title: Repatriation

text: Repatriation laws give non-citizen foreigners who are part of the titular majority group the opportunity to immigrate and receive citizenship. Repatriation of their titular diaspora is practiced by most ethnic nation states. Repatriation laws have been created in many countries to enable diasporas to immigrate ("return") to their "kin-state". This is sometimes known as the exercise of the right of return. Repatriation laws give members of the diaspora the right to immigrate to their kin-state and they serve to maintain close ties between the state and its diaspora and gives preferential treatment to diaspora immigrants.


title: Repatriation

text: Most countries in central and eastern Europe as well as Armenia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, the Philippines, Spain, South Korea, Taiwan, and Turkey have longstanding repatriation legislation. China, Japan, Norway and Serbia also have repatriation laws for their diaspora populations. The number of countries with repatriation laws has mushroomed since the end of Soviet communism and most independent nations that were once part of the communist domain in Europe have since legislated repatriation laws. Many other countries such as Jordan and Sweden have (or have had) generous immigration policies with regard to the nation's diaspora without having formally enacted repatriation laws. Such states can be described as practicing "common law repatriation".


title: Repatriation

text: In comparison, one of the central tenets of the Rastafari movement is the desirability of the repatriation of black people from the Americas and elsewhere back to Africa. While Ethiopia specifically has land available in Shashamane to encourage this project, black people who are citizens of countries outside Africa do not have the right of return to Africa, although as individuals they are free to try to emigrate.


title: Repatriation

text: Repatriation is often the "forgotten" phase of the expatriation cycle; the emphasis for support is mostly on the actual period abroad. However, many repatriates report experiencing difficulties on return: one is no longer special, practical problems arise, new knowledge gained is no longer useful, etc. These difficulties are highly influenced by a number of factors including self-management, spouse's adjustment, time spent abroad and skill utilisation. What is crucial is that every individual perceives these factors in a different way. Reintegration is a process of re-inclusion or re-incorporation of a person into a group or a process, and may contribute to overcoming repatriation.


title: Repatriation

text: Direct managers and HR staff often notice the difficulties a repatriate experiences, but they are not always able to act on it. Budget shortcomings and time constraints are frequently cited as reasons why it fails to be an agenda priority. Solutions for repatriation difficulties do not have to be expensive and can lead to great benefits for the company. Basic support can consist, for example, of good communication in advance, during and after the international assignment, or a mentor program to assist the repatriate. The expatriate and his/her family should feel understood by his or her company. Support can increase job satisfaction, thereby protecting the investment made by the company.


title: Repatriation

text: Return of human remains to their nation of origin. In the United States, Native Americans' human remains are uncovered and removed from their burial sites in the construction/land development process or as part of archaeological excavations. The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) of 1990 established the process whereby federally recognized Indian tribes and Native Hawaiian organizations can request that federal agencies and institutions receiving federal funds return culturally affiliated human remains. The NAGPRA also sets forth provisions that allow for the disposition of Native American human remains found on federal lands to the affiliated Indian tribe or Native Hawaiian organization. NAGPRA does not apply to the Smithsonian Institution, which is covered under the repatriation provisions of the National Museum of the American Indian Act (NMAI Act) of 1989. In previous eras, it was common for British colonial authorities to collect heads and other body parts of indigenous peoples such as Indigenous Australians and Māori for display in British museums. The repatriation of these body parts is currently ongoing. For an example of a successful body part repatriation, see Yagan. Another example can be seen through the dedicated work of the Karanga Aotearoa Repatriation Programme, established in partnership between Māori and the New Zealand government in 2003. This programme is administered by the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa (Te Papa), and since 2003 has repatriated over 350 Māori and Moriori ancestral remains to Aotearoa New Zealand. Article 12 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples affirms that indigenous peoples have the right to repatriate their human remains. The declaration was passed in September 2007 with the support of 143 countries. The four opposing countries—Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States—subsequently endorsed the declaration.


title: Repatriation

text: Cultural or art repatriation is the return of cultural objects or works of art to their country of origin (usually referring to ancient art), or (for looted material) its former owners (or their heirs). Repatriation of cultural artifacts also includes items that fall under the purview of NAGPRA and the NMAI Act such as Native American sacred items, funerary objects, and items of cultural patrimony. The Iroquois Wampum belts are an example of objects of cultural patrimony subject to repatriation under NAGPRA.


title: Repatriation

text: Economic repatriation refers to the process of a company getting its profits back into their own country. There are four main methods of repatriation: Dividends and Profits, Royalties, Management Service Fees and Intercompany Loans.


title: Repatriation

text: Repatriation of currency is when foreign currency is converted back to the currency of the home country. An example would be an American converting British pounds back to U.S. dollars. Repatriation also refers to the payment of a dividend by a foreign corporation to a U.S. corporation. This happens often where the foreign corporation is considered a "controlled foreign corporation" (CFC), which means that more than 50% of the foreign corporation is owned by U.S. shareholders. Generally, foreign direct investment in CFC's are not taxed until a dividend is paid to the controlling U.S. parent company, and is thus repatriated. The foreign direct investment income of the CFC is taxed only by the country where it is incorporated until repatriation. At that time, income is subject to the (typically higher) U.S. tax rate minus the Foreign Tax Credits. (FN: See IRC 951-965) There are currently hundreds of billions of dollars of Foreign direct investment in CFC's because of the disincentive to repatriate those earnings. (See Bureau of Economic Analysis, National Economic Accounts, Integrated Macroeconomic Accounts for the United States, available at the Bureau of Economic Analysis.)


title: Masovian Voivodeship

text: The Masovian Voivodeship, also known as the Mazovia Province ( ) is a voivodeship (province) in east-central Poland, with its capital located in the city of Warsaw, that also serves as the capital of the country. It has an area of , and in 2019, it had the population of 5,411,446, making it the biggest and the most populated voivodeship of Poland. Its principal cities are Warsaw (1.783 million) in the centre of the Warsaw metropolitan area, Radom (212,230) in the south, Płock (119,709) in the west, Siedlce (77,990) in the east, and Ostrołęka (52,071) in the north.


title: Masovian Voivodeship

text: The province was created on 1 January 1999, out of the former voivodeships of Warsaw, Płock, Ciechanów, Ostrołęka, Siedlce and Radom, pursuant to the Polish local government reforms adopted in 1998. The province's name recalls the traditional name of the region, Mazovia, with which it is roughly coterminous. However, southern part of the voivodeship, with Radom, historically belongs to Lesser Poland, while Łomża and its surroundings, even though historically part of Mazovia, now is part of Podlaskie Voivodeship.


title: Masovian Voivodeship

text: It is bordered by six other voivodeships: Warmian-Masurian to the north, Podlaskie to the north-east, Lublin to the south-east, Świętokrzyskie to the south, Łódź to the south-west, and Kuyavian-Pomeranian to the north-west.


title: Masovian Voivodeship

text: Mazovian Voivodeship is the centre of science, research, education, industry and infrastructure in the country. It currently has the lowest unemployment rate in Poland and is classified as a very high income province. Moreover, it is popular among holidaymakers due to the number of historical monuments and greenery; forests cover over 20% of the voivodeship's area, where pines and oaks predominate in the regional landscape. Additionally, the Kampinos National Park located within Masovia is a UNESCO-designated biosphere reserve.


title: Masovian Voivodeship

text: Masovian Voivodeship is divided into 42 counties, including 5 city counties and 37 land counties. These are subdivided into 314 gminas (municipilaties), which include 85 urban gminas.


title: Masovian Voivodeship

text: The voivodeship contains 10 cities and 78 towns. These are listed below in descending order of population (according to official figures for 2019):


title: Masovian Voivodeship

text: The Masovian voivodeship's government is headed by the province's ' (governor) who is appointed by the Polish Prime Minister. The ' is then assisted in performing his duties by the voivodeship's marshal, who is the appointed speaker for the voivodeship's executive and is elected by the ' (provincial assembly). The current ' of Masovia is Konstanty Radziwiłł.


title: Masovian Voivodeship

text: Protected areas in Masovian Voivodeship include one National Park and nine Landscape Parks. These are listed below.


title: Masovian Voivodeship

text: Masovia Voivodeship, 1526–1795 () was an administrative region of the Kingdom of Poland, and of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, from the 15th century until the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1795). Together with Płock and Rawa Voivodeships, it formed the province (prowincja) of Masovia.


title: Masovian Voivodeship

text: Masovian Voivodeship was one of the voivodeships of Congress Poland. It was formed from Warsaw Department, and transformed into Masovia Governorate.


title: Masovian Voivodeship

text: There are three main road routes that pass through the voivodeship: Cork–Berlin–Poznań–Warszawa–Minsk–Moscow–Omsk, Prague–Wrocław–Warsaw–Białystok–Helsinki and Pskov–Gdańsk–Warsaw–Kraków–Budapest.


title: Masovian Voivodeship

text: Currently, there are various stretches of autostrada in the area, with the A2 autostrada connecting the region, and therefore the capital city, with the rest of Europe. The autostrada passes directly through the voivodship from west to east, connecting it with Belarus and Germany. However, the A2 is yet to be built east of Warsaw to connect Poland with Belarus. The S8 expressway connects Warsaw with Białystok in the neighboring eastern province, along with the S17 being built to connect Warsaw with Lublin.


title: Masovian Voivodeship

text: Masovian Voivodeship is the wealthiest province in Poland. The gross domestic product (GDP) of the province was €112.2 billion in 2018, accounting for 22.6% of the Polish economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was €34,400 or 114% of the EU27 average in the same year.


title: Masovian Voivodeship

text: The unemployment rate stood at 4.8% in 2017 and was higher than the national and the European average.


title: Trinbago Knight Riders

text: The Trinbago Knight Riders (formerly the Trinidad and Tobago Red Steel) are a franchise cricket team of the Caribbean Premier League based in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. The Red Steel was one of the original six teams created for the tournament's inaugural 2013 season. Their home ground is Queen's Park Oval.


