title: CPython

text: Like many things regarding the Python language, the name Unladen Swallow is a Monty Python reference, specifically to the joke about the airspeed velocity of unladen swallows in "Monty Python and the Holy Grail".


title: CPython

text: Although it fell short of all published goals, Unladen Swallow did produce some code that got added to the main Python implementation, such as improvements to the cPickle module.


title: CPython

text: In July 2010, some observers speculated on whether the project was dead or dying since the 2009 Q4 milestone had not yet been released. The traffic on Unladen's mailing list had decreased from 500 messages in January 2010 to fewer than 10 in September 2010. It has also been reported that Unladen lost Google's funding. In November 2010, one of the main developers announced that "Jeffrey and I have been pulled on to other projects of higher importance to Google".


title: CPython

text: The 2009 Q4 development branch was created on 26 January 2010, but no advertising was made on the website. Further, regarding the long-term plans, and as the project missed the Python 2.7 release, a Python Enhancement Proposal (PEP) was accepted, which proposed a merge of Unladen Swallow into a special py3k-jit branch of Python's official repository. As of July 2010, this work was ongoing. This merging would have taken some time, since Unladen Swallow was originally based on Python 2.6 with which Python 3 broke compatibility (see Python 3000 for more details). However, the PEP was subsequently withdrawn.


title: CPython

text: Officially supported tier-1 platforms are Windows, Linux and macOS (and also Raspberry Pi OS, and Linux for s390x on lower tier).


title: CPython

text: PEP 11 lists platforms which are not supported in CPython by the Python Software Foundation. These platforms can still be supported by external ports. These ports include:


title: CPython

text: External ports not integrated to Python Software Foundation's official version of CPython, with links to its main development site, often include additional modules for platform-specific functionalities, like graphics and sound API for PSP and SMS and camera API for S60. These ports include:


title: CPython

text: These Python versions are distributed with currently-supported enterprise Linux distributions. The support status of Python in the table refers to support from the Python core team, and not from the distribution maintainer.


title: CPython

text: CPython is one of several "production-quality" Python implementations including: Jython, written in Java for the Java virtual machine (JVM), PyPy, written in RPython and translated into C, and IronPython, which is written in C# for the Common Language Infrastructure. There are also several experimental implementations.


title: Bob Katter

text: Robert Bellarmine Carl Katter (born 22 May 1945) is an Australian politician who has been a member of the House of Representatives since 1993. He was previously active in Queensland state politics from 1974 to 1992. Katter was a member of the National Party until 2001, when he left to sit as an independent. He formed his own party, Katter's Australian Party, in 2011.


title: Bob Katter

text: Katter was born in Cloncurry, Queensland. His father, Bob Katter Sr., was also a politician. Katter was elected to the Queensland Legislative Assembly at the 1974 state election, representing the seat of Flinders. He was elevated to cabinet in 1983, under Joh Bjelke-Petersen, and was a government minister until the National Party's defeat at the 1989 state election.


title: Bob Katter

text: Katter left state politics in 1992, and the following year was elected to federal parliament standing in the Division of Kennedy (his father's old seat). He resigned from the National Party in the lead-up to the 2001 federal election, and has since been re-elected four more times as an independent and twice for his own party. Katter is known for his social conservatism, and is frequently described as a "maverick" by the media. His son, Robbie Katter, is a state MP in Queensland, the third generation of the family to be a member of parliament.


title: Bob Katter

text: Katter was born in Cloncurry, Queensland, the son of Robert Cummin Katter, the member for Kennedy from 1966 to 1990, and his wife, Mabel. His paternal grandparents went to Cloncurry in a stage coach around 1900. Katter's paternal grandfather was a Lebanese migrant, who owned clothing stores throughout north Queensland. His father, Bob Katter Sr., was an Australian politician who was in the House of Representatives from 1966 to 1990, representing the National Party (originally named the Country Party).


title: Bob Katter

text: Growing up in Cloncurry, Katter's family owned a clothing shop and managed a local cinema. He was one of only six at his school who finished year 12.


title: Bob Katter

text: Katter attended the University of Queensland, where he studied law, but later dropped out without graduating. While at university, Katter was President of the University of Queensland Law Society and St Leo's College. As a university student, Katter pelted the Beatles with rotten eggs during their 1964 tour of Australia, declaring in a later meeting with band that he undertook this as "an intellectual reaction against Beatlemania". He also served in the Citizens Military Forces.


title: Bob Katter

text: Returning to Cloncurry, he worked in his family's businesses, and as a "labourer in the Mt Isa Mines".


title: Bob Katter

text: Katter's father was a member of the Australian Labor Party until 1957, when he left during the Labor split of that year. He later joined the Country Party, now the Liberal National Party. The younger Katter was a Country Party member of the Legislative Assembly of Queensland from 1974 to 1992, representing Flinders in north Queensland. He was Minister for Northern Development and Aboriginal and Islander Affairs from 1983 to 1987, Minister for Northern Development, Community Services and Ethnic Affairs from 1987 to 1989, Minister for Community Services and Ethnic Affairs in 1989, Minister for Mines and Energy in 1989, and Minister for Northern and Regional Development for a brief time in 1989 until the Nationals were defeated in that year's election.


title: Bob Katter

text: While in the Queensland Parliament, Katter junior was a strong supporter of Premier Joh Bjelke-Petersen, though he remained in cabinet under Mike Ahern, ultimately resigning from Cabinet along with Russell Cooper. He was on the backbench. Then appointed again to Cabinet in the traditional number two position of Mines & Energy. This was under the Bjelke-Petersen's factions restoration to power.


title: Bob Katter

text: Katter did not run for re-election to state Parliament in 1992. He ran as the National candidate in his father's former seat of Kennedy at the 1993 federal election, facing his father's successor, Labor's Rob Hulls. Despite name recognition, Katter trailed Hulls for most of the night. On the eighth count, a Liberal candidate's preferences flowed overwhelmingly to Katter, allowing him to defeat Hulls by 4,000 votes. He would not face another contest nearly that close for two decades.


title: Bob Katter

text: In 1994, Katter advocated against federal privacy laws that bypassed Tasmania's anti-gay laws, claiming the government was "helping the spread of AIDS" and legitimizing "homosexual behavior". He also believed the laws jeopardized states' rights in Australia.


title: Bob Katter

text: Katter was re-elected with a large swing in 1996, and was re-elected almost as easily in 1998. However, when he transferred to federal politics, he found himself increasingly out of sympathy with the federal Liberal and National parties on economic and social issues, with Katter being opposed to neoliberalism and social liberalism. In 2001, he resigned from the National Party and easily retained his seat as an independent at the general elections of 2001, 2004, 2007 and 2010, each time ending up with a percentage vote in the high sixties after preferences were distributed.


title: Bob Katter

text: In the aftermath of the 2010 hung federal election, Katter offered a range of views on the way forward for government. Two other former National Party MPs, both independents from rural electorates, Tony Windsor, Rob Oakeshott decided to support a Labor Government. Katter presented his "20 points" document and asked the major parties to respond before deciding which party he would support. As a result, he broke with Windsor and Oakeshott and supported the Liberal/National Coalition for Government. On 7 September 2010, Katter announced his support for a Liberal/National Party coalition minority government.


title: Bob Katter

text: On 5 June 2011, Katter launched a new political party, Katter's Australian Party, which he said would "unashamedly represent agriculture". He made headlines after singing to his party's candidates during a meeting on 17 October 2011, saying it was his "election jingle".


title: Bob Katter

text: In the 2013 election, however, Katter faced his first serious contest since his initial run for Kennedy in 1993. He had gone into the election holding the seat with a majority of 18 percent, making it the second-safest seat in Australia. However, reportedly due to anger at his decision to back Kevin Rudd (ALP) for Prime Minister following Julia Gillard's (Prime Minister) live cattle export ban (Rudd, within weeks, reopened the live export market), Katter still suffered a primary-vote swing of over 17 points. His name heavily associated with Rudd. In the end, Katter was re-elected on Labor preferences, suffering a two-party swing of 16 points to the Liberal National party.


title: Bob Katter

text: In the 2016 election, Katter retained his seat of Kennedy, with an increased swing of 8.93 points toward him.


title: Bob Katter

text: On 15 August 2017 Katter announced that the Turnbull Government could not take his support for granted in the wake of the 2017 Australian parliamentary eligibility crisis, which ensued over concerns that several MPs held dual citizenship and thus may be constitutionally ineligible to be in Parliament. Katter added that if one of the affected MPs, Deputy Prime Minister Barnaby Joyce, lost his seat, the Coalition could not count on his support for confidence and supply.


title: Bob Katter

text: In the 2019 election, Katter was returned to his seat of Kennedy with a swing of 2.9 points towards him, in spite of an unfavourable redistribution of his electorate. In the 2022 election, he was re-elected again, and became the Father of the Australian House of Representatives following the retirement of Kevin Andrews.


title: Bob Katter

text: Katter is known as an unabashed social conservative and agrarian socialist. His views on economic matters echo 1950s Labor policy as he opposes privatisation and economic deregulation and strongly supporting traditional Country Party statutory marketing. The sobriquet 'Mad Katter' was coined by his opponents to describe his nationalistic developmentalism. He has a very sporadic attendance record in parliament, and by the end of 2019 had only attended 42% of votes on the floor of parliament, the lowest of any member of parliament.


title: Bob Katter

text: In 1989, while Community Services Minister in the Queensland state government, Katter opposed installing condom vending machines in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities to reduce the spread of AIDS, describing the plan instead as an attempt at eugenics, or "racist genocide". He is also an opponent of voter identification laws, denouncing the Coalition's proposed introduction of them in 2021 as a racist system that would disenfranchise Aboriginal communities.


title: Bob Katter

text: An opponent of the tougher gun control laws introduced in the wake of the 1996 massacre in Port Arthur, Tasmania, Katter was accused in 2001 of signing a petition promoted by the Citizens Electoral Council (CEC), an organisation that claims the Port Arthur massacre was a conspiracy. He has stated that he always and still believes there was no conspiracy.


