title: Margaret Douglas

text: In June 1548, during the war of the Rough Wooing, Margaret's father, the Earl of Angus, wrote to her with the news that her uncle, George Douglas, and others of the family had been captured at Dalkeith Palace. Her father hoped that she and her husband could arrange that they were well treated as prisoners. The Earl of Lennox forwarded the letter to the Duke of Somerset, writing that his father-in-law would have done better to ask others for help. Margaret wrote to her father from Wressle Castle in March 1549, complaining that he had avoided meeting her husband. She asked him to seek an honourable peace through the acknowledgement of her marriage, "what a memorial it should be to you!"


title: Margaret Douglas

text: During the reign of Queen Mary I of England, Lady Margaret had rooms in Westminster Palace. In November 1553, the Queen told the ambassador, Simon Renard, that Margaret was best suited to succeed her to the throne. Margaret was the chief mourner at Queen Mary's funeral in December 1558. On the accession of Queen Elizabeth I of England, Margaret moved to Yorkshire, where her home at Temple Newsam became a centre for Roman Catholic intrigue.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: Margaret succeeded in marrying her elder son, Lord Darnley, to his first cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots, thus uniting their claims to the English throne. Queen Elizabeth I disapproved of this marriage and had Lady Margaret sent to the Tower of London in 1566, but after the murder of Margaret's son Darnley in 1567, she was released. Margaret denounced her daughter-in-law, but was eventually later reconciled with her. Her husband assumed the government of Scotland as regent, but was assassinated in 1571.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: On 3 August, the governor of Scotland, Regent Morton wrote to her about the capture of Edinburgh Castle from the supporters of Mary, Queen of Scots. An English commander at the siege, William Drury, had obtained some of the jewels of Mary, Queen of Scots. Morton thought that Margaret was best placed to ask and influence Drury to send the jewels back to him in Scotland.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: In 1574, she again aroused Queen Elizabeth's anger by marrying her younger son Charles to Elizabeth Cavendish, the stepdaughter of the Earl of Shrewsbury. She was again sent to the Tower, unlike the Countess of Shrewsbury, but was pardoned after her son Charles' death in 1576.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: Lady Margaret's diplomacy largely contributed to the future succession of her grandson, James VI of Scotland, to the English throne.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: After the death of her younger son, she helped care for his daughter, Lady Arbella. However, she did not outlive him by very long. A few days before her death, she dined with Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, and this led to rumours that she had been poisoned. There is no historical evidence to substantiate this.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: Although she died in debt, she was given a grand funeral in Westminster Abbey, at the expense of Queen Elizabeth I, with a hundred poor women in attendance. She was buried in the same grave as her son Charles in the south aisle of Henry VII's chapel in the Abbey. It has been said that her grandson erected the fine monument, but it was commissioned in October 1578 by her executor and former servant Thomas Fowler. Her recumbent effigy, made of alabaster, wears a French cap and ruff with a red fur-lined cloak, over a dress of blue and gold. On either side of the tomb chest are weepers of her four sons and four daughters.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester had eight tapestries at Kenilworth Castle in 1588 which had been bought from "Lady Lennox". The subjects included "Josias", "Demophon and Achilles", and the "History of Noah". At his death in 1624, Ludovic Stewart, 2nd Duke of Lennox had a bed in his lodgings at the gatehouse of Whitehall Palace that had belonged to Margaret Douglas, and she had "worked" or embroidered the curtains.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: The Lennox Jewel was most likely made for Lady Lennox in the 1570s although the date and occasion of its commission is the subject of some controversy. In 1842, the jewel was bought by her descendant, Queen Victoria. The locket, considered "one of the most important early jewels in the Royal Collection", is on display in the Holyrood Palace.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: Margaret Douglas is known for her poetry. Many of her works are written to her lover, Lord Thomas Howard, and are preserved in the Devonshire MS. Her close friends, Mary Shelton and the Duchess of Richmond, were the main contributors, as well as Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey and Thomas Wyatt.


title: Dobutamine

text: Dobutamine is a medication used in the treatment of cardiogenic shock (as a result of inadequate tissue perfusion) and severe heart failure. It may also be used in certain types of cardiac stress tests. It is given by IV only, as an injection into a vein or intraosseous as a continuous infusion. The amount of medication needs to be adjusted to the desired effect. Onset of effects is generally seen within 2 minutes. It has a half-life of two minutes. This drug is generally only administered short term, although it may be used for longer periods to relieve symptoms of heart failure in patients awaiting heart transplantation.


title: Dobutamine

text: Common side effects include a fast heart rate, an irregular heart beat, and inflammation at the site of injection. Use is not recommended in those with idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis. It primarily works by direct stimulation of β receptors, which increases the strength of the heart's contractions, leading to a positive ionotrophic effect. Generally it has little effect on a person's heart rate.


title: Dobutamine

text: Dobutamine was approved for medical use in the United States in 1978. It is available as a generic medication. It was initially made from isoproterenol.


title: Dobutamine

text: Dobutamine is used to treat acute but potentially reversible heart failure, such as which occurs during cardiac surgery or in cases of septic or cardiogenic shock, on the basis of its positive inotropic action.


title: Dobutamine

text: Dobutamine can be used in cases of congestive heart failure to increase cardiac output. It is indicated when parenteral therapy is necessary for inotropic support in the short-term treatment of patients with cardiac decompensation due to depressed contractility, which could be the result of either organic heart disease or cardiac surgical procedures. Higher doses are not useful with history of recent ischemic heart disease because it increases heart rate and thus increases myocardial oxygen demand.


title: Dobutamine

text: The drug is also commonly used in the hospital setting as a pharmacologic stress testing agent to identify coronary artery disease.


title: Dobutamine

text: Primary side effects include those commonly seen for β active sympathomimetics, such as hypertension, angina, arrhythmia, and tachycardia. Used with caution in atrial fibrillation as it has the effect of increasing the atrioventricular (AV) conduction.


title: Dobutamine

text: The most dangerous side effect of dobutamine is increased risk of arrhythmia, including fatal arrhythmias.


title: Dobutamine

text: Overall, dobutamine tends to produce less tachycardia and peripheral vascular effects than agents such as epinephrine and isoproterenol.


title: Dobutamine

text: Dobutamine is a direct-acting agent whose primary activity results from stimulation of the β-adrenoceptors of the heart, increasing contractility and cardiac output. Since it does not act on dopamine receptors to inhibit the release of norepinephrine (another α agonist), dobutamine is less prone to induce hypertension than is dopamine.


title: Dobutamine

text: Dobutamine is predominantly a β-adrenergic agonist, with weak β activity, and α selective activity, although it is used clinically in cases of cardiogenic shock for its β inotropic effect in increasing heart contractility and cardiac output. Dobutamine is administered as a racemic mixture consisting of both (+) and (−) isomers; the (+) isomer is a potent β agonist and α antagonist, while the (−) isomer is an α agonist. The administration of the racemate results in the overall β agonism responsible for its activity. (+)-Dobutamine also has mild β agonist activity, which makes it useful as a vasodilator.


title: Dobutamine

text: It was developed in the 1970s by Drs. Ronald Tuttle and Jack Mills at Eli Lilly and Company, as a structural analogue of isoprenaline.


title: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi

text: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi (born 30 December 1960) is a Pakistani terrorist and co-founder of Lashkar-e-Taiba. One of the prime perpetrators in the 2008 Mumbai Attacks, he features on India's NIA Most Wanted list. In January 2021, he was arrested by Pakistani authorities and sentenced to three concurrent five-year sentences in jail for terror financing in an unrelated case.


title: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi

text: A graduate of "Jamia Mohammadia" in Gujranwala, an Ahl-e-Hadith school, he has been considered by Amir Hamza, a co-founder of the LeT, as "the architect of Salafi jihad in Pakistan". He has orchestrated terrorist attacks in Afghanistan, Chechnya, Bosnia, Iraq and South-East Asia and he is referred to as Chachu, or Uncle, by trainees.


title: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi

text: After the 2008 Mumbai attacks, he was designated by the Al-Qaida and Taliban Sanctions Committee of the Security Council. He is also listed on the United States Department of the Treasury's Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List as a Specially Designated Global Terrorist. His addresses therein are listed at Renala Khurd Tehsil in Okara District and Bhara Kahu in Islamabad.


title: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi

text: Lakhvi was born 30 December 1960 in the Okara district of Punjab, Pakistan. Belonging to the Lakhokay (village) caste, his mother is Maulana Moeenuddin Lakhviʹs stepsister, an Ahl-e-Hadith scholar and leader who died in 2011 at the age of 93.


title: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi

text: In 1999, at a three-day annual congregation held at Muridke, he explained the reason for fidayeen suicide squad missions in the aftermath of the Kargil War: "After the Pakistani withdrawal from Kargil and the Nawaz-Clinton statement in Washington, it was important to boost the morale of the Kashmiri people. These Fidayen missions were initiated to teach India a lesson as they were celebrating after the Kargil war." He said that the next target would be New Delhi.


title: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi

text: In 2006, he asked LeT's members to begin training operatives for suicide bombings. In the past, he told operatives to mount attacks in well-populated areas. Indian officials claim Lakhvi also oversaw Azam Cheema, who has been accused of being a leader in the 2006 bombing of the Mumbai rail network that killed more than 200 and left 700 injured.


title: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi

text: In May 2008, the US Treasury Department announced that it had frozen the assets of four Lashkar-e-Taiba leaders including Lakhvi.


title: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi

text: On 3 December 2008, Indian officials named him as one of four possible major planners behind the November 2008 Mumbai Attacks. He reportedly offered to pay the family of Ajmal Kasab the sum of Rs.150,000 for his participation in the attacks.


title: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi

text: On 7 December 2008 Pakistani armed forces arrested Lakhvi in a raid on an LeT training camp near Muzafarabad in Pakistani Kashmir. He was among 12 people detained. Pakistan confirmed the arrest but refused to hand over any of its citizens to Indian authorities. Officials stated that any Pakistani citizen accused of involvement in the attack would be tried in Pakistan.


title: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi

text: On 12 February 2009, Rehman Malik, Interior Minister, stated that Lakhvi was still in custody and under investigation as the foremost mastermind behind the attacks.


title: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi

text: On 25 November 2009, a Pakistani anti-terrorism court formally charged seven suspects, including LeT commander Lakhvi, with planning and helping execute the Mumbai attacks, an action that came a day before the first anniversary of the brazen assault.