title: Trinbago Knight Riders

text: In 2015, Red Chillies Entertainment, the parent company of Indian Premier League team Kolkata Knight Riders, purchased stake in the Red Steel. The Red Steel went on to win the 2015 tournament. After the season, the name was changed to Trinbago Knight Riders.


title: Trinbago Knight Riders

text: The Trinidad & Tobago Red Steel were one of the six teams created for the Caribbean Premier League's inaugural 2013 season. In 2015, they won the tournament for the first time, defeating the Barbados Tridents by 20 runs at Queen's Park Oval.


title: Trinbago Knight Riders

text: Also in 2015, Red Chillies Entertainment, led by Bollywood actor Shah Rukh Khan and Mehta Group of businessman Jay Mehta and his wife Juhi Chawla, purchased stake in the Red Steel. Red Chillies Entertainment also owns the Indian Premier League's Kolkata Knight Riders; this was the first time an IPL team had invested in a Twenty20 cricket league outside India. In 2016, Red Chillies Entertainment took over the team's operations and changed the name to the Knight Riders. The core team remained the same in 2016, with Dwayne Bravo at the helm. However, the team's marquee foreign player is New Zealand's Brendon McCullum, who has played for KKR in the past. Brad Hogg, Javon Searles, Brendon McCullum, Colin Munro, Darren Bravo and Chris Lynn have also played for KKR before. Sunil Narine is the only player who currently plays for both the Knight Riders teams. Simon Katich in 2017, replaced fellow Australian Simon Helmot as the head coach.


title: Trinbago Knight Riders

text: The Trinbago Knight Riders plays their home games at the Queen's Park Oval in Port of Spain. The QPO was also the host ground of the semi-finals and finals of 2013 and 2015 editions of the CPL. The Queen's Park Oval is one of the oldest and most historic of grounds in the Caribbean as well as having one of the largest capacities, accommodating approximately 20,000 spectators in comfort. Home of the Queen's Park Cricket Club (QPCC) since 1896, it has hosted Test matches since 1930, ODIs since 1983 and T20s since 2009.


title: Jurist

text: A jurist is a person with expert knowledge of law; someone who analyses and comments on law. This person is usually a specialist legal scholar, mostly (but not always) with a formal qualification in law and often a legal practitioner. In the United Kingdom the term "jurist" is mostly used for legal academics, while in the United States the term may also be applied to a judge. With reference to Roman law, a "jurist" (in English) is a jurisconsult ("iurisconsultus").


title: Jurist

text: The English term "jurist" is to be distinguished from similar terms in other European languages, where it may be synonymous with legal professional, meaning anyone with a professional law degree that qualifies for admission to the legal profession, including such positions as judge or attorney. In Germany, Scandinavia and a number of other countries "jurist" denotes someone with a professional law degree, and it may be a protected title, for example in Norway. Thus the term can be applied to attorneys, judges and academics, provided that they hold a qualifying professional law degree. In Germany the term "full jurist" ("Volljurist") is sometimes used informally to denote someone who has completed the two state examinations in law that qualify for practising law, to distinguish from someone who may have only the first state examination or some other form of legal qualification that doesn't qualify for practising law.


title: Odor

text: An odor (American English) or odour (Commonwealth English; see spelling differences) is caused by one or more volatilized chemical compounds that are generally found in low concentrations that humans and animals can perceive via their sense of smell. An odor is also called a "smell" or a "scent", which can refer to either a pleasant or an unpleasant odor.


title: Odor

text: While "odor" and "smell" can refer to pleasant and unpleasant odors, the terms "scent", "aroma", and "fragrance" are usually reserved for pleasant-smelling odors and are frequently used in the food and cosmetic industry to describe floral scents or to refer to perfumes.


title: Odor

text: The perception of odors, or sense of smell, is mediated by the olfactory nerve. The olfactory receptor (OR) cells are neurons present in the olfactory epithelium, which is a small patch of tissue at the back of the nasal cavity. There are millions of olfactory receptor neurons that act as sensory signaling cells. Each neuron has cilia in direct contact with the air. Odorous molecules bind to receptor proteins extending from cilia and act as a chemical stimulus, initiating electric signals that travel along the olfactory nerve's axons to the brain.


title: Odor

text: When an electrical signal reaches a threshold, the neuron fires, which sends a signal traveling along the axon to the olfactory bulb, a part of the limbic system of the brain. Interpretation of the smell begins there, relating the smell to past experiences and in relation to the substance(s) inhaled. The olfactory bulb acts as a relay station connecting the nose to the olfactory cortex in the brain. Olfactory information is further processed and forwarded to the central nervous system (CNS), which controls emotions and behavior as well as basic thought processes.


title: Odor

text: Odor sensation usually depends on the concentration (number of molecules) available to the olfactory receptors. A single odorant is usually recognized by many receptors. Different odorants are recognized by combinations of receptors. The patterns of neuron signals help to identify the smell. The olfactory system does not interpret a single compound, but instead the whole odorous mix. This does not correspond to the concentration or intensity of any single constituent.


title: Odor

text: Most odors consist of organic compounds, although some simple compounds not containing carbon, such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, are also odorants. The perception of an odor effect is a two-step process. First, there is the physiological part. This is the detection of stimuli by receptors in the nose. The stimuli are recognized by the region of the human brain which handles olfaction. Because of this, an objective and analytical measure of odor is impossible. While odor feelings are personal perceptions, individual reactions are usually related. They relate to things such as gender, age, state of health, and personal history.


title: Odor

text: The ability to identify odor varies among people and decreases with age. Studies claim that there are sex differences in odor discrimination, and that women usually outperform men. Conversely, there are some studies claiming a male advantage. A 2019 meta-analysis claimed that the differences in olfaction are extremely small, but confirmed a small advantage for women.


title: Odor

text: Pregnant women have increased smell sensitivity, sometimes resulting in abnormal taste and smell perceptions, leading to food cravings or aversions. The ability to taste also decreases with age as the sense of smell tends to dominate the sense of taste. Chronic smell problems are reported in small numbers for those in their mid-twenties, with numbers increasing steadily, with overall sensitivity beginning to decline in the second decade of life, and then deteriorating appreciably as age increases, especially once over 70 years of age.


title: Odor

text: For most untrained individuals, the act of smelling acquires little information concerning the specific ingredients of an odor. Their smell perception primarily offers information that elicits an emotional response. Experienced individuals, however, such as flavorists and perfumers, can identify discrete chemicals in complex mixtures using only their sense of smell.


title: Odor

text: Odor perception is a primary evolutionary sense. The sense of smell can induce pleasure or subconsciously warn of danger, which may, for example, help to locate mates, find food, or detect predators. Humans have an unusually good sense of smell considering they have only 350 functional olfactory receptor genes compared to the 1,300 found in mice, for example. This is despite an apparent evolutionary decline in the sense of smell. The human sense of smell is comparable with many animals, able to distinguish between a diverse range of odors. Studies have reported that humans can distinguish in the region of one trillion unique aromas.


title: Odor

text: Odors that a person is used to, such as their own body odor, are less noticeable than uncommon odors. This is due to "habituation." After continuous odor exposure, the sense of smell is fatigued, but recovers if the stimulus is removed for a time. Odors can change due to environmental conditions: for example, odors tend to be more distinguishable in cool dry air.


title: Odor

text: Habituation affects the ability to distinguish odors after continuous exposure. The sensitivity and ability to discriminate odors diminishes with exposure, and the brain tends to ignore continuous stimulus and focus on differences and changes in a particular sensation. When odorants are mixed, a habitual odorant is blocked. This depends on the strength of the odorants in the mixture, which can change the perception and processing of an odor. This process helps classify similar odors as well as adjust sensitivity to differences in complex stimuli.


title: Odor

text: The primary gene sequences for thousands of olfactory receptors are known for the genomes of more than a dozen organisms. They are seven-helix-turn transmembrane proteins. But there are no known structures for any olfactory receptor. There is a conserved sequence in roughly three quarters of all ORs. This is a tripodal metal-ion binding site, and Suslick has proposed that the ORs are in fact metalloproteins (most likely with zinc, copper, and manganese ions) that serve as a Lewis Acid site for the binding of many odorant molecules. In 1978, Crabtree suggested that Cu(I) is "the most likely candidate for a metallo-receptor site in olfaction" of strong-smelling volatiles. These are also good metal-coordinating ligands, such as thiols. In 2012, Zhuang, Matsunami, and Block confirmed the Crabtree/Suslick proposal for the specific case of a mouse OR, MOR244-3, showing that copper is essential for detection of certain thiols and other sulfur-containing compounds. Thus, by using a chemical that binds to copper in the mouse nose, so that copper wasn't available to the receptors, the authors showed that the mice couldn't detect the thiols without the copper. However, these authors also found that MOR244-3 lacks the specific metal ion binding site suggested by Suslick, instead showing a different motif in the EC2 domain.


title: Odor

text: Gordon Shepherd proposed that the retro-nasal route of olfaction (odorants introduced to the olfactory mucosa through the oral cavity often as food) was partially responsible for the development of human olfactory acuity. He suggested the evolutionary pressure of diversification of food sources and increased complexity of food preparation presented humans with a broader range of odorants, ultimately leading to a "richer repertoire of smells". Animals such as dogs show a greater sensitivity to odors than humans, especially in studies using short-chain compounds. Higher cognitive brain mechanisms and more olfactory brain regions enable humans to discriminate odors better than other mammals despite fewer olfactory receptor genes.


title: Odor

text: In Germany, concentrations of odorants have since the 1870s been defined by "Olfaktometrie", which helps to analyze the human sense of smell according to odor substance concentration, intensity of odor, odor quality, and hedonic assessment.


title: Odor

text: The most accurate smell sensing is when a smell is first encountered, before habituation begins to change perception of odor.


title: Odor

text: Odor concentration refers to an odor's pervasiveness. To measure odor sensation, an odor is diluted to a detection or recognition threshold. The detection threshold is the concentration of an odor in air when 50% of a population can distinguish between the odorous sample and an odor-free reference sample. The recognition odor threshold is usually a factor of two to five higher than the detection threshold.