title: Bob Katter

text: Katter has opposed enacting climate change legislation to control emissions. He advocates for measures that reduce carbon footprints. Katter has championed the mandating of ethanol fuel content. He has additionally pioneered protests against imported bananas, and is an opponent of the concentration of the Australian supermarket industry amongst Coles and Woolworths.


title: Bob Katter

text: In November 1989, Katter claimed there were almost no homosexuals in North Queensland. He promised to walk backwards from Bourke across his electorate if they represented more than 0.001 percent of the population. Katter also said ""mind you, if there are more, then I might take to walking backwards everywhere!"" Katter voted against the , which decriminalised homosexuality in Tasmania. He does not support same-sex marriage. His response to the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey result was the subject of international attention, as in response he declared that the issue of crocodiles killing people in North Queensland was more pressing than same-sex marriage, and therefore he declared that "I ain't spending any more time" on the latter issue. In December 2017, Katter was one of only four members of the House of Representatives to oppose the Marriage Amendment (Definition and Religious Freedoms) Bill 2017 legalising same-sex marriage in Australia.


title: Bob Katter

text: In 2017, Katter called for a "Trump-like travel ban" in Australia after a New South Welshman was arrested on terrorism charges. That same year, Katter repeated a pledge used by the far-right organisation "Proud Boys", including that he was "a proud western chauvinist". When asked about the incident when it was publicised in 2019, Katter distanced himself from the group, saying "I don't know who this group is or anything about it".


title: Bob Katter

text: As of 2020, Katter described himself as belonging to the "hard left," citing his continuing membership of the Construction, Forestry, Maritime, Mining and Energy Union. In a 2022 interview with "The Chaser", Katter claimed that he had never pledged allegiance to the Monarch of the United Kingdom when entering parliament.


title: Bob Katter

text: Katter occasionally identifies as being an Aboriginal Australian and has described himself as a blackfella in federal parliament, in interviews, during television appearances and at public events. Katter claims that in his youth he was accepted as a member of the Kalkadoon tribe in the Cloncurry area, otherwise known as the "Curry mob", and said he has long since felt a deep connection with Aboriginal people.


title: Bob Katter

text: His son Robbie has been a member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly since 2012, representing Mount Isa from 2012 to 2017, and Traeger since 2017. He represents much of the territory that his father represented in state parliament.


title: Tears of Themis

text: Tears of Themis is a free-to-play adventure game developed and published by miHoYo. The game was first released in Mainland China with Simplified Chinese language in July 2020 for Android and iOS. The worldwide version, which includes Simplified and Traditional Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and English language was released a year later.


title: Tears of Themis

text: "Tears of Themis" has a number of different mechanics. The main story is delivered in a visual novel format. Cases are analyzed through searching the crime scene for evidence, and interrogating NPCs who are involved. Each chapter ends with a trial in court, in which the player must present evidence which proves their defendant innocent.


title: Tears of Themis

text: During each chapter, debates play out in a card battle format using cards collected from the gacha system. Each card has an attribute which changes what cards it is effective against. The three attributes are Intuition, Logic, and Empathy. Cards can be leveled up to increase attribute stats, or have their skill proficiency increased. The cards also gain experience through being used in debates.


title: Tears of Themis

text: The romance side of the gameplay is involved through side stories which explore the characterization of the four male leads. Similar to "Mystic Messenger", the player also receives voice and text messages from them (framed as if they were sent to the player character in-universe).


title: Tears of Themis

text: The story of "Tears of Themis" takes place in the year 2030, in a science fiction setting of the fictional city of Stellis. The player takes the role of an unnamed 24 year-old female defense lawyer at Themis Legal Office (nicknamed "Rosa"), as she defends her clients in a criminal case. An overarching mystery plays out over the course of every main story chapter. Four different bachelors assist her with the cases, which is where the romantic elements of the story are introduced.


title: Tears of Themis

text: The four male characters are Xiayan (Chinese: 夏彦; Japanese: 水無瀬夏彦; English: Luke Pearce; Korean: 강혁; Nickname: Raven), Zuoran (Chinese:左然; Japanese: 左京静真; English: Artem Wing; Korean: 백은후; Nickname: Libra), Lu Jinghe (Chinese: 陆景和; Japanese: 和泉景; English: Marius Von Hagen; Korean: 유신우; Nickname: Kings), Moyi (Chinese: 莫弈; Japanese: 森月黎; English: Vyn Richter; Korean: 윤노아; Nickname: Adjudicator).


title: Tears of Themis

text: The worldwide version of the game was in a closed beta period from April to May 2021. A pre-registration period began in June 2021, which gave those who registered early free rewards in game. Over 650,000 players pre-registered. There was a second pre-release campaign counting the number of Twitter followers on the official account, which also gave in-game rewards. It has won the 2022 Pocket Gamer People’s Choice Award.


title: Interjection

text: An interjection is a word or expression that occurs as an utterance on its own and expresses a spontaneous feeling or reaction. It is a diverse category, encompassing many different parts of speech, such as exclamations "(ouch!", "wow!"), curses ("damn!"), greetings ("hey", "bye"), response particles ("okay", "oh!", "m-hm", "huh?"), hesitation markers ("uh", "er", "um"), and other words ("stop", "cool"). Due to its diverse nature, the category of interjections partly overlaps with a few other categories like profanities, discourse markers, and fillers. The use and linguistic discussion of interjections can be traced historically through the Greek and Latin Modistae over many centuries.


title: Interjection

text: Greek and Latin intellectuals as well as the Modistae have contributed to the different perspectives of interjections in language throughout history. The Greeks held that interjections fell into the grammatical category of adverbs. They thought interjections modified the verb much in the same way as adverbs do, thus interjections were closely connected to verbs.


title: Interjection

text: Unlike their Greek counterparts, many Latin scholars took the position that interjections did not rely on verbs and were used to communicate emotions and abstract ideas. They considered interjections to be their own independent part of speech. Further, the Latin grammarians classified any small non-word utterances as interjections.


title: Interjection

text: Several hundred years later, the 13th- and 14th-century Modistae took inconsistent approaches to interjections. Some, such as Thomas of Erfurt, agreed with the former Greeks that the interjection was closely tied to the verb while others like Siger of Courtrai held that the interjection was its own part of speech syntactically, much like the Latin scholars.


title: Interjection

text: In contrast to typical words and sentences, the function of most interjections is related to an expression of feeling, rather than representing some idea or concept. Generally, interjections can be classified into three types of meaning: volitive, emotive, or cognitive.


title: Interjection

text: While there exists some apparent overlap between emotive and cognitive interjections, as both express a feeling, cognitive interjections can be seen as more related to knowledge of something (i.e., information previously known to the speaker, or recently learned).


title: Interjection

text: Interjections may be subdivided and classified in several ways. A common distinction is based on relations to other word categories: "primary interjections" are interjections first and foremost (examples: "Oops.", "Ouch!", "Huh?"), while "secondary interjections" are words from other categories that come to be used as interjections in virtue of their meaning (examples: "Damn!", "Hell!") Primary interjections are generally considered to be single words ("Oh!", "Wow"!). Secondary interjections can consist of multi-word phrases, or interjectional phrases, (examples: "sup!" from "What's up?", "Excuse me!", "Oh dear!", "Thank God!"), but can also include single-word alarm words ("Help!"), swear and taboo words ("Heavens!"), and other words used to show emotion ("Drats!"). Although secondary interjections tend to interact more with the words around them, a characteristic of all interjections—whether primary or secondary—is that they can stand alone. For example, it is possible to utter an interjection like "ouch!" or "bloody hell!" on its own, whereas a different part of speech that may seem similar in function and length, such as the conjunction "and", cannot be uttered alone (you can't just say "and!" independently in English).


title: Interjection

text: Further distinctions can be made based on function. Exclamations and curses are primarily about giving expression to private feelings or emotions, while response particles and hesitation markers are primarily directed at managing the flow of social interaction.


title: Interjection

text: Interjections are sometimes classified as particles, a catch-all category that includes adverbs and onomatopoeia. The main thing these word types share is that they can occur on their own and do not easily undergo inflection, but they are otherwise divergent in several ways. A key difference between interjections and onomatopoeia is that interjections are typically "responses to" events, while onomatopoeia can be seen as "imitations of" events.


title: Interjection

text: Interjections can also be confused with adverbs when they appear following a form of the verb “go” (as in "he went 'ouch!'"), which may seem to describe a manner of going (compare: 'he went rapidly'). However, this is only a superficial similarity, as the verb go in the first example does not describe the action of going somewhere. One way to differentiate between an interjection and adverb in this position is to find the speaker of the item in question. If it is understood that the subject of the utterance also utters the item (as in "ouch!" in the first example), then it cannot be an adverb.


title: Interjection

text: Routines are considered as a form of speech acts that rely on an understood social communicative pattern between the addressee and addressed. This differs from an interjection that is more of a strategic utterance within a speech act that brings attention to the utterance but may or may not also have an intended addressed (directed at an individual or group). In addition, routines generally are multi-word expressions whereas interjections tend to be single utterances.


title: Interjection

text: Under a different use of the term 'particle', particles and interjections can be distinctions in that particles cannot be independent utterances and are fully a part of the syntax of the utterance. Interjections, on the other hand, can stand alone and also are always preceded by a pause, separating them from the grammar and syntax of other surrounding utterances.


title: Interjection

text: Interjections are bound by context, meaning that their interpretation is largely dependent on the time and place at which they are uttered. In linguistics, interjections can also be considered a form of deixis. Although their meaning is fixed (e.g., ""Wow!"" = surprised), there is also a referencing element which is tied to the situation. For example, the use of the interjection ""Wow!"" necessarily references some relation between the speaker and something that has just caused surprise to the speaker at the moment of the utterance. Without context, the listener would not know the referent of the expression (viz., the source of the surprise). Similarly, the interjection ""Ouch!"" generally expresses pain, but also requires contextual information for the listener to determine the referent of the expression (viz., the cause of the pain).


