffusion component of the current (through the junction interface) greatly increases and the drift component decreases. In this case, the net current flows from the P-side to the N-side. The carrier density is large (it varies exponentially with the applied bias voltage), making the junction conductive and allowing a large forward current. The mathematical description of the current is provided by the Shockley diode equation. The low current conducted under reverse bias and the large current under forward bias is an example of rectification.


title: Depletion region

text: Under reverse bias (applying a negative voltage to the P-side with respect to the N-side), the potential drop (i.e., voltage) across the depletion region increases. Essentially, majority carriers are pushed away from the junction, leaving behind more charged ions. Thus the depletion region is widened and its field becomes stronger, which increases the drift component of current (through the junction interface) and decreases the diffusion component. In this case, the net current flows from the N-side to the P-side. The carrier density (mostly, minority carriers) is small and only a very small "reverse saturation current" flows.


title: Depletion region

text: From a full depletion analysis as shown in figure 2, the charge would be approximated with suddenly drop at its limit points which in reality is gradually and explained by Poisson's equation. The amount of flux density would then be


title: Depletion region

text: where formula_4 and formula_5 are the amount of negative and positive charge respectively, formula_6 and formula_7 are the distance for negative and positive charge respectively with zero at the center, formula_8 and formula_9 are the amount of acceptor and donor atoms respectively and formula_10 is the electron charge.


title: Depletion region

text: Taking the integral of the flux density formula_11 with respect to distance formula_12 to determine electric field formula_13 (i.e. Gauss's law) creates the second graph as shown in figure 2:


title: Depletion region

text: where formula_15is the permittivity of the substance. Integrating electric field with respect to distance determines the electric potential formula_16. This would also equal to the built in voltage formula_17as shown in Figure 2.


title: Depletion region

text: The final equation would then be arranged so that the function of depletion layer width formula_6would be dependent on the electric potential formula_16.


title: Depletion region

text: In summary, formula_6 and formula_7 are the negative and positive depletion layer width respectively with respect to the center, formula_8 and formula_9 are the amount of acceptor and donor atoms respectively, formula_10 is the electron charge and formula_17 is the built-in voltage, which is usually the independent variable.


title: Depletion region

text: Another example of a depletion region occurs in the MOS capacitor. It is shown in the figure to the right, for a P-type substrate. Supposing that the semiconductor initially is charge neutral, with the charge due to holes exactly balanced by the negative charge due to acceptor doping impurities. If a positive voltage now is applied to the gate, which is done by introducing positive charge "Q" to the gate, then some positively charged holes in the semiconductor nearest the gate are repelled by the positive charge on the gate, and exit the device through the bottom contact. They leave behind a "depleted" region that is insulating because no mobile holes remain; only the immobile, negatively charged acceptor impurities. The greater the positive charge placed on the gate, the more positive the applied gate voltage, and the more holes that leave the semiconductor surface, enlarging the depletion region. (In this device there is a limit to how wide the depletion width may become. It is set by the onset of an inversion layer of carriers in a thin layer, or channel, near the surface. The above discussion applies for positive voltages low enough that an inversion layer does not form.)


title: Depletion region

text: If the gate material is polysilicon of opposite type to the bulk semiconductor, then a spontaneous depletion region forms if the gate is electrically shorted to the substrate, in much the same manner as described for the p–n junction above. For more on this, see polysilicon depletion effect.


title: Depletion region

text: The principle of charge neutrality says the sum of positive charges must equal the sum of negative charges:


title: Depletion region

text: where "n" and "p" are the number of free electrons and holes, and formula_28 and formula_29 are the number of ionized donors and acceptors "per unit of length", respectively. In this way, both formula_28 and formula_29 can be viewed as doping spatial densities. If we assume full ionization and that formula_32, then:


title: Depletion region

text: where formula_34 and formula_35 are depletion widths in the "p" and "n" semiconductor, respectively. This condition ensures that the net negative acceptor charge exactly balances the net positive donor charge. The total depletion width in this case is the sum formula_36. A full derivation for the depletion width is presented in reference. This derivation is based on solving the Poisson equation in one dimension – the dimension normal to the metallurgical junction. The electric field is zero outside of the depletion width (seen in above figure) and therefore Gauss's law implies that the charge density in each region balance – as shown by the first equation in this sub-section. Treating each region separately and substituting the charge density for each region into the Poisson equation eventually leads to a result for the depletion width. This result for the depletion width is:


title: Depletion region

text: where formula_38 is the relative dielectric permittivity of the semiconductor, formula_39 is the built-in voltage, and formula_16 is the applied bias. The depletion region is not symmetrically split between the n and p regions - it will tend towards the lightly doped side. A more complete analysis would take into account that there are still "some" carriers near the edges of the depletion region. This leads to an additional -2kT/q term in the last set of parentheses above.


