title: Integrated Services Digital Network

text: Previously, in April 1985, Japanese digital telephone exchange hardware made by Fujitsu was used to experimentally deploy the world's first I interface ISDN. The I interface, unlike the older and incompatible Y interface, is what modern ISDN services use today.


title: Integrated Services Digital Network

text: Since 2000, NTT's ISDN offering have been known as FLET's ISDN, incorporating the "FLET's" brand that NTT uses for all of its ISP offerings.


title: Integrated Services Digital Network

text: In Japan, the number of ISDN subscribers dwindled as alternative technologies such as ADSL, cable Internet access, and fiber to the home gained greater popularity. On November 2, 2010, NTT announced plans to migrate their backend from PSTN to the IP network from around 2020 to around 2025. For this migration, ISDN services will be retired, and fiber optic services are recommended as an alternative.


title: Integrated Services Digital Network

text: On April 19, 1988, Norwegian telecommunications company Telenor began offering nationwide ISDN services trademarked INS Net 64, and INS Net 1500, a fruition of NTT's independent research and trial from the 1970s of what it referred to the INS (Information Network System).


title: Integrated Services Digital Network

text: In the United Kingdom, British Telecom (BT) provides ISDN2e (BRI) as well as ISDN30 (PRI). Until April 2006, they also offered services named Home Highway and Business Highway, which were BRI ISDN-based services that offered integrated analogue connectivity as well as ISDN. Later versions of the Highway products also included built-in USB sockets for direct computer access. Home Highway was bought by many home users, usually for Internet connection, although not as fast as ADSL, because it was available before ADSL and in places where ADSL does not reach.


title: Integrated Services Digital Network

text: ISDN-BRI never gained popularity as a general use telephone access technology in Canada and the US, and remains a niche product. The service was seen as "a solution in search of a problem", and the extensive array of options and features were difficult for customers to understand and use. ISDN has long been known by derogatory backronyms highlighting these issues, such as "It Still Does Nothing", "Innovations Subscribers Don't Need", and "I Still Don't kNow", or, from the supposed standpoint of telephone companies, "I Smell Dollars Now".


title: Integrated Services Digital Network

text: Although various minimum bandwidths have been used in definitions of Broadband Internet access, ranging up from 64 kbit/s up to 1.0 Mbit/s, the 2006 OECD report is typical by defining broadband as having download data transfer rates equal to or faster than 256 kbit/s, while the United States FCC, as of 2008, defines broadband as anything above 768 kbit/s. Once the term "broadband" came to be associated with data rates incoming to the customer at 256 kbit/s or more, and alternatives like ADSL grew in popularity, the consumer market for BRI did not develop. Its only remaining advantage is that, while ADSL has a functional distance limitation and can use ADSL loop extenders, BRI has a greater limit and can use repeaters. As such, BRI may be acceptable for customers who are too remote for ADSL. Widespread use of BRI is further stymied by some small North American CLECs such as CenturyTel having given up on it and not providing Internet access using it. However, AT&T in most states (especially the former SBC/SWB territory) will still install an ISDN BRI line anywhere a normal analog line can be placed and the monthly charge is roughly $55.


title: Integrated Services Digital Network

text: ISDN-BRI is currently primarily used in industries with specialized and very specific needs. High-end videoconferencing hardware can bond up to 8 B-channels together (using a BRI circuit for every 2 channels) to provide digital, circuit-switched video connections to almost anywhere in the world. This is very expensive, and is being replaced by IP-based conferencing, but where cost concern is less of an issue than predictable quality and where a QoS-enabled IP does not exist, BRI is the preferred choice.


title: Integrated Services Digital Network

text: Most modern non-VoIP PBXs use ISDN-PRI circuits. These are connected via T1 lines with the central office switch, replacing older analog two-way and direct inward dialing (DID) trunks. PRI is capable of delivering Calling Line Identification (CLID) in both directions so that the telephone number of an extension, rather than a company's main number, can be sent. It is still commonly used in recording studios and some radio programs, when a voice-over actor or host is in one studio conducting remote work, but the director and producer are in a studio at another location. The ISDN protocol delivers channelized, not-over-the-Internet service, powerful call setup and routing features, faster setup and tear down, superior audio fidelity as compared to plain old telephone service (POTS), lower delay and, at higher densities, lower cost.


title: Integrated Services Digital Network

text: In 2013, Verizon announced it would no longer take orders for ISDN service in the Northeastern United States.


title: Nadia Whittome

text: Nadia Edith Whittome (born 29 August 1996) is a British politician who has been the Member of Parliament (MP) for Nottingham East since the 2019 United Kingdom general election. A member of the Labour Party, she was elected at the age of 23, and became the Baby of the House as the youngest MP. She is a member of the Socialist Campaign Group, a democratic socialist parliamentary group of Labour MPs.


title: Nadia Whittome

text: Nadia Edith Whittome was born on 29 August 1996 in Nottingham, England, to Indian parents. Her Punjabi Sikh father emigrated to the UK from Banga, India, at the age of 21. He first worked in factories and as a miner before giving immigration advice and running a shop. Her mother is an Anglo-Indian Catholic solicitor and former member of the Labour Party, who left in protest at the amendment of Clause IV of the constitution in 1995. Whittome grew up in a single-parent household, with a brother. Whittome attended a private school in Nottingham, between the ages of 7 and 11 and later attended West Bridgford School, an academy school. She also attended Bilborough Sixth Form College, sitting two A Levels. Whittome has lived in The Meadows, Top Valley, and West Bridgford areas of Nottinghamshire.


title: Nadia Whittome

text: Whittome says she became interested in politics in 2013 due to the effects of the "Bedroom tax" and austerity on her local community. She worked in the constituency office of the Member of Parliament (MP) for North West Durham, Pat Glass, Shadow Minister of State for Europe, during the 2016 European Union referendum campaign. She completed an access course at Nottingham college, and law at Nottingham University. She contested the 2017 Nottinghamshire County Council election as the Labour candidate for the West Bridgford West ward, coming second.


title: Nadia Whittome

text: Before her election, she was a national committee member of the pro-Remain organisations Another Europe is Possible and Labour for a Socialist Europe.


title: Nadia Whittome

text: Whittome was selected as the Labour candidate for Nottingham East on 28 October 2019. She was elected as the MP for the constituency in the December general election with a majority of 17,393 (43.4%). At the age of 23, she was the youngest MP in the House of Commons, and therefore gained the unofficial title of Baby of the House. The seat had been won by the Labour Party candidate at every election since the 1992 general election, and had previously been represented by Chris Leslie, himself a former Baby of the House. Whittome is of Punjabi descent and the first BAME MP elected in Nottingham. She identifies ideologically as a democratic socialist.


title: Nadia Whittome

text: Following her election, she said that she would keep what she termed "a worker's wage" of £35,000 (after tax), and would donate the remainder of her £79,468 salary as an MP to local charities. Whittome initially supported Clive Lewis in the 2020 Labour Party leadership election but when Lewis withdrew, nominated Emily Thornberry. On 28 February 2020, Whittome announced that she would be voting for Rebecca Long-Bailey for leader and Dawn Butler for deputy.


title: Nadia Whittome

text: In February 2020, Whittome organised a letter signed by 170 MPs demanding that foreign-born offenders not be deported back to Jamaica. During the COVID-19 pandemic, she worked as a part-time carer at a care home. Whittome appeared on "Newsnight" in April where she discussed shortages in PPE at her workplace. Shortly after her appearance on the show, she claimed that she had been fired from her job as a carer for "spreading misinformation". Her employer ExtraCare denied that there were any shortages in PPE at the care home, and also stated that Whittome had not been fired, but that her services were "no longer needed" as their own in-house care team could now meet their needs. In September, however, ExtraCare issued a statement in which they admitted that there had been shortages of PPE at the care home, and that Whittome had helped to resolve this through public appeals in March and April.


title: Nadia Whittome

text: Following Keir Starmer taking over as Leader of the Labour Party in April 2020, Whittome was appointed as the Parliamentary Private Secretary to Jonathan Ashworth, the Shadow Secretary of State for Health and Social Care. In response to the toppling of the Statue of Edward Colston on 7 June 2020, Whittome tweeted "I celebrate these acts of resistance" and called for "a movement that will tear down systemic racism and the slave owner statues that symbolise it".


title: Nadia Whittome

text: In September 2020, Whittome was one of eighteen Labour MPs who defied the whip and voted against the Overseas Operations Bill. She said the bill was "anti-veteran, anti-human rights, and would effectively decriminalise torture". In response, she was sacked from her role as a parliamentary private secretary. In November, she signed an open letter condemning violence and discrimination against transgender people.


title: Nadia Whittome

text: Whittome was critical of the Police, Crime, Sentencing and Courts Bill, calling it "the next step in our descent to authoritarianism" and claimed the Bill was "born out of Priti Patel's fury at Black Lives Matter". In May 2021, alongside celebrities and other public figures, she was a signatory to an open letter from "Stylist" magazine which called on the government to address what it described as an "epidemic of male violence" by funding an "ongoing, high-profile, expert-informed awareness campaign on men's violence against women and girls".


title: Nadia Whittome

text: During the 2022 United Kingdom railway strike that began in June 2022, she donated £2,000 of her parliamentary salary to the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers strike fund, and also joined strikers at Nottingham railway station. After the October 2022 Conservative Party leadership election, she tweeted that Rishi Sunak becoming Britain's first British-Asian Prime Minister wasn't "a win for Asian representation". She was later instructed by her party's whips to delete the tweet.


title: Nadia Whittome

text: Whittome identifies as queer. She speaks fluent French and German. In May 2021, Whittome announced that she had been suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder and would be taking a leave of absence. On 6 September 2021, she returned to her duties in the House of Commons. She is a vegan. Whittome has described herself as a baptised Catholic who does not follow any religion, and has taken affirmation rather than an oath of office.


