title: 2017–18 Chelsea F.C. season

text: On 10 March, Chelsea bounced back with a 2–1 home victory over Crystal Palace. Willian opened the scoring for the hosts — aided by a deflection off Palace defender Martin Kelly — with a shot that crept inside the left-hand post. Chelsea spurned several excellent openings before doubling their advantage, again thanks to significant chunk of good fortune. Kelly was again involved, with the former Liverpool player initially doing well to clear Davide Zappacosta's drive off his own goal line only for the ball to ricochet off "Eagles" goalkeeper Wayne Hennessey and strike Kelly before entering the net. Eden Hazard had a goal disallowed for offside and Chelsea's profligacy threatened to give Roy Hodgson's team a route back into the match. Patrick van Aanholt's late goal briefly raised their hopes, but Conte's side held on with Palace remaining in the bottom three. After defeats to both Manchester clubs had weakened their grip on a Champions League place, this represented a welcome three points for Chelsea, who dominated proceedings from start to finish.


title: 2017–18 Chelsea F.C. season

text: In the away leg of the UEFA Champions League following a 1–1 draw at home against Barcelona, Chelsea fell behind after just 128 seconds after Lionel Messi shot through the legs of Thibaut Courtois from a tight angle. Messi then set-up Ousmane Dembele to hammer home the second after Cesc Fàbregas lost possession. Marcos Alonso hit the post for Chelsea with a free-kick before Messi's 100th Champions League goal — following a mistake by César Azpilicueta — took the hosts out of sight. Alonso was then denied a penalty after a challenge by Gerard Piqué as "Barça" joined La Liga rivals Real Madrid and Sevilla in the competition's quarter-final draw.


title: 2017–18 Chelsea F.C. season

text: On 15 March, Chelsea announced that they had reached settlement in last right of light issue holding up stadium development.


title: 2017–18 Chelsea F.C. season

text: After Chelsea's elimination from the Champions League, the club defeated Leicester City 1–2 away at the King Power Stadium in the FA Cup. Just before half-time, Álvaro Morata took Willian's pass in his stride to beat Leicester goalkeeper Kasper Schmeichel. Jamie Vardy made amends for a poor headed miss when he pounced in a goalmouth scramble for a 76th-minute equaliser for "the Foxes". The decisive moment came just before the interval in extra time when Chelsea substitute Pedro beat the onrushing Schmeichel to N'Golo Kante's cross and headed in the winner. With the victory, Chelsea qualified for the competition's semi-finals. Chelsea play this match after they're knocked from Champions League against Barcelona 3–0 in Round of 16. Barcelona won 4–1 on Aggregate.


title: 2017–18 Chelsea F.C. season

text: On 1 April, Chelsea lost at home against London rivals Tottenham. Álvaro Morata headed-in a Victor Moses cross to give the hosts the lead. However, Christian Eriksen hit a stunning equaliser on the stroke of half-time, his dipping effort from 25 yards dropping just under the bar and over a stranded Willy Caballero. Dele Alli then took centre stage in the second half, putting Tottenham ahead just after the hour mark when he produced a sublime first touch to bring Eric Dier's ball under control before slotting beyond Caballero. Alli was well-placed four minutes later to stab in following a goalmouth scramble and wrap-up a win that moved fourth-placed Spurs eight points clear of Chelsea, who remained in the fifth position.


title: 2017–18 Chelsea F.C. season

text: On 8 April, Chelsea faced West Ham at Stamford Bridge. Javier Hernández's second-half equaliser boosted West Ham's Premier League survival prospects and damaged Chelsea's slim hopes of finishing in the top-four on an emotional day at Stamford Bridge, as the previous Wednesday, former Chelsea midfielder and assistant coach Ray Wilkins passed away at age 61. Prior to kick-off, there was a minute's applause for Wilkins, with the Chelsea players also donning black armbands in his memory. In the match, César Azpilicueta had prodded the hosts ahead following Álvaro Morata's knock-down, with Azpilicueta dedicating his goal to Wilkins. However, just three minutes after entering the match as a substitute, Hernández struck his ninth career goal against "the Blues" to earn a point for "the Hammers". The Mexican's effort, driven into the corner after Marko Arnautović's fine cut-back, moved David Moyes' club six points clear of the relegation places. It was only West Ham's third touch inside the Chelsea's penalty area. In contrast, Antonio Conte's men — who were in fifth position but ten points behind Tottenham and Liverpool — had 23 shots on goal and were good value for their lead for long periods, including having two would-be goals from Álvaro Morata called-back for offside and several quality chances turned aside by goalkeeper Joe Hart. The win for Moyes as a manager ended a personal 15-match winless run at Stamford Bridge.