title: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi

text: On 18 December 2014, two days after the Peshawar school attack where 132 school children were massacred by Pakistani Taliban, the Pakistani anti-terrorism court granted bail to Lakhvi in Mumbai attacks case against payment of surety bonds worth Rs. 500,000.


title: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi

text: On 19 December, Lakhvi's bail was rejected by the high court. Pakistan assured that Lakhvi was not released and was in jail. The step was called 'positive' by Indian government.


title: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi

text: On 7 January 2015, Lakhvi's bail was rejected by the Supreme Court and the case referred back to the high court, who reinstated the bail; though he may still remain in jail for a month in a kidnapping case. The surety bond required from Lakhvi has a value of US $2,300. Lakhvi was released from jail on bail on 10 April 2015; he was arrested again in Lahore on 2 January 2021.


title: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi

text: It is widely held that both the Pakistan Army and the ISI have ensured that crucial evidence against Lakhvi in the Mumbai terror attack case is not presented before the court. During his stay in Adiala Jail Rawalpindi, he was provided access to a cellphone and permission to meet his close associates.


title: Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi

text: China has blocked the United Nations' attempts to place Lakhvi on its list of suspected terrorists whose financial assets should be frozen.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: Manassas (), formerly Manassas Junction, is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia, United States. The population was 42,772 at the 2020 Census. It is the county seat of Prince William County, although the two are separate jurisdictions. Manassas borders the independent city of Manassas Park, Virginia. The Bureau of Economic Analysis includes both Manassas and Manassas Park with Prince William County for statistical purposes.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: Manassas contains several historic sites dating from 1850 to 1870. Manassas surrounds the county courthouse, which is located on county property.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: Manassas is part of the Washington-Arlington-Alexandria, DC-VA-MD-WV Metropolitan Statistical Area and is in the Northern Virginia region.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: In July 1861, the First Battle of Bull Run—also known as the Battle of First Manassas —was fought nearby, the first major land battle of the American Civil War. Manassas commemorated its 150th anniversary on July 21–24, 2011.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: The Second Battle of Bull Run (or the Battle of Second Manassas) was fought near Manassas on August 28–30, 1862. At that time, Manassas Junction was little more than a railroad crossing, but a strategic one, with rails leading to Richmond, Virginia, Washington, D.C., and the Shenandoah Valley. Despite these two Confederate victories, Manassas Junction was in Union hands for most of the war.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: Following the war, the crossroads grew into the town of Manassas, which was incorporated in 1873. In 1894, Manassas was designated the county seat of Prince William County, replacing Brentsville. In 1975, Manassas was incorporated as an independent city, and as per Virginia law, was separated from Prince William County.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: Manassas is home to Annaburg, built in 1892 by Robert Portner as a summer home. It is believed to be one of the first homes in the United States to have mechanical air conditioning. Annaburg was purchased by the City of Manassas in July 2019 to be restored and preserved as a public park.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: The Manassas Historic District; Liberia, a plantation house; the Manassas Water Tower; the Cannon Branch Fort; the Mayfield Fortification; the Manassas Industrial School for Colored Youth; and Annaburg are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: Manassas is mainly served by I-66, U.S. 29, Virginia State Route 234 Business and Virginia State Route 28.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and (0.5%) is water.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Manassas has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps. Average monthly temperatures range from in January to in July. The local hardiness zone is 7a.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: According to the census of 2020, the population of the City of Manassas was 42,772 which represented a 13.1% growth in population since the last census in 2010. The racial breakdown per the 2020 Census for the city is as follows:


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: 42.9% of the population was of Hispanic or Latino origin. This can be broken up ethnically as follows (2010 numbers):


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: The population density for the city is 3,782.1 people per square mile, and there are an estimated 13,103 housing units in the city with an average housing density of 1,310.3 per square mile. The greatest percentage of housing values of owner-occupied homes (34.8%) is $300,000 to $499,999, with a median owner-occupied housing value of $259,100. The city's highest period of growth was from 1980 to 1989, when 35% of the city's housing stock was constructed.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: The ACS estimated median household income for the city in 2020 was $86,227. 36% of the population has a college degree. Almost as many people commute into the City of Manassas for work (13,316) as out (13,666), with the majority of out commuters traveling to Fairfax and Prince William counties for their jobs. Unemployment in the city as of February, 2022 was 2.5%, which was below that of the United States at 3.8%. Of the 21,221 working age residents, 20,620 were employed. City residents are primarily employed in Professional, Scientific and Technical Services, and Health Care and Social Assistance.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: The Manassas Regional Airport has 26 businesses operating out of the airport property. There are 415 based airplanes and two fixed-base operators, APP Jet Center and Dulles Aviation. The Manassas Regional Airport has land available for development.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: The city's third-largest employer is Micron Technology. Headquartered in Boise, Idaho, this manufacturer of semiconductors operates its wafer factory in Manassas, where it employs 1,650 people directly, and several hundred others through vendor contracts. In December 2018, Micron began a $3 billion-dollar expansion project at the Manassas site, and it's expected to create 1,100 jobs by 2030. Other major employers include Lockheed Martin (1500 employees) and the Novant Prince William Health System (1400 employees). In 2019 High Purity Systems, a locally based high-tech contracting company, announced plans to invest $8.5 million in new facilities to triple production capability, marking the continued expansion of high-tech firms in the area.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: 11% of people working in Manassas live in the city, while 89% commute in. 36% commute from Prince William County and 18% commute from Fairfax. Additionally 16,700 people commute from Manassas to the surrounding areas. In 2016, 3.3% of Manassas residents were unemployed.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: In 2017 the city created new "streetscape standards" and announced plans for the Mathis Avenue Streetscape Project, aimed at developing Mathis Avenue from Sudley Road to Liberia Avenue into a more pedestrian-friendly, walkable area with significantly improved traffic congestion. The plan is estimated to cost the city $7.3 million and to be completed by 2024.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: First Friday festivals occur on the first Friday of every month, when the city showcases local art and organizes themed activities. The city museum opened in 1973 in preparation for the city's centennial and is currently undergoing a renovation and expansion to be completed in Fall 2023.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: Manassas has a council-manager system of government. As of October 2021 the city manager is William Patrick Pate; the mayor is Michelle Davis-Younger; and the vice mayor is Pamela J. Sebesky.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: The City of Manassas is served by the Manassas City Public Schools. There are five elementary schools in Manassas, two intermediate schools, a middle school, and a high school. In 2006, Mayfield Intermediate School opened, serving students in fifth and sixth grade. Due to growth, Baldwin Intermediate School opened in September 2017, also serving 5th and 6th graders.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: Some schools in the Prince William County Public Schools district have Manassas addresses, though they are located, and serve areas, outside the Manassas city limits.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: Seton School, a private Roman Catholic junior and senior high school affiliated with the Diocese of Arlington, provides Catholic education from its Manassas location. The All Saints Catholic School at the All Saints Parish provides Catholic Education from pre-K through 8th grade. The All Saints Catholic School was a Presidential Blue Ribbon Award winner in 2009.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: Also in the vicinity of Manassas are branch campuses of American Public University System, George Mason University, Northern Virginia Community College, ECPI College of Technology and Strayer University. Though some of these are just outside the city limits in Prince William County, NVCC and Strayer call these branches their Manassas Campuses.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: The major roads into and out of Manassas are Virginia State Route 28, Virginia State Route 234 and Virginia State Route 234 Business. I-66 and US-29 service Manassas, but neither passes through the city itself.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: Manassas Regional Airport is within the city limits. It is the busiest general aviation airport in Virginia, with more than 415 aircraft and 26 businesses based onsite, including charter companies, avionics, maintenance, flight schools and aircraft services.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: Between 2019 and 2021 APP Jet Center, a jet servicing company, built three new hangars fit for larger private planes along with extensive renovations to their existing hangars.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: Manassas began life as Manassas Junction, so named for the railroad junction between the Orange and Alexandria Railroad and the Manassas Gap Railroad. The O&A owned the railway from Alexandria through Manassas to points south, ending in Orange, Virginia, while the MGRR was an independent line constructed from Manassas Junction through the Manassas Gap westward. In addition Manassas was the site of the first large scale military use of railroad transportation.


title: Manassas, Virginia

text: These original routes are now owned by the Norfolk Southern railroad. Amtrak and the Virginia Railway Express (VRE) provide regular inter-city and commuter service to the city and surrounding area on the tracks owned by NS. Manassas station is served by VRE and three Amtrak routes: the New York City to Chicago "Cardinal", Boston to Roanoke "Northeast Regional", and New York to New Orleans "Crescent".


title: Camille Coduri

text: Camille Coduri (born 18 April 1965) is an English actress. She is best known for playing Jackie Tyler, the mother of Rose Tyler, in "Doctor Who", and also for her roles as Faith in "Nuns on the Run", Miranda in "King Ralph", and Dot Clapton, chambers secretary in "Rumpole of the Bailey".


title: Camille Coduri

text: She is featured in the film comedies "Hawks" (1988), "Nuns on the Run" (1990) and "King Ralph" (1991). She has also appeared extensively on British television, appearing in guest roles in episodes of series such as "Rumpole of the Bailey", "A Bit of Fry & Laurie", "Boon", "A Touch of Frost" and in the BBC's 1997 adaptation of Henry Fielding's novel "The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling". She appeared in BBC Three's six-part drama series "Sinchronicity" (2006).


title: Camille Coduri

text: Coduri recurred regularly in the first two series of the revived "Doctor Who" as Jackie Tyler and reprised her role in the Series 4 episode "Journey's End" (2008) and David Tennant's final episode, "The End of Time" (2010).


title: Camille Coduri

text: In an episode of "Ashes to Ashes" (April 2010), Coduri played a woman who helps DCI Gene Hunt and DI Alex Drake during an investigation. In September 2010, she joined BBC Three comedy "Him & Her", playing Shelly.


title: Camille Coduri

text: On 15 May 2017, it was announced that Coduri would reprise her role as Jackie Tyler in the "Doctor Who" Big Finish Productions audio "", which was released on 23 November 2017. She also reprised her role as Jackie Tyler in the Big Finish audios "Wednesdays For Beginners" (part of The Lives of Captain Jack, 2017), "Retail Therapy" (part of The Ninth Doctor Chronicles, 2017), "The Siege of Big Ben" and "Flight into Hull" (part of Short Trips, 2018).