title: Interjection

text: While we can often see deictic or indexical elements in expressive interjections, examples of reference are perhaps more clearly illustrated in the use of imperative examples. Volitive interjections such as ""Ahem"", ""Psst!"", and ""Shh!"" could be considered imperative, as the speaker is requesting or demanding something from the listener. Similar to the deictic pronoun "you", the referent of these expressions changes, dependent on the context of the utterance.


title: Interjection

text: Interjections can take very different forms and meanings across cultures. For instance, the English interjections "gee" and "wow" have no direct equivalent in Polish, and the closest equivalent for Polish '"fu'" (an interjection of disgust) is the different sounding '"Yuck!"'. Curses likewise are famously language-specific and colourful. On the other hand, interjections that manage social interaction may be more similar across languages. For instance, the word '"Huh?"', used when one has not caught what someone just said, is remarkably similar in 31 spoken languages around the world, prompting claims that it may be a universal word. Similar observations have been made for the interjections "'Oh!"' (meaning, roughly, "now I see") and '"Mm/m-hm"' (with the meaning "keep talking, I'm with you").


title: Interjection

text: Across languages, interjections often use special sounds and syllable types that are not commonly used in other parts of the vocabulary. For instance, interjections like '"brr'" and '"shh!"' are made entirely of consonants, where in virtually all languages, words have to feature at least one vowel-like element. Some, like '"tut-tut"' and "'ahem"', are written like normal words, but their actual production involves clicks or throat-clearing. The phonetic atypicality of some interjections is one reason they have traditionally been considered as lying outside the realm of language.


title: Interjection

text: Several English interjections contain sounds, or are sounds as opposed to words, that do not (or very rarely) exist in regular English phonological inventory. For example:


The Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation (WHINSEC), formerly known as the School of the Americas, is a United States Department of Defense school located at Fort Benning in Columbus, Georgia, renamed in the 2001 National Defense Authorization Act.


title: Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation

text: In 1946, the United States Army founded the Latin American Training Center-Ground Division ("Centro de Entrenamiento Latino Americano, Division Terrestre)" at Fort Amador in the Panama Canal Zone to centralize the "administrative tasks involved in training the increasing number of Latin Americans attending U.S. service schools in the canal zone." The school trained Latin American military personnel to use artillery and advanced weapons purchased from the United States and provided instruction in nation-building. The army soon renamed the division the Latin American Ground School ("Escuela Latino Americano Terrestre") and divided it into three departments: engineering, communications, and weapons and tactics. The school was affiliated with army training schools in Panama that included the Food Service School (Fort Clayton), the Motor Mechanics School (Fort Randolph), and the Medical School (Fort Clayton). Chronic under-enrollment occurred during the school's first few years, as Latin American officials preferred to have personnel trained within the continental United States. Cadets of varying degrees of education and military experience were placed in the same courses. In 1947, discussions of national castes and class divisions in Latin American countries among U.S. officials led to changes in course structure that created separate classes for officers and lower-ranks.


text: During the 1940s and 1950s, the school sought to prove that the quality of training provided matched or exceeded training provided by institutions within the U.S. When a group of Argentine officers attended a three-month course in 1948, the school painstakingly structured the program to convince them that the U.S. was "enterprising, efficient, and powerful." Administrators leveraged preconceived notions around Argentine racial superiority in Latin America to cultivate feelings of equality between the Argentine officers and their U.S. counterparts.


text: Scholar Lesley Gill has argued that the Ground School not only trained students, but incorporated them "into the ideology of the 'American way of life' by steeping them in a vision of empire that identified their aspirations with those of the United States."


text: In February 1949, the army consolidated the training schools in the Panama Canal Zone and transferred operations to Fort Gulick. The army changed the name of the Latin American Ground School to the U.S. Army Caribbean School. Some courses were taught in Spanish to accommodate requests from Latin American countries that the school served. The school graduated 743 U.S. military personnel and 251 Latin Americans representing ten countries in 1949.


text: Mutual defense assistance agreements bound the U.S. Army to the militaries of Latin America by the middle of the 1950s, with only Mexico and Argentina as exceptions. By 1954, the school's pupils were overwhelmingly from Latin American countries due to a decrease in U.S. military personnel in the region, an increased utilization of the school by governments in Latin America, and an agreement that the United States would pay "transportation, per diem and course costs for military trainees from MDAP countries in Latin America." In 1956, English was eliminated as an instructional language and the school adopted Spanish as its official language. Accordingly, the majority of U.S. personnel the school trained between 1956 and 1964 were Puerto Rican.


text: During this period, the army utilized the school for translation. In 1955, the Department of the Army established the Spanish Translation Review Board within the school to "review new and old translations of U.S. Army Field Manuals prior to publishing to correct grammatical and technical errors and to assist in the standardization of military terms" employed in Spanish-language curricula. In 1961, General Lyman Lemnitzer suggested that Latin American students could be utilized to "review translations to insure conformance with individual country language and practical applicability."


text: After the 1959 revolution in Cuba, the U.S. Military adopted a national security doctrine under the perceived threat of an "international communist conspiracy." In 1961, President John F. Kennedy ordered the school to focus on teaching "anti-communist" counterinsurgency training to military personnel from Latin America. Broadly, the U.S. offered training to Latin Americans in riot and mob control, special warfare, jungle warfare, intelligence and counterintelligence, civil affairs, and public information. According to anthropologist Lesley Gill, the label "communist" was a highly elastic category that could accommodate almost any critic of the status quo."


text: To accommodate objectives of cooperation between the United States and Latin America established by President Kennedy in the Alliance for Progress in 1961, the school's curriculum was constructed and reorganized into two departments. The Department of Internal Defense dealt with "national internal defense", while the Counterinsurgency Committee provided counterinsurgency training in ten-week and two-week courses. According to the Department of Defense, the school provided intelligence and counter-intelligence training to "foreign military personnel" under the Mutual Assistance Program. It also trained military police and maintained a close relationship with the Inter-American Police Academy. As part of an effort to emphasize "nation building and economic growth through military civic action," the school taught "technical skills applicable to civic action programs." These skills included bridge building, well-drilling, radio repair, medical technique, and water purification.


text: In 1963, officials renamed the facility the U.S. Army School of the Americas "to better reflect its hemispheric orientation."


text: By its closure in 2000, The USARSA had graduated 60,428 officers, cadets, noncommissioned officers, police and civilian defense officials from 22 Latin American countries and the United States.


text: During the mid-1960s, the school was one of several institutions through which the U.S. Army augmented "training in jungle warfare". In the first years of the decade, the Army made the Jungle Operations Committee part of the School of the Americas. This addition resulted in a surge in attendance by U.S. military personnel. By 1967, the school had graduated 22,265 U.S. soldiers. The Department of Defense reported to President Lyndon B. Johnson that 180 students from the Continental U.S. Base had been trained in 1965, including 60 from the 1st Cavalry Division deployed in the Republic of Vietnam.


text: The Jungle Operations Course included in-field exercises. For example, in 1966a company of 103 students from Panama and 4 other Latin American countries enrolled in the Jungle Operations Course, U.S. Army School of the Americas, Fort Gulick, Canal Zone, recently completed a 9 day tactical exercise crossing the Isthmus of Panama, a ground distance of about 55 miles, through jungle, swamp and water. Symbolically following in the footsteps of Spanish explorers 300 years ago, the crossing began with an amphibious landing on the Pacific side of the Isthmus. The exercise ended with the last student completing the trek by emptying a container of Pacific Ocean Water into the Caribbean. The 9 day exercise emphasized jungle operations and tactics and techniques of combat in this environment. The U.S. Army School of the Americas' Jungle Operations Committee supervised and controlled the maneuver.Heightened tensions in Southeast Asia increased demand for "jungle operations techniques". In 1966, the army ordered the Commander, U.S. Army Forces Southern Command, to augment the school's Jungle Operations Course to accommodate more students. Specifically, these new students were to be soldiers "enroute to assignments in units serving in the Republic of Vietnam." A feedback-loop created between the school and General Westmoreland's headquarters allowed the Army to ensure that "lessons learned" in Vietnam were incorporated into the curriculum. Scholar J. Patrice McSherry has argued that methods derived from Vietnam and incorporated into the curriculum included "torture techniques and other dirty war methods". Further, the school leveraged instructors returning from service in Vietnam to "insure currency of the instruction". As new techniques were developed and adopted, the military became increasingly protective of course content. According to one scholar, by the mid-to-late 1960s "trainees required security clearances even to view the course descriptions of military intelligence courses."


text: The counterinsurgency manuals that the school used for instruction were produced during the Army's Project X, established under the Foreign Intelligence Assistance Program in 1965–66, which relied on knowledge produced during the Central Intelligence Agency's Phoenix Program. According to Major Joseph Blair, a former instructor at the school, "the author of SOA and CIA torture manuals [...] drew from intelligence materials used during the Vietnam War that advocated assassination, torture, extortion, and other 'techniques'." McSherry argues that the authors of the manuals "believed that oversight regulations and prohibitions applied only to U.S. personnel, not to foreign officers." Use of the manuals was suspended under President Jimmy Carter over concerns about their correlation to human rights abuses.


text: Despite Carter's worries about the school's training materials, he believed that the international military education and training provided by the School of the Americas, among other institutions, was critical to furthering "the national interests of the United States". He considered the training conducted in Panama to be essential because it enhanced American "access to the politically influential leadership" of the Panamanian National Guard and instilled in its personnel "attitudes favorable to the United States". Further, he believed the training served to "increase respect for United States foreign policy goals and the United States concept of military-civilian relationships at the national level". To justify his decision to "provision international military education and training" to Panama in 1980, Carter argued that not doing so would "endanger the future operation" of the School of the Americas and the Inter-American Air Force Academy. Training manuals suspended under Carter were re-introduced into the school's curriculum under the Reagan Administration in 1982.