title: Depletion region

text: As in p–n junctions, the governing principle here is charge neutrality. Let us assume a P-type substrate. If positive charge "Q" is placed on gate with area "A", then holes are depleted to a depth "w" exposing sufficient negative acceptors to exactly balance the gate charge. Supposing the dopant density to be formula_29 acceptors per unit volume, then charge neutrality requires the depletion width "w" to satisfy the relationship:


title: Depletion region

text: If the depletion width becomes wide enough, then electrons appear in a very thin layer at the semiconductor-oxide interface, called an inversion layer because they are oppositely charged to the holes that prevail in a P-type material. When an inversion layer forms, the depletion width ceases to expand with increase in gate charge "Q". In this case, neutrality is achieved by attracting more electrons into the inversion layer. In the MOSFET, this inversion layer is referred to as the channel.


title: Depletion region

text: Associated with the depletion layer is an effect known as band bending. This effect occurs because the electric field in the depletion layer varies linearly in space from its (maximum) value formula_43 at the gate to zero at the edge of the depletion width:


title: Depletion region

text: where formula_45 = 8.854×10 F/m, "F" is the farad and "m" is the meter. This linearly-varying electric field leads to an electrical potential that varies quadratically in space. The energy levels, or energy bands, "bend" in response to this potential.


title: The Immigrant (2013 film)

text: The Immigrant is a 2013 American drama film directed by James Gray, starring Marion Cotillard, Joaquin Phoenix, and Jeremy Renner. It was nominated for the Palme d'Or at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival.


title: The Immigrant (2013 film)

text: In 1921, Polish Catholic sisters Ewa (Marion Cotillard) and Magda (Angela Sarafyan) arrive at Ellis Island, New York City as immigrants looking for a better life after escaping their ravaged home in post–Great War Poland. Magda is quarantined because of her lung disease. Ewa is almost deported, but Bruno (Joaquin Phoenix), who is Jewish and claims to be from the Travelers' Aid Society, notices her and her fluency in English, bribes an officer to let her go, and takes her to his house. Knowing Ewa has to make money to get Magda released, Bruno lets her dance at the Bandits' Roost theater and prostitutes her. Bruno also becomes interested in her romantically.


title: The Immigrant (2013 film)

text: Ewa looks for her expatriate relatives living in New York, but her uncle by marriage turns her in to the authorities; he says he had heard she had got in trouble for engaging in illicit behavior on the ship from Europe, and he wishes to distance himself from sheltering a prostitute. Policemen take her back to Ellis Island, and once again she is slated for deportation. While at Ellis Island Ewa watches a performance by Emil (Bruno's cousin, making a living as a performing illusionist called Orlando; played by Jeremy Renner); after his performance he hands her a white rose. The next morning Bruno manages to get her released.


title: The Immigrant (2013 film)

text: Ewa meets Emil again at the Bandit's Roost. Emil asks Ewa to come onstage to aid him in his mind reading trick, but the men in the audience start catcalling at Ewa. The scene ends in a brawl between Bruno and Emil and with Bruno and the girls being fired from the theater. Soon after Bruno has his "doves" parade around Central Park to attract men to sleep with them. Another encounter between Emil and Ewa proves Emil's feelings for her. Emil falls for Ewa, much to Bruno's discontent, which causes continued and intense conflicts between the two men. One violent conflict concludes with Bruno being jailed overnight.


title: The Immigrant (2013 film)

text: One day, Emil sneaks into Bruno's home to see Ewa. While there, he promises to get her the money to save her sister so they can all leave New York together. Coincidentally, shortly after making such promise, Emil hides as Bruno returns. Bruno also makes a promise to Ewa: he is to arrange for her a meeting with her sister. But Emil interrupts Bruno, as he pulls out an unloaded gun and points it at Bruno. Emil pulls the trigger just to frighten him, but his attempt at intimidating Bruno backfires, as Bruno stabs him to death in apparent self-defense.


title: The Immigrant (2013 film)

text: Overcoming the shock and distress of the death, Bruno and Ewa dump Emil's body in the street at night to get rid of unwanted police investigations, but the police are told by another prostitute with whom Ewa had had conflicts that Ewa killed Emil. Bruno hides Ewa from the police, who then give him a severe beating and steal a large bundle of money he had been carrying. Ewa learns Bruno had enough money to pay for her sister's release all along but was hiding it from her as he did not want her to leave him. Bruno claims he has now had a change of heart and would help Ewa and her sister if he had any money. Ewa makes another contact with her aunt and successfully pleads for her aunt to give her the money for Magda. With it, Bruno pays his contact on Ellis Island to release Ewa's sister and gives them both tickets to California. Ewa and Magda leave, while a repentant Bruno stays in New York, intending to confess to the police about Emil's killing.


title: The Immigrant (2013 film)

text: Director James Gray said "The Immigrant" is "80% based on the recollections from my grandparents, who came to the United States in 1923", and he described it as "my most personal and autobiographical film to date". He was also inspired by Giacomo Puccini's operas that comprise "Il Trittico".