title: Camille Coduri

text: She is also the narrator of the Ninth Doctor audiobooks "The Monsters Inside" (2011), "The Stealers of Dreams" (2011), "Winner Takes All" (2011) and "Rose" (2018) (novellisation), as well as the Tenth Doctor novelisation "The Christmas Invasion" (2018), produced by BBC Audio.


title: Camille Coduri

text: Coduri was born in Wandsworth, London. She married actor Christopher Fulford in 1992. They have two children, Rosa (born 1993) who is also an actress, and Santino (born 1996).


title: Thomas Nast

text: Thomas Nast (; ; September 26, 1840December 7, 1902) was a German-born American caricaturist and editorial cartoonist often considered to be the "Father of the American Cartoon".


title: Thomas Nast

text: He was a critic of Democratic Representative "Boss" Tweed and the Tammany Hall Democratic party political machine. He created a modern version of Santa Claus (based on the traditional German figures of Sankt Nikolaus and Weihnachtsmann) and the political symbol of the elephant for the Republican Party (GOP). Contrary to popular belief, Nast did not create Uncle Sam (the male personification of the United States Federal Government), Columbia (the female personification of American values), or the Democratic donkey, although he did popularize those symbols through his artwork. Nast was associated with the magazine "Harper's Weekly" from 1859 to 1860 and from 1862 until 1886.


title: Thomas Nast

text: Nast was born in military barracks in Landau, Bavaria, Germany (now in Rhineland-Palatinate), as his father was a trombonist in the Bavarian 9th regiment band. Nast was the last child of Appolonia (née Abriss) and Joseph Thomas Nast. He had an older sister Andie; two other siblings had died before he was born. His father held political convictions that put him at odds with the Bavarian government, so in 1846, Joseph Nast left Landau, enlisting first on a French man-of-war and subsequently on an American ship. He sent his wife and children to New York City, where they arrived in June 1846, and at the end of his enlistment in 1850, he joined them there.


title: Thomas Nast

text: Nast attended school in New York City from the age of six to 14. He did poorly at his lessons, but his passion for drawing was apparent from an early age. In 1854, at the age of 14, he was enrolled for about a year of study with Alfred Fredericks and Theodore Kaufmann, and then at the school of the National Academy of Design. In 1856, he started working as a draftsman for "Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper". His drawings appeared for the first time in "Harper's Weekly" on March 19, 1859, when he illustrated a report exposing police corruption; Nast was 18 years old at that point.


title: Thomas Nast

text: In February 1860, he went to England for the "New York Illustrated News" to depict one of the major sporting events of the era, the prize fight between the American John C. Heenan and the English Thomas Sayers sponsored by George Wilkes, publisher of "Wilkes' Spirit of the Times". A few months later, as artist for "The Illustrated London News", he joined Garibaldi in Italy. Nast's cartoons and articles about the Garibaldi military campaign to unify Italy captured the popular imagination in the U.S. In February 1861, he arrived back in New York. In September of that year, he married Sarah Edwards, whom he had met two years earlier.


title: Thomas Nast

text: He left the "New York Illustrated News" to work again, briefly, for "Frank Leslie's Illustrated News". In 1862, he became a staff illustrator for "Harper's Weekly". In his first years with "Harper's", Nast became known especially for compositions that appealed to the sentiment of the viewer. An example is "Christmas Eve" (1862), in which a wreath frames a scene of a soldier's praying wife and sleeping children at home; a second wreath frames the soldier seated by a campfire, gazing longingly at small pictures of his loved ones. One of his most celebrated cartoons was "Compromise with the South" (1864), directed against those in the North who opposed the prosecution of the American Civil War. He was known for drawing battlefields in border and southern states. These attracted great attention, and Nast was referred to by President Abraham Lincoln as "our best recruiting sergeant".


title: Thomas Nast

text: After the war, Nast strongly opposed the anti-Reconstruction policy of President Andrew Johnson, whom he depicted in a series of trenchant cartoons that marked "Nast's great beginning in the field of caricature".


title: Thomas Nast

text: Nast's cartoons frequently had numerous sidebars and panels with intricate subplots to the main cartoon. A Sunday feature could provide hours of entertainment and highlight social causes. After 1870, Nast favored simpler compositions featuring a strong central image. He based his likenesses on photographs.


title: Thomas Nast

text: In the early part of his career, Nast used a brush and ink wash technique to draw tonal renderings onto the wood blocks that would be carved into printing blocks by staff engravers. The bold cross-hatching that characterized Nast's mature style resulted from a change in his method that began with a cartoon of June 26, 1869, which Nast drew onto the wood block using a pencil, so that the engraver was guided by Nast's linework. This change of style was influenced by the work of the English illustrator John Tenniel.


title: Thomas Nast

text: A recurring theme in Nast's cartoons is anti-Catholicism. Nast was baptized a Catholic at the Saint Maria Catholic Church in Landau, and for a time received Catholic education in New York City. When Nast converted to Protestantism remains unclear, but his conversion was likely formalized upon his marriage in 1861. (The family were practicing Episcopalians at St. Peter's in Morristown.) Nast considered the Catholic Church to be a threat to American values. According to his biographer, Fiona Deans Halloran, Nast was "intensely opposed to the encroachment of Catholic ideas into public education". When Tammany Hall proposed a new tax to support parochial Catholic schools, he was outraged. His savage 1871 cartoon "The American River Ganges", depicts Catholic bishops, guided by Rome, as crocodiles moving in to attack American school children as Irish politicians prevent their escape. He portrayed public support for religious education as a threat to democratic government. The authoritarian papacy in Rome, ignorant Irish Americans, and corrupt politicians at Tammany Hall figured prominently in his work. Nast favored nonsectarian public education that mitigated differences of religion and ethnicity. However, in 1871 Nast and "Harper's Weekly" supported the Republican-dominated board of education in Long Island in requiring students to hear passages from the King James Bible, and his educational cartoons sought to raise anti-Catholic and anti-Irish fervor among Republicans and independents.


title: Thomas Nast

text: Nast expressed anti-Irish sentiment by depicting them as violent drunks. He used Irish people as a symbol of mob violence, machine politics, and the exploitation of immigrants by political bosses. Nast's emphasis on Irish violence may have originated in scenes he witnessed in his youth. Nast was physically small and had experienced bullying as a child. In the neighborhood in which he grew up, acts of violence by the Irish against black Americans were commonplace.


title: Thomas Nast

text: In 1863, he witnessed the New York City draft riots in which a mob composed mainly of Irish immigrants burned the Colored Orphan Asylum to the ground. His experiences may explain his sympathy for black Americans and his "antipathy to what he perceived as the brutish, uncontrollable Irish thug". An 1876 Nast cartoon combined a caricature of Charles Francis Adams Sr with anti-Irish sentiment and anti-Fenianship.


title: Thomas Nast

text: In general, his political cartoons supported American Indians and Chinese Americans. He advocated the abolition of slavery, opposed racial segregation, and deplored the violence of the Ku Klux Klan. In one of his more famous cartoons, the phrase "Worse than Slavery" is printed on a coat of arms depicting a despondent black family holding their dead child; in the background is a lynching and a schoolhouse destroyed by arson. Two members of the Ku Klux Klan and White League, paramilitary insurgent groups in the Reconstruction-era South, shake hands in their mutually destructive work against black Americans.


title: Thomas Nast

text: Despite Nast's championing of minorities, Morton Keller writes that later in his career "racist stereotypy of blacks began to appear: comparable to those of the Irish—though in contrast with the presumably more highly civilized Chinese."


title: Thomas Nast

text: Nast introduced into American cartoons the practice of modernizing scenes from Shakespeare for a political purpose.


title: Thomas Nast

text: Nast also brought his approach to bear on the usually prosaic almanac business, publishing an annual "Nast's Illustrated Almanac" from 1871 to 1875. "The Green Bag" republished all five of Nast's almanacs in the 2011 edition of its "Almanac & Reader".


title: Thomas Nast

text: Nast's drawings were instrumental in the downfall of Boss Tweed, the powerful Tammany Hall leader. As commissioner of public works for New York City, Tweed led a ring that by 1870 had gained total control of the city's government, and controlled "a working majority in the State Legislature". Tweed and his associates—Peter Barr Sweeny (park commissioner), Richard B. Connolly (controller of public expenditures), and Mayor A. Oakey Hall—defrauded the city of many millions of dollars by grossly inflating expenses paid to contractors connected to the Ring. Nast, whose cartoons attacking Tammany corruption had appeared occasionally since 1867, intensified his focus on the four principal players in 1870 and especially in 1871.


title: Thomas Nast

text: Tweed so feared Nast's campaign that he sent an emissary to offer the artist a bribe of $100,000, which was represented as a gift from a group of wealthy benefactors to enable Nast to study art in Europe. Feigning interest, Nast negotiated for more before finally refusing an offer of $500,000 with the words, "Well, I don't think I'll do it. I made up my mind not long ago to put some of those fellows behind the bars". Nast pressed his attack in the pages of "Harper's", and the Ring was removed from power in the election of November 7, 1871. Tweed was arrested in 1873 and convicted of fraud. When Tweed attempted to escape justice in December 1875 by fleeing to Cuba and from there to Spain, officials in Vigo were able to identify the fugitive by using one of Nast's cartoons.


title: Thomas Nast

text: Nast was the first journalist who did not own his newspaper to play a major role in shaping public opinion. His cartoons were influential in deciding five Presidential elections: Abraham Lincoln (1864); Ulysses S. Grant (1868 and 1872); Rutherford B. Hayes (1876); — all Republicans — and Democrat Grover Cleveland (1884). His biting cartoons ridiculed the losers: George B. McClellan (1864); Horatio Seymour (1868); Horace Greeley (1872); Samuel J. Tilden (1876); and James G. Blaine (1884). Nast effectively sat out the 1880 election because he distrusted Republican James A. Garfield (who won) and admired Democrat Winfield Scott Hancock, a Civil War hero and Nast’s personal friend.


title: Thomas Nast

text: In addition to his talent, creativity and the repetitive impact of his cartoons, Nast benefited from his lack of meaningful competition before "Puck" arrived in 1877, and from the financial strength, editorial consistency and reach of "Harper’s Weekly". America’s leading illustrated newspaper’s circulation was about 120,000 during the Civil War, 200,000 during subsequent Presidential elections, and almost 300,000 during the height of the Tweed campaign. With passalong readership, Nast’s audience reached 500,000 to more than a million viewers.