title: Västerås

text: Västerås ( , , ) is a city in central Sweden on the shore of Lake Mälaren in the province of Västmanland, west of Stockholm. The city had a population of 127,799 at the end of 2019, out of the municipal total of 154,049.


title: Västerås

text: Västerås is the seat of Västerås Municipality, the capital of Västmanland County and an episcopal see.


title: Västerås

text: Västerås is one of the oldest cities in Sweden and Northern Europe. The name originates from "Västra Aros" (West Aros), which refers to the river mouth of Svartån. The area has been populated since the Nordic Viking Age, before 1000 CE. In the beginning of the 11th century it was the second largest city in Sweden, and by the 12th century had become the seat of the bishop.


title: Västerås

text: Anundshög is located just outside the City of Västerås. Anundshög is Sweden's largest burial mound. "Hög" is derived from the Old Norse word "haugr" meaning mound or barrow. It was built about 500 CE and is over wide and is almost high.


title: Västerås

text: In the ensuing centuries, a cathedral and a monastery were built; the Gothic cathedral, rebuilt by Birger Jarl on an earlier site, and consecrated in 1271, was restored in the 19th century. The first City Arms date from the end of the 13th century. A castle commands the town from an eminence; it was captured by King Gustav I and rebuilt by him, and Eric XIV was confined there from 1573 to 1575. Gustav also called together the riksdag in Västerås. During the riksdag assembly, the decision was made to convert Sweden into a Protestant state and to remove the power of the Catholic Church.


title: Västerås

text: "Rudbeckianska gymnasiet", the oldest gymnasium (secondary school) in Sweden, was built in Västerås by Johannes Rudbeckius in 1623.


title: Västerås

text: In the 18th and 19th centuries, the growing of cucumber became popular, and Västerås received the nickname "Gurkstaden" (the Cucumber City), which it still retains today.


title: Västerås

text: Västerås is predominantly known as an industrial city, but also a retailing and logistics city. The city wants to distinguish itself as "Västerås – Mälarstaden", meaning "Västerås—the city by Lake Mälaren", in order to attract tourists and new inhabitants, as well as students to the local university college, Mälardalen University (approximately 16,000 enrolled students in Västerås and in the nearby Eskilstuna). To this effect, the city has started using a designed logo as branding in some official contexts, partially replacing the coat of arms, as well as rebuilding several old harbor areas to make them more attractive to live in. Västerås has the largest lakeside commercial and recreational port in Scandinavia on Lake Mälaren. The lake has many islands, and there are tourist boats that go out to them daily in the summer.


title: Västerås

text: The city also has a skyscraper colloquially nicknamed "Skrapan" () which has Sweden's highest-located cocktail bar, called Sky Bar, on the 24th floor of the building. Until 2017, Västerås hosted Power Big Meet, an annual event for owners and enthusiasts of classic American cars. The event moved to Lidköping in 2017, with arrangers citing having outgrown the available facilities in Västerås. Long-time Power Big meet collaborator Klas Brink instead arranged the competing Västerås Summer Meet at the same location as Power Big Meet had been arranged for years.


title: Västerås

text: According to the Köppen climate classification, Västerås experiences a humid continental climate bordering, according to the original isotherm, an oceanic climate ("Dfb"/"Cfb") with cold winters and warm summers.


title: Västerås

text: Summers tend to be quite unpredictable with sunny spells but with a risk of sudden showers. The sunniest weather usually occurs when high-pressure systems are blocking the low-pressure systems that usually move in from the Atlantic Ocean. Daytime temperatures in July mostly hover around , but may sometimes exceed and occasionally even .


title: Västerås

text: Winters are usually cold with a snow cover that lasts for several months. Some winters can be mild with longer spells without snow on the ground. The weather differs a lot whether the air masses are coming from the Atlantic Ocean or from the Eurasian continent. In the first case, temperatures over might be expected. In the second case, the temperature may not rise above in the middle of the day. Lake Mälaren is usually frozen from December until the end of March.


title: Västerås

text: The highest official temperature reading of was recorded on July 9, 1966. The lowest temperature of was recorded on January 24, 1875.


title: Västerås

text: In 1891, the Turbine House, a small hydroelectric dam was built on Svartån, in central Västerås. This early electrification encouraged ASEA, a large electricity equipment manufacturer, to concentrate its operations in Västerås, shifting focus away from Arboga. After the 1988 merger with the power systems company Brown, Boveri & Cie, ASEA became ABB Group. As a result, Västerås is home to its ABB AB Swedish subsidiary headquarters. ABB in Västerås produces e.g. robots and drive systems for the industry, high-voltage direct current transmission and power grids.


title: Västerås

text: A number of business units have been spun out of ABB. Principal among them is Hitachi Energy (Hitachi).


title: Västerås

text: Since the Westinghouse takeover of ABB's nuclear business it is owned by Westinghouse Electric Company. It is situated mainly in Finnslätten, an industrial area in the northern part of Västerås. Westinghouse Sweden produces nuclear fuel and offers nuclear services for Boiling Water Reactors and Pressurized water reactors. , Westinghouse Sweden had more than 1000 employees. The plant has provided fuel for Ukraine since 2005. On 11 April 2014, after the Russian annexation of Crimea, the contract with Energoatom for the South Ukraine Nuclear Power Plant was extended through 2020.


title: Västerås

text: Mälarenergi AB is a city-owned district heating and electric power provider for Västerås and surrounding area. Mälarenergi owns and operates a number of plants of which the biggest one is the heat and power plant in Västerås. It is Sweden's largest combined heat and power plant, and the latest unit (number 6) uses waste as fuel.


title: Västerås

text: Other major industries include Bombardier Transportation, which is active in railway business with production of propulsion systems for trains with worldwide customers, GE Power Sweden, Enics , Quintus Technologies AB (high pressure metal working and material densification equipment for the manufacturing industry) and Northvolt AB which designs, develops and manufactures lithium-ion battery cells and complete battery systems for electric vehicles, heavy transport, mining, and energy industries, as well as portable devices.


title: Västerås

text: One of the historical reasons that made Västerås a city is its trading-friendly location by the river Svartån and lake Mälaren. The city remains one of the main logistical centers in Sweden due to its central location in the densely populated region Mälardalen and favourable infrastructure connections with railways, waterways and highways. Amongst others, ICA AB has one of its main distribution centres located in Västerås.


title: Västerås

text: Västerås is the birthplace of multinational clothing retailer H&M. Their first store was opened in the town centre in 1947.


title: Västerås

text: Erikslund Shopping Center, on the outskirts of Västerås, was Sweden's biggest mall until Mall of Scandinavia opened in 2015, and the retail park is the third biggest in sales after Kungens Kurva and Barkarby.


title: Anaerobic organism

text: An anaerobic organism or anaerobe is any organism that does not require molecular oxygen for growth. It may react negatively or even die if free oxygen is present. In contrast, an aerobic organism (aerobe) is an organism that requires an oxygenated environment. Anaerobes may be unicellular (e.g. protozoans, bacteria) or multicellular.


title: Anaerobic organism

text: Most fungi are obligate aerobes, requiring oxygen to survive. However, some species, such as the Chytridiomycota that reside in the rumen of cattle, are obligate anaerobes; for these species, anaerobic respiration is used because oxygen will disrupt their metabolism or kill them. Deep waters of the ocean are a common anoxic environment.


title: Anaerobic organism

text: In his letter of 14 June 1680 to The Royal Society, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek described an experiment he carried out by filling two identical glass tubes about halfway with crushed pepper powder, to which some clean rain water was added. Van Leeuwenhoek sealed one of the glass tubes using a flame and left the other glass tube open. Several days later, he discovered in the open glass tube 'a great many very little animalcules, of divers sort having its own particular motion.' Not expecting to see any life in the sealed glass tube, Van Leeuwenhoek saw to his surprise 'a kind of living animalcules that were round and bigger than the biggest sort that I have said were in the other water.' The conditions in the sealed tube had become quite anaerobic due to consumption of oxygen by aerobic microorganisms.


title: Anaerobic organism

text: In 1913 Martinus Beijerinck repeated Van Leeuwenhoek's experiment and identified "Clostridium butyricum" as a prominent anaerobic bacterium in the sealed pepper infusion tube liquid. Beijerinck commented:


title: Anaerobic organism

text: However, this classification has been questioned after recent research showed that human "obligate anaerobes" (such as "Finegoldia magna" or the methanogenic archaea "Methanobrevibacter smithii") can be grown in aerobic atmosphere if the culture medium is supplemented with antioxidants such as ascorbic acid, glutathione and uric acid.


title: Anaerobic organism

text: Some obligate anaerobes use fermentation, while others use anaerobic respiration. Aerotolerant organisms are strictly fermentative. In the presence of oxygen, facultative anaerobes use aerobic respiration. In the absence of oxygen, some facultative anaerobes use fermentation, while others may use anaerobic respiration.


title: Anaerobic organism

text: The energy released in this reaction (without ADP and phosphate) is approximately 150 kJ per mol, which is conserved in generating two ATP from ADP per glucose. This is only 5% of the energy per sugar molecule that the typical aerobic reaction generates.


title: Anaerobic organism

text: Plants and fungi (e.g., yeasts) in general use alcohol (ethanol) fermentation when oxygen becomes limiting:


title: Anaerobic organism

text: The energy released is about 180 kJ per mol, which is conserved in generating two ATP from ADP per glucose.


title: Anaerobic organism

text: Anaerobic bacteria and archaea use these and many other fermentative pathways, e.g., propionic acid fermentation, butyric acid fermentation, solvent fermentation, mixed acid fermentation, butanediol fermentation, Stickland fermentation, acetogenesis, or methanogenesis.