title: Odor

text: The measurement of odor concentration is the most widespread method to quantify odors. It is standardized in CEN EN 13725:2003. The method is based on dilution of an odor sample to the odor threshold. The numerical value of the odor concentration is equal to the dilution factor that is necessary to reach the odor threshold. Its unit is the "European Odour Unit", OU. Therefore, the odor concentration at the odor threshold is 1 OU by definition.


title: Odor

text: To establish odor concentration, an olfactometer is used which employs a group of human panelists. A diluted odorous mixture and an odor-free gas—n-Butanol—as a reference are presented from sniffing ports to a group of panelists who are sensitive in odor perception. To collect an odor sample, the samples are collected using specialized sample bags, which are made from an odor free material, e.g., Teflon. The most accepted technique for collecting odor samples is the lung technique, where the sample bag is placed in a sealed drum, where a vacuum is created outside the bag, which fills under expansion, and draws into itself the sample from the source. Critically, all components which touch the odor sample, must be odor free, which includes lines and fittings.


title: Odor

text: In comparing the odor emitted from each port, the panelists are asked to report if they can detect a difference between the ports. The gas-diluting ratio is then decreased by a factor of 1.4 or two (i.e., the concentration is increased accordingly). The panelists are asked to repeat the test. This continues until the panelists respond with certainty and correctly twice in a row. These responses are used to calculate the concentration of the odor in terms of European odor units (OU/m), where 1 OU/m≡40 ppb/v n-butanol.


title: Odor

text: Humans can discriminate between two odorants that differ in concentration by as little as 7%. A human's odor detection threshold is variable. Repeated exposure to an odorant leads to enhanced olfactory sensitivity and decreased detection thresholds for a number of different odorants. It was found in a study that humans who were unable to detect the odor of androstenone developed the ability to detect it after repeated exposure. People who cannot smell are said to be anosmic.


title: Odor

text: Issues such as temperature and humidity are best overcome using either pre-dilution or dynamic dilution techniques.


title: Odor

text: Other analytic methods can be subdivided into the physical, the gas chromatographical, and the chemosensory method.


title: Odor

text: When measuring odor, there is a difference between emission and immission measurements. Emission measurement can be taken by olfactometry using an olfactometer to dilute the odor sample. Olfactometry is rarely used for immission measurement because of low odor concentrations involved. The same measuring principles are used, but the judgment of the air-assay happens without diluting the samples.


title: Odor

text: An odor emission often consists of a complex mixture of many odorous compounds. Analytical monitoring of individual chemical compounds present in such an odor is usually not practical. As a result, odor sensory methods, instead of instrumental methods, are normally used to measure such odor. Odor sensory methods are available to monitor odor both from source emissions and in the ambient air. These two contexts require different approaches for measuring odor. The collection of odor samples is more easily accomplished for a source emission than for odor in the ambient air.


title: Odor

text: Field measurement with portable field olfactometers can seem more effective, but olfactometer use is not regulated in Europe, while it is popular in the U.S. and Canada, where several states set limits at the receptor sites or along the perimeter of odor-emitting plants, expressed in units of dilution-to-threshold (D/T).


title: Odor

text: Odor intensity is the perceived strength of odor sensation. This intensity property is used to locate the source of odors and perhaps most directly related to odor nuisance.


title: Odor

text: The perceived strength of the odor sensation is measured in conjunction with odor concentration. This can be modeled by the Weber-Fechner law: I = a × log(c) + b, where "I" is the perceived psychological intensity at the dilution step on the butanol scale, "a" is the Weber-Fechner coefficient, "C" is the chemical concentrations, and "b" is the intercept constant (0.5 by definition).


title: Odor

text: Odor intensity can be expressed using an odor intensity scale, which is a verbal description of an odor sensation to which a numerical value is assigned.


title: Odor

text: Odor intensity is determined in a laboratory by specialists who have been trained to accurately define intensity.


title: Odor

text: Hedonic assessment is the process of rating odors according to a scale ranging from extremely unpleasant to extremely pleasant. Intensity and hedonic tone, whilst similar, refer to different things: that is, the strength of the odor (intensity) and the pleasantness of an odor (hedonic tone). The perception of an odor may change from pleasant to unpleasant with increasing concentration, intensity, time, frequency, or previous experience with a specific odor—all factors in determining a response.


title: Odor

text: The overall set of qualities are sometimes identified as the "FIDOL (Frequency, Intensity, Duration, Offensiveness, Location) factors".


title: Odor

text: The character of an odor is a critical element in assessing an odor. This property is the ability to distinguish different odors and is only descriptive. First, a basic description is used—such as sweet, pungent, acrid, fragrant, warm, dry, or sour. The odor is then referenced to a source such as sewage or apple which can then be followed by a reference to a specific chemical such as acids or gasoline.


title: Odor

text: Most commonly, a set of standard descriptors is used, which may range from "fragrant" to "sewer odor". Although the method is fairly simplistic, it is important for the FIDOL factors to be understood by the person rating the smell. This method is most commonly used to define the character of an odor which can then be compared to other odors. It is common for olfactometry laboratories to report character as an additional factor post sample-analysis.


title: Odor

text: Different categorizations of primary odors have been proposed, including the following, which identifies 7 primary odors:


title: Odor

text: In many countries odor modeling is used to determine the extent of an impact from an odor source. These are a function of modeled concentration, averaging time (over what time period the model steps are run over, typically hourly), and a percentile. Percentiles refer to a statistical representation of how many hours per year the concentration C may be exceeded based on the averaging period.


title: Odor

text: Direct refers to the placement of an enclosure on or over an emitting surface from which samples are collected, and an odor emission rate is determined.


title: Odor

text: The most commonly used direct methods include the flux chamber and wind tunnels such as the one at the University of New South Wales (UNSW). There are many other available techniques, and consideration should be given to a number of factors before selecting a suitable method.


title: Odor

text: A source which has implications for this method are sources, such as bark bed biofilters, that have a vertical velocity component. For such sources, consideration must be given as to the most appropriate method. A commonly used technique is to measure the odor concentration at the emitting surface, and combine this with the volumetric flow rate of air entering the biofilter to produce an emission rate.


title: Odor

text: Indirect sampling is often referred to as back calculation. It involves the use of a mathematical formula to predict an emission rate.


title: Odor

text: Many methods are used, but all make use of the same inputs which include surface roughness, upwind and downwind concentrations, stability class (or other similar factor), wind speed, and wind direction.


title: Odor

text: The human sense of smell is a primary factor in the sensation of comfort. Olfaction as a sensory system brings awareness of the presence of airborne chemicals. Some inhaled chemicals are volatile compounds that act as a stimulus, triggering unwanted reactions such as nose, eye, and throat irritation. Perception of odor and of irritation is unique to each person, and varies because of physical conditions or memory of past exposures to similar chemicals. A person's specific threshold, before an odor becomes a nuisance, depends also on the frequency, concentration, and duration of an odor.


title: Odor

text: The perception of irritation from odor sensation is hard to investigate because exposure to a volatile chemical elicits a different response based on sensory and physiological signals, and interpretation of these signals is influenced by experience, expectations, personality, or situational factors. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) may have higher concentrations in confined indoor environments, due to restricted infiltration of fresh air, as compared to the outdoor environment, leading to greater potential for toxic health exposures from a variety of chemical compounds. Health effects of odor are traced to the sensation of an odor or the odorant itself. Health effects and symptoms vary—including eye, nose, or throat irritation, cough, chest tightness, drowsiness, and mood change—all of which decrease as an odor ceases. Odors may also trigger illnesses such as asthma, depression, stress-induced illness, or hypersensitivity. The ability to perform tasks may decrease, and other social/behavioral changes may occur.


title: Odor

text: Occupants should expect remediation from disturbing and unexpected odors that disturb concentration, diminish productivity, evoke symptoms, and generally increase the dislike for a particular environment. It is important to set occupational exposure limits (OELs) to ensure the health and safety of workers, as well as comfort, because exposure to chemicals can elicit physiological and biochemical changes in the upper respiratory system. Standards are hard to set when exposures are not reported and can also be hard to measure. Workforce populations vary in terms of discomfort from odors because of exposure history or habituation, and they may not realize possible risks of exposure to chemicals that produce specific odors.


title: Odor

text: Some odors are sought after, such as from perfumes and flowers, some of which command high prices. Whole industries have developed around products that remove or mask unpleasant odors, such as deodorant.


title: Odor

text: Odor molecules transmit messages to the limbic system, the area of the brain that governs emotional responses. Some believe that these messages have the power to alter moods, evoke distant memories, raise spirits, and boost self-confidence. This belief has led to "aromatherapy", wherein fragrances are claimed to cure a wide range of psychological and physical problems. Aromatherapy claims that fragrances can positively affect sleep, stress, alertness, social interaction, and general feelings of well-being. Evidence for the effectiveness of aromatherapy is mostly anecdotal and controlled scientific studies to substantiate its claims are lacking.


title: Odor

text: Some people are allergic to the fragrances found in perfume, scented shampoo, scented deodorant, or similar products. Reactions, as with other chemical allergies, can range from slight headaches to anaphylactic shock, which can result in death.


title: Odor

text: Unpleasant odors play various roles in nature, often to warn of danger, though this may not be known to the subject who smells it. The natural gas industry uses odor to enable consumers to identify leaks. Natural gas in its native state is colorless and almost odorless. To help users detect leaks, an odorizer with the scent of rotten eggs, tert-Butylthiol (t-butyl mercaptan), is added. Sometimes a related compound, thiophane, may be used in the mixture.


title: Odor

text: An odor that is viewed as unpleasant by some people or cultures can be viewed as attractive by others where it is more familiar or has a better reputation. It is commonly thought that those exuding an unpleasant body odor are unattractive to others. But studies have shown that a person who is exposed to a particular unpleasant odor can be attracted to others who have been exposed to the same unpleasant odor. This includes odors associated with pollution.