title: Thomas Nast

text: The single most important and influential cartoon that Nast ever drew appeared in "Harper’s Weekly" on August 24, 1864 (post-dated September 3) as the Democratic National Committee was assembling in Chicago to nominate McClellan (whom Lincoln had fired as his top Union general two years earlier) for President. “Compromise with the South — Dedicated to the Chicago Convention” captured the very crux of the existential emotional and political stake at issue in the forthcoming election.


title: Thomas Nast

text: Nast’s scathing caricature featured an arrogant, exultant Jefferson Davis shaking hands with a crippled Union soldier who — with his head bowed and his only leg shackled to a ball and chain — humbly accepted it. Columbia, representing the Union and modeled by Nast’s wife Sallie, wept at the gravestone marked “In Memory of Our Union Heroes Who Fell in a Useless War.” As Davis’s boot stomped on a Union grave and broke the sword of Northern Power, the cat-o’-nine-tails in his left hand was ready to flog his vanquished enemies. A Black family in chains despaired behind Davis. The Union flag, upside down in distress, recited it successes, including emancipation, on its stripes; the Confederate flag detailed a list of atrocities.


title: Thomas Nast

text: On October 16 — almost eight weeks after Nast’s cartoon appeared — the "Richmond Enquirer" published some more extreme demands which were not in the Democratic platform. Lincoln’s reelection managers took Nast’s cartoon, added “The Rebel Terms of Peace,” and made more than a million copies as campaign posters. In combination with General William T. Sherman’s capture of Atlanta on September 1 and General Phil Sheridan’s victory in the Shenandoah Valley on October 19, “A Traitor’s Peace” probably was the single most effective visual campaign advertisement in any American Presidential election before or since.


title: Thomas Nast

text: Nast played an important role during the presidential election in 1868, and Ulysses S. Grant attributed his victory to "the sword of Sheridan and the pencil of Thomas Nast." In the 1872 presidential campaign, Nast's ridicule of Horace Greeley's candidacy was especially merciless. After Grant's victory in 1872, Mark Twain wrote the artist a letter saying: "Nast, you more than any other man have won a prodigious victory for Grant—I mean, rather, for Civilization and Progress." Nast became a close friend of President Grant and the two families shared regular dinners until Grant's death in 1885.


title: Thomas Nast

text: Nast and his wife moved to Morristown, New Jersey in 1872 and there they raised a family that eventually numbered five children. In 1873, Nast toured the United States as a lecturer and a sketch-artist. His activity on the lecture circuit made him wealthy. Nast was for many years a staunch Republican. Nast opposed inflation of the currency, notably with his famous rag-baby cartoons, and he played an important part in securing Rutherford B. Hayes' ultimate victory in the presidential election in 1876. Hayes later remarked that Nast was "the most powerful, single-handed aid [he] had", but Nast quickly became disillusioned with President Hayes, whose lenient policy towards the South in removing federal troops he opposed.


title: Thomas Nast

text: The death of the "Weekly"s publisher, Fletcher Harper, in 1877 resulted in a changed relationship between Nast and his editor George William Curtis. His cartoons appeared less frequently, and he was not given free rein to criticize Hayes or his policies. Beginning in the late 1860s, Nast and Curtis had frequently differed on political matters and particularly on the role of cartoons in political discourse. Curtis believed that the powerful weapon of caricature should be reserved for "the Ku-Klux Democracy" of the opposition party, and did not approve of Nast's cartoons assailing Republicans such as Carl Schurz and Charles Sumner who opposed policies of the Grant administration. Nast said of Curtis: "When he attacks a man with his pen it seems as if he were apologizing for the act. I try to hit the enemy between the eyes and knock him down." Fletcher Harper consistently supported Nast in his disputes with Curtis. After his death, his nephews, Joseph W. Harper Jr. and John Henry Harper, assumed control of the magazine and were more sympathetic to Curtis's arguments for rejecting cartoons that contradicted his editorial positions.


title: Thomas Nast

text: Between 1877 and 1884, Nast's work appeared only sporadically in "Harper's", which began publishing the milder political cartoons of William Allen Rogers. Although his sphere of influence was diminishing, from this period date dozens of his pro-Chinese immigration drawings, often implicating the Irish as instigators. Nast blamed U.S. Senator James G. Blaine (R-Maine) for his support of the Chinese Exclusion Act and depicted Blaine with the same zeal used against Tweed. Nast was one of the few editorial artists who took up for the cause of the Chinese in America.


title: Thomas Nast

text: During the presidential election of 1880, Nast felt that he could not support the Republican candidate, James A. Garfield, because of Garfield's involvement in the Crédit Mobilier scandal; and did not wish to attack the Democratic candidate, Winfield Scott Hancock, his personal friend and a Union general whose integrity commanded respect. As a result, "Nast's commentary on the 1880 campaign lacked passion", according to Halloran. He submitted no cartoons to "Harper's" between the end of March 1883 and March 1, 1884, partly because of illness.


title: Thomas Nast

text: In 1884, Curtis and Nast agreed that they could not support the Republican candidate James G. Blaine, a proponent of high tariffs and the spoils system whom they perceived as personally corrupt. Instead, they became Mugwumps by supporting the Democratic candidate, Grover Cleveland, whose platform of civil service reform appealed to them. Nast's cartoons helped Cleveland become the first Democrat to be elected President since 1856. In the words of the artist's grandson, Thomas Nast St Hill, "it was generally conceded that Nast's support won Cleveland the small margin by which he was elected. In this his last national political campaign, Nast had, in fact, 'made a president'."


title: Thomas Nast

text: Nast's tenure at "Harper's Weekly" ended with his Christmas illustration of December 1886. It was said by the journalist Henry Watterson that "in quitting "Harper's Weekly", Nast lost his forum: in losing him, "Harper's Weekly" lost its political importance." Fiona Deans Halloran says "the former is true to a certain extent, the latter unlikely."


title: Thomas Nast

text: Nast lost most of his fortune in 1884 after investing in a banking and brokerage firm operated by the swindler Ferdinand Ward. In need of income, Nast returned to the lecture circuit in 1884 and 1887. Although these tours were successful, they were less remunerative than the lecture series of 1873.


title: Thomas Nast

text: In 1890, Nast published "Thomas Nast's Christmas Drawings for the Human Race". He contributed cartoons in various publications, notably the "Illustrated American", but was unable to regain his earlier popularity. His mode of cartooning had come to be seen as outdated, and a more relaxed style exemplified by the work of Joseph Keppler was in vogue. Health problems, which included pain in his hands which had troubled him since the 1870s, affected his ability to work.


title: Thomas Nast

text: In 1892, he took control of a failing magazine, the "New York Gazette", and renamed it "Nast's Weekly". Now returned to the Republican fold, Nast used the "Weekly" as a vehicle for his cartoons supporting Benjamin Harrison for president. The magazine had little impact and ceased publication seven months after it began, shortly after Harrison's defeat.


title: Thomas Nast

text: The failure of "Nast's Weekly" left Nast with few financial resources. He received a few commissions for oil paintings and drew book illustrations. In 1902, he applied for a job in the State Department, hoping to secure a consular position in western Europe. Although no such position was available, President Theodore Roosevelt was an admirer of the artist and offered him an appointment as the United States' Consul General to Guayaquil, Ecuador in South America. Nast accepted the position and traveled to Ecuador on July 1, 1902. During a subsequent yellow fever outbreak, Nast remained on the job, helping numerous diplomatic missions and businesses escape the contagion. He contracted the disease and died on December 7 of that year. His body was returned to the United States, where he was interred in the Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City.


title: Thomas Nast

text: Nast's depictions of iconic characters, such as Santa Claus and Uncle Sam, are widely credited as forming the basis of popular depictions used today. Additional contributions by Nast include:


title: Thomas Nast

text: In December 2011, a proposal to include Nast in the New Jersey Hall of Fame in 2012 caused controversy. "The Wall Street Journal" reported that because of his stereotypical cartoons of the Irish, a number of objections were raised about Nast's work. For example, "The Usual Irish Way of Doing Things" portrays an Irishman as being sub-human, drunk, and violent.


title: Thomas Nast

text: The Thomas Nast Award has been presented each year since 1968 by the Overseas Press Club to an editorial cartoonist for the "best cartoons on international affairs." Past winners include Signe Wilkinson, Kevin (KAL) Kallaugher, Mike Peters, Clay Bennett, Mike Luckovich, Tom Toles, Herbert Block, Tony Auth, Jeff MacNelly, Dick Locher, Jim Morin, Warren King, Tom Darcy, Don Wright and Patrick Chappatte.


title: Thomas Nast

text: In December 2018, The OPC Board of Governors decided to remove Nast's name from the award noting that Nast "exhibited an ugly bias against immigrants, the Irish and Catholics". OPC President Pancho Bernasconi stated "Once we became aware of how some groups and ethnicities were portrayed in a manner that is not consistent with how journalists work and view their role today, we voted to remove his name from the award."


title: Thomas Nast

text: The Thomas Nast Prize for editorial cartooning has been awarded by the Thomas Nast Foundation (located in Nast's birthplace of Landau, Germany) since 1978 when it was first given to Jeff MacNelly. The prize is awarded periodically to one German cartoonist and one North American cartoonist. Winners receive 1,300 Euros, a trip to Landau, and the Thomas Nast medal. The American advisory committee includes Nast's descendant Thomas Nast III of Fort Worth, Texas. Other winners of the Thomas Nast Prize include Jim Borgman, Paul Szep, Pat Oliphant, David Levine, Jim Morin, and Tony Auth.


title: Thomas Nast

text: The word "nasty" is erroneously thought to originate from Nast's name, due to the tone of many of his cartoons. In reality, the word's origins are unclear, but it is ancient, with written evidence that dates to the 1400s.


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: The Symphony No. 5 by Gustav Mahler was composed in 1901 and 1902, mostly during the summer months at Mahler's holiday cottage at Maiernigg. Among its most distinctive features are the trumpet solo that opens the work with a rhythmic motif similar to the opening of Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 5, the horn solos in the third movement and the frequently performed Adagietto.


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: The musical canvas and emotional scope of the work, which lasts nearly seventy minutes, are huge. The symphony is sometimes described as being in the key of C minor since the first movement is in this key (the finale, however, is in D major). Mahler objected to the label: "From the order of the movements (where the usual first movement now comes second) it is difficult to speak of a key for the 'whole Symphony', and to avoid misunderstandings the key should best be omitted."