title: The Immigrant (2013 film)

text: James Gray wrote the movie for Marion Cotillard and Joaquin Phoenix. He stated that if they hadn't wanted to do the movie, he's not sure he would have made it. When Gray was trying to think of a movie for Cotillard, he was talking to his brother, who found these journals from their grandfather who ran a saloon in the Lower East Side in New York in the 1920s, after he came from Kiev, and there were all these low lives frequenting the place. One of them was this what Gray describes as a "enigmatic, screwed-up, manipulative pimp who used to go to Ellis Island and cruise for women who came to the country by themselves." According to Gray in the 1920s, women trying to get into the U.S. by themselves were not let in specifically because they were targets for prostitution, but through bribery, canny pimps would get around these rules. And so a movie idea was born. Gray said that he had never seen a movie on that subject. "Lower East Side, Ellis Island, pimps; it seemed very vivid to me. So I said, 'that sounds perfect,'" he told. However, getting Cotillard on board wasn't as easy as he'd hoped. The director described sending the screenplay to Cotillard, but then having to wait seven days for an answer after she had promised to read the script over a weekend. "Well, Sunday came and went and it was like getting a colonoscopy over a week," he said of the agonizing wait for an answer.


title: The Immigrant (2013 film)

text: Because Gray wrote about 20 pages of dialogue in Polish, Cotillard had to learn Polish to take on the role and speak English with a credible Polish accent. Cotillard had only two months to learn her Polish dialogue.


title: The Immigrant (2013 film)

text: Principal photography on the film began on January 27, 2012 in New York City, under the working title "Low Life". Filming was completed on March 17, 2012.


title: The Immigrant (2013 film)

text: In June 2012, The Weinstein Company acquired U.S. distribution rights. Though the film was completed in time for 2012's Toronto Film Festival, U.S. distributor The Weinstein Company insisted on holding it until Cannes 2013, with Harvey Weinstein hoping he might convince the director to change the ending. James Gray didn't change the ending and the film was only released in the U.S. in 2014.


title: The Immigrant (2013 film)

text: "The Immigrant" screened at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival, the 2013 Rio de Janeiro International Film Festival, the 2013 New York Film Festival, the 2013 Chicago International Film Festival, the 2014 Miami International Film Festival, the 2014 Newport Beach International Film Festival and the 2014 Sedona Film Festival.


title: The Immigrant (2013 film)

text: "The Immigrant" received generally positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 86% based on 111 reviews, with an average score of 7.45/10; the general consensus states: "Beautiful visuals, James Gray's confident direction, and a powerful performance from Marion Cotillard combine to make "The Immigrant" a richly rewarding period drama." Metacritic gave the film a rating of 77/100, based on 34 reviews.


title: The Immigrant (2013 film)

text: Michael Phillips of "Chicago Tribune" described the film as "Gray's most satisfying to date, an ode to melodrama of another day, done with style and surprising restraint." Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of "The A.V. Club" lauded it as an "American masterpiece," claiming: "Gray is the most underappreciated of this country's major filmmakers; his movies distill a century's worth of American feature film—a little late silent cinema here, a little New Hollywood there—into a distinctly personal style. ... What makes "The Immigrant" a great film is the way in which Gray uses actors and his mastery of the unspoken to create a tremendously lived-in, felt-through world. Every space—public or private, interior or exterior—feels authentic, historically and emotionally." Ed Gonzalez of "Slant Magazine" gave the film 3 and a half out of 4 stars, saying that ""The Immigrant" feels closer in spirit to Roberto Rossellini's collaborations with Ingrid Bergman" and calling it "Gray's "Voyage to Italy"".


title: The Immigrant (2013 film)

text: Brian Clark of "Twitch Film" gave the film a mixed review, commenting that "while the film boasts great performances, the narrative and overall drama lacks the ferocity, momentum and intensity of Gray's other work". Lee Marshall of "Screen International" in his unfavorable review wrote that "though Gray offers a well-crafted package, especially on the visual front, there's surprisingly little contemporary resonance in this immigration melodrama".


title: The Immigrant (2013 film)

text: "Time" magazine ranked Marion Cotillard's performance in the film as the fourth best performance of 2014, shared with her performance in "Two Days, One Night".


title: Aston Martin DBX

text: The Aston Martin DBX is a mid-size luxury crossover SUV produced by British luxury car manufacturer Aston Martin. Production officially started on 9 July 2020.


title: Aston Martin DBX

text: The DBX is the first car made at Aston Martin's new facility in St Athan, Wales. According to executive vice president and chief creative officer Marek Reichman, the wheelbase of the DBX stretches as far out as possible for the wheels to be positioned at the corners of the vehicle, which, with the low roofline, creates the illusion of a smaller car, helping make the DBX appear more like a traditional Aston Martin shape. The DBX features swan-hinged doors, while the front grille is the largest ever fitted on an Aston Martin.