title: Odor

text: What causes a substance to smell unpleasant may be different from what one perceives. For example, perspiration is often viewed as having an unpleasant odor, but it is odorless. It is bacteria in the perspiration that causes the odor.


title: Odor

text: Unpleasant odors can arise from specific industrial processes, adversely affecting workers and even residents downwind of the source. The most common sources of industrial odor arise from sewage treatment plants, refineries, animal rendering factories, and industries processing chemicals (such as sulfur) which have odorous characteristics. Sometimes industrial odor sources are the subject of community controversy and scientific analysis.


title: Odor

text: Body odor is present both in animals and humans and its intensity can be influenced by many factors (behavioral patterns, survival strategies). Body odor has a strong genetic basis both in animals and humans, but it can be also strongly influenced by various diseases and psychological conditions.


title: Odor

text: The study of odors is a growing field but is a complex and difficult one. The human olfactory system can detect many thousands of scents based on only minute airborne concentrations of a chemical. The sense of smell of many animals is even better. Some fragrant flowers give off "odor plumes" that move downwind and are detectable by bees more than a kilometer away.


title: Odor

text: The study of odors is complicated by the complex chemistry taking place at the moment of a smell sensation. For example, iron-containing metallic objects are perceived to have a distinctive odor when touched, although iron's vapor pressure is negligible. According to a 2006 study, this smell is the result of aldehydes (for example, nonanal) and ketones: 1-octen-3-one) released from the human skin on contact with ferrous ions that are formed in the sweat-mediated corrosion of iron. The same chemicals are also associated with the smell of blood, as ferrous iron in blood on skin produces the same reaction.


title: Odor

text: Pheromones are odors that are used for communication, and are sometimes called "airborne hormones". A female moth may release a pheromone that can entice a male moth that is several kilometers downwind. Honeybee queens constantly release pheromones that regulate the activity of the hive. Worker bees can release such smells to call other bees into an appropriate cavity when a swarm moves into new quarters, or to "sound" an alarm when the hive is threatened.


title: Odor

text: Most artificial or electronic nose instruments work by combining output from an array of non-specific chemical sensors to produce a fingerprint of whatever volatile chemicals in the local environment. Most electronic noses need to be "trained" to recognize chemicals of interest before it can be used. Many current electronic-nose instruments suffer from problems with reproducibility subject to varying ambient temperature and humidity. An example of this type of technology is the colorimetric sensor array, which visualizes odor through color change and creates a "picture" of it.


title: Odor

text: Odor perception is a complex process involving the central nervous system and can evoke psychological and physiological responses. Because the olfactory signal terminates in or near the amygdala, odors are strongly linked to memories and can evoke emotions. The amygdala participates in the hedonic or emotional processing of olfactory stimuli. Odors can disturb our concentration, diminish productivity, evoke symptoms, and in general increase a dislike for an environment. Odors can impact the liking for a person, place, food, or product as a form of conditioning. Memories recalled by odors are significantly more emotional and evocative than those recalled by the same cue presented visually or auditorily. Odors can become conditioned to experiential states and when later encountered have directional influences on behavior. Doing a frustrating task in a scented room decreases performance of other cognitive tasks in the presence of the same odor. Nonhuman animals communicate their emotional states through changes in body odor, and human body odors are indicative of emotional state.


title: Odor

text: Human body odors influence interpersonal relationships and are involved in adaptive behaviors, such as parental attachment in infants or partner choice in adults. "Mothers can discriminate the odor of their own child, and infants recognize and prefer the body odor of their mother over that of another woman. This maternal odor appears to guide infants toward the breast and to have a calming effect." Body odor is involved in the development of infant–mother attachment and is essential to a child's social and emotional development and evokes feelings of security. Reassurance created by familiar parental body odors may contribute significantly to the attachment process. Human body odors can also affect mate choice. Fragrances are commonly used to raise sexual attractiveness and induce sexual arousal. Researchers found that people choose perfume that interacts well with their body odor.


title: Odor

text: Body odor is a sensory cue critical for mate selection in humans because it is a signal of immunological health. Women prefer men with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genotypes and odor different from themselves especially during ovulation. Different MHC alleles are favorable because different allele combinations would maximize disease protection and minimize recessive mutations in offspring. Biologically females tend to select mates "who are most likely to secure offspring survival and thus increase the likelihood that her genetic contribution will be reproductively viable."


title: Odor

text: Studies have suggested that people might be using odor cues associated with the immune system to select mates. Using a brain-imaging technique, Swedish researchers have shown that gay and straight males' brains respond in different ways to two odors that may be involved in sexual arousal, and that the gay men respond in the same way as straight women, though it could not be determined whether this was cause or effect. The study was expanded to include lesbian women; the results were consistent with previous findings that lesbian women were not as responsive to male-identified odors, while their response to female cues was similar to that of straight males. According to the researchers, this research suggests a possible role for human pheromones in the biological basis of sexual orientation.


title: Odor

text: An odor can cue recall of a distant memory. Most memories that pertain to odor come from the first decade of life, compared to verbal and visual memories which usually come from the 10th to 30th years of life. Odor-evoked memories are more emotional, associated with stronger feelings of being brought back in time, and have been thought of less often as compared to memories evoked by other cues.


title: Odor

text: The sense of smell is not overlooked as a way of marketing products. The deliberate and controlled application of scent is used by designers, scientists, artists, perfumers, architects, and chefs. Some applications of scents in environments are in casinos, hotels, private clubs, and new automobiles. For example, "technicians at New York City’s Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center disperse vanilla-scented oil into the air to help patients cope with the claustrophobic effects of MRI testing. Scents are used at the Chicago Board of Trade to lower the decibel level on the trading floor."


title: Odor

text: Both men and women use perfume to boost their sexual attractiveness to members of the opposite, or same, sex. When people find that a particular perfume or aftershave is perceived positively, they may be hard-pressed to change it. Olfactory communication is natural in humans. Without perfume or aftershave, humans unconsciously detect people's natural scents: in the form of pheromones. Pheromones are usually detected unconsciously, and it is believed that they have an important influence on human's social and sexual behaviour There are a number of hypotheses concerning why humans wear perfume or aftershave, and whether it amplifies or reduces their natural scents.


title: Odor

text: In 2001, a study found that the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) (a polymorphic set of genes which is important for immune-function in humans) is correlated with the ingredients found in perfume. This suggests that humans do, in fact, choose perfumes that complement or enhance their natural scents (their pheromones). This evidence offers support for the hypothesis that perfume is chosen by individuals to advertise their physical health. Research suggests that this advertisement of good health will, in fact, enhance females’ attractiveness to the opposite sex as health markers have been shown to do. While strong evidence has been found to support the hypothesis that wearing perfume enhances females’ attractiveness to males, little research has been done into the effect of fragrance on males’ attractiveness to females. Considerably more research has covered the effect of males’ natural odor and females’ ratings of attractiveness. Many studies (e.g.) found that odor predicted attractiveness when female raters were not on any form of contraceptive pill. For those who were, there was no relation between attractiveness and body odor.


title: Odor

text: A person's odor can increase or decrease ratings of attractiveness because the olfactory receptors in the brain are directly linked with the limbic system, the part of the brain that is thought to be most involved with emotion. This link is important, because if an individual associates positive affect (elicited by pheromones), with a potential mate, their liking for, and attraction to, that potential mate will be increased. Although not a typically evolutionary hypothesis, this hypothesis is one that acknowledges how humans have adapted their mating strategies to modern-day societal norms.


title: Odor

text: Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a genotype found in vertebrates, including humans. MHC is thought to contribute to mate choice in animals and humans. In sexual selection, females opt for mates with an MHC which differs from their own, optimising genes for their offspring. The "heterozygote advantage" and "Red Queen" explanations for these findings fall under the "pathogen hypothesis". Due to differences in MHC alleles' resistance to pathogens, a preference for mates with a dissimilar MHC composition has been argued to act as a mechanism to avoid infectious diseases. According to the heterozygotes-advantage hypothesis, diversity within the MHC genotype is beneficial for the immune system due to a greater range of antigens available to the host. Therefore, the hypothesis proposes that MHC heterozygotes will be superior to MHC homozygotes in fighting off pathogens. Experimental research has shown mixed findings for this idea. The "Red Queen" or "rare-allele" hypothesis suggests that diversity in the MHC gene provides a moving target for pathogens, making it more difficult for them to adapt to MHC genotypes in the host. Another hypothesis suggests that preferences for MHC-dissimilar mates could serve to avoid inbreeding.


title: Odor

text: Body odor can provide MHC information. Although less is known about how odor is influenced by MHC genes, possible explanations have been that microbial flora or volatile acids are affected by the gene, which can be detected in body odor. Female mice and humans have both shown odor preferences for males with MHC-dissimilarity. Research has shown that women prefer the scent of men with dissimilar MHC genes. In a study, women rated the scent of T-shirts, worn over two nights by men, as more pleasant when smelling those of MHC-dissimilar men. It has also been found that women were reminded more of current or prior partners when smelling odors from men whose MHC was dissimilar to their own. A study of married couples found that MHC haplotypes differed between spouses more than chance would dictate. Taking oral contraceptives has been found to reverse the MHC-dissimilarity odor preference.


title: Odor

text: Women's preferences for body odor change with their menstrual cycles. The ovulatory-shift hypothesis argues that women experience elevated immediate sexual attraction, relative to low-fertile days of the cycle, to men with characteristics that reflect good genetic quality. Body odor may provide significant cues about a potential sexual partner's genetic quality, reproductive status, and health, with a woman's preferences for particular body odors becoming heightened during her most fertile days. As certain body odors can reflect good genetic quality, woman are more likely to prefer these scents when they are fertile, as this is when they are most likely to produce offspring with any potential mates, with conception-risk being related to a preference for the scent of male symmetry. Men also prefer the scent of women at their fertile cycle points.