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: Mahler wrote his fifth symphony during the summers of 1901 and 1902. In February 1901 Mahler had suffered a sudden major hemorrhage and his doctor later told him that he had come within an hour of bleeding to death. The composer spent quite a while recuperating. He moved into his own lakeside villa in the southern Austrian province of Carinthia in June 1901. Mahler was delighted with his newfound status as the owner of a grand villa. According to friends, he could hardly believe how far he had come from his humble beginnings. He was director of the Vienna Court Opera and the principal conductor of the Vienna Philharmonic. His own music was also starting to be successful. Later in 1901 he met Alma Schindler and by the time he returned to his summer villa in summer 1902, they were married and she was expecting their first child.


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: Symphonies Nos. 5, 6 and 7, which all belong to this period, have much in common and are markedly different from the first four, which all have strong links to vocal music. The middle symphonies, by contrast, are pure orchestral works and are, by Mahler's standards, taut and lean.


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: Counterpoint also becomes a more important element in Mahler's music from Symphony No. 5 onwards. The ability to write good counterpoint was highly cherished by Baroque composers, and Johann Sebastian Bach is generally regarded as the greatest composer of contrapuntal music. Bach played an important part in Mahler's musical life at this time. He subscribed to the edition of Bach's collected works that was being published at the turn of the century, and later conducted and arranged works by Bach for performance. Mahler's renewed interest in counterpoint can best be heard in the second, third and fifth movements of this symphony.


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: The score appeared first in print in 1904 at Peters, Leipzig. A second "New Edition", incorporating revisions that Mahler made in 1904, appeared in 1905. Final revisions made by Mahler in 1911 (by which time he had completed his 9th Symphony) did not appear until 1964 (ed. Ratz), when the score was republished in the "Complete Edition" of Mahler's works. In 2001, Edition Peters published a further revised edition (ed. Reinhold Kubik) as part of the "New Complete Critical Edition". This edition is the most accurate edition available so far. Previous editions have now gone out of print.


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: The symphony is generally regarded as the most conventional symphony that he had yet written, but from such an unconventional composer it still had many peculiarities. It almost has a four-movement structure, as the first two can easily be viewed as essentially a whole. The symphony also ends with a rondo, in the classical style. Some peculiarities are the funeral march that opens the piece and the Adagietto for harp and strings that contrasts with the complex orchestration of the other movements.


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: The trumpet solo at the opening of the first movement which quotes the "Generalmarsch" of the Austro-Hungarian Army


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: There are many shared elements between the first and second movement. A sighing motif heard in the first movement


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: Rehearsal mark 5, marked "im Tempo des ersten Satzes "Trauermarsch"", introduces a theme accompanied by the sighing motif and a repeated quaver motif from the beginning of the movement.


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: Later, another return to the "Tempo des ersten Satzes: Trauermarsch", brings a return to the Secondary Theme of the first movement.


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: A triumphant chorale breaks forth but dissolves into a return of the tragic material of the opening of the movement.


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: The fourth movement may be Mahler's most famous composition and is the most frequently performed of his works. The British premiere of Symphony No. 5 came 36 years after that of the Adagietto, conducted by Henry Wood at a Proms concert in 1909.


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: It is said to represent Mahler's love song to his wife Alma. According to a letter she wrote to Willem Mengelberg, the composer left a small poem:


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: Mahler's instruction is "Sehr langsam" (very slowly). Mahler and Mengelberg played it in about 7 minutes. Some conductors have taken tempos that extend it to nearly 12 minutes (viz. recordings by Eliahu Inbal, Herbert von Karajan, and Claudio Abbado), while Simon Rattle with the Berlin Philharmonic performed it in minutes. The shortest recorded performance is from Mengelberg (Concertgebouw, 1926) at 7′04″. The longest commercial recording is Bernard Haitink (Berliner Philharmoniker, 1988) at 13′55″. A recording of a live performance with Hermann Scherchen conducting the Philadelphia Orchestra from 1964 lasts 15′15″.


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: Leonard Bernstein conducted it during the funeral Mass for Robert F. Kennedy at St. Patrick's Cathedral, Manhattan, on 8 June 1968, and he also briefly discusses this section along with the opening bars of the second movement in his Charles Eliot Norton Lectures from 1973.


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: Although the Adagietto had regularly been performed on its own, it came to popular (i.e. non-classical) prominence in the 1971 Luchino Visconti film "Death in Venice". In that film, the lead character was modified from the novel's original conception of writer to that of composer, with elements in common with Mahler. Since then, the music has been used across many fields, from advertising and figure skating to television and further film uses, easily making it the most familiar piece of Mahler's musical output.


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: Music professor Jeremy Barham writes that the Adagietto has become the most "commercially prominent" of Mahler's symphonic movements, and that it has "accrued elegiac meaning" in the popular consciousness over the years, becoming particularly used in commemorative events following the September 11 attacks in the United States.


title: Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)

text: The final rondo is a contrapuntal tour de force. Several of the themes evolve out of the fragments heard in the opening measures. The last movement also utilizes themes from the Adagietto as well as the chorale from the second movement.


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: David Finlay III (born 16 May 1993) is a German-born Northern Irish-American professional wrestler who performs under the ring name David Finlay (デビッド・フィンレー　"Debiddo Finrē"). He is signed to New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) and also performs for Impact Wrestling, where he is a former Impact World Tag Team Champion.


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: Born in Germany to Northern Irish parents, he is a fourth-generation professional wrestler; his father, Fit Finlay, trained him before he received additional training from Satoshi Kojima and the NJPW Dojo. He frequently partners with Juice Robinson as the team FinJuice; they are one-time IWGP Tag Team Champions. Finlay, along with Ricochet and Satoshi Kojima, is a former NEVER Openweight 6-Man Tag Team Champion.


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: David Finlay III was born on 16 May 1993 in Hanover, the son of Northern Irish parents Fit Finlay and Melanie Duffin. He has stated that he wanted to be a wrestler since he was young, being inspired by watching his father wrestle. Finlay grew up in a wrestling family and is a fourth-generation professional wrestler; his grandfather David "Dave" Finlay Sr., as well as both of his great-grandfathers William Finlay and John Liddell, were all professional wrestlers. His paternal aunt was a referee.


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: On 22 December 2012, Finlay made his professional wrestling debut for German promotion European Wrestling Promotion (EWP). He defeated Big Daddy Walter by disqualification. Later that evening, he teamed up with his father for a tag team match against Robbie Brookside and Dan Collins, which they won; it was also his father's retirement match. In 2014, Finlay became the inaugural Power of Wrestling Junior Champion. He held the title for 314 days before vacating it on 20 August 2015, due to his signing with New Japan Pro-Wrestling.


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: Finlay entered the 2015 Best of the Super Juniors tournament hosted by New Japan Pro-Wrestling, but failed to win, losing all his matches in the tournament and ending with a final tally of 0 points. After the tournament, Finlay was announced as a "young lion". He would carry this moniker until September 2016, Finlay announced he was no longer a young lion.


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: At the Destruction in Kobe event on 25 September, he won the NEVER Openweight 6-Man Tag Team Championship with Ricochet and Satoshi Kojima by defeating Bullet Club (Nick Jackson, Matt Jackson and Adam Cole). They lost the titles at Wrestle Kingdom 11 on 4 January 2017 to Los Ingobernables de Japón (Evil, Bushi and Sanada). At Wrestling Dontaku in May, Finlay was defeated by Cody. In August, he formed a tag team with Juice Robinson, dubbed FinJuice. They teamed for the rest of the year before going their separate ways for the NJPW World Tag League in December, which saw Robinson teaming with Sami Callihan, while Finlay teamed with Katsuya Kitamura. Finlay and Kitamura failed to win the tournament, ending with 0 points.


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: At Strong Style Evolved in March 2018, Finlay attacked Jay White, after White's successful defense of the IWGP United States Heavyweight Championship over Hangman Page. Finlay was granted a title shot, but at the main event of Road to Wrestling Dontaku, he was defeated by White. Finlay returned to teaming with Robinson and other Taguchi Japan members for the remainder of the year; he and Robinson participated in the 2018 World Tag League, where they finished with a record of eight wins and five losses, failing to advance to the finals. Their final block match against Best Friends (Beretta and Chuckie T.) ended by disqualification, when Chuckie, who had recently been prone to violent outbursts, struck Finlay in the back with a chair. At New Years's Dash!! 2019, another match between FinJuice and Best Friends ended in a disqualification, when Chuckie once again struck Finlay in the back with a chair. On day one of The New Beginning in USA, Finlay defeated Chuckie in a no disqualification match, ending their feud.


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: Finlay was announced for the 2019 New Japan Cup, however on 23 February 2019, he suffered a shoulder injury removing him from the tournament. The injury happened during FinJuice's ROH World Tag Team Championship match again the champions The Briscoes at the Honor Rising NJPW/ROH event. It was later revealed to be a torn labrum and that he would be out of action for around six months. On 14 October at King of Pro-Wrestling, Finlay made his return to the company, by making the save on Robinson who was being attacked by Lance Archer, after their match for the vacant IWGP United States Heavyweight Championship. He then challenged Archer to a title shot a later date. This happened at , but he was defeated by Archer. At , Finlay, Robinson and Clark Connors were defeated by Suzuki-gun (Minoru Suzuki, Archer and El Desperado). Finlay would go on to enter the 2019 World Tag League with Robinson where they made it to the finals defeating Evil and Sanada of "Los Ingobernables de Japón" and earning a shot at the IWGP Tag Team Championship titles against Guerrillas of Destiny (G.O.D) during the first of Wrestle Kingdom 14 on 4 January 2020. They would go on to defeat G.O.D to win the championship at the event on 4 January 2020. They lost the titles back to G.O.D at The New Beginning USA on February 1.


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: In March 2020, New Japan suspended all of its activities, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, causing many Non-Japanese talent to not be able to travel to Japan to comptete, including Finlay. Therefore, a new American based NJPW show was produced, called NJPW Strong After a 6-month absence from in-ring competition, Finlay made his Strong debut in August, participating in the inaugural New Japan Cup USA tournament. He defeated, Chase Owens in the quarterfinals round and Tama Tonga in the semifinals. In the finals, Finlay lost to Kenta.