title: Aston Martin DBX

text: While related to the Vantage, the DBX is built on its own dedicated platform. Like other Aston Martin models, it is constructed with bonded aluminium panels and extrusions. The powertrain and infotainment technology are borrowed from Mercedes-Benz. The DBX uses Mercedes-AMG's "M177" 4.0-litre twin-turbocharged V8 engine that has a power output of and of torque. The DBX is capable of accelerating from in 4.5 seconds, and attaining a top speed of . A 9-speed automatic gearbox is standard, and towing is rated at up to . Its emissions are NEDC Combined 269g/km and its UK combined mpg is 19.73. A 48-volt electric active roll system counteracts body roll under hard cornering, and the vehicle comes with five driving modes: a default GT, Sport, Sport Plus, Terrain and Terrain Plus with an additional Access mode. An active center transfer case directs torque to the front axle when it is required, and there is also an electronic limited slip rear differential. Adaptive dampers and triple-chamber air springs are both standard, offering a significant range of height adjustment.


title: Aston Martin DBX

text: In November 2021, a new engine appeared. Only available in China, this Mercedes-AMG's "M256" 3.0-litre turbocharged I6 has a power output of and of torque.


title: Aston Martin DBX

text: On 1 February 2022, Aston Martin unveiled their most powerful petrol crossover, called the Aston Martin DBX 707. Its "M177" engine was slightly modified by Aston Martin and received new turbochargers with ball bearings, generating a maximum power output of and of torque. AMG's MCT 9G-Tronic transmission has also been upgraded to receive "wet clutch" and changed gear ratios. In total, all modifications allow the sports crossover to accelerate from 0-60 mph (0–97 km/h) in 3.1 seconds and top speed of . The changes also affected the suspension and steering. At the rear of the car is a carbon spoiler and splitter, as well as a four-barrel exhaust system. The base of the car is equipped with standard 22-inch wheels and 23-inch version is available as optional.


title: Aston Martin DBX

text: In 2021, it was announced that the DBX would become the official Formula One Medical Car, joining the Mercedes C63S AMG Estate Medical Car (and later the Mercedes-AMG GT 4-Door for the 2022 season). The DBX Medical Car has a British Racing Green livery with neon yellow accents. It will also join the Aston Martin Vantage as part of Formula One's new safety fleet.


title: 2022 Australian Grand Prix

text: The 2022 Australian Grand Prix (officially known as the Formula 1 Heineken Australian Grand Prix 2022) was a Formula One motor race that was held on 10 April 2022 in Melbourne, Victoria. It was contested at the Albert Park Circuit and was the third round of the 2022 Formula One World Championship. Ferrari's Charles Leclerc scored his first career grand slam, having started in pole position, set the fastest lap, led every lap, and won the race ahead of Red Bull's Sergio Pérez and Mercedes' George Russell. It was the first grand slam for a Ferrari driver since Fernando Alonso's at the 2010 Singapore Grand Prix.


title: 2022 Australian Grand Prix

text: It was the 85th race in the combined history of the Australian Grand Prix, which dates back to the 100 Miles Road Race of 1928, as well as the 25th time the event had been held at the Albert Park circuit and the 36th time the Australian Grand Prix has been a part of the Formula One World Championship. It was the first Australian Grand Prix since 2019, with the 2020 edition having been cancelled hours before the first practice session was due to begin amid the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2021 edition was first postponed and later cancelled due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia. Valtteri Bottas was the defending race winner, having won the 2019 edition with Mercedes. The 2022 edition set a new attendance record at the circuit for the weekend with 419,144 attending it, making it the most attended sporting event ever in Melbourne.


title: 2022 Australian Grand Prix

text: In October 2021, the Grand Prix was officially confirmed as the third of twenty-three races of the 2022 season at a FIA World Motor Sport Council meeting in Paris. The race took place at the fourteen-turn, Albert Park Circuit in Melbourne on 10 April 2022.


title: 2022 Australian Grand Prix

text: Prior to the weekend, drivers were reminded by one of the two race directors, Eduardo Freitas, who was not appointed for this Grand Prix, that they are prohibited by the FIA's International Sporting Code from wearing jewellery when inside their cars, as it could cause safety issues, particularly if there is a fire when drivers are trying to extract themselves from their cars. This reminder came after drivers were spotted wearing jewellery more frequently during recent Grand Prix weekends. Potential breaches of the rules in this regard could result in fines.


title: 2022 Australian Grand Prix

text: The circuit underwent several significant revisions in the months before the Grand Prix, which were the first and most significant changes since the inaugural 1996 Australian Grand Prix, including the first track resurfacing since then. Drivers were consulted on the planned changes. Turns 9 and 10 were completely redesigned; where they formed a right–left chicane with a heavy braking zone on the approach, the redesign saw them become a much faster right–left combination. This was done to raise the approach speed for turns 11 and 12. Several other corners were reprofiled to encourage overtaking, most notably turn 13, which was widened to create additional racing lines. Positive camber was also added to allow drivers to carry more speed through the corner. The main straight and pit lane were also redesigned, with the pit lane wall moved two metres closer to the circuit so that the edge of the circuit sat directly next to the wall.