title: Odor

text: There are several scents that reflect good genetic quality that females prefer during the most fertile phase of their cycles. Women prefer the scent of symmetrical men more during the fertile phases of their menstrual cycle than during their infertile phases, with estrogen positively predicting women's preferences for the scent of symmetry. Women's preferences for masculine faces is greatest when their fertility is at its highest, and so is the preference for attractive faces. Other scents found to be preferred by women in the most fertile phase of their cycle are the scent for developmental stability, and the scent for dominance.


title: Odor

text: If women are taking a contraceptive pill the changes in mate scent preferences over the menstrual cycle are not expressed. If odor plays a role in human mate choice then the contraceptive pill could disrupt disassortative mate preferences. Those taking a contraceptive pill show no significant preference for the scent of either symmetrical or asymmetrical men, whereas normally cycling women prefer the scent of shirts worn by symmetrical men. Males' preferences for women's scent may also change if the woman is taking oral contraceptives. When women take a contraceptive pill, this has been found to demolish the cycle attractiveness of odors that men find attractive in normally ovulating women. Therefore, a contraceptive pill affects both women's preferences for scent and also affects their own scents, making their scent less attractive to males than the scent of normally cycling women.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: The Hell Creek Formation is an intensively studied division of mostly Upper Cretaceous and some lower Paleocene rocks in North America, named for exposures studied along Hell Creek, near Jordan, Montana. The formation stretches over portions of Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming. In Montana, the Hell Creek Formation overlies the Fox Hills Formation. The site of Pompeys Pillar National Monument is a small isolated section of the Hell Creek Formation. In 1966, the Hell Creek Fossil Area was designated as a National Natural Landmark by the National Park Service.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: It is a series of fresh and brackish-water clays, mudstones, and sandstones deposited during the Maastrichtian and Danian (respectively, the end of the Cretaceous period and the beginning of the Paleogene) by fluvial activity in fluctuating river channels and deltas and very occasional peaty swamp deposits along the low-lying eastern continental margin fronting the late Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway. The climate was mild, and the presence of crocodilians suggests a subtropical climate, with no prolonged annual cold. The famous iridium-enriched Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, which separates the Cretaceous from the Cenozoic, occurs as a discontinuous but distinct thin marker bedding above and occasionally within the formation, near its boundary with the overlying Fort Union Formation.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: The world's largest collection of Hell Creek fossils is housed and exhibited at the Museum of the Rockies, in Bozeman, Montana. The specimens displayed are the result of the museum's Hell Creek Project, a joint effort between the museum, Montana State University, the University of Washington, the University of California, Berkeley, the University of North Dakota, and the University of North Carolina which began in 1998.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: The Hell Creek Formation is an intensively studied geological formation of mostly Upper Cretaceous and some Early Paleocene rocks in North America, named for exposures studied along Hell Creek, near Jordan, Montana. The formation stretches over portions of Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming. In Montana, the Hell Creek Formation overlies the Fox Hills Formation.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: In 1966, the Hell Creek Fossil Area was designated as a National Natural Landmark by the National Park Service.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: The Hell Creek Formation in Montana overlies the Fox Hills Formation and underlies the Fort Union Formation, and the boundary with the latter occurs near the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary (K-Pg), which defines the end of the Cretaceous period and has been dated to 66 ± 0.07 Ma old. The thickness of the formation is estimated to have been deposited in about 2 million years. Fauna characteristic of the Hell Creek (Lancian land vertebrate age ) are found as high as a few meters below the boundary.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: The K-Pg boundary is generally situated near the contact between the upper Hell Creek and the lower Ludlow member of the Fort Union Formation, though in some areas (e.g. in North Dakota) the boundary is well within the Ludlow Member, above the boundary with the Hell Creek in some areas. On the other hand, in some small regions of Montana, the Hell Creek Formation contains the K-Pg boundary, and extends slightly into the Paleogene.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: The Tanis site in North Dakota contains evidence of what is proposed to be a record of the effects of the Chicxulub meteorite impact – such as the chaotic mixing of fossil carcasses and a layer of glass tektites with associated impact impressions – deposited minutes to hours after the impact.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: The remains of many animals including dinosaurs were found in the Hell Creek Formation. Its location at the changing conjunction of the eastern coast of Laramidia and the adjacent western shallows of the Western Interior Seaway led to the preservation of fossils of both marine and terrestrial creatures. Vertebrates include dinosaurs, pterosaurs, crocodiles, champsosaurs, lizards, snakes, turtles, frogs and salamanders. Remains of fishes and mammals have also been found in the Hell Creek Formation. The formation has produced impressive assemblages of invertebrates (including ammonites), plants, mammals, fish, reptiles (including the lizard "Obamadon"), marine reptiles (including the marine reptiles like mosasaurs, plesiosaurs and sea turtles), and amphibians. Notable dinosaur finds include "Tyrannosaurus" and "Triceratops," ornithomimids as well, caenagnathids like "Anzu", a variety of small theropods, pachycephalosaurs, ankylosaurs, crocodylomorphs and squamates, including various animal fossils unearthed in the Hell Creek Formation. The most complete hadrosaurid dinosaur ever found, an "Edmontosaurus," was retrieved in 2000 from the Hell Creek Formation and widely publicized in a "National Geographic" documentary aired in December 2007. A few bird, mammal, and pterosaur fossils have also been found. The teeth of sharks and rays are sometimes found in the riverine Hell Creek Formation, suggesting that some of these taxa were then, as now, tolerant of fresh water. The "Lancian" fauna is more similar overall phylogenetically to East Asian and Canadian/Alaskan faunas than most Campanian North American faunas. Fossil insects from inclusions found within amber are known.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: It is a series of fresh and brackish-water clays, mudstones, and sandstones deposited during the Maastrichtian and Danian (respectively, the end of the Cretaceous period and the beginning of the Paleogene) by fluvial activity in fluctuating channels and deltas and very occasional peaty swamp deposits along the low-lying eastern continental margin fronting the late Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway. The Hell Creek Formation, as typified by exposures in the Fort Peck area of Montana, has been interpreted as a flat, forested floodplain with a relatively subtropical climate that supported a variety of plants ranging from angiosperm trees to conifers such as the bald cypress, ferns and ginkgos. The Hell Creek Formation was laid down by streams, on a coastal plain along the edge of the Western Interior Seaway. The presence of crocodylians suggests climate was subtropical; there was no cold season and probably ample precipitation.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: The Hell Creek Formation, Lance Formation and Scollard Formation represent different sections of the western shore of the shallow sea that divided western and eastern North America during the Cretaceous. Swampy lowlands were the habitat of various animals, including dinosaurs. A broad coastal plain extended westward from the seaway to the newly formed Rocky Mountains. These formations are composed largely of sandstone and mudstone which have been attributed to floodplain, fluvial, lacustrine, swamp, estuarine and coastal plain environments. Hell Creek is the best studied of these ancient environments. At the time, this region had a subtropical, warm and moist climate. The climate was humid, with flowering plants, conifers, palmettos, and ferns in the swamps, and conifers, canopy, understory plants, ash trees, live oak and shrubs in the forests. In northwestern South Dakota, strips of black layers deposited in the wetland environment are rich in coal, and a bright band-like layer of sand and mud from the river floodplain accumulated. Many plant species were supported, primarily angiosperms, and less commonly conifers, bald cypress, ferns and cycads. An abundance of fossil leaves are found at dozens of different sites indicating that the area was largely forested by small trees.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: A paleo-population study is one of the most difficult of analyses to conduct in field paleontology. Here is the most recent estimate of the proportions of the eight most common dinosaurian families in the Hell Creek Formation, based on detailed field studies by Horner, Goodwin, and Myhrvold (2011).


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: Outcrops sampled by the Hell Creek Project were divided into three sections: lower, middle and upper slices. The top and bottom sections were the focus of the PLoS One report, and within each portion many remains of "Triceratops", "Edmontosaurus", and "Tyrannosaurus" were found. "Triceratops" was the most common in each section, but, surprisingly, "Tyrannosaurus" was just as common, if not slightly more common, than the hadrosaur "Edmontosaurus". In the upper Hell Creek section, for example, the census included twenty two "Triceratops", five "Tyrannosaurus", and five "Edmontosaurus".