title: 2017–18 Chelsea F.C. season

text: On 14 April, Chelsea returning to the winning track with a thrilling 3–2 late comeback victory against Southampton at St. Mary's Stadium. Dušan Tadić's opener — a placed effort following Ryan Bertrand's marauding run — and Polish defender Jan Bednarek's left-footed shot looked to lift "the Saints" out of the bottom three with manager Mark Hughes seemingly on course for a first league victory as Southampton manager since arriving on 14 March. However, after coming on a substitute, Olivier Giroud scored his first Premier League goal for Chelsea, a 70th-minute header. Just five minutes later, Eden Hazard scored a left-footed finish, followed by a second goal from Giroud coming in the 78th minute, the eventual match-winner. The victory saw Chelsea move within seven points of fourth-placed Tottenham.


title: 2017–18 Chelsea F.C. season

text: On 19 April, Chelsea defeated Burnley 2–1 away at Turf Moor. Kevin Long's own goal sent Conte's men on their way in the first half. However, Ashley Barnes deflected Jóhann Berg Guðmundsson's wayward shot to equalise for Burnley. Victor Moses' right-footed shot into the bottom corner proved decisive and ensured "the Blues", who trailed fourth-placed Tottenham by ten points the previous week, narrowed the gap to five points. Sean Dyche's Burnley remain seventh and on course for 2018–19 UEFA Europa League qualification with an eight-point advantage over Leicester City, sitting in eighth.


title: 2017–18 Chelsea F.C. season

text: On 21 April, Chelsea reached the FA Cup Final after defeating Southampton 2–0 at Wembley Stadium. Chelsea striker Olivier Giroud received the ball from Eden Hazard and jinked his way past two Southampton players in a crowded area before he stabbed the ball home. With ten minutes to play, Giroud was replaced by Álvaro Morata, who ensured progression with Chelsea's second goal after he headed-in at the back post from a César Azpilicueta cross. Southampton went close with Nathan Redmond's low drive from distance, while Charlie Austin hit the post. The victory meant Chelsea manager Antonio Conte would match-up against managerial adversary José Mourinho at Wembley on 19 May against Manchester United.


title: 2017–18 Chelsea F.C. season

text: On 28 April, Chelsea take against Swansea at Liberty Stadium, Chelsea returned to playing in the league after playing in the FA Cup last week. Fabregas' curling finish was a fitting way to bring up his half-century of goals in the Premier League, but it was Hazard's clinical exploitation of a Swansea error that made it, pouncing on Andy King's sloppy loss of possession, weaving his way forward and picking out the right pass. Antonio Rudiger may well have given Hazard his second assist soon after, only for the defender to spurn the chance at the far post following a corner. Hazard was at the heart of Chelsea's best threatening moves and made the most of some naive defending as Swansea afforded him plenty of space for surging runs on the counter. Chelsea – who had skimmed the top of the bar after Alfie Mawson cleared an Olivier Giroud header – did not see goalkeeper Thibaut Courtois really tested until the final 15 minutes, when Andre Ayew fizzed in a shot. Kyle Naughton, Tom Carroll and Wayne Routledge also went close. Swansea claimed for a penalty when Gary Cahill challenged Nathan Dyer, with the Chelsea defender also involved in a clash with Jordan Ayew in injury time after a late barge from the Ghanaian.


title: 2017–18 Chelsea F.C. season

text: On 6 May on Gameweek 37, Chelsea beat Liverpool at the Bridge 1–0 with a header from Giroud in the 32nd minute after receiving an assist from Moses. Giroud expertly headed in Moses' cross in the first half after the visitors had dominated possession and failed to capitalize. Chelsea remain in fifth but move within three points of third-placed Liverpool. With two games remaining to Liverpool's one, Chelsea can move level on points with the Champions League finalists when they face Huddersfield on Wednesday. Liverpool had more than 66% possession in the first half and created plenty of chances – the best falling to Mane, who was denied twice by Thibaut Courtois – but it was Chelsea who came closest. Bakayoko's header bounced inches wide just moments before Giroud leapt high to nod home Moses' cross. And Fabregas' smart run in behind the defence created an opening which he could not convert from a tight angle. Chelsea had the best chances of the second half too. Hazard almost danced his way through before Rudiger's header was ruled out for offside and Alonso's volley flew inches wide.


title: 2017–18 Chelsea F.C. season

text: On 13 May, at the last Gameweek, Chelsea claimed a 3–0 defeat at St James' Park. The Blues had a chance of sneaking into the top four by beating the Magpies, but Liverpool's victory over Brighton means they finish fifth and must settle for a Europa League spot. A barrage at goal from the hosts forced visiting goalkeeper Thibaut Courtois to make sharp saves from the impressive Jonjo Shelvey and Mohamed Diamé. But Ayoze Pérez poked home twice in the second period as his side finished the season in 10th position. Chelsea's best chance fell to striker Olivier Giroud, but the Frenchman's acrobatic effort was tipped away by goalkeeper Martin Dubravka. Shelvey gets an MOTM in this match.