title: 2022 Australian Grand Prix

text: The pit-lane change was made in response to then-Renault driver Daniel Ricciardo's opening-lap accident in 2019. Ricciardo ran wide at the start, crossing onto the grassy verge and hitting an unsighted culvert, which destroyed his front wing and the undertray of the car, forcing him to retire. As a result of the changes, race organisers applied to the FIA to raise the pit lane speed limit from to . Such a change was significant, as the Formula One pits sit next to the support paddock and a pit stop would take less of a time penalty for drivers. These changes had originally been planned to be made after the race; however, the postponement allowed event organisers to make the changes in advance of the race. Further changes, such as resurfacing the circuit with a tarmac compound designed to wear tyres out, were planned to take place after the 2021 edition, which was postponed from March to November, before being cancelled and done later for the 2022 event. In addition, a fourth DRS zone was added to the redesigned track, before being removed for safety reasons ahead of the third practice session, after Alpine's Fernando Alonso in particular, who gained from its removal, complained about potential safety issues during the Saturday's drivers' briefing. Red Bull Racing was the sole team opposing the removal, having an efficient DRS system. The removal of the drag reduction system zone appeared to benefit those teams, such as Alpine and McLaren, who had minimised the aerodynamic porpoising of their cars.


title: 2022 Australian Grand Prix

text: Charles Leclerc was the Drivers' Championship leader after the previous weekend's second round, with twelve points separating him from his teammate Carlos Sainz Jr. and 20 points from Max Verstappen. In the Constructors' Championship, Ferrari led Mercedes by 40 points and Red Bull by a further one.


title: 2022 Australian Grand Prix

text: The drivers and teams were the same as the season entry list with no additional stand-in drivers for the race. Aston Martin's Sebastian Vettel, who was replaced by Nico Hülkenberg in the first two races due to coronavirus, made his season debut.


title: 2022 Australian Grand Prix

text: Tyre supplier Pirelli brought the C2, C3, and C5 tyre compounds (designated hard, medium, and soft, respectively) for teams to use at the event. It was the first event since the 2018 Russian Grand Prix that non-consecutive tyres were used.


title: 2022 Australian Grand Prix

text: Williams' Alexander Albon carried a three-place grid penalty following a collision with Aston Martin's Lance Stroll at the previous round, the Saudi Arabian Grand Prix.


title: 2022 Australian Grand Prix

text: There were three practice sessions for the Grand Prix. The first two took place on Friday 8 April at 13:00 and 16:00 local time (). Ferrari's Carlos Sainz Jr. set the fastest lap in the first session ahead of teammate Charles Leclerc and Red Bull's Sergio Pérez. Leclerc set the fastest lap in the second session ahead of Red Bull's Max Verstappen and Sainz. The third practice session took place at 13:00 local time on 9 April, in which McLaren's Lando Norris set the fastest lap ahead of Leclerc and Pérez. It was red flagged at one point, as both Aston Martin cars crashed.


title: 2022 Australian Grand Prix

text: Qualifying took place at 16:00 local time on 9 April and lasted for one hour. Valtteri Bottas' streak of 103 consecutive Q3 appearances ended. Charles Leclerc set the fastest time for pole position ahead of Max Verstappen and Sergio Pérez. Leclerc's teammate Carlos Sainz Jr. was not initially able to set a lap in Q3, as Fernando Alonso's crash caused a red flag; he qualified 9th after an error at turn 10, and having problems with starting the car, which caused a compromised warm-up lap.


title: 2022 Australian Grand Prix

text: The race took place at 15:00 local time on 10 April and lasted 58 laps. Pole-sitter Charles Leclerc won the race, set the fastest lap for an additional point, and led every lap (grand slam), ahead of Sergio Pérez and George Russell. Russell got his second career podium after his second place at the 2021 Belgian Grand Prix.


title: 2022 Australian Grand Prix

text: The day before the race, Niels Wittich, one of the two race directors appointed for the Grand Prix, reminded drivers of a new safety car rule stating that a driver must stay behind the car ahead during restarts and not by the side, as Max Verstappen did at both the 2021 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix and the Saudi Arabian Grand Prix. Before the race, Red Bull made several changes to Verstappen's car without penalty, as did Nicholas Latifi, who was forced to change several gearbox elements due to his crash with Lance Stroll during qualifying, and Carlos Sainz Jr. had his wheel changed. Sainz had anti-stall issues at the start, and dropped to 14th by lap 2; in an attempt to make a comeback, the hard-tyred Sainz spun off at turn 10 trying to pass Mick Schumacher, causing his retirement, which brought out the safety car. After a brief struggle with keeping the tyres warm at the restart, Leclerc maintained the lead ahead of Verstappen, while Pérez, who was overtaken by Lewis Hamilton at the start, retook third position through DRS at turn 3 by lap 10. During the safety-car period, the hard-tyred Stroll pitted twice, first to change tyres to medium sets (as the regulations state drivers must use two tyre compounds) and then for the hardest compound in an attempt to finish the race without having to pit again.