title: Anaerobic organism

text: Since normal microbial culturing occurs in atmospheric air, which contains molecular oxygen, culturing of anaerobes requires special techniques. A number of techniques are employed by microbiologists when culturing anaerobic organisms, for example, handling the bacteria in a glovebox filled with nitrogen or the use of other specially sealed containers, or techniques such as injection of the bacteria into a dicot plant, which is an environment with limited oxygen. The GasPak System is an isolated container that achieves an anaerobic environment by the reaction of water with sodium borohydride and sodium bicarbonate tablets to produce hydrogen gas and carbon dioxide. Hydrogen then reacts with oxygen gas on a palladium catalyst to produce more water, thereby removing oxygen gas. The issue with the GasPak method is that an adverse reaction can take place where the bacteria may die, which is why a thioglycollate medium should be used. The thioglycollate supplies a medium mimicking that of a dicot plant, thus providing not only an anaerobic environment but all the nutrients needed for the bacteria to multiply.


title: Anaerobic organism

text: Recently, a French team evidenced a link between redox and gut anaerobes based on clinical studies of severe acute malnutrition. These findings led to the development of aerobic culture of "anaerobes" by the addition of antioxidants in the culture medium.


title: Anaerobic organism

text: Few multicellular life forms are anaerobic, since only aerobic respiration can provide enough energy for a complex metabolism. Exceptions include three species of Loricifera (< 1 mm in size) and the 10-cell "Henneguya zschokkei".


title: Anaerobic organism

text: In 2010 three species of anaerobic loricifera were discovered in the hypersaline anoxic L'Atalante basin at the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea. They lack mitochondria which contain the oxidative phosphorylation pathway, which in all other animals combines oxygen with glucose to produce metabolic energy, and thus they consume no oxygen. Instead these loricifera derive their energy from hydrogen using hydrogenosomes.


title: Microwave transmission

text: Microwave transmission is the transmission of information by electromagnetic waves with wavelengths in the microwave frequency range of 300MHz to 300GHz(1 m - 1 mm wavelength) of the electromagnetic spectrum. Microwave signals are normally limited to the line of sight, so long-distance transmission using these signals requires a series of repeaters forming a microwave relay network. It is possible to use microwave signals in over-the-horizon communications using tropospheric scatter, but such systems are expensive and generally used only in specialist roles.


title: Microwave transmission

text: Although an experimental microwave telecommunication link across the English Channel was demonstrated in 1931, the development of radar in World War II provided the technology for practical exploitation of microwave communication. During the war, the British Army introduced the Wireless Set No. 10, which used microwave relays to multiplex eight telephone channels over long distances. A link across the English Channel allowed General Bernard Montgomery to remain in continual contact with his group headquarters in London.


title: Microwave transmission

text: In the post-war era, the development of microwave technology was rapid, which led to the construction of several transcontinental microwave relay systems in North America and Europe. In addition to carrying thousands of telephone calls at a time, these networks were also used to send television signals for cross-country broadcast, and later, computer data. Communication satellites took over the television broadcast market during the 1970s and 80s, and the introduction of long-distance fibre optic systems in the 1980s and especially 90s led to the rapid rundown of the relay networks, most of which are abandoned.


title: Microwave transmission

text: In recent years, there has been an explosive increase in use of the microwave spectrum by new telecommunication technologies such as wireless networks, and direct-broadcast satellites which broadcast television and radio directly into consumers' homes. Larger line-of-sight links are once again popular for handing connections between mobile telephone towers, although these are generally not organized into long relay chains.


title: Microwave transmission

text: Microwaves are widely used for point-to-point communications because their small wavelength allows conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in narrow beams, which can be pointed directly at the receiving antenna. This allows nearby microwave equipment to use the same frequencies without interfering with each other, as lower frequency radio waves do. This frequency reuse conserves scarce radio spectrum bandwidth. Another advantage is that the high frequency of microwaves gives the microwave band a very large information-carrying capacity; the microwave band has a bandwidth 30 times that of all the rest of the radio spectrum below it. A disadvantage is that microwaves are limited to line of sight propagation; they cannot pass around hills or mountains as lower frequency radio waves can.


title: Microwave transmission

text: Microwave radio transmission is commonly used in point-to-point communication systems on the surface of the Earth, in satellite communications, and in deep space radio communications. Other parts of the microwave radio band are used for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems, and radio astronomy.


title: Microwave transmission

text: The next higher frequency band of the radio spectrum, between 30 GHz and 300 GHz, are called "millimeter waves" because their wavelengths range from 10 mm to 1 mm. Radio waves in this band are strongly attenuated by the gases of the atmosphere. This limits their practical transmission distance to a few kilometers, so these frequencies cannot be used for long-distance communication. The electronic technologies needed in the millimeter wave band are also in an earlier state of development than those of the microwave band.


title: Microwave transmission

text: Microwave radio relay is a technology widely used in the 1950s and 1960s for transmitting information, such as long-distance telephone calls and television programs between two terrestrial points on a narrow beam of microwaves. In microwave radio relay, a microwave transmitter and directional antenna transmits a narrow beam of microwaves carrying many channels of information on a line of sight path to another relay station where it is received by a directional antenna and receiver, forming a fixed radio connection between the two points. The link was often bidirectional, using a transmitter and receiver at each end to transmit data in both directions. The requirement of a line of sight limits the separation between stations to the visual horizon, about . For longer distances, the receiving station could function as a relay, retransmitting the received information to another station along its journey. Chains of microwave relay stations were used to transmit telecommunication signals over transcontinental distances. Microwave relay stations were often located on tall buildings and mountaintops, with their antennas on towers to get maximum range.


title: Microwave transmission

text: Beginning in the 1950s, networks of microwave relay links, such as the AT&T Long Lines system in the U.S., carried long-distance telephone calls and television programs between cities. The first system, dubbed TDX and built by AT&T, connected New York and Boston in 1947 with a series of eight radio relay stations. Through the 1950s, they deployed a network of a slightly improved version across the U.S., known as TD2. These included long daisy-chained links that traversed mountain ranges and spanned continents. The launch of communication satellites in the 1970s provided a cheaper alternative. Much of the transcontinental traffic is now carried by satellites and optical fibers, but microwave relay remains important for shorter distances.


title: Microwave transmission

text: Because the radio waves travel in narrow beams confined to a line-of-sight path from one antenna to the other, they do not interfere with other microwave equipment, so nearby microwave links can use the same frequencies. Antennas must be highly directional (high gain); these antennas are installed in elevated locations such as large radio towers in order to be able to transmit across long distances. Typical types of antenna used in radio relay link installations are parabolic antennas, dielectric lens, and horn-reflector antennas, which have a diameter of up to 4 meters. Highly directive antennas permit an economical use of the available frequency spectrum, despite long transmission distances.


title: Microwave transmission

text: Because of the high frequencies used, a line-of-sight path between the stations is required. Additionally, in order to avoid attenuation of the beam, an area around the beam called the first Fresnel zone must be free from obstacles. Obstacles in the signal field cause unwanted attenuation. High mountain peak or ridge positions are often ideal.


title: Microwave transmission

text: In addition to conventional repeaters which use back-to-back radios transmitting on different frequencies, obstructions in microwave paths can be dealt with by using Passive repeater or on-frequency repeaters.


title: Microwave transmission

text: Obstacles, the curvature of the Earth, the geography of the area and reception issues arising from the use of nearby land (such as in manufacturing and forestry) are important issues to consider when planning radio links. In the planning process, it is essential that "path profiles" are produced, which provide information about the terrain and Fresnel zones affecting the transmission path. The presence of a water surface, such as a lake or river, along the path also must be taken into consideration since it can reflect the beam, and the direct and reflected beam can interfere at the receiving antenna, causing multipath fading. Multipath fades are usually deep only in a small spot and a narrow frequency band, so space and/or frequency diversity schemes can be applied to mitigate these effects.


title: Microwave transmission

text: The effects of atmospheric stratification cause the radio path to bend downward in a typical situation so a major distance is possible as the earth equivalent curvature increases from 6370 km to about 8500 km (a 4/3 equivalent radius effect). Rare events of temperature, humidity and pressure profile versus height, may produce large deviations and distortion of the propagation and affect transmission quality. High-intensity rain and snow making rain fade must also be considered as an impairment factor, especially at frequencies above 10 GHz. All previous factors, collectively known as path loss, make it necessary to compute suitable power margins, in order to maintain the link operative for a high percentage of time, like the standard 99.99% or 99.999% used in 'carrier class' services of most telecommunication operators.


title: Microwave transmission

text: The longest microwave radio relay known up to date crosses the Red Sea with a 360 km (200 mi) hop between Jebel Erba (2170m a.s.l., , Sudan) and Jebel Dakka (2572m a.s.l., , Saudi Arabia). The link was built in 1979 by to transmit 300 telephone channels and one TV signal, in the 2 GHz frequency band. (Hop distance is the distance between two microwave stations).


title: Microwave transmission

text: Previous considerations represent typical problems characterizing terrestrial radio links using microwaves for the so-called backbone networks: hop lengths of a few tens of kilometers (typically 10 to 60 km) were largely used until the 1990s. Frequency bands below 10 GHz, and above all, the information to be transmitted, were a stream containing a fixed capacity block. The target was to supply the requested availability for the whole block (Plesiochronous digital hierarchy, PDH, or synchronous digital hierarchy, SDH). Fading and/or multipath affecting the link for short time period during the day had to be counteracted by the diversity architecture. During 1990s microwave radio links begun widely to be used for urban links in cellular network. Requirements regarding link distance changed to shorter hops (less than 10 km, typically 3 to 5 km), and frequency increased to bands between 11 and 43 GHz and more recently, up to 86 GHz (E-band). Furthermore, link planning deals more with intense rainfall and less with multipath, so diversity schemes became less used. Another big change that occurred during the last decade was an evolution toward packet radio transmission. Therefore, new countermeasures, such as adaptive modulation, have been adopted.