text: During the 1970s, the quantity of trainees sent by Latin American dictatorships backed by the United States increased greatly. Between 1970 and 1979, cadets from Chile, Colombia, Bolivia, Panama, Peru, and Honduras made up sixty-three percent of the school's students. In the late 1970s, civil wars and communist revolutions intensified the Central American crisis. In 1980, the United States increased economic aid to Honduras, which remained relatively stable compared to other Central American countries. Journalist Ray Bonner reported that much of this aid would go toward training military officers at the School of the Americas and to training programs within the continental United States. Hundreds of Hondurans were trained at the school during the 1980s, when the country became increasingly critical to President Ronald Reagan's efforts to overthrow and defeat the Nicaraguan Sandinistas and other revolutionary guerrilla movements in the region. The surge in trainees during the 1980s marked the second wave of Hondurans to be trained by the school. The first wave took place between 1950 and 1969, when 1000 Honduran cadets were trained at the school or other facilities within the United States.


text: During the 1980s, Mexico, El Salvador, and Colombia made-up seventy two percent of the school's cadets.


text: On September 21, 1984, the school was expelled from Panama under the terms of the Panama Canal Treaty. Prior to this expulsion, politicians and journalists in Panama had complained that civilian graduates from the school engaged in repressive and antidemocratic behavior. The army considered relocating the school to Fort Allen in Juana Díaz, Puerto Rico, ultimately choosing Fort Benning, Georgia, where it re-opened in December 1984 as part of the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command.


text: In 1989, the school established a policy on human rights instruction and revised its curriculum to integrate human rights training. According to the school, cadets received between four and forty hours of human rights training depending on their length of attendance. Instructors received sixteen hours of human rights training before they began to teach.


text: As the Cold War drew to a close around 1991, the foreign policy of the United States shifted focus from "anti-communism" to the War on Drugs, with "narcoguerillas" replacing "communists". This term was later replaced by "the more ominous sounding 'terrorist'". Now, all elements of the School of the Americas are located at Fort Benning with the exception of the Helicopter School Battalion which is located at Fort Rucker, Alabama.


text: In 1993, a released list of 60,000 graduates confirmed that "dictators, death squad operatives, and assassins" had been educated at the SOA. Two bills to cut funding to the school were rejected by the House of Representatives in 1993 and 1994. These bills were introduced by Rep. Joseph P. Kennedy II with the intent to close the school by eliminating the amount of funding dedicated to running the school. Despite the rejection of the 1994 bill, legislative action that year required a report on the school's promotion of respect for human rights and civilian authority. This request was included in the Foreign Operations Appropriations measure for fiscal year 1995. The report required explanation of how the "School of the Americas IMET program" would "contribute to the promotion of human rights, respect for civilian authority and the rule of law, the establishment of legitimate judicial mechanisms for the military, and achieving the goal of right sizing military forces."


text: In 1995, the House Appropriations Committee urged the Department of Defense to continue its ongoing efforts to incorporate human rights training into the School of the Americas regular training curriculum, as well as to employ stringent screening processes to potential students to ensure that they had not carried out past human rights abuse. That same year, Rep. Joseph P. Kennedy II introduced bill H.R. 2652, which sought "to close the School of the Americas and establish a U.S. Academy for Democracy and Civil-Military Relations." The bill stalled in January 1996 while awaiting executive comment from the Department of Defense.


text: Again in 1996, the committee urged the Department of Defense to continue efforts to incorporate human rights training into the regular curriculum and to monitor the human rights performance of its graduates. A report regarding the school's selection process and monitoring of human rights practices of its graduates, as well as examples in which graduates made significant contributions to democracy-building and improved human rights practices, was requested by the House Appropriations Committee in 1996.


text: In September 1996, the Pentagon made training manuals used by the School of the Americas available to the public and confirmed publicly that tactics conveyed in the manuals "violated American policy and principles." The Pentagon declared that all copies of the manuals had been destroyed apart from a single copy retained by its general counsel. An investigation was undertaken to ensure that the school's contemporary intelligence and counterintelligence materials were in "complete compliance with law, regulations and policy." Rep. Joseph P. Kennedy II stated that the manuals confirmed that "taxpayer dollars have been used to train military officers in executions, extortion, beatings and other acts of intimidation – all clear civil rights abuses which have no place in civilized society." Rep. Nancy Pelosi addressed the issue in the congressional record:For years, some of us have had serious questions about the Army's School of the Americas and its connection to some of the worst human rights violators in our hemisphere. Last weekend, information released by the Pentagon confirmed our worst suspicions: U.S. Army intelligence manuals, distributed to thousands of military officers throughout Latin America, promoted the use of executions, torture, blackmail, and other forms of coercion. We now have concrete proof of what we had suspected. For almost 10 years, U.S. taxpayer dollars were used to promote an approach that advocates using, and I quote, "fear, payment of bounties for enemy dead, beatings, false imprisonment, executions, and the use of truth serum".Congress continued to debate whether or not to close the school throughout 1997. In February, Representative Kennedy introduced another bill, H.R. 611, that sought to close the school. Instead of pressing for the establishment of the U.S. Academy for Democracy and Civil-Military Relations, the bill urged the Department of Defense to create an Inter-American Center for Defense Studies in order to "provide professional training and education relevant to defense management in a democratic constitutional context." Senator Dick Durbin introduced a similar bill, S.980, into the senate in June. That same month, the Department of Defense submitted the report previously requested to address screening and monitoring of the school's students. The House Appropriations Committee noted that the report was delivered six months beyond its deadline and criticized its content as "woefully inadequate". The report divulged that the screening and selection processes of school candidates differed between countries and that each country was responsible for screening and selecting candidates. According to the report, the names of selected candidates were sent to the "appropriate [U.S.] mission offices and agencies", who were expected to run their own background checks on the candidates. It also suggested that the resources required to monitor all 60,000 graduates were not available.


text: In July, the House Appropriations Commission reported that the House version of the foreign operations appropriation bill required major reforms before funding would be provided to the school.


text: In September, numerous senators entered statements in the congressional record to support or close the School of the Americas. Rep. Sanford Bishop, whose district includes the school, argued for keeping it open:I am proud of the school. All Americans should be. It has provided professional training to thousands of military and civilian police personnel from throughout Latin America, including extensive indoctrination in the principles of human rights and representative democracy. For less than $4 million a year, the school promotes democracy, builds stronger relationships with our neighbors, and combats narcotics trafficking. Some handful of the school's graduates have committed terrible crimes, but over 68,000 have been on the front lines of the move toward democracy in Latin America. The school has undergone a series of investigations and studies, and all confirm that it has been a force for good in our hemisphere. I urge all of my colleagues to visit the school, learn more about the job it is doing, and not to rush to judgment on the basis of false and unfounded accusations made by people who may have good intentions, but who have little regard for the facts. Mr. Speaker, I urge our colleagues to support the truth. Support the School of the Americas.Rep. Joseph P. Kennedy II entered a counterargument into the congressional record:Mr. Speaker, in the next couple of hours, this House will have the opportunity of closing down the School of the Americas. This is one of the worst vestiges of this country's foreign policies over the course of the last couple of decades. While the cold war has ended, the association of this country in hundreds of villages throughout Latin America, in thousands of families where human rights abuses have taken place time and time and time again, those who perpetrated those human rights abuses have one thing in common. They were graduates of the School of the Americas. This is a school that is funded by U.S. taxpayers. It has trained the Latin American militaries how to come to this country and learn to kill, torture, and maim more efficiently. It is a school that should never have been associated with U.S. taxpayer funds. It is a school whose time has not only come and gone, but whose time should never have been associated with this country. It is time, I believe, for us to close down the School of the Americas. I ask Members on both sides of the aisle, save the taxpayers money. Close the School of the Americas.In July 1999, the House of Representatives voted 230–197 to reduce funding for the school by two million dollars. A House-Senate committee voted 8–7 to overturn the vote in the weeks that followed.


text: By 2000, the School of the Americas was under increasing criticism in the United States for training students who later participated in undemocratic governments and committed human rights abuses. In 2000, the US Congress, through the FY01 National Defense Act, withdrew the Secretary of the Army's authority to operate USARSA.


text: The next year, the institute was renamed to WHINSEC. U.S. Army Maj. Joseph Blair, a former director of instruction at the school, said in 2002 that "there are no substantive changes besides the name. ...They teach the identical courses that I taught and changed the course names and use the same manuals."


text: In 2013, researcher Ruth Blakeley concluded after interviews with WHINSEC personnel and anti-SOA/WHINSEC protesters that "there was considerable transparency ... established after the transition from SOA to WHINSEC" and that "a much more rigorous human rights training program was in place than in any other US military institution".


text: However, the first WHINSEC Director, Richard Downie, became the controversial director of the Center for Hemispheric Defense Studies (CHDS), the educational institution of both the U.S. Northern and U.S. Southern Commands (SOUTHCOM), at the National Defense University in Washington, DC. from March 2004–March, 2013. During Downie's tenure at CHDS, the institution faced controversy over its continued employment of a former military officer from Chile, who was later indicted by a civilian court for his alleged participation in torture and murder and who was defended by Downie. In addition, "The Intercept" reported that Honduran plotters in the illegal 2009 military coup received "behind-the-scenes assistance" from CHDS officials working for Downie. The detailed August 2017 article noted that Cresencio Arcos, a former U.S. ambassador to Honduras who was working at the Center at the time the coup occurred, received an angry call from a Congressional staffer who had met with the Honduran colonels who were meeting with Members of Congress in Washington. The colonels purportedly told the staffer they had the center's support. Arcos confronted Downie and Center Deputy Director Ken LaPlante, telling them, "We cannot have this sort of thing happening, where we're supporting coups." LaPlante was a former instructor at the notorious School of the Americas and an ardent defender of that institution while at what is now called the William J. Perry Center for Hemispheric Defense Studies.


text: Since its opening in 2001, WHINSEC has trained more than 19,000 students from 36 countries of the Western Hemisphere. In 2014–2015, the principal "Command & General Staff Officer" course had 65 graduates (60 male and five female) representing 13 nations: Belize, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and the U.S.