title: 2022 Australian Grand Prix

text: On lap 24, an accident for Sebastian Vettel brought out the safety car. Russell, who had not yet pitted unlike most of the grid, used the opportunity to make a pit stop, gaining time over his competitors due to pitting under safety car and rejoining the race in third behind Leclerc, who had built a lead and had pitted before the safety car, and Verstappen, who locked up at turn 11 on lap 12 and suffered graining on his left-front tyre. With the safety car still on the track on lap 25, Schumacher almost hit Yuki Tsunoda, leading stewards to review the safety-car protocol to mandate the 10-length gap between vehicles behind the safety car. When racing resumed on lap 27, Verstappen attempted to overtake Leclerc, who picked up old rubber on turn 16, but Leclerc held position into turn 1 and built another lead. Pérez came out fifth after the safety car but was back in third by lap 37, after a brief battle for third with Russell, who was told to look after his tyres and to not fight Pérez. On lap 39, Verstappen retired due to a fuel issue causing a fire in his car, which was different from that in Bahrain. The virtual safety car was brought out, ending on lap 40. In the final laps, Hamilton was closing in on teammate Russell for third but could not race him due to overheating. Alexander Albon was able to keep his hard compounds for 57 laps, before having to make his compulsory pit stop, and finished 10th for Williams' first point of the season. On lap 58, Leclerc set the fastest lap, as he won the race, while Pérez and Russell completed the podium.


title: 2022 Australian Grand Prix

text: The results moved Russell into second place in the Drivers' Championship, while Leclerc extended his lead to 34 points, and 46 points ahead of Verstappen, who suffered his second DNF in three races. Leclerc's grand slam was the first for a Ferrari driver since Fernando Alonso had achieved the feat at the 2010 Singapore Grand Prix, and his performance was compared to Michael Schumacher's grand slam at the 2004 Australian Grand Prix.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: The Azerbaijan national football team () is the national football team of Azerbaijan and is controlled by Association of Football Federations of Azerbaijan. It represents Azerbaijan in international football competitions. The majority of Azerbaijan's home matches are held at the national stadium, Baku Olympic Stadium, with friendly matches sometimes hosted at club stadiums.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: The Azerbaijan national football team has taken part in qualification for each major tournament since Euro 1996, but has never qualified for the finals tournament of any World Cup or European Championships. Despite this, Azerbaijan was the first Caucasus country to host a major tournament, the UEFA Euro 2020, even though the national side was the only host to be eliminated in the first round of qualifying.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: In the early twentieth century, football began to become popular in Azerbaijan, which was then part of the Russian Empire. In 1912, Azerbaijani football players had their first "international match" and they won in Tbilisi, Georgia against the local "Sokol" team with 4:2. During 1912–1913, matches between Azerbaijani and Georgian football teams were organized, first in Tbilisi and then in Baku. In 1914, the Football Union was founded in Azerbaijan. The Football Union undertook the organization of official city championships and other competitions.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: The oldest records of football teams in Soviet Azerbaijan goes back to 1926–1927, when Trans-Caucasian Championship was organized in Tbilisi. Three South Caucasian countries participated: Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia. The Azerbaijan national football team held its first friendly matches against Georgia and Armenia in 1927 for the Trans-Caucasian Championship in Georgia. Also in 1926, football players from Azerbaijan played three matches with Football team from Iran in Baku. In 1929, there were played three matches between these teams in Tehran. In all matches Azerbaijan players won.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: The 1960s is considered the Golden Age for Azerbaijani football as it produced great players like Anatoliy Banishevskiy, Alakbar Mammadov and the football referee Tofiq Bahramov, most famous for being the linesman who helped to award a goal for England in the 1966 World Cup Final between England and West Germany.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: After Azerbaijan gained its independence in 1991, AFFA — Association of Football Federations of Azerbaijan — was created. In 1992, renowned Azerbaijani footballer Alekper Mamedov became the first head coach of the Azerbaijani national football team, compiling a 3–1 record as coach that includes the first ever national team victory, over Georgia on May 25, 1993. In 1994, the national team was accepted into FIFA and UEFA. The security issues, forced the team to play all of its home Euro 96 qualifiers in Trabzon, Turkey.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: As of the early 2000s, Azerbaijani football federation started to integrate more players to the national team through FIFA's eligibility rules. In February 2004, Carlos Alberto Torres, captain of the Brazil team that won the 1970 FIFA World Cup was appointed its national coach. Despite a poor start, a 0–6 defeat to Israel on February 18, Azerbaijan won their first ever away match, 3–2 against Kazakhstan on April 28. In June 2005, following a 3–0 defeat by Poland, Torres stood down from the position, to be replaced by former Neftchi coach Vagif Sadygov, his third spell as coach of Azerbaijan. Shahin Diniyev took over as manager in November 2005. He resigned on 31 October 2007, and Gjoko Hadzievski was named as care-taking coach of Azerbaijan.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: In April 2008, former German football player and coach Berti Vogts was appointed as a manager of Azerbaijan on a two-year contract. Azerbaijan had a mixed qualifying campaign, finishing with 5 points, just missing out on a last place to Liechtenstein with 2 points.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: In November 2009, AFFA extended Berti Vogts' contract a further two years, making him the first manager to manage the weak Azerbaijani national team in two qualification cycles.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: In 2010, following a shock win over Turkey, the team reached 90th place in FIFA World Rankings, Azerbaijan's highest position ever in country's football history. After victory over Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan also broke their scoring and points records by gaining 7 points and scoring 10 goals.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: In November 2011, AFFA extended Berti Vogts' contract a further two years, until the end of the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification cycle. Under Vogts, Azerbaijan had some poor results, not being able to defeat second-string sides. Vogts faced major criticism, protest and demonstration from local supporters and the media. However, Azerbaijan managed to finish qualification cycle in fourth place, the team's best ever finish. In December 2013, Vogts being granted a new two-year contract, with aim to lead Azerbaijan through EURO 2016 qualifying. In July 2014, Azerbaijan beat its ranking record by reaching 73rd place in FIFA World Rankings. Following three straight losses, Vogts resigned from his post after spending six years in charge of Azerbaijan.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: Succeeding Vogts as full-time manager was former Croatia international Robert Prosinečki. He guided the Azerbaijani team to another record points haul (10) in 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifying, but the team still finished fifth in the six-team Group C. Prosinečki resigned after deciding not to extend his contract with the Azerbaijan Football Federation and was succeeded by fellow countryman Nikola Jurčević.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: The UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying proved to be a disaster for Azerbaijan as the team finished in bottom with a complete seven defeats and only one draw, which surprisingly, a draw against 2018 FIFA World Cup runners-up Croatia, the home of the manager. Nikola Jurčević departed following the poor performance of Azerbaijan.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: As of UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying round, Azerbaijan's home colours are all-red kit. The team wears an all-blue kit for away games. This combination of colours is traditional for the national team since their first game. At the beginning of 90s, the team wore a white shirt, but towards the end of the decade it was transformed into blue-white striped shirts. At the beginning of the 2000s, the kit was replaced by the white shirt with a vertical tricolour stripe, formed of the colors from the national flag of Azerbaijan on the chest. The kit was changed into blue shirts, red shorts and green socks only for the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying round. After the tournament, the national team went back to their usual combination of colours.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: Azerbaijan national team's away colours were yellow-black striped shirts, black shorts and yellow socks until UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying round, when it was decided to abandon this kit in favor of the completely blue. During the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying round games the team has used an all red kit.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: Since 2017, Azerbaijan's kit has been supplied by Nike. They took over from Puma who were Azerbaijan's kit suppliers between 2004 and 2006. Before that Umbro were Azerbaijan's kit suppliers between 2002 and 2004.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: Azerbaijan is often referred to by the media and supporters as "Milli" (The National), which is the nickname associated with all of Azerbaijan's international sporting teams due to the team's utilization of the country's national colors.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: Most of Azerbaijan's home matches are played at the new Baku Olympic Stadium in Baku. It has been Azerbaijan's primary home stadium ever since the move from Tofiq Bahramov Stadium in 2015. Today, some qualifying matches and friendly matches are still hosted at the Tofiq Bahramov Stadium, whereas others are hosted at the Lankaran City Stadium, Bakcell Arena and Dalga Arena after it met UEFA stadium criteria.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: Azerbaijan's matches are presently covered by the public channel İTV. 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification match rights were held by AZTV and Idman Azerbaijan TV.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: AZTV, Idman Azerbaijan TV and Lider TV are among other networks that have previously shown live fixtures.