title: Microwave transmission

text: The emitted power is regulated for cellular and microwave systems. These microwave transmissions use emitted power typically from 0.03 to 0.30 W, radiated by a parabolic antenna on a narrow beam diverging by a few degrees (1 to 3-4). The microwave channel arrangement is regulated by International Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) and local regulations (ETSI, FCC). In the last decade the dedicated spectrum for each microwave band has become extremely crowded, motivating the use of techniques to increase transmission capacity such as frequency reuse, polarization-division multiplexing, XPIC, MIMO.


title: Microwave transmission

text: The history of radio relay communication began in 1898 from the publication by Johann Mattausch in Austrian journal, Zeitschrift für Electrotechnik. But his proposal was primitive and not suitable for practical use. The first experiments with radio repeater stations to relay radio signals were done in 1899 by Emile Guarini-Foresio. However the low frequency and medium frequency radio waves used during the first 40 years of radio proved to be able to travel long distances by ground wave and skywave propagation. The need for radio relay did not really begin until the 1940s exploitation of microwaves, which traveled by line of sight and so were limited to a propagation distance of about by the visual horizon.


title: Microwave transmission

text: In 1931 an Anglo-French consortium headed by Andre C. Clavier demonstrated an experimental microwave relay link across the English Channel using dishes. Telephony, telegraph, and facsimile data was transmitted over the bidirectional 1.7 GHz beams between Dover, UK, and Calais, France. The radiated power, produced by a miniature Barkhausen–Kurz tube located at the dish's focus, was one-half watt. A 1933 military microwave link between airports at St. Inglevert, France, and Lympne, UK, a distance of , was followed in 1935 by a 300 MHz telecommunication link, the first commercial microwave relay system.


title: Microwave transmission

text: The development of radar during World War II provided much of the microwave technology which made practical microwave communication links possible, particularly the klystron oscillator and techniques of designing parabolic antennas. Though not commonly known, the British Army used the Wireless Set Number 10 in this role during World War II.


title: Microwave transmission

text: After the war, telephone companies used this technology to build large microwave radio relay networks to carry long-distance telephone calls. During the 1950s a unit of the US telephone carrier, AT&T Long Lines, built a transcontinental system of microwave relay links across the US that grew to carry the majority of US long distance telephone traffic, as well as television network signals. The main motivation in 1946 to use microwave radio instead of cable was that a large capacity could be installed quickly and at less cost. It was expected at that time that the annual operating costs for microwave radio would be greater than for cable. There were two main reasons that a large capacity had to be introduced suddenly: Pent up demand for long-distance telephone service, because of the hiatus during the war years, and the new medium of television, which needed more bandwidth than radio. The prototype was called TDX and was tested with a connection between New York City and Murray Hill, the location of Bell Laboratories in 1946. The TDX system was set up between New York and Boston in 1947. The TDX was upgraded to the TD2 system, which used [the Morton tube, 416B and later 416C, manufactured by Western Electric] in the transmitters, and then later to TD3 that used solid-state electronics.


title: Microwave transmission

text: Remarkable were the microwave relay links to West Berlin during the Cold War, which had to be built and operated due to the large distance between West Germany and Berlin at the edge of the technical feasibility. In addition to the telephone network, also microwave relay links for the distribution of TV and radio broadcasts. This included connections from the studios to the broadcasting systems distributed across the country, as well as between the radio stations, for example for program exchange.


title: Microwave transmission

text: Military microwave relay systems continued to be used into the 1960s, when many of these systems were supplanted with tropospheric scatter or communication satellite systems. When the NATO military arm was formed, much of this existing equipment was transferred to communications groups. The typical communications systems used by NATO during that time period consisted of the technologies which had been developed for use by the telephone carrier entities in host countries. One example from the USA is the RCA CW-20A 1–2 GHz microwave relay system which utilized flexible UHF cable rather than the rigid waveguide required by higher frequency systems, making it ideal for tactical applications. The typical microwave relay installation or portable van had two radio systems (plus backup) connecting two line of sight sites. These radios would often carry 24 telephone channels frequency-division multiplexed on the microwave carrier (i.e. Lenkurt 33C FDM). Any channel could be designated to carry up to 18 teletype communications instead. Similar systems from Germany and other member nations were also in use.


title: Microwave transmission

text: Long-distance microwave relay networks were built in many countries until the 1980s, when the technology lost its share of fixed operation to newer technologies such as fiber-optic cable and communication satellites, which offer a lower cost per bit.


title: Microwave transmission

text: During the Cold War, the US intelligence agencies, such as the National Security Agency (NSA), were reportedly able to intercept Soviet microwave traffic using satellites such as Rhyolite. Much of the beam of a microwave link passes the receiving antenna and radiates toward the horizon, into space. By positioning a geosynchronous satellite in the path of the beam, the microwave beam can be received.


title: Microwave transmission

text: At the turn of the century, microwave radio relay systems are being used increasingly in portable radio applications. The technology is particularly suited to this application because of lower operating costs, a more efficient infrastructure, and provision of direct hardware access to the portable radio operator.


title: Microwave transmission

text: A microwave link is a communications system that uses a beam of radio waves in the microwave frequency range to transmit video, audio, or data between two locations, which can be from just a few feet or meters to several miles or kilometers apart. Microwave links are commonly used by television broadcasters to transmit programmes across a country, for instance, or from an outside broadcast back to a studio.


title: Microwave transmission

text: Mobile units can be camera mounted, allowing cameras the freedom to move around without trailing cables. These are often seen on the touchlines of sports fields on Steadicam systems.


title: Microwave transmission

text: Terrestrial microwave relay links are limited in distance to the visual horizon, a few tens of miles or kilometers depending on tower height. Tropospheric scatter ("troposcatter" or "scatter") was a technology developed in the 1950s to allow microwave communication links beyond the horizon, to a range of several hundred kilometers. The transmitter radiates a beam of microwaves into the sky, at a shallow angle above the horizon toward the receiver. As the beam passes through the troposphere a small fraction of the microwave energy is scattered back toward the ground by water vapor and dust in the air. A sensitive receiver beyond the horizon picks up this reflected signal. Signal clarity obtained by this method depends on the weather and other factors, and as a result, a high level of technical difficulty is involved in the creation of a reliable over horizon radio relay link. Troposcatter links are therefore only used in special circumstances where satellites and other long-distance communication channels cannot be relied on, such as in military communications.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: Sherlock Holmes is a series of adventure games developed by Frogwares. The games are based on Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories, featuring the detective Sherlock Holmes and his companion Dr. John H. Watson. While the franchise is based on Doyle's stories, each game has an original plot and storyline.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: Each game in the series lets the player control Holmes or Dr. Watson from either a first-person or third-person perspective. This adventure game series mainly consists of puzzles to solve during the course of the game, both by the use of Holmes' abductive reasoning and Watson's assistance. It also requires gamers to find clues and evidence hidden in the environment. Holmes must take this information back to his labs, both in his flat at 221 B Baker St. and elsewhere. Clues are examined under a microscope or combined with solvents to separate pertinent elements.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: The chief objective of the games is to solve the main mystery in the story, but the games also involve side investigations not central to the plot. The series takes Holmes all over the world, including to New Orleans, Switzerland, and Scotland.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: Originally developed for Microsoft Windows, the series first began in September 2002 with "Sherlock Holmes: The Mystery of the Mummy". The debut is in the first-person perspective and follows Sherlock Holmes' investigation of a British archaeologist's mansion. The game was resurrected and expanded for the Nintendo DS allowing puzzles to be solved with the stylus and touchscreen.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: The second game in the series, "Sherlock Holmes: The Case of the Silver Earring", followed in October 2004, and introduced the third-person perspective. In it, Holmes and Watson investigate the murder of a construction tycoon, Sir Melvyn Bromsby; with his daughter, Lavinia, among the suspects.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: The third game in the series, "Sherlock Holmes: The Awakened", was released in November 2006. It is the first game to feature first-person perspective in real-time 3D. The game follows an original plotline as Holmes and Dr. Watson investigate a series of strange disappearances related to the Cthulhu Mythos. Among the more positive reviews for the game, "GameSpot" gave it a rating of 8.3 out of 10, praising the storyline and stating that it was told "brilliantly", calling it a "Cthulhu-infused Victoriana". A remastered version was released in 2008 offering a third-person perspective in addition to the first-person perspective. This game won "GameSpot"'s Best Use of a License Award.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: The fourth game in the series, "Sherlock Holmes Versus Arsène Lupin" (also known as "Sherlock Holmes: Nemesis"), was released in the third quarter of 2007. The game's antagonist is Arsène Lupin, a fictional gentleman thief created by French writer Maurice Leblanc. It begins at Holmes' residence at 221B Baker Street in London, where Holmes and Dr. Watson find a letter from Lupin. The thief states in the letter he will steal five items of great value to England.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: A fifth installment, "Sherlock Holmes Versus Jack the Ripper", was released in March 2009 and had Sherlock Holmes against the infamous serial killer Jack the Ripper. This is the first game in the series to be released on console, specifically Xbox 360. The game consists of poems, puzzles and tasks that take Holmes from one clue to the next.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: A sixth installment, "The Testament of Sherlock Holmes", was released for PC, Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 in September 2012.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: "The Testament of Sherlock Holmes" is set in the London of 1895, with Holmes presented as the main suspect in a case in which he is unable to prove his innocence. It was developed primarily for consoles, and features a new graphic engine and gameplay mechanics.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: "Sherlock Holmes: Crimes & Punishments" is the seventh game in the series. The game was released on in September 2014 for PC, Xbox 360, Xbox One, PlayStation 3, and PlayStation 4.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: The eighth game, "Sherlock Holmes: The Devil's Daughter", was released in June 2016. It is the first game since 2007 not to be published by Focus Home Interactive; instead it was published by Bigben Interactive. No reasons were given for the change of publisher. It was released on the Xbox One, PlayStation 4 and PC.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: Kerry Shale was originally expected to reprise his role as Sherlock, but was later confirmed by Frogwares that the game would focus on a different incarnation of Sherlock Holmes and features a new actor Alex Jordan in the role.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: The ninth game, "Sherlock Holmes Chapter One", was released in November 2021 for PC, Xbox One, PS4 as well as Xbox Series X and PS5.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: The game is set as an origin story with Sherlock Holmes, being aged twenty-one, returning to the island of Cordona, where he spent a part of his childhood. The main plot revolves around Holmes slowly regaining memories of his mother's death, while also solving different cases on the island.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: It is the first game in the series self-published by Frogwares and mechanically takes heavy inspiration from their previous title "The Sinking City" (for example, being set in an open-world environment).