text: In 2004, Venezuela ceased all training of its soldiers at WHINSEC after a long period of chilling relations between the United States and Venezuela. On March 28, 2006, the government of Argentina, headed by President Néstor Kirchner, decided to stop sending soldiers to train at WHINSEC, and the government of Uruguay affirmed that it would continue its current policy of not sending soldiers to WHINSEC.


text: In 2007, Óscar Arias, president of Costa Rica, decided to stop sending Costa Rican police to the WHINSEC, although he later reneged, saying the training would be beneficial for counter-narcotics operations. Costa Rica has no military but has sent some 2,600 police officers to the school. Bolivian President Evo Morales formally announced on February 18, 2008, that he would not send Bolivian military or police officers to WHINSEC. In 2012, President Rafael Correa announced that Ecuador would withdraw all their troops from the military school at Ft. Benning, citing links to human rights violations.


text: In 2005, a bill to abolish the institute, with 134 cosponsors, was introduced to the House Armed Services Committee. In June 2007, the McGovern/Lewis Amendment to shut off funding for the Institute failed by six votes. This effort to close the institute was endorsed by the Council on Hemispheric Affairs, which described the Institute as a "black eye" for America.


text: Authorized by the United States Congress through in 2001, WHINSEC is responsible for providing professional education and training on the context of the democratic principles in the Charter of the Organization of American States (such charter being a treaty to which the United States is a party), and foster mutual knowledge, transparency, confidence, and cooperation among the participating nations and promoting democratic values, respect for human rights, and knowledge and understanding of United States customs and traditions. WHINSEC has provided training for more than 10,000 individuals since its existence and over 60,000 US and international students since its original establishment in 1946. Its educational format incorporates guest lecturers and experts from sectors of US and international government, non-government, human rights, law enforcement, academic institutions, and interagency departments to share best practices in pursuit of improved security cooperation between all nations of the Western Hemisphere.


text: When the National Defense Authorization Act for 2001 was signed into law, WHINSEC was created. The law called for a federal advisory committee – the Board of Visitors (BoV) – to maintain independent review, observation, and recommendations regarding operations of the institute. The 14-member BoV includes members of the Senate and House Armed Services Committees along with representatives from the State Department, U.S. Southern Command, U.S. Northern Command, the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command, and six members designated by the Secretary of Defense. These six members include representatives from the human rights, religious, academic, and business communities. The board reviews and advises on areas such as curriculum, academic instruction, and fiscal affairs of the institute. Their reviews ensure relevance and consistency with US policy, laws, regulations, and doctrine.


text: The School of the Americas has been blamed for human rights violations committed by former students. By the early 1980s, Latin American critics accused the school of teaching techniques of repression to be used toward civilians.


text: According to the Center for International Policy, "The School of the Americas had been questioned for years, as it trained many military personnel before and during the years of the 'national security doctrine' – the dirty war years in the Southern Cone and the civil war years in Central America – in which the armed forces within several Latin American countries ruled or had disproportionate government influence and committed serious human rights violations in those countries."


text: The institute itself explicitly denies accusations of teaching torture: in 1999 the School of the Americas FAQ had several answers denying accusations of torture, such as "Q: What about the accusations that the School teaches torture and murder? A: Absolutely false. The School teaches U.S. Army doctrine which is based on over 200 years of success, and includes a variety of military subjects, none of which include criminal misconduct." WHINSEC says that its curriculum includes human rights, and that "no school should be held accountable for the actions of its graduates."


text: Human Rights Watch says that "training alone, even when it includes human rights instruction, does not prevent human rights abuses."


text: Since 1990, Washington, DC,-based nonprofit human rights organization School of the Americas Watch has worked to monitor graduates of the institution and to close the former SOA, now WHINSEC, through legislative action, grassroots organizing and nonviolent direct action. It maintains a database with graduates of both the SOA and WHINSEC who have been accused of human rights violations and other criminal activity. In regard to the renaming of the institution, SOA Watch claims that the approach taken by the Department of Defense is not grounded in any critical assessment of the training, procedures, performance, or results (consequences) of the training programs of the SOA. According to critics of the SOA, the name change ignores congressional concern and public outcry over the SOA's past and present link to human rights atrocities.


text: Since 1990, SOA Watch has sponsored an annual public demonstration of protest of SOA/WHINSEC at Ft. Benning. In 2005, the demonstration drew 19,000 people. The protests are timed to coincide with the anniversary of the assassination of six Jesuit priests in El Salvador in November 1989 by graduates of the School of the Americas. On November 16, 1989, these six Jesuit priests (Ignacio Ellacuría, Segundo Montes, Ignacio Martín-Baró, Joaquín López y López, Juan Ramón Moreno, and Amado López), along with their housekeeper Elba Ramos and her daughter Celia Marisela Ramos, were murdered by the Atlácatl Battalion on the campus of the University of Central America in San Salvador, El Salvador, because they had been labeled as subversives by the government. A United Nations panel concluded that nineteen of the 27 killers were SOA graduates.


text: A number of graduates of the SOA and WHINSEC have been accused and sentenced for human rights violations, genocide, crimes against humanity and other criminal activity in their home countries.


text: In response to public debate and in order to promote transparency, the Freedom of Information Act released records that tracked trainees of the school. In August 2007, according to an Associated Press report, Colonel Alberto Quijano of the Colombian Army's Special Forces was arrested for providing security and mobilizing troops for Diego León Montoya Sánchez (aka "Don Diego"), the leader of the Norte del Valle Cartel and one of the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives. School of the Americas Watch said in a statement that it matched the names of those in the scandal with its database of attendees at the institute. Alberto Quijano attended courses and was an instructor who taught classes on peacekeeping operations and democratic sustainment at the school from 2003 to 2004.


text: Other former students include Salvadoran Colonel and Atlácatl Battalion leader Domingo Monterrosa and other members of his group who were responsible for the El Mozote massacre, and Franck Romain, former leader of the Tonton Macoute, which was responsible for the St. Jean Bosco massacre. Honduran General Luis Alonso Discua was also a graduate of the school who later on commanded Battalion 3-16, a military death squad.


text: According to an article in Human Rights Review, training statistics show that Argentina, a country that engaged in much anti-Communist sentiment and violence during the Dirty War during the Cold War era, had a relatively small number of military personnel educated at the school.


text: In 2018, two of the highest officers of the Venezuelan Army, Minister of Defense Vladimir Padrino López and SEBIN director Gustavo González López, were sanctioned by the United States for human rights abuses against opposition protesters and dissidents, corruption leading to the economic collapse of the country, and drug trafficking charges. They were found to have been students of psychological operations courses at SOA in 1995 and 1991 respectively.


text: For the Fiscal Year 2021 a total of 1,193 students trained at WHINSEC with the highest number of those students coming from Colombia (697).


text: In 1992 the OAS Inter-American Commission on Human Rights recommended prosecution of Salvadoran Col. Francisco del Cid Díaz for murder in association with the 1983 Las Hojas massacre and whose name is on a State Department list of gross human rights abusers. Del Cid Díaz went to the institute in 2003.


title: Philip Lawrence (songwriter)

text: Philip Martin Lawrence II (born July 17, 1980) is an American songwriter and record producer best known for his work with the songwriting and production team The Smeezingtons, alongside Bruno Mars. He has won eight Grammy Awards for his work. Lawrence's latest recording project, "24K Magic", won at the Grammys in the categories Album of the Year, Record of the Year, Song of the Year, Best R&B Song, Best R&B Album and Best R&B Performance. Lawrence is co-writer and co-producer on the majority of the songs released under these ventures. He also sings vocal with The Hooligans band who tours with Mars.


title: Philip Lawrence (songwriter)

text: Lawrence was first widely recognized in 2010 when he received five nominations at that year's Grammy Awards, including his first nomination for Producer of the Year, Non-Classical. Between 2010 and 2012 he received ten Grammy nominations, and in 2013 won his first Grammy award with Bruno Mars for "Best Pop Vocal Album" for "Unorthodox Jukebox". In the same year, he also released his own solo album, "Letters I Never Sent". He followed by participating in the second-largest viewed Super Bowl Halftime Show performing with the Red Hot Chili Peppers, receiving 115.3 million viewers. He returned again to the Super Bowl in 2016, performing parallel to Lady Gaga, Beyoncé and Coldplay for another Halftime Show performance. Along with composing and producing hits for Bruno Mars, Lawrence has produced/wrote for Adele, Flo Rida, Lil Wayne, Wiz Khalifa, CeeLo Green and others.


title: Philip Lawrence (songwriter)

text: Lawrence appeared in the Blue Sky Studios animated film "Rio 2" as the character and voice of "Felipe". He also wrote, performed, and produced the song "It's a Jungle Out Here", as well as co-wrote "Welcome Back", for the soundtrack performed by Bruno Mars.


title: Philip Lawrence (songwriter)

text: Lawrence founded CMNTY Culture, a multimedia venture that combines recorded music, film, television and theater production in one space. The first artist release under the CMNTY label is RMR, who took the world by storm with his genre defying song Rascal. In 2016, he purchased Record Plant recording studio in Los Angeles, California.


title: Philip Lawrence (songwriter)

text: Philip Martin Lawrence was born on July 17, 1980, in Evansville, Indiana, to Philip Lawrence Sr. and Cheryl Lawrence. As the son of a gospel choir director and a radio DJ, he began performing when he was four years old and started writing songs during his teen years. He attended Reitz Memorial High School. He began taking songwriting seriously in college, and developed his core entertainment skills during his time as a performer at Walt Disney World in Florida.


title: Philip Lawrence (songwriter)

text: Later, in California, Lawrence worked various jobs as he attempted to break through as a songwriter and performer. During this time he began establishing himself and building his musical network, which led to his meeting with Bruno Mars and composing songs with him and other artists.


title: Philip Lawrence (songwriter)

text: Over the course of the next year, Lawrence and Mars began working together writing songs for themselves and other artists. Their first successful songwriting project with a recognized artist was 2008's "Long Distance" by Brandy. Shortly afterwards they co-wrote Flo Rida's "Right Round", which proved to be their breakout project and resulted in many more production opportunities and acclaim in the industry. Not long after gaining their foothold in the industry, they met and partnered with Ari Levine to form the songwriting and production team, The Smeezingtons.