title: Azerbaijan national football team

text: The following players have been called up for the team within the last 12 months and are still available for selection.


title: Tushar Gandhi

text: Tushar Arun Gandhi (born 17 January 1960) is an Indian author and son of Arun Manilal Gandhi, thus great-grandson of Mahatma Gandhi. In March 2005, he led the 75th anniversary re-enactment of the Dandi March. From 2007 to 2012, he was the Goodwill Ambassador of the CISRI-ISP Intergovernmental Institution for the use of Micro-algae Spirulina Against Malnutrition.


title: Tushar Gandhi

text: Tushar Arun Gandhi was born on 17 January 1960, in Shegaon, Maharashtra, to Arun and Surnanda Gandhi. His father was an actor and his mother was a researcher. Tushar was raised in the Mumbai suburb of Santacruz. He studied at Adarsh Vinay Mandir, a local Gujarati-medium school. He holds a diploma in printing from the Government Institute of Printing Technology, Mumbai.


title: Tushar Gandhi

text: Gandhi resides in Mumbai. In 1985, he married Sonal Desai. Together, they had 2 children. A son Vivan Gandhi and daughter Kasturi Gandhi. Kasturi was so named after Kasturba Gandhi.


title: Tushar Gandhi

text: Tushar Gandhi is best known for having established in 1998 in Vadodara, Gujarat the Mahatma Gandhi Foundation. It is now located in Mumbai (and he is still its President).


title: Tushar Gandhi

text: Since 1996 he has served as President of the Lok Seva Trust, an NGO which a nephew of Mahatma Gandhi had establish in central Bombay in the mid-1950s for the welfare to textile-mill labourers.


title: Tushar Gandhi

text: In 2000, Tushar portrayed himself in a fictional Tamil - Hindi movie directed by Kamal Hassan, "Hey Ram".