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: Throughout several games, Holmes uses his magnifying glass when he inspects things such as crime scenes, mutilated bodies, fingerprints, gashes and scratches—and uses it mostly for finding evidence. It is the only item to appear in most of the series.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: He also uses his microscope in checking clues unseen by the naked eye. He has a chemistry set in his flat which he uses to dissolve solute, dissect clues, and find evidence. Each game also provides exploration to find items that Holmes can use later in the game to help solve the case.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: Much of the gameplay throughout the whole series consists of themes and gameplay found in a classic adventure game. Players are encouraged to explore the games' sandbox landscapes, where clues are hidden in them. Point-and-click game-play is also prevalent. The series also lets the players interrogate certain people to gather evidence for the investigation. There are also instances where Holmes disguises himself in order to infiltrate a hostile location to get more evidence.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: The series lets the player play both Holmes and Watson in either first-person or third-person perspective. Holmes' game-play mostly consists of investigations and finding evidence to come to a conclusion. Watson's game-play mostly consists of him running errands for Holmes and assisting in the investigation. But there are sometimes instances where he takes control of the investigation.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: "" was the first to use the first-person perspective in the series. "" is a point-and-click (mouse-controlled) third-person adventure, and the first one to use this perspective in the series. Clicking in the general direction you wish to go will usually cause your character to move in that direction. As Holmes, you spend time searching for important clues, most of which the bumbling police force have missed. Items are at least partly visible, though some are not interactive until an action in the game triggers them. You also analyze various clues using Holmes’ desktop laboratory.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: "" was the first Frogwares title to allow gameplay to take place in an entirely real-time 3D landscape and from a first-person perspective, losing the pre-rendered backgrounds of its predecessors. Like other "Sherlock Holmes" games by Frogwares, it has an open world environment in every location that can have hidden clues and interactions with NPCs. The inventory system saves all objects, documents, and map locations for later use and can also be used to combine objects. The game can be viewed from a first or third person perspective. It provides you with icons to indicate what actions Holmes can take within his world, like pick up something or talk to someone.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: The characters of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson in the game series are modeled using the characters from the ITV series "The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes" and the portrayals by Jeremy Brett and David Burke, respectively.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: Early games in the series use pre-rendered backgrounds, using them to hide clues in the scene and provide accessible open world landscapes. It features a combination of 2D and 3D styles of view in the background.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: "The Awakened" was the first Frogwares title to allow gameplay to take place in an entirely real-time 3D landscape and from a first-person perspective. Frogwares made a well rendered 3D environment without the normal excessive pixilation that haunted many adventure games. It is also the first game to feature gory murder scenes. For that, it was rated M for mature.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: All this is mixed with a lush presentation of 19th century London, depicting its characteristic dimly-lit lonely alleyways. The graphics quality was an improvement from all the previous games in the series. Animation in particular became more smoother and much more natural-looking. The third-person camera can also be moved around the character independently, which helps both to find an angle you're comfortable with and to take in your surroundings while standing still.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: These upgrades are part of a broader move to attract more console players. After the last game, Frogwares got feedback, from Xbox players in particular, that they wanted more adventure games with 3D graphics and also production values to match what other genres are offering. And Frogwares was eager to deliver, though the developer still insists this does not mean forgetting about PC players, as some speculate.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: "Sherlock Holmes Versus Jack the Ripper" used drawings to depict its murder victims, hiding the full horror of the scenes out of respect for the real historical victims. The new games in the series differ from this (especially "The Testament of Sherlock Holmes"); holding no restraint in displaying the grisly murders, as the characters depicted are purely fictional.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: "The Testament of Sherlock Holmes" is the first in the series to have a great leap in graphics. Designers used motion capture to get realism in characterization. The game also benefits from a new light and shadow system, various post-treatment image effects, and high quality voice-over and cinematographic direction.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: In addition to the main series, Frogwares (by itself or through its casual division Waterlily) has developed four casual games, with simplified gameplay. They're generally less faithful to the canon, with fantasy and supernatural themes, for a younger target audience.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: "Sherlock Holmes: The Mystery of the Persian Carpet" was released in mid-2008. Unlike the preceding games, "The Mystery of the Persian Carpet" is primarily an object hunt game. The game was rated poorly and was generally considered a disappointing follow-up to "Sherlock Holmes Versus Jack the Ripper". "GameSpot"'s review of the game found it "not all that appropriate as a sequel to the other adventures that Sherlock and Watson have been starring in during the past few years".


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: "Sherlock Holmes and the Mystery of Osborne House" is the first in the series to be made and published for the Nintendo DS. In this game, Holmes investigates a robbery and a deep conspiracy in Buckingham Palace.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: "Sherlock Holmes and the Hound of the Baskervilles", released in 2011 for PC and Nintendo DS and loosely based on the novel of the same name, is a hidden object game that features heavy supernatural themes. While the titular hound in the original story is a legend used to cover up a murder, the hound in the game is a supernatural monster associated with a curse, and the player is assisted by magical items and the ghosts of deceased members of the Baskerville family.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: "Sherlock Holmes: The Mystery of the Frozen City" was released in October 2012 for the Nintendo 3DS. According to review aggregator Metacritic, the game received mixed to negative reviews.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: The games are a commercial success. The series has sold "3 or 4 million copies", mostly on PC, as of 2012.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: A few titles of the series have also garnered awards from various gaming websites and communities. "Sherlock Holmes: The Awakened" earned GameSpot's "Best Use of a License" award in 2007. It was also nominated for GameSpot's and IGN's "Best PC Adventure Game of 2007" awards. In 2011, Adventure Gamers named "The Awakened" the 80th-best adventure game ever released.


title: Sherlock Holmes (video game series)

text: "The Testament of Sherlock Holmes" was awarded "Best of the Rest" in the Honorary Aggie Award category by the website Adventure Gamers, saying that "the surprising story of Sherlock's apparent fall from grace was thoroughly engaging right from the start and kept the momentum up through well-crafted characters and plenty of twists and turns. Topped off with stunning visuals and an impressive orchestral soundtrack, this was Frogwares at their finest".


title: I Love You Always Forever

text: "I Love You Always Forever" is the debut single by Welsh singer Donna Lewis from her debut album, "Now in a Minute" (1996). Written by Lewis and produced by Lewis and Kevin Killen, it was released as the album's lead single in the United States on 7 May 1996 and in the United Kingdom on 26 August 1996. The song is inspired by H. E. Bates' novel "Love for Lydia", from which the chorus is taken.


title: I Love You Always Forever

text: The song was a commercial hit, peaking at number five on the UK Singles Chart and reaching the top 10 in more than 15 countries, including Australia, Austria, Canada, France, Ireland, and Norway. In the US, the song rose to number two on the "Billboard" Hot 100, where it remained for nine weeks, behind Los del Río's "Macarena". The single additionally reached number one on the "Billboard" Mainstream Top 40 chart for eleven weeks and the "Billboard" Adult Top 40 chart for eight weeks. It was certified platinum in Australia and the UK and gold in France, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, and the US. The success of the song saw Lewis nominated for the Brit Award for Best British Female Artist in 1997.


title: I Love You Always Forever

text: In 2016, a cover version of the song by Australian pop singer Betty Who peaked at number six on the ARIA Singles Chart and topped the US "Billboard" Dance Club Songs chart.


title: I Love You Always Forever

text: Inspired by the novel "Love for Lydia" by English author H. E. Bates, "I Love You Always Forever" is a pop song in which the singer declares her endless love for her significant other. The song was originally titled "Lydia", but was later changed because there was no mention of anyone with that name in the song. The chorus, "I love you always forever, near and far closer together", is a quote taken directly from the book.


title: I Love You Always Forever

text: "I Love You Always Forever" is written in the key of C major in common time with a tempo of 104 beats per minute. Lewis' vocals span from F to G in the song.


title: I Love You Always Forever

text: The success of "I Love You Always Forever" earned Lewis a nomination for Best British Female Artist at the 1997 Brit Awards. In the US, Andrea Ganis, executive VP of Lewis' record label, Atlantic, said: "Radio stations across the country keep telling us the same thing over and over", Ganis says. "They play it and, almost overnight, it's their most requested song. Maybe it's because things have been so dark lately in pop and then along comes a record that everybody can sing along to. It's almost like a catharsis for a lot of people." It became a "runaway hit" without any extra marketing boost from high-profile events of the time such as a hit movie or the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games, and was the first single to achieve over one million airplay detections in the US.


title: I Love You Always Forever

text: AllMusic editor Tom Demalon called the song "compelling" in his review of "Now in a Minute". He noted that Lewis "has a girlish voice that sounds like a less quirky Kate Bush." "Billboard" described it as a "quietly percussive pop chugger", complimenting Lewis' voice as a "delicate, girlish voice that gives the song a winsome quality, which adds to its already considerable charm." Tracey Pepper from "Entertainment Weekly" noted that it is "more sophisticated than a first listen might reveal. "I Love You Always Forever"'s chanted chorus, chugging rhythm, and bright melody make it obvious that the newcomer Donna Lewis, whose girlish voice often sounds like Cyndi Lauper's, knows the value of building tension and mood, even in a pop song." Kim Renfro of Insider said that the song is a "true bop" that is reminiscent of Cyndi Lauper's music of 10 years earlier, but with "slightly more pizazz". Eamon Joyce from "Miscellany News" commented that "upon hearing the song, it's embedded in your head for weeks." Bob Waliszewski of "Plugged In" stated that Lewis "pledges lifelong commitment" on the song. In 2018, "Stacker" ranked it at number 10 in their list of "Best pop songs of the last 25 years", noting Lewis' "ethereal voice over a heavenly backdrop of synthesizers and understated drum beats".