title: Philip Lawrence (songwriter)

text: The Smeezingtons were a songwriting and record production team consisting of Lawrence, Mars and Ari Levine. From 2009 to 2015, the trio were responsible for more than 16 Gold and Platinum records, some reaching 5× Platinum.


title: Philip Lawrence (songwriter)

text: Lawrence met producer Ari Levine and was the first guest at Ari's new recording studio in Hollywood, Ca., known as LevCon Recording Studio. Lawrence later brought Mars to the studio and the three of them hit it off quickly, and they soon began writing songs and producing music together. Over the course of the next 6 years, the team wrote and produced chart topping hits for a variety of musicians including Flo Rida, Matisyahu, B.o.B., CeeLo Green, Snoop Dogg, Wiz Khalifa, Adam Lambert, Adele and others. During this time, the trio also built the foundations for Bruno Mars and the Hooligans.


title: Philip Lawrence (songwriter)

text: The trio has since separated amicably, with Lawrence and Mars continuing on with Bruno Mars and the Hooligans, and forming a new production company named Shampoo, Press & Curl with Christopher Brody Brown.


title: Philip Lawrence (songwriter)

text: Lawrence has played a key role in Bruno Mars and The Hooligans since their inception, serving as songwriter, producer, composer and lead singer. Since 2010, their music has received worldwide commercial and critical success, winning a number of awards.


title: Philip Lawrence (songwriter)

text: Their first album, "Doo-Wops & Hooligans" (2010), was the group's first official introduction to the public, and was released to commercial and critical success. The album was written and produced by The Smeezingtons and netted the group's first three Grammy nominations, including a nomination for Album of the Year. Between 2010 and 2012, they completed their first world tour, Doo-Wops & Hooligans Tour, as well as the American Hooligans in Wondaland Tour with Janelle Monáe. Both tours gave the band the opportunity for mass exposure in multiple countries across the world.


title: Philip Lawrence (songwriter)

text: For Mars' second album, "Unorthodox Jukebox" (2012), The Smeezingtons once again handled the songwriting and production duties, but enlisted other producers. Their sophomore effort was also their first opportunity to branch out into more varied genres of music, which ultimately allowed them to reach a wider ranging audience. This was an important factor for Mars, as he felt it was necessary to have the freedom to record in whichever styles he was inspired. The success of this album earned Lawrence his first Grammy Award in 2013 for Best Pop Vocal Album. The world tour for Unorthodox Jukebox was the Moonshine Jungle Tour, which further spread their worldwide exposure and secured a $156 million box office gross over the course of the tour. It also marked the group's transition from theaters and ballrooms to stadiums and arenas, due to their increasing popularity and the success of their debut tour.


title: Philip Lawrence (songwriter)

text: Their third album, "24k Magic" (2016) marked the group's first album with the new songwriting and production team Shampoo, Press & Curl, consisting of Lawrence, Mars and Christopher Brody Brown. This has been the most successful album of the franchise, and swept the 2018 Grammy Awards, taking home wins for Album of the Year, Record of the Year, Song of the Year, Best R&B Song, Best R&B Album and Best R&B Performance. Along with their success at the Grammy Awards, the group also completed their most successful world tour to date, the 24k Magic World Tour, which has grossed more than $350 million worldwide.


title: Philip Lawrence (songwriter)

text: He did not return to the tour, choosing to focus instead on his other creative and business endeavors. In 2022, however, he did rejoin the Hooligans onstage during their mid-October concerts at Allianz Stadium.


title: Philip Lawrence (songwriter)

text: Lawrence has composed and produced in a variety of musical genres and styles throughout his career, such as Pop, Rock, Hip-Hop, R&B, Reggae, Funk, Soul, Folk. He attributes his abilities to his upbringing in a very musical home.


title: Summer Bishil

text: Summer Yasmine Bishil (born July 17, 1988) is an American actress. She first came to prominence starring as Jasira in the 2007 film "Towelhead", for which she was nominated for an Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead. Over the following few years, she had small roles in films and TV series like "The Last Airbender" (2010) and "90210" (2011) before starring in the short-lived ABC series "Lucky 7" (2013). She starred as Margo Hanson on the Syfy fantasy drama series "The Magicians" from 2015 to 2020.


title: Summer Bishil

text: Bishil was born in Pasadena, California and is the youngest of three children. Her mother is of Mexican descent while her father is of Indian ancestry. In 1991, when Bishil was three years old, the family moved to Saudi Arabia and then to Bahrain, where she and her brother attended British and American schools.


title: Summer Bishil

text: The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks prompted her family to return to the United States. They moved to a Mormon community in San Diego where she attended a regular public high school for a week. Because of the post-9/11 tension in the U.S., her schoolmates did not welcome her kindly. She stated that the return was not easy: "I hated it. I was called a whore on the first day of school, and somebody said they thought my dad funded terrorism. I just knew that nobody was ever going to want to be my friend there. I had panic attacks the first year of my life here." The family later moved to Arcadia, where her mother home schooled her. She took classes at Citrus College in Glendora, California.


title: Summer Bishil

text: Bishil started acting lessons at age 14. Within a year, she was signed to a contract with a manager and agency. Bishil's first role was on the short-lived Nickelodeon television show "Just for Kicks", followed by appearances in several other children's shows.


title: Summer Bishil

text: Bishil's breakthrough performance came as the lead in Alan Ball's film, "Towelhead" in 2007, an adaptation of the novel of the same name. "Slate" critic Dana Stevens said, "Her performance is the truest thing in a movie that, for all its good intentions, feels thoroughly phony and mildly embarrassing, like an extended PSA about inappropriate touching." Bob Strauss, who writes for several Los Angeles newspapers, states that Bishil, "...is one of the finest natural film actresses to emerge in years." Gary Goldstein in a September 12 "Los Angeles Times" review of the movie "Towelhead", stated that, "...newcomer Summer Bishil turns in a gutsy, quietly riveting performance as Jasira."


title: Summer Bishil

text: In 2009, she filmed Wayne Kramer's project, "Crossing Over", starring Harrison Ford, Ray Liotta and Ashley Judd, a portrayal that received some favorable notice from "Associated Press"s Jay Reiner. She was chosen to portray Azula in M. Night Shyamalan's 2010 film "The Last Airbender", and was planned to be the focus of the planned but never-produced sequel.


title: Summer Bishil

text: In 2013, Bishil was cast as Samira one of the lead roles on the short-lived ABC drama "Lucky 7". In late 2014, Bishil was cast in the role of Margo Hanson in the Syfy drama series "The Magicians", which ended after five seasons.


title: Dino Ranch

text: Dino Ranch is a CGI animated children's television series created by Matthew Fernandes, co-founder and chief creative officer of Industrial Brothers. Dino Ranch follows the adventures of the Cassidy family as they tackle life on the ranch in a fantastical, “prewestoric” setting where dinosaurs roam. The series debuted on CBC in Canada on January 16, 2021, and on Disney Junior in the United States on January 18, 2021, and later on Disney+ on June 18, 2021.


title: Dino Ranch

text: On July 28, 2021, it was announced that the series was renewed for a second season. On June 29, 2022, the second season premiered on Disney Junior in the United States. On October 13, 2022, it was announced that the series was renewed for a third season which is set to premiere in late Fall 2023.


title: Dino Ranch

text: Dino Ranch is a preschool adventure series set in a world where humans and dinosaurs live alongside each other. While Dino Ranch is first and foremost a working, self-sustained ranch run by the Cassidy family, it also serves as a dinosaur sanctuary.


title: Dino Ranch

text: Dino Ranch is operated by the Cassidy family, consisting of Bo and Jane Cassidy and their 3 adopted children, Jon, Min, and Miguel, and dinosaurs.


title: Dino Ranch

text: Florida-based Jazwares is Dino Ranch's global master toy partner. Scholastic Corporation has the rights to design and produce a range of English language CP, including readers, sticker story books, novelty items, activity books and audio books.


title: Dino Ranch

text: On August 25, 2021, Boat Rocker announced five new merchandising partnerships for Dino Ranch, including Baby Boom Consumer Products, High Point Design, Kurt S. Adler, Rubies, and Kennedy Publishing.


title: Dino Ranch

text: In Canada, Dino Ranch is aired on CBC Television as well as its streaming website and mobile app CBC Gem. In the United States, the series is shown on Disney Junior, and its streaming video website and app DisneyNow, and later on Disney+ on 18 June 2021.


title: Dino Ranch

text: The series has subsequently been sold to Super RTL and Toggo Plus (Germany); Gulli, TiJi and Gulli Africa (France); NRK (Norway); YLE (Finland); Sveriges Television (Sweden); Croatian Radiotelevision (Croatia); Telewizja Polska (Poland); and DR (Denmark). On March 3, it was announced Dino Ranch was also sold to Disney+ U.K., Ireland, Australia and New Zealand. In United Kingdom, it debuted on Tiny Pop in 2022, Cartoonito in Italy, and in Australia, it will debut on ABC Kids soon. In Africa, it debuted on Boomerang on December 13, 2021. After 3 months later, Dino Ranch along new episodes will premiere on Boomerang Africa in April 2022 part of the Cartoonito block.


title: Dino Ranch

text: Dino Ranch will premiered on Boomerang Turkey in January 2022 while, the series will also premiere on Cartoon Network on February 7, 2022, part of the Cartoonito Block. While in MENA, Dino Ranch will premiered on Boomerang in April 2022. Dino Ranch premiered on Boomerang Italy in March 2022.


title: Dino Ranch

text: In Asia, it will debut on Cartoon Network on 28 March 2022 part of the Cartoonito block while, this show also sit in a dedicated Cartoonito programming rail on the regional streaming service HBO GO in Southeast Asia, Hong Kong and Taiwan, a launch event is scheduled in April 2022. While in Japan, the show already premiered on Disney Junior in February 2022. In Spain, the series debuted on Clan in 2022


title: Dino Ranch

text: Dino Ranch was released on Disney Junior in the US as the number one cable series among kids, boys and girls 2–5. In the six weeks since the launch of the official Dino Ranch YouTube channel, it accumulated over three million views.