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: In November, Finlay and Robinson both returned to Japan to compete in the 2020 World Tag League tournament. FinJuice topped the table with 12 points, but lost to the Guerillas of Destiny in the finals. In March 2021, Finlay entered the New Japan Cup. He defeated Chase Owens and Yoshi-Hashi to advance to the quarter-finals. In the quarter-finals, Finlay achieved a massive win by defeating the NEVER Openweight Champion, Jay White. In the semi-final round, Finlay lost to eventual cup winner, Will Ospreay. Due to his quarter-final victory, Finlay revieved a shot at the Never Openweight Championship at NJPW Resurgence. In August at the event, White retained the title against Finlay. In April 2022, at Windy City Riot, FinJuice and Brody King defeated TMDK in a 6-man tag-team street fight match.


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: After Juice Robinson turned heel by joining Bullet Club and seemingly breaking up FinJuice, Finlay focused on solely singles competition. In June, Finlay was announced to be making his G1 debut in the G1 Climax 32 tournament, competing in the D Block. Finlay ended his first G1 with 6 points, although he earnt points off of wins against IWGP United States Heavyweight Champion Will Ospreay, former IWGP World Heavyweight Champion Shingo Takagi and Juice Robinson.


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: Prior to Finlay's official debut for Ring of Honor in January 2019, his previous involvement with the American promotion was at the NJPW-ROH promoted shows, held in Korakuen Hall. His first appearance in this capacity was on 20 February 2016, where he was defeated by Jay White. In February 2017, Finlay tagged with Juice Robinson and Kushida, defeating Jado & Gedo and Silas Young, but the following night, he and Kushida lost to Young and Jado. In February 2018, Finlay was again involved in tag matches, tagging with Robinson in a defeat to The Young Bucks, and the following night, he, Robinson and Jay Lethal defeated Bullet Club (Chase Owens, Hikuleo and Yujiro Takahashi).


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: Finlay made his debut for Ring of Honor during the January 2019 TV tapings, in a loss to Tracy Williams. Robinson later announced the formation of Lifeblood, with the goal of bringing honor back to ROH; the stable included Finlay, Williams, Bandido, Mark Haskins and Tenille Dashwood. Lifeblood defeated Jay Lethal's handpicked team of Jonathan Gresham, Flip Gordon, Dalton Castle and Jeff Cobb in the main event. Finlay and Robinson, representing Lifeblood, participated in the Tag Wars Tournament. In the first round, they beat Alex Coughlin and Karl Fredericks, and in the semi-finals, they won in a three-way dance over Lethal and Gresham and Coast 2 Coast (LSG and Shaheem Ali). In the final, they were defeated by Villain Enterprises (Brody King and PCO).


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: On October 5, 2018, Finlay participated in Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre's CMLL International Gran Prix, as part of the "Resto del Mundo" team, and as a representative of New Japan Pro-Wrestling. He lasted 29 minutes and 40 seconds, before being eliminated by Carístico. During October, he appeared in multiple tag team matches, all with the stipulation of two out of three falls.


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: On February 13, 2021, at No Surrender, a video package aired promoting Finlay along with his tag team partner Juice Robinson (collectively known as FinJuice) arriving to Impact Wrestling as part of a partnership between Impact and New Japan Pro-Wrestling. They feuded with The Good Brothers (Doc Gallows and Karl Anderson), defeating them at Sacrifice to win the Impact World Tag Team Championship.


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: On the June 8, 2022 episode of "AEW Dynamite", Finlay made his All Elite Wrestling debut, in a losing effort to Adam Page.


title: David Finlay (wrestler)

text: Finlay resides in Atlanta, Georgia. He became engaged to his girlfriend Ana Scott on 9 May 2017, and they were married on 13 May 2018.


title: Condor Legion

text: The Condor Legion () was a unit composed of military personnel from the air force and army of Nazi Germany, which served with the Nationalist faction during the Spanish Civil War of July 1936 to March 1939. The Condor Legion developed methods of strategic bombing that were shortly afterward used widely during the Second World War. The bombing of Guernica was the most infamous operation carried out by the Condor Legion. Hugo Sperrle commanded the unit's aircraft formations and Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma commanded the ground element.


title: Condor Legion

text: After the military coup in Spain on 17 July 1936 started the Spanish Civil War, the Nationalists requested the support of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The first request for German aircraft was made on 22 July, with an order for 10 transport aircraft. The German Führer Adolf Hitler decided to support the Nationalists on 25 or 26 July, but was wary of provoking a wider European war. The Reich Air Travel Ministry concluded that Nationalist forces would need at least 20 Junkers Ju 52s, flown by Luft Hansa pilots, to carry the Spanish Army of Africa from Spanish Morocco to Spain. This mission became known as Operation Magic Fire (). The joint Spanish-German "Spanish-Moroccan Transport Company" (, HISMA) and the entirely-German Raw Materials and Good Purchasing Company (, ROWAK) were established. That involvement was kept hidden from the foreign and the economic ministries and funded with three million Reichsmarks.


title: Condor Legion

text: The first contingent of 86 men left Germany on 1 August 1936. Unaware of their destination, they were accompanied with six biplane fighters, anti-aircraft guns and about 100 tons of other supplies. They were stationed at Tablada Airfield near Seville, and, accompanied by German Air transport, began the airlift of Francisco Franco's troops to Spain. Germany's involvement grew in September to encompass the Wehrmacht's other branches. Operation Magic Fire was renamed "Operation Guido" in November. A widespread belief was that the soldiers would train the Nationalists and not engage. The Kriegsmarine provided submarines from 24 October and also provided various surface ships and co-ordinated movement of German supplies to Spain. German U-boats were dispatched to Spanish waters under the codename "Ursula".


title: Condor Legion

text: In the two weeks after 27 July, German transport moved nearly 2,500 troops of the Army of Africa to Spain. By 11 October, the mission's official end, 13,500 troops, 127 machine guns and 36 field guns had been carried to mainland Spain from Morocco. Over that period, there was a movement from training- and supply-missions to overt combat. The operation commander, Alexander von Scheele, was replaced by Walter Warlimont. In September, 86 tons of bombs, 40 Panzer I tanks and 122 personnel had been landed in Spain and were accompanied by 108 aircraft from July to October, divided between aircraft for the Nationalist faction itself and planes for German volunteers in Spain.


title: Condor Legion

text: German air-crews supported the August to October 1936 Nationalist advance on Madrid, and the successful relief of the Siege of the Alcázar on 27 September 1936. Ultimately, the initial phase of the Siege of Madrid would prove unsuccessful. Soviet air support for the Republicans was growing, particularly through the supply of Polikarpov aircraft. Warlimont appealed to Germany to step up support. After Berlin's recognition of Franco's government on 30 September, German efforts in Spain were reorganised and expanded. The existing command structure was replaced with the Winterübung Rügen,


title: Condor Legion

text: and the military units already in Spain were formed into a new legion, which was briefly called the "Iron Rations" () and the "Iron Legion" () before Hermann Göring renamed it the "Condor Legion" (). The first German chargé d'affaires to Franco's government, General Wilhelm Faupel, arrived in November, but was told not to interfere in military matters.


title: Condor Legion

text: In the years after the Spanish Civil War, Hitler gave several possible motives for German involvement such as: providing distraction from German rearmament; preventing the spread of communism to Western Europe; creating a state friendly to Germany to disrupt Britain and France; and having possibilities for economic expansion. Although the Nationalist offensive on Madrid was abandoned in March 1937, a series of attacks on weaker Republican-controlled areas was supported by the Condor Legion. Despite prolonging the Civil War, it would help to distract the other western powers from Hitler's ambitions in Central Europe. The offensive on Vizcaya, a mining and industrial centre, would help fuel German industry. On 27 June 1937, in a speech at Würzburg, Hitler declared that he supported Franco to gain control of Spanish ore.


title: Condor Legion

text: Discussions over German objectives for intervention occurred in January 1937. Germany was keen to avoid prompting a wider European war, which it then felt would occur by if it committed further resources to Spain. Contradictory views were held by German officials: Ernst von Weizsäcker of the German Foreign Office suggested that it was merely a matter of graceful withdrawal, and Göring stated that Germany would never recognise a "red Spain". A joint Italian–German decision was agreed to that the last shipments would be made by early February.


title: Condor Legion

text: It has been speculated that Hitler used the Spanish Civil War issue to distract Benito Mussolini from Hitler's own plans to annex Austria. The authoritarian, Catholic and anti-Nazi Vaterländische Front ran the government of Austria from 1933 to 1938 and had been allied with Mussolini. In 1934 the assassination of Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss had already successfully invoked Italian military assistance to prevent a German invasion.


title: Condor Legion

text: A communiqué in December 1936 from Ulrich von Hassell, the German ambassador in Rome, illustrated another point:


title: Condor Legion

text: The role played by the Spanish conflict as regards Italy's relations with France and England could be similar to that of the Abyssinian conflict, bringing out clearly the actual, opposing interests of the powers and thus preventing Italy from being drawn into the net of the Western powers and used for their machinations... All the more clearly will Italy recognize the advisability of confronting the Western powers shoulder to shoulder with Germany.


title: Condor Legion

text: The Condor Legion, upon its establishment, consisted of the , with three squadrons of Ju 52 bombers, and the Jagdgruppe 88, with three squadrons of Heinkel He 51 fighters; the reconnaissance Aufklärungsgruppe 88, supplemented by the Aufklärungsgruppe See 88, an anti-aircraft group, the Flakabteilung 88; and a signals group, the Nachrichtenabteilung 88. The anti-aircraft guns used by Flakabteilung 88 was the standard German anti-aircraft guns of the time: the 8.8cm Flak 18, 3.7cm Flak 18 and 2cm Flak 30. Overall command was given to Hugo Sperrle, with Alexander Holle as chief of staff. Scheele was transferred to become a military attaché in Salamanca. Two armoured units under the command of Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma, with four Panzer I tanks each, were also operational.