title: I Love You Always Forever

text: The song's accompanying music video was directed by Randee St. Nicholas. It is very simple, showing Lewis performing the song dressed in all white in a beige rotating room. Other scenes feature her against a black background, with snow boots on her hands against a wall, and playing a piano.


title: I Love You Always Forever

text: Lewis has re-recorded the song at least twice. A re-recording with slightly modified instrumentation appears as a bonus track of her 2008 album "In the Pink". In 2015, Lewis released the song again on her jazz-influenced covers album, "Brand New Day". She initially was reluctant to include the song at all; but the track that appears on the album has a "completely different arrangement", and Lewis says she now likes it. Matt Collar of AllMusic felt that the new version was a "ruminative reworking" of the original.


title: I Love You Always Forever

text: Australian pop singer Betty Who released a version of the song on 3 June 2016, with remixes released on 29 July 2016. It was released as the lead single from her second studio album, "The Valley."


title: I Love You Always Forever

text: The song is Who's first to reach the ARIA Charts, peaking at number six while also earning a number one on AirCheck's National Radio Airplay Chart. The song has also had minor success in New Zealand, peaking at number 33. The song was successful on the US Dance Club Songs chart, where it peaked at number one, becoming her third number one on the chart.


title: Andreas Baader

text: Berndt Andreas Baader (6 May 1943 – 18 October 1977) was one of the first leaders of the West German left-wing militant organization Red Army Faction (RAF), also commonly known as "the Baader-Meinhof Group".


title: Andreas Baader

text: Andreas Baader was born in Munich on 6 May 1943. He was the only child of historian and archivist Dr. Berndt Phillipp Baader and Anneliese Hermine "Nina" (Kröcher). Andreas was raised by his mother, aunt, and grandmother. Phillipp Baader served in the Wehrmacht, was captured on the Russian Front in 1945, and never returned.


title: Andreas Baader

text: Baader was a high school dropout and a bohemian before his involvement in the Red Army Faction. He was one of the few members of the RAF who did not attend university.


title: Andreas Baader

text: At the age of twenty, Baader moved from Munich to West Berlin, allegedly to do an artistic education. He worked as a construction worker and unsuccessfully as a tabloid journalist.


title: Andreas Baader

text: Baader took part in the Schwabing riots in 1962. According to his mother, he is said to have drawn the conclusion from the actions of the police that "something was wrong" in the state. According to journalist Butz Peters, the events of the Munich city summer during 1962 were "a shocking experience for the nineteen-year-old".


title: Andreas Baader

text: In 1968, Baader and his girlfriend Gudrun Ensslin were convicted of the arson bombing of a department store in Frankfurt, to protest what they described as the public's "indifference to the genocide in Vietnam".


title: Andreas Baader

text: After being sentenced, Baader and Ensslin fled in November 1969. They were smuggled out of West Germany by sympathizers and made the tour of the left-wing communities of France, Switzerland, and Italy before re-entering West Germany covertly in early 1970.


title: Andreas Baader

text: Baader was later caught at a traffic stop in Berlin for speeding on 4 April 1970. He produced a fake driver's license in the name of the author Peter Chotjewitz, but was placed under arrest when he failed to answer personal questions about the names and ages of Chotjewitz's children.


title: Andreas Baader

text: Ensslin masterminded an escape plan. Journalist Ulrike Meinhof and Baader's lawyers concocted a false "book deal" in which Meinhof would interview Baader. A few weeks later, in May 1970, he was allowed to meet her at the library of the "Berlin Zentralinstitut" outside the prison, without handcuffs but escorted by two armed guards. Meinhof was allowed to join him. Confederates Irene Goergens and Ingrid Schubert entered the library carrying suitcases, then opened a door to admit a masked gunman armed with a pistol and then drew pistols out of suitcases. They then fired shots that wounded a 64-year-old librarian, hitting him in his liver. Baader, the masked gunman, and the three women then fled through a window.


title: Andreas Baader

text: The group became known as the "Baader-Meinhof Group". Baader and others then spent some time in a Fatah military training camp in Jordan before being expelled due to "differences in attitudes". Back in West Germany, Baader robbed banks and bombed buildings from 1970 to 1972. Although he never obtained a driver's licence, Baader was obsessed with driving. He regularly stole expensive sports cars for use by the gang and was arrested driving an Iso Rivolta IR 300.


title: Andreas Baader

text: On 1 June 1972, Baader and fellow RAF members Jan-Carl Raspe and Holger Meins were apprehended after a lengthy shootout in Frankfurt.


title: Andreas Baader

text: From 1975 to 1977, a long and expensive trial took place in a fortified building on the grounds of Stuttgart's Stammheim Prison. As a precaution against items being smuggled in, all prisoners were strip-searched and inspected and given new clothes before and after meeting lawyers.


title: Andreas Baader

text: During a collective hunger strike in 1974, which led to the death of Meins, philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre visited Baader in Stammheim where he was being held. He allegedly described Baader after the meeting as being a "twat" ("Quel con!"). Although he did not like Baader's behavior, he criticized the harsh conditions of imprisonment Baader endured.


title: Andreas Baader

text: Meinhof was found dead in her cell at Stuttgart-Stammheim on 9 May 1976, hanging from the grating covering her cell window. Members of the Red Army Faction and others claimed that she was killed by the German authorities. The second generation of the RAF committed several kidnappings and attacks in a campaign in support of their comrades.


title: Andreas Baader

text: The three remaining defendants were convicted in April 1977 of several murders, attempted murders, and of forming a terrorist organization, and were sentenced to life imprisonment.


title: Andreas Baader

text: Militants tried to force the release of Baader and ten other imprisoned RAF members by kidnapping businessman Hanns Martin Schleyer in Cologne on 5 September 1977, as part of the sequence of events known as the "German Autumn", which began on 30 July 1977 with the murder of banker Jürgen Ponto.


title: Andreas Baader

text: On 6 September 1977, an official statement was released in which the state declared that the prisoners would not be released under any circumstances, and on the same day a "Kontaktsperre" ("communication ban") was enacted against all RAF prisoners. This order deprived prisoners of all contact with each other as well as with the outside; all visits, including those of lawyers and family members, were forbidden. The prisoners were deprived of their access to post, newspapers, magazines, television, and radio. The official justification for this was a claim by the state that the prisoners had supervised Schleyer's kidnapping from their cells with the assistance of their lawyers. It was claimed that a hand-drawn map had been found which had been used in the kidnapping in Newerla's car on 5 September. On 10 September, the prisoners' lawyers lost their appeal against the "Kontaktsperre" order and on 2 October it became effective. On 18 October 1977, the RAF killed Schleyer in France.


title: Andreas Baader

text: On 13 October 1977 four members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine hijacked Lufthansa Flight 181 on a flight from Palma de Mallorca to Frankfurt, their leader demanding the release of the eleven RAF prisoners detained at Stammheim. The aircraft was eventually flown to Mogadishu, Somalia, where it arrived in the early hours of 17 October. The passengers of the Boeing 737 were freed in an assault carried out by German GSG 9 special forces in the early hours of 18 October 1977 which saw the death of three of the militants.


title: Andreas Baader

text: According to official accounts of his death, Raspe learned about GSG 9's success on a smuggled transistor radio and spent the next few hours talking to Baader, Ensslin, and Möller, who agreed to a suicide pact. In the morning, Baader and Raspe were found dead in their cells, having died from gunshot wounds, while Ensslin was found hanging from a noose made from the speaker wire. RAF member Irmgard Möller was found with four stab wounds to her chest, but survived.


title: Andreas Baader

text: All official inquiries on the matter concluded that Baader and his two accomplices committed collective suicide, and Baader-Meinhof biographer Stefan Aust argued in the original edition of his book, "The Baader-Meinhof Group" (1985), that they did kill themselves. But there was a controversy about the weapons they used to commit suicide.


title: Andreas Baader

text: Aspects of the deaths have been debated: Baader was supposed to have shot himself in the base of the neck so that the bullet exited through his forehead; repeated tests indicated that it was virtually impossible for a person to hold and fire a gun in such a way. In addition, three bullet holes were found in his cell: one lodged in the wall, one in the mattress, and the fatal bullet itself lodged in the floor, suggesting that Baader had fired twice before killing himself. Finally, Baader had powder burns on his right hand, but he was left-handed. Raspe showed no signs of powder burns.


title: Andreas Baader

text: The theory itself that guns had been smuggled into Stammheim depended on the testimony of Hans Joachim Dellwo (brother of prisoner Karl-Heinz Dellwo) and Volker Speitel (husband of Angelika Speitel). Both had been arrested on 2 October 1977, and charged with belonging to a criminal association; under pressure from the police, they subsequently became crown witnesses and admitted to acting as couriers and testified that they were aware of lawyers smuggling items to the prisoners during the trial. In consideration of this testimony, authorities reduced their sentences and provided them with new identities. In 1979, two defence attorneys were tried and convicted for smuggling weapons. However, as noted above, the lawyers had been unable to meet with their clients after 6 September 1977 due to the "Kontaktsperre" order.


title: Andreas Baader

text: Following their apparent suicides, the German government had the brains of Baader, Meinhof, Ensslin and Raspe illegally removed for study at the Neurological Research Institute at the University of Tübingen. The results of Meinhof's brain study merely showed the place where a brain swelling was removed, during her pregnancy in 1962. The results of the study of the others' brains are not known.


title: Andreas Baader

text: Aside from the removal of his brain, a death mask was made of Baader. The brains of all but Meinhof have apparently been lost and cannot be accounted for by German authorities.