title: Dino Ranch

text: The series was one of the finalists for the audience-voted Shaw Rocket Fund Kids Choice Award, and Best Pre-School Program or Series at the 9th Canadian Screen Awards in 2021. Dino Ranch's first season was also nominated at the Rockie Awards of the Banff World Media Festival in the Preschool Animation category.


title: Rathna Kumar

text: Rathna Kumar is an Indian film director and writer. He is known for directing "Meyaadha Maan" (2017).


title: Rathna Kumar

text: Kumar began his career with the low-budget film "Madhu", which was included in an anthology film called "Bench Talkies". He later turned the short film into a feature film titled "Meyaadha Maan" (2017). The film turned out to be a success and an important film in Vaibhav's career because the film was not a multistarrer and several of Vaibhav's successful films had only been multistarrers. He went on to direct "Aadai" (2019), starring Amala Paul. The film released to mixed reviews, but highlighted an important aspect of society. Kumar was signed as a co-writer to Lokesh Kanagaraj's "Master". Regarding his decision of becoming a writer from a director, Kumar told "The Times of India" that Kanagaraj is his friend. He has signed to work on his next film titled as Royce starring vijay.


title: Clostridium tetani

text: Clostridium tetani is a common soil bacterium and the causative agent of tetanus. Vegetative cells of "Clostridium tetani" are usually rod-shaped and up to 2.5 μm long, but they become enlarged and tennis racket- or drumstick-shaped when forming spores. "C. tetani" spores are extremely hardy and can be found globally in soil or in the gastrointestinal tract of animals. If inoculated into a wound, "C. tetani" can grow and produce a potent toxin, tetanospasmin, which interferes with motor neurons, causing tetanus. The toxin's action can be prevented with tetanus toxoid vaccines, which are often administered to children worldwide.


title: Clostridium tetani

text: "Clostridium tetani" is a rod-shaped, Gram-positive bacterium, typically up to 0.5 μm wide and 2.5 μm long. It is motile by way of various flagella that surround its body. "C. tetani" cannot grow in the presence of oxygen. It grows best at temperatures ranging from 33 to 37°C.


title: Clostridium tetani

text: Upon exposure to various conditions, "C. tetani" can shed its flagella and form a spore. Each cell can form a single spore, generally at one end of the cell, giving the cell a distinctive drumstick shape. "C. tetani" spores are extremely hardy and are resistant to heat, various antiseptics, and boiling for several minutes. The spores are long-lived and are distributed worldwide in soils as well as in the intestines of various livestock and companion animals.


title: Clostridium tetani

text: "Clostridium tetani" is classified within the genus "Clostridium", a broad group of over 150 species of Gram-positive bacteria. "C. tetani" falls within a cluster of nearly 100 species that are more closely related to each other than they are to any other genus. This cluster includes other pathogenic "Clostridium" species such as "C. botulinum" and "C. perfringens". The closest relative to "C. tetani" is "C. cochlearium". Other "Clostridium" species can be divided into a number of genetically related groups, many of which are more closely related to members of other genera than they are to "C. tetani". Examples of this include the human pathogen "C. difficile", which is more closely related to members of genus "Peptostreptococcus" than to "C. tetani".


title: Clostridium tetani

text: While "C. tetani" is frequently benign in the soil or in the intestinal tracts of animals, it can sometimes cause the severe disease tetanus. Disease generally begins with spores entering the body through a wound. In deep wounds, such as those from a puncture or contaminated needle injection the combination of tissue death and limited exposure to surface air can result in a very low-oxygen environment, allowing "C. tetani" spores to germinate and grow. As "C. tetani" grows at the wound site, it releases the toxins tetanolysin and tetanospasmin as cells lyse. The function of tetanolysin is unclear, although it may help "C. tetani" to establish infection within a wound. Tetanospasmin ("tetanus toxin") is one of the most potent toxins known, with an estimated lethal dose less than 2.5 nanograms per kilogram of body weight, and is responsible for the symptoms of tetanus. Tetanospasmin spreads via the lymphatic system and bloodstream throughout the body, where it is taken up into various parts of the nervous system. In the nervous system, tetanospasmin acts by blocking the release of the inhibitory neurotransmitters glycine and gamma-aminobutyric acid at motor nerve endings. This blockade leads to the widespread activation of motor neurons and spasming of muscles throughout the body. These muscle spasms generally begin at the top of the body and move down, beginning about 8 days after infection with lockjaw, followed by spasms of the abdominal muscles and the limbs. Muscle spasms continue for several weeks.


title: Clostridium tetani

text: The gene encoding tetanospasmin is found on a plasmid carried by many strains of "C. tetani"; strains of bacteria lacking the plasmid are unable to produce toxin. The function of tetanospasmin in bacterial physiology is unknown.


title: Clostridium tetani

text: "Clostridium tetani" is susceptible to a number of antibiotics, including chloramphenicol, clindamycin, erythromycin, penicillin G, and tetracycline. However, the usefulness of treating "C. tetani" infections with antibiotics remains unclear. Instead, tetanus is often treated with tetanus immune globulin to bind up circulating tetanospasmin. Additionally, benzodiazepines or muscle relaxants may be given to reduce the effects of the muscle spasms.


title: Clostridium tetani

text: Damage from "C. tetani" infection is generally prevented by administration of a tetanus vaccine consisting of tetanospasmin inactivated by formaldehyde, called tetanus toxoid. This is made commercially by growing large quantities of "C. tetani" in fermenters, then purifying the toxin and inactivating in 40% formaldehyde for 4-6 weeks. The toxoid is generally coadministered with diphtheria toxoid and some form of pertussis vaccine as DPT vaccine or DTaP. This is given in several doses spaced out over months or years to elicit an immune response that protects the host from the effects of the toxin.


title: Clostridium tetani

text: "Clostridium tetani" can be grown on various anaerobic growth media such as thioglycolate media, casein hydrolysate media, and blood agar. Cultures grow particularly well on media at a neutral to alkaline pH, supplemented with reducing agents. The genome of a "C. tetani" strain has been sequenced, containing 2.80 million base pairs with 2,373 protein coding genes.


title: Clostridium tetani

text: Clinical descriptions of tetanus associated with wounds are found at least as far back as the 4th century BCE, in Hippocrates' "Aphorisms". The first clear connection to the soil was in 1884, when Arthur Nicolaier showed that animals injected with soil samples would develop tetanus. In 1889, "C. tetani" was isolated from a human victim by Kitasato Shibasaburō, who later showed that the organism could produce disease when injected into animals, and that the toxin could be neutralized by specific antibodies. In 1897, Edmond Nocard showed that tetanus antitoxin induced passive immunity in humans, and could be used for prophylaxis and treatment. In World War I, injection of tetanus antiserum from horses was widely used as a prophylaxis against tetanus in wounded soldiers, leading to a dramatic decrease in tetanus cases over the course of the war. The modern method of inactivating tetanus toxin with formaldehyde was developed by Gaston Ramon in the 1920s; this led to the development of the tetanus toxoid vaccine by P. Descombey in 1924, which was widely used to prevent tetanus induced by battle wounds during World War II.


title: Kolkhoz

text: A kolkhoz () was a form of collective farm in the Soviet Union. Kolkhozes existed along with state farms or sovkhoz. These were the two components of the socialized farm sector that began to emerge in Soviet agriculture after the October Revolution of 1917, as an antithesis both to the feudal structure of impoverished serfdom and aristocratic landlords and to individual or family farming.


title: Kolkhoz

text: The 1920s were characterized by spontaneous emergence of collective farms, under influence of traveling propaganda workers. Initially, a collective farm resembled an updated version of the traditional Russian "commune", the generic "farming association" ("zemledel’cheskaya artel’"), the Association for Joint Cultivation of Land (TOZ), and finally the kolkhoz. This gradual shift to collective farming in the first 15 years after the October Revolution was turned into a "violent stampede" during the forced collectivization campaign that began in 1928 as a means of countering "counterrevolutionary elements".


title: Kolkhoz

text: The portmanteau is a contraction of . This Russian term was adopted into other languages as a loanword; however, some other languages calqued equivalents from native roots, such as Ukrainian , from , Belarusian ; Estonian ; Latvian ; and Lithuanian .


title: Kolkhoz

text: As a collective farm, a "kolkhoz" was legally organized as a production cooperative. The Standard Charter of a kolkhoz, which since the early 1930s had the force of law in the USSR, is a model of cooperative principles in print. It speaks of the kolkhoz as a "form of agricultural production cooperative of peasants that voluntarily unite for the main purpose of joint agricultural production based on [...] collective labor". It asserts that "the kolkhoz is managed according to the principles of socialist self-management, democracy, and openness, with active participation of the members in decisions concerning all aspects of internal life".


title: Kolkhoz

text: In practice, the collective farm that emerged after Stalin’s collectivization campaign did not have many characteristics of a true cooperative, except for nominal joint ownership of non-land assets by the members (the land in the Soviet Union was nationalized in 1917). Importantly, remuneration had always been in proportion to labor and not from residual profits, implying that members were treated as employees and not as owners. Even the basic principle of voluntary membership was violated by the process of forced collectivization; members did not retain a right of free exit, and those who managed to leave could not take their share of assets with them (neither in kind nor in cash-equivalent form).


title: Kolkhoz

text: They imposed detailed work programs and nominated their preferred managerial candidates. Since the mid-1930s, the kolkhozes had been in effect an offshoot of the state sector (although notionally they continued to be owned by their members). Nevertheless, in locations with particularly good land or if it happened to have capable management, some kolkhozes accumulated substantial sums of money in their bank accounts. Subsequently, numerous kolkhozes were formally nationalized by changing their status to "sovkhozes". In the late 1960s, Khrushchev's administration authorized a guaranteed wage to kolkhoz members, similarly to sovkhoz employees; this reduced the already minor distinction between state and collective farms. Essentially, his administration recognised their status as hired hands rather than authentic cooperative members. The guaranteed wage provision was incorporated in the 1969 version of the Standard Charter.