title: Condor Legion

text: The Nationalists were supported by German and Italian units and materials at the Battle of Madrid. However, the military situation in Madrid remained poor for the Nationalists, and both German and Italian aircraft, under Franco's orders, began bombing raids on the city as a whole. The Germans were keen to observe the effects of the city undergoing civilian bombings and deliberate burning. Offensives involving German aircraft, as well as the bombings, were unsuccessful. Increasing Republican air superiority became apparent, particularly the strength of the Soviet Polikarpov I-15 and I-16 aircraft, but the historian Hugh Thomas described their armaments as "primitive". Faupel in November and December urged the creation of a single German unit of 15,000 to 30,000, which he believed would be enough to turn the tide of the war toward the Nationalists. Hans-Heinrich Dieckhoff argued that would be insufficient and that larger measures could provoke the wrath of the Spanish. Between late 1936 and early 1937, new aircraft were sent to the Condor Legion, including Henschel Hs 123 dive bombers, and prototypes of the Heinkel He 112 and Messerschmitt Bf 109, with the latter proving the most successful. The Heinkel He 111 was added to the bomber fleet, along with the Dornier Do 17 (E and F types). Older aircraft were passed onto the Nationalists. By the end of 1936, approximately 7,000 Condor Legion personnel were in Spain.


title: Condor Legion

text: German forces also operated in the Battle of Jarama, which began with a Nationalist offensive on 6 February 1937. It included German-supplied ground forces, including two batteries of machine guns, a tank division, and the Condor Legion's anti-aircraft guns. Bombing by both Republican and Nationalist aircraft, including Ju 52s from the Legion, helped to ensure a stalemate. It showed up the inadequacy of the Legion's aircraft when faced with superior Soviet-made fighters. Von Thoma requested Irish nationalist support for a tank advance at one point, never to be replicated. The use of He 51 and Ju 52s and the Legion's anti-aircraft guns used in ground roles only partly mitigated the significant defeat for the Nationalists at the Battle of Guadalajara in March. A joint Italian-German general staff had been set up in January 1937 to advise Franco on war planning. The defeat of a significant Italian force and the growing Soviet superiority in tanks and aircraft led the Germans to support a plan to abandon the offensive on Madrid and instead to concentrate a series of attacks on weaker Republican-controlled areas. Many countries believed motorised troops had proved less effective than had first been thought, the inadequacy of the Italians as a fighting force became quite apparent to the Germans.


title: Condor Legion

text: The isolated area of Vizcaya, a predominantly-Basque region of northern Spain, was the most immediate target in what was called the War in the North. It was largely a Nationalist and Italian offensive, but it was supported by a consistently re-equipping Condor Legion. The terrain was favourable, with the planes coming over a range of mountains to the south, which masked their entrance. Sperrle remained in Salamanca, and Wolfram von Richthofen replaced Holle in January as deputy and in actual command. Since the Basque air force was very limited, even fighters were used in ground-attack roles. The Legion's air force initially attacked the towns of Ochandiano and Durango. Durango had no anti-aircraft defence and only a few other defences. According to the Basques, 250 civilians died on the 31 March, including the priest, nuns and congregation of a church ceremony. The Germans, with their air raids, were hated. The Basque ground forces were in full retreat towards Bilbao through the town of Guernica, which was attacked on 26 April in one of the most controversial attacks of the Spanish Civil War.


title: Condor Legion

text: In Operation Rügen, waves of Ju 52 and He 111 planes bombed and strafed targets in Guernica. The number of casualties is a matter of controversy, with perhaps 200 or 300 people killed; the number reported dead by the Basques was 1,654 dead and 889 wounded. Several explanations were put forward by the Nationalists, including blaming the attack on the Republicans or claiming the attack on the town to have been a prolonged offensive or that the Rentería bridge, outside Guernica, was the true target. However, the nature of the operation itself, including the formation and armaments that were used, makes that seem unlikely. Guernica was a clear target of the Condor Legion, rather than the Nationalists as a whole. The offensive on Bilbao, when it eventually came on 11 July, was supported by ground units of the Condor Legion and extensive air operations. It proved the worth of the Condor Legion to the Nationalist cause.


title: Condor Legion

text: The first English-language media reports of the destruction in Guernica appeared two days later. George Steer, a reporter for "The Times", who was covering the Spanish Civil War from inside the country, wrote the first full account of events. Steer's reporting set the tone for much of the subsequent reportage. Steer pointed out the clear German complicity in the action. The evidence of three small bomb cases stamped with the German Imperial Eagle made it clear that the official German position of neutrality in the war and the signing of a Non-Intervention Pact were only nominal and that German forces were participating in the war. Steer's report was syndicated to the "New York Times" and then worldwide and generated widespread shock, outrage and fear.


title: Condor Legion

text: The Condor Legion also took part in the Battle of Brunete, which was designed as a Republican offensive to take the pressure off northern Spain, where the fighting was ongoing. The Legion was sent from the north to reinforce the broken line. There were repeated raids on Republican armoured vehicles and later defensive positions by bombers and by fighters based at Salamanca. The Republican aircraft were ineffective, despite Nationalist fears, compared with German aircraft. The Messerschmitt Bf 109 was shown to be superior to the I-15 and I-16 models used by Republican forces. The Legion lost 8 aircraft but claimed 18 victories. German tactics were also improved with the experience of Brunete, particularly the "en masse" use of tanks by the Nationalists.


title: Condor Legion

text: The Nationalists returned to focus on the capture of northern Spain. German test aircraft, with the latest models, faced an outdated Basque air force, but it had some Russian planes. Heavy aerial bombardment from 200 Nationalist, German and Italian planes occurred far behind Basque lines in August 1937 and led to the fall of Santander after the Battle of Santander on 1 September. The formal battle in Asturias ended with the fall of Gijon on 21 October. A large amount of ammunitions had been used by the Legion, including a million machine gun rounds and 2,500 tonnes of bombs. Germany immediately began to ship industrial production back to the country. Sperrle argued repeatedly with Faupel and against HISMA's monopoly. Faupel was replaced by Franco through Sperrle. Sperrle also returned to Germany and was replaced by . After disagreements with Volkmann, Von Richthofen would be replaced with Hermann Plocher in early 1938.


title: Condor Legion

text: The next major campaign, Madrid or Barcelona, was discussed, the Condor Legion was moved to Soria and began a week of strikes against Republican airfields, halted by the Republican advance on Teruel and the ensuing Battle of Teruel. The Legion's land and air forces were used, and the Legion moved to Bronchales. Poor weather resulted in few flights, and the town fell to Republican forces on 6 January. Up to 100 sorties a day were launched during the Nationalist's counter-offensive through the Alfambra Valley. The Junkers Ju 87A was used for the first time on the advance on Teruel, which was retaken on 22 February. The continued Nationalist offensive on Aragon in April to June 1937, including the Battle of Belchite, involved bombing raids and the use of the Legion's ground forces. The Legion was switched to focus in the north, towards the Segre River, before it moved south again following Nationalist successes. The Legion moved its main headquarters to Benicarló; single-engined planes operated from airfields nearby and twin-engined planes from Zaragoza. Hitler's words to his colleagues belied a change in attitude about the war in Germany: a quick victory in the war was not desirable, and a mere continuation of the war would be preferable. German policy would be to prevent a Republican defeat. However, casualties were beginning to mount for the Legion, and combined with a resurgence in Republican air activity, the Nationalist advance stalled, perhaps because of the reluctance of commanders in Germany to supply reinforcements, with the Czechoslovak crisis mounting. Arguments over the bill to the Germans, which was now rising at 10 million Reichsmarks a month, continued unresolved. The Legion's materiel had been exhausted.


title: Condor Legion

text: On 24–25 July, Republican forces launched the last major offensive of the war, the Battle of the Ebro. Reconnaissance units of the Condor Legion had noticed a troop build-up and warned Nationalists forces, but the warning went unheeded. Although the Republicans gained ground, they failed to gain control of Gandesa, with 422 sorties by the Legion (with around 70 aircraft operational) having considerable effect. The rest of the battle saw a series of attacks using artillery or air strikes, followed by a Nationalist ground advance. However, tensions in Czechoslovakia and a shortage of pilots in Germany led to the return of 250 pilots from the Legion, around half of them being bomber crews. Although trained Spaniards made up some of the shortfall, Volkmann complained to central command in Berlin, which would lead to his recall in September. During the battle, which saw 113 days of fighting, only 10 aircraft were lost (some by accident) and 14 were badly damaged. The Legion claimed around 100 Republican aircraft, a third of those lost. Only 5 aircrew had been killed and 6 captured. Aid from Germany temporarily halted in mid-September. Germany and Nationalist Spain settled the issue of German interests in Spanish mines.


title: Condor Legion

text: The Legion took a short break from active duty to receive new aircraft, including Bf 109Es, He 111Es and Js, and Hs 126As, which brought its strength to 96 aircraft, around a fifth of the Nationalist's force as a whole. Richthofen returned to Spain in overall command, with Hans Seidemann as chief of staff. That reinforcement may have been the single most important intervention by a foreign side in the war by enabling a counterattack after the Battle of the Ebro. It mainly took part in operations against the remaining Republican air force during January–February 1939, with considerable success. After it took part in parades in Barcelona and elsewhere and minor duties over Madrid, it was rapidly dissolved. The men returned on 26 May, the best aircraft were returned to Germany and the rest of the equipment was bought by the new Spanish regime.


title: Condor Legion

text: The Condor Legion claimed to have destroyed 320 Republican planes using aircraft (either shot down or bombed on the ground) and to have shot down another 52 using anti-aircraft guns. It also claimed to have destroyed 60 ships, including Spanish Republican Navy vessels. It lost 72 aircraft from hostile action and another 160 from accidents.


title: Condor Legion

text: The Maritime Reconnaissance Staffel 88 () was the Condor Legion's maritime unit under the command of Karl Heinz Wolff. Operating independently of the land-based division, it acted against enemy shipping, ports, coastal communications and occasionally inland targets such as bridges. It used floatplanes, starting with the Heinkel He 60, which began operating at Cadiz in October 1936. Missions started as reconnaissance, but after the move from Cadiz to Melilla in Spanish Morocco in December 1936, the focus shifted to attacks on shipping. It was again moved in February 1937 to Málaga, which was newly captured, and then to Majorca when Málaga proved unsuitable. In June, operations began to be expanded to allow attacks on all Republican ports as long as British ships were not present. There were 10 ships attacked in the second half of 1937, but the Norwegian torpedoes that were used proved ineffective, and strafing or bombing targets was used instead.


title: Condor Legion

text: The arrival of Martin Harlinghausen (known as "Iron Gustav") saw operations expand, and operations targeted Alicante, Almería, Barcelona and Cartagena. As naval activity declined, inland targets became more numerous, and night missions began. Activities in support of ground forces became the main focus of the unit until the end of hostilities. Both Wolff and Harlinghausen received the Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds. In total, eleven men were killed in action, and five others died due to accident or illness.