title: European hedgehog

text: The European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus), also known as the West European hedgehog or common hedgehog, is a hedgehog species native to Europe from Iberia and Italy northwards into Scandinavia and westwards into the British Isles. It is a generally common and widely distributed species that can survive across a wide range of habitat types. It is a well-known species, and a favourite in European gardens, both for its endearing appearance and its preference for eating a range of garden pests. While populations are currently stable across much of its range, it is declining severely in Great Britain where it is now Red Listed (classified as near to extinction). Outside its native range, the species was introduced to New Zealand during the late-19th and early-20th centuries.


title: European hedgehog

text: The European hedgehog has a generalised body structure with unspecialised limb girdles. It appears brownish with most of its body covered by up to 6,000 brown and white spines. The length of head and body is ~ at weaning, increasing to or more in large adults. It has an extremely short tail as an almost vestigial feature, typically . Weight increases from around at weaning to > in adulthood. The maximum recorded weight is , though few wild specimens exceed even in autumn. Adult summer weight is typically somewhat less than in autumn, with an average of around and adult weights commonly as low as . Males tend to be slightly larger than females, but sex differences in body weight are overshadowed by enormous seasonal variation.


title: European hedgehog

text: The European hedgehog is unlike any other creature across most of its range. Where it co-exists with the northern white-breasted hedgehog ("Erinaceus roumanicus"), the two species are difficult to distinguish in the field, the latter having a white spot on its chest. It is probably the largest hedgehog species and is possibly the heaviest member of the order Erinaceomorpha.


title: European hedgehog

text: Leucistic or 'blonde' hedgehogs occasionally occur. Such specimens are believed to have a pair of rare recessive genes, giving rise to their black eyes and creamy-colored spines; however, they are not strictly speaking albino. They are extremely rare, except on North Ronaldsay and the Channel Island of Alderney where around 25% of the population is thought to be blonde. True albino morphs of the hedgehog occur infrequently.


title: European hedgehog

text: The European hedgehog is largely nocturnal. It has a hesitant gait, frequently stopping to smell the air. Unlike the smaller, warmer-climate species, the European hedgehog may hibernate in the winter. However, most wake at least once to move their nests.


title: European hedgehog

text: The European hedgehog is an insectivore. Its diet consists largely of earthworms, as well as snails and slugs, beetles, ants, bees, and wasps, earwigs, cockroaches, crickets and grasshoppers, butterflies and moths, and caterpillars and other insect larvae. Eggs of ground-nesting birds are also taken, and carcasses may be foraged on. Hedgehogs may also eat lizards, snakes, frogs, and small rodents. Plant matter appears to make up only a negligible part of the hedgehog's diet.


title: European hedgehog

text: The breeding season commences after hibernation. Pregnancies peak between May and July, though they have been recorded as late as September. Gestation is 31 to 35 days. The female alone raises the litter which typically numbers between four and six, though can range from two to ten. Studies have indicated that litter size may increase in more northern climes. The young are born blind with a covering of small spines. By the time they are 36 hours old, the second, outer coat of spines begins to sprout. By 11 days they can roll into a ball. Weaning occurs at around six weeks of age.


title: European hedgehog

text: European hedgehogs may live to ten years of age, although the average life expectancy is three years. Starvation is the most common cause of death, usually occurring during hibernation. If alarmed, the animal will roll into a ball to protect itself. Many potential predators are repelled by its spines, but predation does occur. Remains of hedgehogs have been found in the stomachs of red foxes ("Vulpes vulpes"), European badgers ("Meles meles") and pine martens ("Martes martes"). A large portion of these may be from hedgehog carcasses, especially roadkill. However, hedgehogs tend to be absent from areas where badgers are numerous.


title: European hedgehog

text: Eurasian eagle-owls ("Bubo bubo") and golden eagles ("Aquila chrysaetos") are the only regular avian predators of this species and may even prefer them as prey. The owl, after grabbing the hedgehog by its face, tends to skin the mammal's prickly back with its talons before consumption, resulting in several hedgehog backs being found around eagle-owl roosts and nests. In Spain, reduction of European rabbit ("Oryctolagus cuniculus") numbers due to rabbit haemorrhagic disease has made the European hedgehog one of the top preferred prey species for eagle-owls. Elsewhere, eagle-owls often prefer these hedgehogs to any other prey species, as the hedgehog can comprise up to 23% by number and 30.7% by biomass of eagle-owl prey remains. On the Swedish island of Gotland the golden eagle may take larger numbers of hedgehogs than any other prey due to an otherwise low diversity of native land mammals, although the introduction of European rabbits has shifted the eagle's prey preferences there.


title: European hedgehog

text: The European hedgehog is endemic to Europe (including European Russia), with a global distribution extending from the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula eastwards through much of western to central Europe, and from southern Fennoscandia and the northern Baltic to north-west Russia. It is present also on Mediterranean islands (Corsica, Sardinia, Elba, Sicily), on most of the French Atlantic islands as well as on British Islands (autochthonous and introduced). It is an invasive exotic species in New Zealand and has probably been introduced to Ireland and many of the smaller islands where it occurs.


title: European hedgehog

text: Colonists took hedgehogs from England and Scotland to New Zealand on sailing ships from the 1860s to the 1890s mainly as a biological control against agricultural pests or as a pet. Few survived the ca 50–100 days voyage, but those that did had lost all their fleas. Animals found their first homes in the South Island, where their spread was helped by guards dropping them off at country railway stations. Hedgehogs were introduced to the North Island in the 1890s, but some were also transported from South Island between 1906 and 1911 and, from then on, their numbers increased at an exponential rate. By the 1920s they had become so numerous that game-bird hunters blamed them for reduced bag-sizes. Hedgehogs were declared noxious animals and a bounty of one shilling a snout paid by regional authorities for several years. By the 1950s, hedgehogs could be found over the whole country with the exception of the coldest wettest corner of the South Island and alpine areas of permanent snow. Nevertheless, hedgehogs have been seen climbing New Zealand glaciers. Hedgehogs do not reach the same weight in New Zealand as in colder parts of Europe. With its milder winters, New Zealand hedgehogs hibernate for only three months of the year so do not need to put on so much weight in autumn as their ancestors. In northern New Zealand, many hedgehogs do not hibernate at all. One of New Zealand's pioneer hedgehogs probably had faulty teeth for this feature is found in about 50% of today's animals. Most New Zealanders welcome hedgehogs in their gardens as they relish slugs and snails. Conservationists are less happy as hedgehogs compete for invertebrate food with native bush birds and prey on some rare insects, lizards and ground-nesting birds. As a result, extensive hedgehog-control programs are under way in some parts of the country, killing thousands of them. To judge by roadkill counts, North Island hedgehogs were at their highest numbers in the 1950s. Since then, roadkill counts have fallen dramatically from about 50/100 km to less than 1/100 km.


title: European hedgehog

text: The European hedgehog is found across a wide range of habitat types, encompassing both semi-natural vegetation types and those areas that have been heavily modified by man. The range includes woodland, grasslands such as meadows and pasture, arable land, orchards and vineyards as well as within the matrix of habitat types found in human settlements. It prefers lowlands and hills up to 400–600m, but is also locally present on mountains, exceptionally up to an altitude of 1500-2000m (e.g. Alps and Pyrenees). Outside cultivated land it prefers marginal zones of forests, particularly ecotonal grass and scrub vegetation.


title: European hedgehog

text: Hedgehogs are most abundant within the gardens, parks and amenity land close to or within human settlements. They are generally scarce in areas of coniferous woodland, marshes and moorland, probably because of a lack of suitable sites and materials for the construction of winter nests (or hibernacula), which have specific requirements.


title: European hedgehog

text: Generally, the hedgehog is widely distributed and can be found in good numbers where people are tolerant of their residence in gardens. To date, the IUCN classifies the species as Least Concern and currently the population as Stable. In some areas, they are common victims of road kills and may be hunted by dogs, such as in Sardinia. On 28 August 2007, the new Biodiversity Action Plan included the European hedgehog on the list of species and habitats in Britain that need conservation and greater protection.


title: European hedgehog

text: In Denmark and Poland, the European hedgehog is protected by law. It is illegal to capture or hurt them, but the housing of underweight hedgehogs found outside during winter is accepted.


title: European hedgehog

text: It is protected in all European countries which have signed the Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats.


title: European hedgehog

text: A low coverage assembly of the genome of "Erinaceus europaeus" was released by the Broad Institute in June 2006 as part of the Mammalian Genome Project.


title: European hedgehog

text: An estimate of 36.5 million by Burton was based on extrapolating up from a density of 2.5 animals/ha (one per acre), but this was based on limited data and is probably an overestimate. A more recent estimate of 1,550,000 in Great Britain (England 1,100,000, Scotland 310,000, Wales 140,000) is more reliable, but still has a high degree of uncertainty as it is based on very limited information about hedgehog density estimates for different habitat types. Given this figure, and more firmly established rates of decline, it is now thought likely that there are fewer than a million hedgehogs in Great Britain.


title: European hedgehog

text: In 2007 the hedgehog was classified a Biodiversity Action Plan ‘priority’ species in Britain, largely in response to negative trends identified in national surveys such as "Mammals on Roads" survey, run by People's Trust for Endangered Species (PTES), that found an annual decline in counts of road casualties of around 7% from 2001 to 2004. Historic data from the "National Gamebag Census" suggest a steady decline between 1960 and 1980. Evidence from a questionnaire in 2005 and 2006 also supported an ongoing decline, with almost half of ~20,000 participants in PTES' "Hogwatch "survey reporting the impression that there were fewer hedgehogs than there were five years earlier.