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: The dinosaurs "Thescelosaurus", "Ornithomimus", "Pachycephalosaurus" and "Ankylosaurus" were also included in the breakdown, but were relatively rare. Other dinosaurs, such as "Sphaerotholus", "Denversaurus", "Torosaurus", "Struthiomimus", "Acheroraptor", "Dakotaraptor", "Pectinodon," a possible "Parasaurolophus walkeri", "Richardoestesia", "Paronychodon", "Anzu", "Leptorhynchos" and "Troodon (more likely Pectinodon)", were reported as being rare and are not included in the breakdown.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: The dinosaur collections made over the past decade during the Hell Creek Project yielded new information from an improved genus-level collecting schema and robust data set that revealed relative dinosaur abundances that were unexpected, and ontogenetic age classes previously considered rare. We recognize a much higher percentage of "Tyrannosaurus" than previous surveys. "Tyrannosaurus" equals "Edmontosaurus" in U3 and in L3 comprises a greater percentage of the large dinosaur fauna as the second-most abundant taxon after "Triceratops", followed by "Edmontosaurus". This is surprisingly consistent in (1) the two major lag deposits (MOR loc. HC-530 and HC-312) in the Apex sandstone and Jen-rex sand where individual bones were counted and (2) in two thirds of the formation reflected in L3 and U3 records of dinosaur skeletons only.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: "Triceratops" is by far the most common dinosaur at 40% (n = 72), "Tyrannosaurus" is second at 24% (n = 44), "Edmontosaurus" is third at 20% (n = 36), followed by "Thescelosaurus" at 8% (n = 15), "Ornithomimus" at 5% (n = 9), and "Pachycephalosaurus" and "Ankylosaurus" both at 1% (n = 2) are relatively rare.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: Fossil footprints of dinosaurs from the Hell Creek Formation are very rare. As of 2017, there is only one find of a possible "Tyrannosaurus rex" footprint, dating from 2007 and described a year later. The largest Triceratops skull ever discovered, nicknamed 'Dragon King', was found in Glendive, Montana, which is in the Hell Creek Formation.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: Historically, numerous teeth have been attributed to various Dromaeosaurid and Troodontid taxa with known body fossils from only older formations, including "Dromaeosaurus", "Saurornitholestes", and "Troodon". However, in a 2013 study, Evans "et al." concluded that there is little evidence for more than a single dromaeosaurid taxon, "Acheroraptor", in the Hell Creek-Lance assemblages, which would render these taxa invalid for this formation. This was disproved in a 2015 study, DePalma "et al.", when they described the new genus "Dakotaraptor", a large species of dromaeosaur. Fossilized teeth of various troodontids and coelurosaurs are common throughout the Hell Creek Formation; the best known examples include "Paronychodon", "Pectinodon" and "Richardoestesia", respectively.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: The Hell Creek Formation was a low floodplain at the time before the sea retreated, and in the wet ground of the dense woodland, laurels, sycamores, beech, magnolias, and palm trees grew. Ferns and moss grew in the forest understory. Plant fossils from the upper early Paleocene of the Hell Creek Formation include the ferns "Botrychium", "Woodwardia", "Osmunda", "Onoclea" and "Azolla"; conifers "Metasequoia", "Glyptostrobus" and Cupressaceous conifers; the monocot "Limnobiophyllum" (a relative of duckweeds); and the dicots "Cercidiphyllum" and "Platanus". There are numerous types of leaves, seeds, flowers and other structures from Angiosperms, or flowering plants. The Hell Creek Formation of this layer contains 300 tablets or more of plants. Angiosperms are by far the most diverse and dominant flora of the entire population, about 90 percent. However, the evergreens included conifers, ginkgo, bald cypress, and cycads. Flowering plants included a variety of trees that no longer exist. Today Hell Creek's flora is hardwood forest mixed with deciduous and evergreen forest and apparently similar to then, but with a closer look, the current plant community is distinct. In sharp contrast to Montana today, the presence of palm trees meant the climate was warmer then.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: Kirk Johnson claims that there are no grasses, oaks, maples, or willows in the Hell Creek Formation. Ferns are uncommon in the majority of the formation, however there is a great increase in the abundance of fossil fern spores in the two centimeters of rock that directly overlies the impact fallout layer (the famous K-T boundary layer). This increase in fern spore abundance is commonly referred to as "the fern spike" (meaning that if the abundance of spores as a function of stratigraphic position were plotted out, the graph would show a spike just above the impact fallout layer). Johnson also found that the majority of the angiosperm genera in the Hell Creek Formation are now extinct. He also believes that, very roughly, 80% of the terrestrial plant taxa died out in what is now Montana and the Dakotas at the K/T boundary.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: Many of the modern plant affinities in the Hell Creek Formation (e.g., those with the prefix "aff." or with quotes around the genus name) may not in reality belong to these genera; instead they could be entirely different plants that resemble modern genera. Therefore, there is some question regarding whether the modern "Populus" or "Juglans", as two examples, actually lived in the late Cretaceous.


title: Hell Creek Formation

text: Compared to the rich Hell Creek Formation fossil plant localities of the Dakotas, relatively few plant specimens have been collected from Montana. A few taxa were collected at Brownie Butte Montana by Shoemaker, but most plants were collected from North Dakota (Slope County) and from South Dakota. "TYPE" after the binomial means that it is represented by a type specimen found in the Yale-Peabody Museum collections. "YPM" is the prefix for the Yale-Peabody Museum specimen number.


title: NeXT Computer

text: NeXT Computer (also called the NeXT Computer System) is a workstation computer that was developed, marketed, and sold by NeXT Inc. It was introduced in October 1988 as the company's first and flagship product, at a price of , aimed at the higher-education market. It was designed around the Motorola 68030 CPU and 68882 floating-point coprocessor, with a clock speed of . Its NeXTSTEP operating system is based on the Mach microkernel and BSD-derived Unix, with a proprietary GUI using a Display PostScript-based back end. The enclosure consists of a 1-foot () die-cast magnesium cube-shaped black case, which led to the machine being informally referred to as "The Cube".


title: NeXT Computer

text: The NeXT Computer was renamed NeXTcube in a later upgrade. The NeXTstation, a more affordable version of the NeXTcube, was released in 1990.


title: NeXT Computer

text: The NeXT Computer was launched in October 1988 at a lavish invitation-only event, "NeXT Introduction – the Introduction to the NeXT Generation of Computers for Education" at the Louise M. Davies Symphony Hall in San Francisco, California. The next day, selected educators and software developers were invited to attend—for a $100 registration fee—the first public technical overview of the NeXT computer at an event called "The NeXT Day" at the San Francisco Hilton. It gave those interested in developing NeXT software an insight into the system's software architecture and object-oriented programming. Steve Jobs was the luncheon's speaker.


title: NeXT Computer

text: In 1989, "BYTE" magazine listed the NeXT Computer among the "Excellence" winners of the BYTE Awards, stating that it showed "what can be done when a personal computer is designed as a system, and not a collection of hardware elements". Citing as "truly innovative" the optical drive, DSP and object-oriented programming environment, it concluded that "the NeXT Computer is worth every penny of its $6,500 market price". It was, however, not a significant commercial success, failing to reach the level of high-volume sales like the Apple II, Commodore 64, Macintosh, or Microsoft Windows PCs. The workstations were sold to universities, financial institutions, and government agencies.


title: NeXT Computer

text: A NeXT Computer and its object-oriented development tools and libraries were used by Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Cailliau at CERN to develop the world's first web server (CERN httpd) and web browser (WorldWideWeb).


title: NeXT Computer

text: The NeXT platform was used by Jesse Tayler at Paget Press to develop the first electronic app store, called the Electronic AppWrapper, in the early 1990s. Issue #3 was first demonstrated to Steve Jobs at NeXTWorld Expo 1993.


title: NeXT Computer

text: Pioneering PC games "Doom", "Doom II", and "Quake" (with respective level editors) were developed by id Software on NeXT machines. "Doom" engine games such as "Heretic", "", and "Strife" were also developed on NeXT hardware using id's tools.


title: NeXT Computer

text: NeXT technology provisioned the first online food delivery system called CyberSlice, using GIS based geolocation, on which Steve Jobs performed the first online order of pizza with tomato and basil. CyberSlice was curated into the Inventions of the 20th Century, Computer Science at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C.


title: Hejira (album)

text: Hejira is the eighth studio album by Canadian singer-songwriter Joni Mitchell, released in 1976 on Asylum Records. Its material was written during a period of frequent travel in late 1975 and early 1976, and reflects Mitchell's experiences during that time. Characterized by lyrically dense, sprawling songs, as well as the overdubbed fretless bass playing of Jaco Pastorius, "Hejira" continued the musician's journey towards a freer, jazz-inspired sound.


title: Hejira (album)

text: Lead track "Coyote" was released as a single. The album did not sell as well as its predecessors, peaking at No. 22 in her native Canada. It reached No. 13 on the "Billboard" 200 pop album chart in the United States, where it was certified gold by the RIAA, and No. 11 in the UK, where it attained a silver certification. Critically, the album was generally well received, and in the years since its release, "Hejira" has been considered one of the high marks of her career.


title: Hejira (album)

text: According to Mitchell, the album was written during or after three journeys she took in late 1975 and the first half of 1976. The first was a stint as a member of Bob Dylan's Rolling Thunder Revue in late 1975. During this time period, she became a frequent cocaine user, and it would take several years for her to kick the addiction.


title: Hejira (album)

text: In February 1976, Mitchell was scheduled to play about six weeks of concert dates across the US promoting "The Hissing of Summer Lawns". However, the relationship between Mitchell and her boyfriend John Guerin (who was acting as her drummer on the string of dates) soured, possibly due to Mitchell's fling with playwright and actor Sam Shepard during the Rolling Thunder Revue. Tensions became so fraught that the tour was abandoned about halfway through.


title: Hejira (album)

text: The third trip came soon after when Mitchell traveled across America with two men, one of them being a former lover from Australia. This trip inspired six of the songs on the album. She drove with her two friends from Los Angeles to Maine, and then went back to California alone via Florida and the Gulf of Mexico. She traveled without a driver's licence and stayed behind truckers, relying on their habit of signaling when the police were ahead of them; consequently, she only drove in daylight hours.


title: Hejira (album)

text: During some of her solo journeys, Mitchell donned a red wig, sunglasses, and told the varying strangers she met that her name was either "Charlene Latimer" or "Joan Black". Despite the disguise, Mitchell was still sometimes recognized.


title: Hejira (album)

text: During the recording of her albums "Court and Spark" and "The Hissing of Summer Lawns", Mitchell grew increasingly frustrated by the rock session musicians who had been hired to perform her music. "...There were grace notes and subtleties and things that I thought were getting kind of buried." The session musicians in turn recommended that Mitchell start looking for jazz instrumentalists to perform on her records. In addition, her relationship with drummer John Guerin (which lasted through a significant portion of the mid-1970s) influenced her decision to move more towards experimental jazz music and further away from her folk and pop roots.


title: Hejira (album)

text: After recording the basic tracks that would become "Hejira", Mitchell met bassist Jaco Pastorius and they formed an immediate musical connection; Mitchell was dissatisfied with what she called the "dead, distant bass sound" of the 1960s and early 1970s, and was beginning to wonder why the bass part always had to play the root of a chord. She overdubbed his bass parts on four of the tracks on "Hejira" and released the album in November 1976.


title: Hejira (album)

text: Dominated by Mitchell's guitar and Pastorius's fretless bass, the album drew on a range of influences but was more cohesive and accessible than some of her later more jazz-oriented work. "Coyote", "Amelia", and "Hejira" became concert staples especially after being featured on the live album "Shadows and Light" alongside "Furry Sings the Blues" and "Black Crow".