title: Condor Legion

text: Overtly, the Kriegsmarine was partly used to enforce the Non-Intervention Agreement from interfering in the war. However, the agreement was clearly broken by Germany. As a result, the German pocket battleship stood guard over Ceuta to prevent interference from Republican ships while Franco transported troops to the Spanish mainland. By mid-October, the German North Sea Group around Spain consisted of the pocket battleships "Deutschland" and "Admiral Scheer", the light cruiser , and four torpedo boats. After the Germans claimed that "Leipzig" had been attacked by an unidentified submarine, it was formally withdrawn from international patrols.


title: Condor Legion

text: Operation Ursula, named after the daughter of Karl Dönitz, saw a group of German U-boats active around Spain. It began on 20 November 1936, with the movement of the "U-33" and the "U-34" from Wilhelmshaven. Identification marks were obscured, and the whole mission was kept secret. Difficulties in identifying legitimate targets and concerns about discovery limited their operations. During their return to Wilhelmshaven in December, the Republican submarine "C-3" was sunk; the Germans claimed that had been caused a torpedo fired from "U-34" although the Republican enquiry claimed its loss to have been caused by an internal explosion. Their submarines' return marked the official end of Operation Ursula. However, further submarines seem to have been sent in mid-1937, but details of the operation are not known although six are believed to have been involved.


title: Condor Legion

text: The German Intelligence service, the Abwehr, working independently of the Condor Legion, was secretly involved in Operation Bodden. It later played a part in the detection of the Operation Torch invasion fleet.


title: Condor Legion

text: On 20 May, the KdF fleet, including the MV Wilhelm Gustloff and 7 other ships, were given secret orders and diverted from their regular pleasure cruise schedule to arrive in Vigo, Spain. They arrived on the 24th to pick up the triumphant legion and departed on the 26th to bring them on a five-day voyage to Hamburg, Germany. There, they arrived to ecstatic crowds, parades and ceremonies celebrating their success, with Hermann Göring and other high-ranking officials in attendance.


title: Condor Legion

text: It is known that army leaders were hesitant to become involved in the conflict and resisted a call made by the Italian government for a dual transfer of ground troops to fight in Spain. The involvement of the Luftwaffe, however, was not entirely restricted, and a commonly-held viewpoint is that the involvement of the Luftwaffe in the Civil War was a proving ground for troops fighting during World War II. That view is supported by the testimony of Hermann Göring, when he was on trial at Nuremberg. When asked about the decision to use the Luftwaffe, Göring stated:


title: Condor Legion

text: When the Civil War broke out in Spain, Franco sent a call for help to Germany and asked for support, particularly in the air. One should not forget that Franco with his troops was stationed in Africa and that he could not get the troops across, as the fleet was in the hands of the Communists, or, as they called themselves at the time, the competent Revolutionary Government in Spain. The decisive factor was, first of all, to get his troops over to Spain. The Führer thought the matter over. I urged him to give support [to Franco] under all circumstances, firstly, in order to prevent the further spread of communism in that theater and, secondly, to test my young Luftwaffe at this opportunity in this or that technical respect.


title: Condor Legion

text: Dozens of Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters and Heinkel He 111 medium bombers and, from December 1937, at least three Junkers Ju 87 "Stuka" dive-bombers, first saw active service in the Condor Legion against Soviet-supplied aircraft. The Stuka's first mission flown in Spain was February 1938. Each of the aircraft played a major role during the early years of World War II. The Germans also realised that biplane fighters were quickly becoming less effective than newer monoplane designs. The Heinkel He 51 fighter, after suffering many losses during the first twelve months of the conflict, was switched to a ground attack role and later saw service as a trainer.


title: Condor Legion

text: The Condor Legion also included non-aircraft units. Panzer crews operating Panzer I light tanks were commanded by Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma. The Germans also tested small numbers of 88 mm Flak 18 anti-aircraft artillery guns to destroy Republican tanks and fortifications with direct fire, as well as enemy aircraft in their designed role.


title: Condor Legion

text: The German involvement in Spain also saw the development of the first air ambulance service for evacuation of wounded combatants.


title: Condor Legion

text: One important factor in World War II that is thought to have directly resulted from the conflict is the technical development of the Messerschmitt Bf 109. The V3 – V6 types entered service in Spain directly from operational trials around January 1937. In the spring of 1938, they were joined by type C aircraft with type Es being first fielded in December 1938.


title: Condor Legion

text: Besides the potential for gains in combat experience, it is also thought that various strategic initiatives were first tried as part of Luftwaffe involvement in the conflict. As the fighting progressed into March 1938, Italian pilots under Fieldmarshal Hugo Sperrle were involved in 13 raids against Barcelona involving fire and gas bombs that resulted in the deaths of thousands of civilians. It is worth noting that a subsequent commander of the Legion in Spain, Wolfram von Richthofen would rise to the rank of Field Marshal during World War II and serve in high positions of Luftwaffe throughout the conflict, mostly as a specialist in ground attack, with his units spearheading German offensives such as in Poland, France and the Low Countries, the Balkans, and Operation Barbarossa.


title: Condor Legion

text: Tactics of combined or joint operations were a particular focus. Close air support for Nationalist troops, attack bombing of Republican troop concentrations and strafing became features of the war. The Legion worked closely in missions to maximise the fighting ability of the Nationalist air force and troops, the Italian CTV, and pilots from the Aviazione Legionaria (Legionary Air Force). The German air ace Adolf Galland claimed after World War II that although there was a focus on taking lessons from the conflict in Spain, he believed that the wrong conclusions were drawn by the German High Command with particular respect to the Luftwaffe:


title: Condor Legion

text: Whatever may have been the importance of the tests of German arms in the Spanish Civil War from tactical, technical and operational points of view, they did not provide the experience that was needed nor lead to the formulation of sound strategic concepts.


title: Condor Legion

text: The recrimination for the activities of the Condor Legion and the shame at the involvement of German citizens in the bombing of Guernica have surfaced since German reunification in the 1990s. In 1997, the 60th anniversary of Operation Rügen, German President Roman Herzog wrote to survivors of the raid to apologise on behalf of the German people and state. Herzog said that he wished to extend "a hand of friendship and reconciliation" on behalf of all German citizens. That sentiment was later ratified by members of the German Parliament who went on to legislate in 1998 for the removal of all former Legion members' names from associated German military bases. The process was then carried out, but the issue surfaced again in 2005 after media revelations about the role of the pilot Werner Mölders, who had volunteered to serve in Spain. Although he was not involved in the bombing of Guernica, it was decided by German Defence Minister Peter Struck that in keeping with the law, Mölders' name should be removed from the barracks at Visselhoevede and from the association with Luftwaffe wing 74 (Jagdgeschwader 74) based in Neuburg an der Donau. Until 2005, it had not been established that Mölders had flown as a Condor Legion volunteer before his death in 1941.


title: Condor Legion

text: On 26 April 2017, at the 80th anniversary of the Guernica bombing, the Madrid City Council announced that it had dismantled the memorial to the Condor Legion at the La Almudena cemetery, pictured right. The tomb was removed at the request of the German embassy in Madrid and was to be replaced with simple name plaques.


title: Condor Legion

text: The Spanienkreuz (Spanish Cross) campaign medal was awarded by the German authorities in seven classes from April 14, 1939. The clandestine nature of German activities in Spain caused no awards to be instituted until April 1939, at the end of German involvement in the conflict. The Spanish Cross complemented the Condor Legion Tank Badge, which was approved on 10 July 1939, and cuff titles issued to those who served. Legionnaires could also expect a Campaign Medal struck by the Spanish authorities to thank German volunteers for their service. See both websites listed below for examples of each medal and others issued to Legion veterans.


title: Condor Legion

text: Other notable events on the return of the Legion included an assembly for a personal address by Hitler on 6 June 1939 and a parade as part of the celebrations organised for Hitler's 50th birthday 20 April 1939. Also by way of commemoration the activities of the Legion were memorialized in a special edition of "Der Adler", the Luftwaffe's magazine for service members, which was then also circulated in both Spain and the United States.


title: Shechem

text: Shechem ( ), also spelled Sichem ( ; , "Šəḵem"; ; ; Samaritan Hebrew: , ), was a Canaanite and Israelite city mentioned in the Amarna Letters, later appearing in the Hebrew Bible as the first capital of the Kingdom of Israel following the split of the United Monarchy. According to , it was located in the tribal territorial allotment of the tribe of Ephraim. Shechem declined after the fall of the northern Kingdom of Israel. The city later regained its importance as a prominent Samaritan center during the Hellenistic period.


title: Shechem

text: Traditionally associated with the city of Nablus, Shechem is now identified with the nearby site of Tell Balata in the Balata al-Balad suburb of the West Bank.


title: Shechem

text: Shechem's position is indicated in the Hebrew Bible: it lay north of Bethel and Shiloh, on the high road going from Jerusalem to the northern districts (Judges xxi, 19), at a short distance from Michmethath (Joshua 17:7) and of Dothain (Genesis 37:12–17); it was in the hill-country of Ephraim (Joshua 20:7; 21:21; 1 Kings 12:25; 1 Chronicles 6:67; 7:28), immediately below Mount Gerizim (Judges 9:6–7). These indications are substantiated by Josephus, who says that the city lay between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim, and by the Madaba map, which places its Sykhem between one of its two sets of "Tour Gobel" (Ebal) and the "Tour Garizin" (Garizim). The site of Shechem in patristic sources is almost invariably identified with, or located close to, the town of Flavia Neapolis (Nablus).


title: Shechem

text: Shechem was a very ancient commercial center due to its position in the middle of vital trade routes through the region. A very old "Way of the Patriarchs" trade route runs in the north–south direction.


title: Shechem

text: The oldest settlement in Shechem goes back to about six thousand years ago, during the Chalcolithic period (4000–3500 BCE). At that time agriculture was already practiced.


title: Shechem

text: Subsequently, during the Early Bronze Age, activity seems to have moved to the nearby area of Khirbet Makhneh el-Fauqa. Some publications claim that Shechem is mentioned in the third-millennium Ebla tablets, but this has been denied by competent archaeologists.


title: Shechem

text: The first substantial building activity at Shechem dates from the Middle Bronze Age IIA (c. 1900 BCE). It became a very substantial Canaanite settlement, and was attacked by Egypt, as mentioned in the Sebek-khu Stele, an Egyptian stele of a noble at the court of Senusret III (c. 1880–1840 BCE).