title: European hedgehog

text: A review of the available survey data for the population trend of the hedgehog in Britain was undertaken by the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) in a report commissioned by PTES and the British Hedgehog Preservation Society (BHPS). This concluded that, at a conservative estimate, 25% of the British hedgehog population had been lost in a decade. The report also highlighted the importance of long-term monitoring to provide datasets with sufficient power to allow the changes to the population to be identified. Currently, the most important monitoring programmes involved in collecting information about the status of the British hedgehog population are PTES’ "Mammals on Roads" and "Living with Mammals" surveys, and the BTO "Breeding Bird Survey" and "Garden BirdWatch" survey. A recent review of these surveys now suggests that rural populations have declined by at least a half and urban populations by up to a third since 2000.


title: European hedgehog

text: This species has become a serious pest in areas where it has been introduced outside of its native range. One such location is the Western Isles of Scotland, where introduced hedgehogs eat the eggs of ground-nesting waders such as common snipe, dunlin, common redshank and northern lapwing. It is also considered a pest in New Zealand where it preys upon various native fauna, including insects, snails, lizards and ground-nesting birds, particularly shore birds. As with many introduced animals, it lacks natural predators.


title: European hedgehog

text: Attempts to eliminate hedgehogs from bird colonies on the Scottish islands of North Uist and Benbecula in the Outer Hebrides were met with international outrage. Eradication began in 2003 with 690 hedgehogs being killed. Animal welfare groups attempted rescues to save the hedgehogs. By 2007, legal injunctions against the killing of hedgehogs were put in place. In 2008, the elimination process was changed from killing the hedgehogs to trapping them and releasing them on the mainland.


title: University of South Africa

text: The University of South Africa (UNISA), known colloquially as Unisa, is the largest university system in South Africa by enrollment. It attracts a third of all higher education students in South Africa. Through various colleges and affiliates, UNISA has over 400,000 students, including international students from 130 countries worldwide, making it one of the world's mega universities and the only such university in Africa.


title: University of South Africa

text: As a comprehensive university, Unisa offers both vocational and academic programmes, many of which have received international accreditation, as well as an extensive geographical footprint, giving their students recognition and employability in many countries the world over. The university lists many notable South Africans among its alumni, including two Nobel prize winners: Nelson Mandela, the first democratically elected president of South Africa and Archbishop Desmond Tutu.


title: University of South Africa

text: Founded in 1873 as the University of the Cape of Good Hope, the University of South Africa (or Unisa as it is commonly known) spent most of its early history as an examining agency for Oxford and Cambridge universities and as an incubator from which most other universities in South Africa are descended. Legislation in 1916 established the autonomous University of South Africa (the same legislation established Stellenbosch University and the University of Cape Town as autonomous universities) as an "umbrella" or federal institution with its seat in Pretoria, playing an academic trusteeship role for several colleges that eventually became autonomous universities. The colleges that were under UNISA's trusteeship were Grey University College (Bloemfontein), Huguenot University College (Wellington), Natal University College (Pietermaritzburg), Rhodes University College (Grahamstown), Transvaal University College (Pretoria), the South African School of Mines and Technology (Johannesburg), and Potchefstroom University College. In 1959, with the passage of the Extension of University Education Act, UNISA's trusteeship also extended to the five "black universities", namely University of Zululand, University of the Western Cape, University of the North, University of Durban-Westville, and University of Fort Hare. In 1946, UNISA was given a new role as a distance education university, and today it offers certificate, diploma and degree courses up to doctoral level.


title: University of South Africa

text: In January 2004, Unisa merged with Technikon Southern Africa (Technikon SA, a polytechnic) and incorporated the distance education component of Vista University (VUDEC). The combined institution retained the name "University of South Africa". It is now organised by college and by school; see below.


title: University of South Africa

text: Unisa's Muckleneuk Campus is located in Pretoria and is a major landmark of the capital city. It was in 1972 that Unisa moved into its new home on Muckleneuk Ridge having vacated the old quarters in central Pretoria. The complex of buildings was designed by Bryan Sandrock Architects in the 1960s and expresses an international style characterised by monumental proportions and engineering feats like the cantilevered structures. The most striking feature is the long projection from the brow of the hill, supported by a giant steel girder resting on a massive column.


title: University of South Africa

text: Also in Pretoria is the Sunnyside campus, the main area of student activity. The Florida campus in Johannesburg is Unisa's science campus. The College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences and some departments of the College of Science, Engineering and Technology is housed here. The science campus contains 12 buildings, a library, two auditoriums and a large study area. It also includes a horticultural centre and a multipurpose research and training facility designed to meet the education and research needs of students in a range of programmes including agriculture, ornamental horticulture and nature conservation.


title: University of South Africa

text: The university has seven regional centres in South Africa, servicing students in all nine provinces. These are:


title: University of South Africa

text: According to data extracted from the final audited Higher Education Management Information System (HEMIS) submissions to the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET), Unisa had 355,240 students enrolled in 2013 from South Africa, Africa, and other international states. The largest portion of these students are South African, being 91.4% (324,607) of the sum of the student enrollments. The College of Economic and Management Sciences (CEMS) is the largest of the eight colleges, with 26.7% (94,972) of the total student enrollments.


title: University of South Africa

text: According to the same HEMIS submission, Unisa had 5,575 staff members in 2013. The staff complement consisted of 3,261 females (55.7%) and 2,593 (44.3%) males. 2011 figures from the Department of Institutional Statistics and Analysis (DISA) at the university show that the majority of the staff employed are non-professional administrative staff, being 56.8% (3,164). The number of institutional/research professionals are 33.2% (1,846) of the sum of the staff employed.Therefore it is imperative for editors to note unverified notes here,<now everyone is editing>


title: University of South Africa

text: As one of the world's mega universities, Unisa presents academic offerings associated with both technological and traditional universities. These include, but are not limited to, a combination of career-orientated courses usually associated with a university of technology, and formative academic programmes typically linked to a traditional university.


title: University of South Africa

text: In addition to the eight colleges and SBL, Unisa has numerous bureaus, centres, institutes, museums and units supporting academic development and research.


title: University of South Africa

text: In 2015, the University of South Africa was ranked the 6th best university in South Africa by the Times Higher Education. This makes the university the 6th best university in Africa, out of 30.


title: University of South Africa

text: Unisa received a Royal Charter in 1877. It currently operates under the "Statute of the University of South Africa" issued in terms of the "Higher Education Act" (No. 101 of 1997), and is accredited by the South African Department of Education and the Council on Higher Education (CHE). Its qualifications (including those of the SBL) are registered with the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA).


title: University of South Africa

text: Unisa is inter alia listed in the following publications: International Handbook of Universities published by the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and officially verified by the International Association of Universities.


title: University of South Africa

text: In other cases the publication of an institution's name in specific authoritative publications forms the basis of accreditation. Students must however enquire from the specific foreign country/university whether Unisa's qualifications are accredited/recognised.


title: University of South Africa

text: Internationally, Unisa is listed in the "Commonwealth Universities Handbook" of 1999 and also in the "International Handbook of Universities" of 1998. It is actually listed as Member of the Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU 2018).


title: University of South Africa

text: Students need a school-leaving qualification that would entitle them to enter a university or college in their own country. The majority of applications are now processed online., you will need to meet the requirements for the course you are looking to study.


title: University of South Africa

text: Unisa has been promoting and promulgating culture in all its manifestations since its inception in 1873. Apart from the academic courses offered by Unisa's College of Humanities, practical language, art and music skills have been actively pursued through the setting of curricula and the implementation of special courses and examinations.


title: University of South Africa

text: The Unisa Foundation was established in 1966 and now has approximately 280 active donors, many of them individual alumni with the desire to give back to the communities, South African and international, with a sense of social responsibility. Equally vital is the role played by the Board of Trustees, whose members not only oversee the affairs of the Unisa Foundation but who also lend the weight of their professional and personal reputations in a drive to reach potential donors, without financial reward to themselves.


title: University of South Africa

text: Based at Unisa's main campus in Muckleneuck, Pretoria, the Foundation has Fundraising and Development Divisions in Gauteng, the Western Cape and Kwa-Zulu Natal. These divisions support the smooth running of projects being undertaken in their regions while raising additional funding for local community projects.


title: University of South Africa

text: On 17 October 2021, a leaked ministerial report claimed that rampant corruption at Unisa undermines the quality of education, and highlighted the risk that the institution is becoming a "qualifications factory". The claim that Unisa was becoming a diploma mill due to mismanagement were being reviewed by Blade Nzimande, the Minister of Higher Education, Science and Technology. On 19 October 2021, Unisa released a statement attempting to "correct" these claims.


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: Bright Star is a musical written and composed by Steve Martin and Edie Brickell. It is set in the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina in 1945–46 with flashbacks to 1923. The musical is inspired by their Grammy-winning collaboration on the 2013 bluegrass album "Love Has Come for You" and, in turn, the folk story of the Iron Mountain Baby.


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: "Bright Star" was workshopped by the New York Stage and Film at the Powerhouse Theater at Vassar College in July 2013. It had its world premiere at the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego on September 28, 2014, and ran to November 2, 2014.


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: The show began previews at the Cort Theatre on Broadway on February 25, 2016, before officially opening on March 24. Directed by Walter Bobbie, the cast featured Carmen Cusack as Alice Murphy, Paul Alexander Nolan as Jimmy Ray Dobbs, A.J. Shively as Billy Cane, Hannah Elless as Margo Crawford, Emily Padgett as Lucy Grant, Jeff Blumenkrantz as Daryl Ames, Michael Mulheren as Mayor Dobbs, Stephen Bogardus as Billy's father, Dee Hoty as Alice's mother, and Stephen Lee Anderson as Alice's father. Sound design was by Nevin Steinberg, choreography by Josh Rhodes, scenic design by Eugene Lee, costume design by Jane Greenwood and lighting design by Japhy Weideman.


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: Despite financial support from Steve Martin and Edie Brickell and occasional appearances by Martin, the musical closed on June 26, 2016, after 30 previews and 109 regular performances.