title: Hejira (album)

text: The album title is an unusual transliteration of the Arabic word more commonly rendered as "Hegira" or "Hijra", which means "departure or exodus", usually referring to the migration of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (and his companions) from Mecca to Medina in 622. Mitchell later stated that when she chose the title, she was looking for a word that meant "running away with honor". She found the word "hejira" while reading the dictionary, and was drawn to the "dangling j, like in "Aja"... it's leaving the dream, no blame".


title: Hejira (album)

text: The portrait of Mitchell on the front cover was taken by Norman Seeff and the other photographs were taken by Joel Bernstein at Lake Mendota, in Madison, Wisconsin, after an ice storm. Figure skater Toller Cranston appears on the back cover. During a 1994 interview with "Rolling Stone", Mitchell cited the cover of "Hejira" as one of which she was particularly proud: "A lot of work went into that."


title: Hejira (album)

text: Mitchell has described the album as "really inspired... there is this restless feeling throughout it... The sweet loneliness of solitary travel", and has said that "I suppose a lot of people could have written a lot of my other songs, but I feel the songs on "Hejira" could only have come from me."


title: Hejira (album)

text: "Hejira" opens with "Coyote", about a one-night stand with a ladies' man, speculated by several biographers to be Shepard. Mitchell would later perform the song with The Band at their 1976 farewell concert, which was eventually released under the title "The Last Waltz" (1978).


title: Hejira (album)

text: The second track on "Hejira", "Amelia", was inspired by Mitchell's breakup with then-partner John Guerin, and described by her as almost an exact account of her experience in the desert. The song interweaves a story of a desert journey (the "hejira within the hejira") with the famous aviator Amelia Earhart who mysteriously vanished during a flight over the Pacific Ocean. Mitchell has commented on the origins of the song: "I was thinking of Amelia Earhart and addressing it from one solo pilot to another... sort of reflecting on the cost of being a woman and having something you must do." The song, each verse of which ends with the refrain "Amelia, it was just a false alarm", repeatedly shifts between two keys, giving it a constant unsettled feeling.


title: Hejira (album)

text: "Furry Sings the Blues", with Neil Young on harmonica, is an account of Mitchell meeting the blues guitarist and singer Furry Lewis in Beale Street, Memphis during a period when the surrounding area was being demolished. Lewis was displeased with Mitchell's use of his name. Mitchell would return to the song live in concert throughout the years. Like "Coyote", "Furry Sings the Blues" was sung by Mitchell at The Band's farewell concert. This version of the song was not included on the 1978 version of "The Last Waltz" but was included on the 2002 re-release.


title: Hejira (album)

text: "A Strange Boy" recounts the affair Mitchell had with one of the men she was traveling with from Los Angeles to Maine; he was a flight attendant in his thirties who lived with his parents.


title: Hejira (album)

text: "Hejira" is about Mitchell's reasons for leaving Guerin, and Mitchell described it as probably the toughest tune on the album to write. It features the bass work of Pastorius, who was inspired by Mitchell's use of multi-tracking with her guitar to mix four separate tracks of his carefully arranged bass parts, having them all play together at certain points of the tune.


title: Hejira (album)

text: Side two of "Hejira" begins with the epic "Song for Sharon", which at eight minutes and 40 seconds stands as the longest track on the album. The lyrics deal with the conflict faced by a woman who is deciding between freedom and marriage. The song references the places Mitchell went during her trip to New York City, including scenes at Mandolin Brothers guitar store in Staten Island and a visit to a fortune teller on Bleecker Street. The song was allegedly written while Mitchell was high on cocaine at the end of her visit to the city.


title: Hejira (album)

text: The namesake of the song was her childhood friend Sharon Bell, who studied voice and wanted to be a singer when she was young but married a farmer; Mitchell wanted to be a farmer's wife, but ended up becoming a singer. The song also mentions the blowout fight and abandoned midwestern tour that served as the death knell for Mitchell's relationship with Guerin: "I left my man at a North Dakota junction, and I came out to the Big Apple here to face the dream's malfunction."


title: Hejira (album)

text: According to biographer Sheila Weller, "Song For Sharon" also makes a coded reference to the March 1976 suicide of Jackson Browne's wife, fashion model Phyllis Major. Browne and Mitchell had a brief, "high-strung" affair in 1972; on at least one occasion, Browne allegedly physically abused Mitchell. After their relationship dissolved, Browne quickly married Major. Although Major had died from a barbiturate overdose, Mitchell sang "A woman I knew just drowned herself", and questioned if her suicide was a means of "punishing somebody".


title: Hejira (album)

text: "Black Crow"'s lyrics deal with the practical difficulty for Mitchell of traveling from her second home on British Columbia's Sunshine Coast.


title: Hejira (album)

text: "Blue Motel Room" was written at the DeSoto Beach Motel in Savannah, Georgia. The song was inspired by the first breakup of the on-again-off-again relationship between Mitchell and Guerin. The lyrics express Mitchell's hopes of rekindling their relationship, and she tells her love interest to rebuff any other suitors: "Tell those girls that you've got German Measles, honey tell 'em you've got germs."


title: Hejira (album)

text: "Refuge of the Roads" was written about a three-day visit that Mitchell had made to the controversial Buddhist meditation master Chögyam Trungpa in Colorado on her way back to Los Angeles. According to Mitchell, it was during this visit in early 1976 that Trungpa cured her of her own cocaine addiction. She would later say that this track was one of her own favorite songs, and would rerecord the tune, along with "Amelia" and "Hejira", with a full orchestra for her 2002 album "Travelogue". The song also alludes to Apollo 8 astronaut Bill Anders' celebrated photograph of the Earth rising over the Moon, "Earthrise".


title: Hejira (album)

text: The album was released in November 1976 by Asylum Records. Despite reaching No. 13 on the "Billboard" 200 pop album chart and attaining a RIAA gold certification, it failed to garner significant radio airplay.


title: Hejira (album)

text: Reviewing for "Rolling Stone", Ariel Swartley felt that Mitchell had abandoned melodies and memorable tunes in favour of "new, seductive rhythms" and "lush guitars", with the resulting sound, despite its "apparent simplicity", as "sophisticated and arresting as anything she's done". "Village Voice" critic Robert Christgau was impressed with the way that "Mitchell subjugates melody to the natural music of language itself", but wondered whether "the reflections of a rich, faithless, compulsively mobile, and compulsively romantic female" were uniquely interesting "the third or fourth time around".


title: Hejira (album)

text: In a 2022 review for "Pitchfork", critic Jenn Pelly described the album as "restless music of road and sky […in which] narratives unfurl with driving forward motion", adding that "the fretless bass, spare percussion, and unusual harmonics depict [Mitchell's] wintry lucidity."


title: Hejira (album)

text: Musicians such as Björk, Danielle Haim, Weyes Blood, and St. Vincent have named the album as their favorite.


title: Hejira (album)

text: It was voted number 776 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's "All Time Top 1000 Albums" (2000). In the 2020 edition of "Rolling Stone"s 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, it was ranked No. 133.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia (; 18 September 1891 – 5 March 1942) was a son of Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia, a grandson of Tsar Alexander II of Russia and a first cousin of Tsar Nicholas II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (consort of Queen Elizabeth II).