title: Kolkhoz

text: The question of internal organization was important in the new kolkhozes. The most basic measure was to divide the workforce into a number of groups, generally known as brigades, for working purposes. By July 1929 it was already normal practice for the large kolkhoz of 200–400 households to be divided into temporary or permanent work units of 15–30 households.' The authorities gradually became in favour of the fixed, combined brigadethat is, the brigade with its personnel, land, equipment and draught horses fixed to it for the whole period of agricultural operations, and taking responsibility for all relevant tasks during that period. The brigade was headed by a brigade leader ("brigadir"). This was usually a local man (a few were women).


title: Kolkhoz

text: After the kolkhoz amalgamations of 1950 the territorial successor of the old village kolkhoz was the "complex brigade" (brigade of brigades), a sub-unit of the new enlarged kolkhoz.


title: Kolkhoz

text: Brigades could be subdivided into smaller units called zvenos (links) for carrying out some or all of their tasks.


title: Kolkhoz

text: In a kolkhoz, a member, called a "kolkhoznik" (, feminine form "kolkhoznitsa", ), received a share of the farm's product and profit according to the number of days worked, whereas a sovkhoz employed salaried workers. In practice, most kolkhozy did not pay their "members" in cash at all. In 1946, 30 percent of kolkhozy paid no cash for labour at all, 10.6 paid no grain, and 73.2 percent paid 500 grams of grain or less per day worked. In addition the kolkhoz was required to sell its grain crop and other products to the State at fixed prices. These were set by Soviet government very low, and the difference between what the State paid the farm and what the State charged consumers represented a major source of income for the Soviet government.


title: Kolkhoz

text: In 1948 the Soviet government charged wholesalers 335 rubles for 100 kilograms of rye, but paid the kolkhoz roughly 8 rubles. Nor did such prices change much to keep up with inflation. Prices paid by the Soviet government hardly changed at all between 1929 and 1953, meaning that the State came to pay less than one half or even one third of the cost of production.


title: Kolkhoz

text: Members of kolkhozes had the right to hold a small area of private land and some animals. The size of the private plot varied over the Soviet period, but was usually about . Before the Russian Revolution of 1917 a peasant with less than was considered too poor to maintain a family. However, the productivity of such plots is reflected in the fact that in 1938 3.9 percent of total sown land was in the form of private plots, but in 1937 those plots produced 21.5 percent of gross agriculture output. Kolkhoz members had to perform a minimum number of labor days per year both on the kolkhoz and on other government work (such as road building). In one kolkhoz, the official requirements were a minimum of 130 labor days a year for each able-bodied adult and 50 days per boy aged between 12 and 16. This work requirement was unevenly distributed around the year according to the agricultural cycle, ranging from 30 required labor days between January 1 and June 15, to 30 required labor days in a single month during harvest. If kolkhoz members did not complete the required minimum, the penalties could involve confiscation of the farmer's private plot and a trial in front of a People's Court that could result in three to eight months of hard labour on the kolkhoz or up to one year in a corrective labour camp.


title: Kolkhoz

text: However, the number of labor days completed by laborers was often much higher than the minimum. For that same kolkhoz mentioned above, the average number of labor days completed by each able-bodied member was 275, more than twice the official minimum. In essence, the requirement was the amount of labor days below which kolkhoz members would become subject to punitive state measures, but fulfilling this minimum would not then release the laborers from obligations to perform additional work demanded by the kolkhoz or state authorities.


title: Kolkhoz

text: Specific tasks on kolkhozes were assigned a particular number of labor days, with the rates determined in advance by state authorities. For example, thinning a tenth of a hectare of sugar beets was typically equivalent to two and a half labor days. However, the official rates and the actual ability of individual laborers were often highly disproportionate. Completing one labor day of work (nominally 8 hours) would often require multiple twelve-hour days of work to complete. Because laborers were compensated based on the number of labor days they completed, not time spent working, the labor day ultimately functioned more as an abstract method by which state authorities predetermined labor costs and kolkhoz production requirements, rather than as a method for fairly compensating workers for their labor. As such, the official rates greatly underrepresent both the labor requirements of agricultural production on kolkhozes and the demand placed on kolkhoz workers for that labor.


title: Kolkhoz

text: Kolkhozes and sovkhozes in the Soviet Union: number of farms, average size, and share in agricultural production


title: Kolkhoz

text: Source: "Statistical Yearbook of the USSR", various years, State Statistical Committee of the USSR, Moscow.


title: Kolkhoz

text: With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991, the former Soviet republics became target for criminal interests and the unstable financial situation undermined any perspective for their development. The general policy of transition from the Soviet centrally planned economy to a market economy was announced. The number of kolkhozes and sovkhozes declined rapidly after 1992, while other corporate forms gained in prominence.


title: Kolkhoz

text: Still, field surveys conducted in CIS countries in the 1990s generally indicated that, in the opinion of the members and the managers, many of the new corporate farms behaved and functioned for all practical reasons like the old kolkhozes. Formal re-registration did not produce radical internal restructuring of the traditional Soviet farm.


title: Kolkhoz

text: Kolkhozes have disappeared almost completely in Transcaucasian and Central Asian states. In Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan, the disappearance of the kolkhoz was part of an overall individualization of agriculture, with family farms displacing corporate farms in general. In Central Asian countries, some corporate farms persist, but no kolkhozes remain. Thus, in Turkmenistan, a presidential decree of June 1995 summarily "reorganized" all kolkhozes into "peasant associations" (). In Tajikistan, a presidential decree of October 1995 initiated a process of conversion of kolkhozes into share-based farms operating on leased land, agricultural production cooperatives, and dehkan (peasant) farms. However, contrary to the practice in all other CIS countries, one-third of the 30,000 peasant farms in Tajikistan are organized as "collective dehkan farms" and not family farms. These collective dehkan farms are often referred to as "kolkhozy" in the vernacular, although legally they are a different organizational form and the number of "true" kolkhozes in Tajikistan today is less than 50. Similarly in Uzbekistan the 1998 Land Code renamed all kolkhozes and sovkhozes "shirkats" (Uzbek for agricultural cooperatives) and just five years later, in October 2003, the government's new strategy for land reform prescribed a sweeping reorientation from "shirkats" to peasant farms, which since then have virtually replaced all corporate farms.


title: Mandela (2021 film)

text: Mandela is a 2021 Indian Tamil-language political satire television film written and directed by Madonne Ashwin on his directorial debut and produced by S. Sashikanth and Ramachandra of YNOT Studios while director Balaji Mohan, co-produced the film under his banner Open Window Productions. The film being titled after the late South African President Nelson Mandela, stars Yogi Babu in the titular lead role while Sheela Rajkumar, Kanna Ravi, Sangili Murugan and G. M. Sundar play supportive roles. The music for the film is composed by Bharath Sankar, whereas cinematography and editing were handled by Vidhu Ayyanna and Philomin Raj respectively.


title: Mandela (2021 film)

text: The film is set on the backdrop of a village panchayat election scenario between two political parties where a local barber's vote will determine the fate of the election. The film was directly released via Star Vijay on 4 April 2021 and internationally through Netflix, the following day. The film received widespread critical acclaim praising the script, performances and technical aspects of the film. It was shortlisted as one among the 14 Indian films to be nominated for Best Foreign Film at the 94th Academy Awards scheduled to be held in mid-2022. At the 68th National Film Awards, it won 2 awards for Best Debut Film of a Director and Best Screenplay (Dialogues), both for Madonne Ashwin.


title: Mandela (2021 film)

text: In a small village named Soorangudi in Tamil Nadu, the population of around 1000 people are split into two caste-based factions, Northerners and Southerners. When the long unopposed President of the Village becomes paralyzed months before election, his two sons decide to run for president. The election is also divided along caste lines, as elder son's mother is a Northerner and others is a Southener. Based on pre-polling it turns out the vote is split. The tie breaker vote falls upon a local hairstylist named Smile alias Nelson Mandela (Yogi Babu) who recently joined the voter list. The rest of the movie is about who gets Nelson Mandela's vote to win. In the process, Mandela gets the two contenders to improve the village by laying a road, building a school etc. with their wealth. The movie ends with a 'surprise' result to the election that is not disclosed but is inferred that the village of Soorangudi won.


title: Mandela (2021 film)

text: The film was announced by debutant director Madonne Ashwin in July 2019, and the principal photography of the film began the very same day. Yogi Babu was roped into playing the lead role in the film as a barber. Director Balaji Mohan came on board as co-producer of the film which also marked his maiden feature film production venture for his Open Window Productions banner. Madonne who was a participant in the reality show "Naalaya Iyakunar" came up with the script to Balaji who expressed his interest in setting a production venture, but to have a wide reach, he roped in producer S. Sashikanth to jointly produce the film. Talking about the script, Balaji stated, "It is a social satire, set against a rural backdrop. It talks about quite a few things that are relevant in today’s scenario. Though it will have humour, it will be more sensible and meaningful."


title: Mandela (2021 film)

text: The music is composed by Bharath Sankar of the Oorka band. The soundtrack album featured six tracks with lyrics written by Yugabharathi, Arivu, Mamiliva Randriamihajasoa, Pradeep Kumar and Bharath Sankar. One song "Oru Needhi Onbadhu Saadhi" was released as a single on 19 March 2021, and the remaining tracks were released on 28 March 2021, through Sony Music label.


title: Mandela (2021 film)

text: It was revealed that the theatre owners and distributors issued a red card against the film's production house YNOT Studios, over the digital release of Dhanush's "Jagame Thandhiram" (2021), and stated that the distributors will not screen any of the upcoming films belonging to the production company. As a result, YNOT Studios decided to release the film as a direct television premiere on Star Vijay on 4 April 2021 and the film would be globally streamed via Netflix on 9 April 2021. However, the Netflix release was brought forward to 5 April 2021, as they wanted to release the film before the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly Elections. The film's theatrical premiere was held at PVR Cinemas, Chennai on 31 March 2021.