title: Tushar Gandhi

text: In 2001, Tushar Gandhi negotiated with American marketing firm CMG Worldwide the use of the Mahatma’s image in an advertisement (aimed at university students) for a credit card company. This perceived betrayal of Gandhian ideals was followed by a public outcry causing him to cancel the deal.


title: Tushar Gandhi

text: In 2009, he did likewise in a semi-fictional movie, "Road to Sangam," based on an episode in his own life.


title: Tushar Gandhi

text: A nonfiction book by him, "Let's Kill Gandhi", was published in 2007 and became for a few weeks a best seller in India. Tushar in his book "Let’s Kill Gandhi", blamed Brahmins in general for assassinating Mahatma Gandhi. Some critics claimed that the book defamed all Brahmins. Tushar has said he was misquoted and his claims relate only to "a certain group of Brahmins from Pune [who] were continuously attempting on the life of my great grandfather", rather than to Brahmins in general.


title: Tushar Gandhi

text: In 2018 he played a significant role in petitioning successfully the Supreme Court of India to direct the states and Union Territories to comply with its orders to curb cow-vigilante lynch mobs.


title: Asynchronous Transfer Mode

text: Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a telecommunications standard defined by American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and ITU-T (formerly CCITT) for digital transmission of multiple types of traffic. ATM was developed to meet the needs of the Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network as defined in the late 1980s, and designed to integrate telecommunication networks. It can handle both traditional high-throughput data traffic and real-time, low-latency content such as telephony (voice) and video. ATM provides functionality that uses features of circuit switching and packet switching networks by using asynchronous time-division multiplexing.


title: Asynchronous Transfer Mode

text: In the OSI reference model data link layer (layer 2), the basic transfer units are called "frames". In ATM these frames are of a fixed length (53 octets) called "cells". This differs from approaches such as Internet Protocol (IP) or Ethernet that use variable-sized packets or frames. ATM uses a connection-oriented model in which a virtual circuit must be established between two endpoints before the data exchange begins. These virtual circuits may be either permanent (dedicated connections that are usually preconfigured by the service provider), or switched (set up on a per-call basis using signaling and disconnected when the call is terminated).


title: Asynchronous Transfer Mode

text: The ATM network reference model approximately maps to the three lowest layers of the OSI model: physical layer, data link layer, and network layer. ATM is a core protocol used in the SONET/SDH backbone of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) and in the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) but has largely been superseded in favor of next-generation networks based on IP technology. Wireless and mobile ATM never established a significant foothold.


title: Asynchronous Transfer Mode

text: To minimize queuing delay and packet delay variation (PDV), all ATM cells are the same small size. Reduction of PDV is particularly important when carrying voice traffic, because the conversion of digitized voice into an analogue audio signal is an inherently real-time process. The decoder needs an evenly spaced stream of data items.


title: Asynchronous Transfer Mode

text: At the time of the design of ATM, 155 Mbit/s synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) with 135 Mbit/s payload was considered a fast optical network link, and many plesiochronous digital hierarchy links in the digital network were considerably slower, ranging from 1.544 to 45 Mbit/s in the US, and 2 to 34 Mbit/s in Europe.


title: Asynchronous Transfer Mode

text: At 155 Mbit/s, a typical full-length 1,500 byte Ethernet frame would take 77.42 µs to transmit. On a lower-speed 1.544 Mbit/s T1 line, the same packet would take up to 7.8 milliseconds. A queuing delay induced by several such data packets might exceed the figure of 7.8 ms several times over. This was considered unacceptable for speech traffic.


title: Asynchronous Transfer Mode

text: The design of ATM aimed for a low-jitter network interface. Cells were introduced to provide short queuing delays while continuing to support datagram traffic. ATM broke up all packets, data, and voice streams into 48-byte chunks, adding a 5-byte routing header to each one so that they could be reassembled later. The choice of 48 bytes was political rather than technical. When the CCITT (now ITU-T) was standardizing ATM, parties from the United States wanted a 64-byte payload because this was felt to be a good compromise between larger payloads optimized for data transmission and shorter payloads optimized for real-time applications like voice. Parties from Europe wanted 32-byte payloads because the small size (and therefore short transmission times) improve performance for voice applications. Most of the European parties eventually came around to the arguments made by the Americans, but France and a few others held out for a shorter cell length. With 32 bytes, France would have been able to implement an ATM-based voice network with calls from one end of France to the other requiring no echo cancellation. 48 bytes (plus 5 header bytes = 53) was chosen as a compromise between the two sides. 5-byte headers were chosen because it was thought that 10% of the payload was the maximum price to pay for routing information. ATM multiplexed these 53-byte cells instead of packets which reduced worst-case cell contention jitter by a factor of almost 30, reducing the need for echo cancellers.


title: Asynchronous Transfer Mode

text: An ATM cell consists of a 5-byte header and a 48-byte payload. The payload size of 48 bytes was chosen as described above.


title: Asynchronous Transfer Mode

text: ATM defines two different cell formats: user–network interface (UNI) and network–network interface (NNI). Most ATM links use UNI cell format.