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: His early life was marked by the death of his mother and his father's banishment from Russia after marrying a commoner in 1902. Grand Duke Dmitri and his elder sister Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna, to whom he remained very close throughout his life, were raised in Moscow by their paternal uncle Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich and his wife Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna of Russia, a sister of Tsarina Alexandra Feodorovna. His uncle was killed in 1905 and as his aunt entered religious life, Dmitri spent a great deal of his youth in the company of Tsar Nicholas II and his immediate family at the Alexander Palace as they viewed him almost like a foster son.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: Grand Duke Dmitri followed a military career, graduating from the . He was commissioned as a cornet in the Horse Guards Regiment. An excellent equestrian, he competed in the Olympic Games of 1912 in Stockholm. As a grandson of Tsar Alexander II on the male line, he occupied a prominent position as the Russian Imperial court, but he had little interest in his military career, leading instead a fast life. Through his friendship with Felix Yusupov, he took part in the assassination of the mystic peasant Grigori Rasputin, who was seen to have undue influence on the Tsar and his wife.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: Banished to the war front in Persia, he escaped the Russian Revolution and emigrated to Western Europe. He lived briefly in England and during the 1920s in Paris, where he had a brief but notorious affair with the famous French fashion designer Coco Chanel. He also lived briefly in the United States. In 1926, he married Audrey Emery, an American heiress. The couple had a son before divorcing in 1937.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: As the youngest Grand Duke to have survived the Russian Revolution, he was a prominent figure of the Russian community in exile, but he was not interested in politics, supporting instead the claim of his first cousin Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich of Russia. By the outbreak of World War II, his health was already in decline and he died of tuberculosis in Davos, Switzerland aged 50.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: Grand Duke Dmitri was born on 18 September [O.S. 6 September] 1891 at , the country estate of his uncle Grand Duke Serge Alexandrovich. He was the second child and only son of Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich and his first wife, Grand Duchess Alexandra Georgievna of Russia, born Princess Alexandra of Greece and Denmark. Dmitri's father, Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich, was the youngest child of Tsar Alexander II of Russia and his first wife, Empress Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, née Princess (Maximiliane Wilhelmine Auguste Sophie) Marie of Hesse and by Rhine. Dmitri's mother, Alexandra, was a daughter of George I of Greece and Olga Konstantinovna of Russia, and an older sister of Andrew who was the father of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, making them as first cousins. He was also first cousins with Marie, Queen of Romania and Grand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna of Russia, who were the daughters of his paternal aunt Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia who married Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the second son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: Alexandra was seven months pregnant with Dmitri when, while she was out with friends, she jumped into a boat, falling as she got in. The next day, she collapsed in the middle of a ball from violent labor pains brought on by the previous day's activities; Dmitri was born in the hours following the accident. Alexandra slipped into a coma from which she never emerged. She died of eclampsia six days after Dmitri's birth. Although doctors had no hope for Dmitri's survival, he still lived, with the help of his uncle Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia, who gave the premature Dmitri the baths that were prescribed by the doctors, wrapped him in cotton wool and kept him in a cradle filled with hot water bottles to keep his temperature regulated, the treatment of the time to keep premature babies alive.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: Grand Duke Paul was so distraught by the unexpected death of his young wife that he initially neglected his two small children: Dmitri and his older sister Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna. The children were cared for by Paul's elder brother, Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, who had no children of his own. In his widowhood, Grand Duke Paul settled with his children in his palace in St Petersburg. The children occupied a nursery suite on the second floor, looked after by nurses and attendants.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: A commander of the Imperial horse Guards, Grand Duke Paul loved his children, but as was customary at the time, he refrained from showing them spontaneous affection. Dmitri and his sister were raised by governesses and tutors, while they adored their father who visited them twice daily. The children spent Christmases and later some summer holidays with Grand Duke Sergei and his wife Grand Duchess Elisabeth Feodorovna. The couple set aside a playroom and bedrooms for the youngsters at their country home, Ilinskoe.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: In 1895, Grand Duke Paul began an affair with a married woman, Olga Valerianova Pistolkors. He was able to obtain a divorce for her and he eventually married Olga in 1902, while the couple was staying abroad. As they had married defying Nicholas II's opposition, the Tsar forbade them to return to Russia and Grand Duke Paul was not allowed to take the children with him into exile. Left fatherless, eleven-year-old Dmitri and his twelve-year-old sister were sent to live with their uncle, Grand Duke Sergei, and his wife Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna (the Empress's sister), in Moscow.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: The loss of their father and the sudden move to Moscow caused the children great distress. In her memoirs, Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna (the Younger) describes Grand Duke Sergei as a stern disciplinarian, and his wife, Grand Duchess Elizabeth as a cold and unwelcoming presence.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: Grand Duke Dmitri was educated at home by private tutors. Like all male members of the Romanov family, he was destined to follow a military career which traditionally began for a Grand Duke at the age of seven. This was delayed, in Dmitri's case, until he was nine years old. In the spring of 1901, his education was entrusted to General George Mikhailovich Laiming. Laiming was a warm, affectionate man who became devoted to his charge. He moved into the place with his wife and their four-year-old son Boris. In their apartments, Dmitri and his sister enjoyed a warm family environment. In 1903, at the age of twelve, Dmitri was enrolled in the Chevalier Guard regiment following studies at the Calvary Academy.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: On 4 February 1905, Grand Duke Sergei, who had recently resigned from the post of Governor-General of Moscow, was assassinated by Ivan Kalyaev, a member of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. Kalyaev, armed with a homemade bomb, had aborted his first attempt to kill the Grand Duke when he spotted Dmitri and Marie with their uncle in his carriage. His uncle's death was only one of several assassinations that robbed Dmitri of close family members. After Sergei's death, Dmitri's father, Grand Duke Paul was allowed to return to Russia to attend the funeral. He asked Nicholas II to restore the custody of his children but instead, Nicholas named Sergei's widow Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna as the children's guardian.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: Maria Pavlovna continued to have some feelings of anger toward her aunt, whom she would blame for her overly hasty marriage to Prince Wilhem of Sweden in 1908, but Dmitri formed a very strong bond with Elizabeth and came to admire her personal fortitude.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: Maria Pavlovna's wedding to Prince William took place at Tsarskoe Selo in 1908, and she departed for Sweden with her husband. Elizabeth Feodorovna stayed on for a time at Alexander Palace in Tsarskoe Selo as guests of the Emperor and the Empress. It was during this period that Dmitri began to form a close bond with Nicholas II, looking upon him as a surrogate father. He joined him on his daily walks and sought to spend as much time with him as possible. Nicholas, in turn, treated Dmitri very kindly. He seems to have loved the young man's free spirit and sense of humor, a welcome diversion from the stresses of his daily life.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: In 1909, Dmitri left his aunt's care to move to St Petersburg with his head tutor and companion, General Laiming. He lived at his father's vacant palace and then at the Beloselsky-Belozersky Palace, which he had inherited from his uncle Grand Duke Sergei and this would become his principal residence until he left Russia. He prepared to enter the Nikolaevskoe Cavalry School. Upon graduation, he was commissioned as a cornet in the Horse Guards Regiment, which his father had once commanded and in which he had been enrolled at birth. He was an excellent equestrian, and he competed in the 1912 Stockholm Olympics in the Equestrian Individual and Team Jumping events. He placed ninth in Individual Jumping and fifth in Team Jumping. Disappointed in the performance of the Russian team, Dmitri started the idea of a national Russian sports competition, the very beginning of what under Soviet rule became the Spartakiad.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: In Spring 1914, Dmitri's father returned to live in Russia settling with his second wife and new family at Tsarskoye Selo. Around the same time, Dmitri's sister, Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna, who had divorced her husband, returned to Russia moving with Dmitri.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: A few months later, World War I began. All members of the family joined the war effort. Dmitri served with the Life Guards Horse Regiment, participating in the campaign in East Prussia. During the first weeks of the war he was awarded the Order of St. George after he rescued a wounded corporal under heavy gunfire.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: In August 1915 when Nicholas II left St. Petersburg to take full command of the Russian armies fighting World War I, his wife Empress Alexandra Feodorovna took on the daily administrative affairs of the government from the capital. Alexandra relied on Grigori Rasputin, a peasant healer who appeared to have brought her hemophiliac son Alexei, the Tsarevich, back from the brink of death. As Russian defeats mounted during the war, both Rasputin and Alexandra became increasingly unpopular. Eventually, Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich joined Felix Yusupov, Vladimir Purishkevich (the leader of the monarchists in the Duma) Dr. Stanislaus de Lazovert and Lieutenant Sergei Mikhailovich Sukhotin, an officer in the Preobrazhensky Regiment, in a conspiracy to kill Grigory Rasputin hoping that ending his influence over the Imperial Family this would have a beneficial effect on the Tsar's policies.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: On Friday night 16/17 December (OS), Yusupov, who had visited Rasputin regularly in the past few months for treatment, invited Rasputin to his home. With Stanislaus de Lazovert dressed in a chauffeur uniform, Felix went to Rasputin's home to pick him up. Around 1:30 am, they arrived at Yusupov's Moika Palace where a room in the basement in the east wing had been specially prepared for the killing. For about an hour, Felix entertained the unsuspected Rasputin with red wine until he got him drunk. Then, while both were sitting, Yusupov shot Rasputin at close range using Dmitri's Browning pistol. The bullet entered Rasputin's body from the left side perforating the stomach, liver, and kidney. The wound was lethal, but Rasputin did not die right away, bleeding profusely instead. In shock, Yusupov let Rasputin alone to die. He joined his fellow conspirators: Grand Duke Dmitri, politician Vladimir Purishkevich, and army officer Sergei Mikhailovich Sukhotin who were waiting in a ground floor study/drawing-room. Meanwhile, Rasputin, still alive, tried to flee through a side door into a gated courtyard that opened onto the street outside. Alarmed he might escape, Purishkevich then shot Rasputin in the back, on the doorstep. The bullet lodged into the vertebral column. The body was taken inside and Rasputin was shot in the forehead at point-blank range. In a rage, Yusopov kicked Rasputin's corpse with the tip of his military boots, smashing his nose and right eye and disfiguring his face. Then the assassins drove to Varshavsky Rail Terminal where they burned Rasputin's clothes and returned to Yusupov's home. At 4.50 a.m. Dmitri drove the men and Rasputin's body, wrapped in a broadcloth, to Petrovskii Bridge, which crossed to Krestovsky Island. About 5 a.m, they threw the body into the Malaya Neva into a hole they made in the ice. All along, Grand Duke Dmitri, who was driving the car, never saw Rasputin.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: News of Rasputin's murder spread quickly. That Saturday, an evening newspaper already published details of the assassination correctly identifying the place and some of the details. By Sunday, Dmitri was placed under house arrest. Felix Yusupov, who had tried to flee to Crimea was stopped at the train station. He was then living at his mother-in-law's palace, but on the advice of his uncle by marriage Grand Duke Nicholas Michailovich, he moved to Dmitri's palace for protection as it was the prerogative of the Tsar alone to prosecute members of the Imperial family.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: Rasputin's body was found on 19 December by a river policeman who was walking on the ice and discovered the frozen body. The post-mortem was held the following day. Major-General Popel carried out the investigation of the murder. By this time Dr. Stanislaus de Lazovert and Lieutenant Sergei Mikhailovich Sukhotin had fled from the city. He did interview Grand Duke Dmitri, Felix Yusupov, and Vladimir Purishkevich, but he decided not to charge them with murder.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: As a result of his participation in Rasputin's assassination, Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich was banished from the Russian court and was sent to exile to the Persian war front. Pleads for clemency from Romanov relatives on his behalf were dismissed by the Tsar. In the early hours of , Grand Duke Dmitri left Saint Peterburg never to return. After four days of travel, he reached Baku on the Caspian Sea, sailing the next morning to the southern, Persian shore.


title: Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia

text: At his arrival in Persia, he was welcomed by his officers as his reputation for the Rasputin assassination had made him popular. He served ten weeks under General Nikolai Baratov who headed the 1st Caucasus Cossack Corps on the Caucasus Front in the Persian city of Kazvin. Within two months Nicholas II was forced to abdicate ending the rule of the Romanov dynasty. General Baratov asked Dmitri to leave since there were rumblings from the lower ranks, and his safety could not be guaranteed. Ronald Wingate entertained Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich when he passed through Najaf. The Provisional Government invited him to return to Russia, but he declined. Lacking both friends and money, he lived precariously. In the summer of 1917, Dmitri left the Russian occupation zone moving to Tehran. Dmitri stayed briefly with General Meidel , then the head of the Persian Cossack Division, before being taken in by the British Minister to Tehran, Sir Charles Murray Marling, and his wife, Lucia. Through 1917 and most of 1918 Grand Duke Dmitri lived with the Marlings.