title: 2017–18 Chelsea F.C. season

text: On 19 May, in the FA Cup Final, Chelsea lifted the FA Cup after beating Manchester United 1–0 at Wembley with a single-goal from Eden Hazard's penalty at 22 minutes after Phil Jones fouled Hazard. Chelsea won their 8th FA Cup Trophy and their first since 2012.


title: Daniel Garcia (wrestler)

text: Daniel Garcia is an American professional wrestler signed to All Elite Wrestling (AEW), where he is a member of the Jericho Appreciation Society stable. He also appears for AEW's sister promotion Ring of Honor (ROH), where he a one-time ROH Pure Champion. As part of Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG), he is the current PWG World Champion in his first reign.


title: Daniel Garcia (wrestler)

text: Garcia began competing for Limitless Wrestling in 2018. He appeared for WWE on an episode of "205 Live" in July 2018, during which he lost against Drew Gulak. In January 2021, he competed against Tyler Rust in WWE on "NXT", where he lost. Garcia won the Limitless World Championship in March. He lost the title to Anthony Greene in September. In January 2022, he competed in Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG)'s Battle of Los Angeles and eventually won the tournament by defeating Mike Bailey in the final round. In May 2022, he won the PWG World Championship by defeating Bandido.


title: Daniel Garcia (wrestler)

text: Garcia made his debut in All Elite Wrestling (AEW) in September 2020 during an episode of "Dark". He was announced as having signed with AEW in October 2021. In a March 2022 episode of "Dynamite", Garcia alongside Jeff Parker and Matt Lee formed a stable with Chris Jericho and Jake Hager called the Jericho Appreciation Society. In September 2022 on "Dynamite", Garcia defeated Wheeler Yuta to win the ROH Pure Championship. Garcia lost the title back to Yuta at Final Battle, ending his reign at 94 days.


title: Daniel Garcia (wrestler)

text: In January 2019, Garcia broke both of his legs in a car crash involving three other wrestlers. The vehicle he was riding in crashed after hitting black ice. Garcia returned to wrestling six months later. The following year, he graduated from Buffalo State College with a communications degree.


title: Quick Style

text: Quick Style or The Quick Style and also known as the Quick Crew, is a Norwegian hip-hop/urban dance group. They are notable for having won Norske Talenter, a Norwegian version of "America's Got Talent" in 2009. They have also participated in NBC's "World of Dance" and other dance competitions.


title: Quick Style

text: Quick Style was formed in 2006 by the Pakistani-Norwegian twin brothers Suleman Malik and Bilal Malik, and their Thai-Norwegian childhood friend Nasir Sirikhan. They had an interest in music and dance since childhood and started to take dance classes at X-Ray, a local youth club in Oslo.


title: Quick Style

text: In early 2007, the twins' elder brother Ibrar Malik joined the team as manager. They started to participate and win local and national dance battles and competition.


title: Quick Style

text: In 2008, they began to represent Norway in the international dance competitions organized by the International Dance Organization / IDO. Same year the twins participated at the IDO Hip Hop World Championship in Bremen, Germany. Both brothers competed in the adult male solo category and secured a spot in the finals. They also competed as duo and achieved first position becoming World Champions for the first time.


title: Quick Style

text: In 2009, the whole crew competed again at the IDO European and World Championship event as solo, and the twins as duo and achieved spots in the finals with the twins taking second and third position respectively and Suleman taking a second position as male solo.


title: Quick Style

text: In the same year, they also won "Norway's Got Talent" or "Norske Talenter" on TV2, winning a prize of 500,000 NOK, which also resulted in Sony Music signing them as their first artists which were not musicians. After this win they toured the whole country and performed at some of the biggest events around Norway such as "VG Lista Top 20". They also started to get a lot of views and subscribers on their YouTube channel where they often posted their dance routines, which led to invitations from international events to perform, judge or teach.


title: Quick Style

text: In 2010, they attended the IDO Hip Hop World Championship one last time, where the twins once again became World Champions in the Adult Duo category, and all three members achieved spots in the finals as Adult Solo, and Suleman once again taking a second position. They have since then worked with major international brands like Samsung, Redbull, Puma, Monster and Nike, and performed at big World stages and TV shows in countries like USA, Japan, China, Dubai and Korea.


title: Quick Style

text: In July 2022, a video of the group performing at Suleman's wedding went viral on social media. The full version of the video posted in their YouTube channel on 19 June 2022 has garnered over 92 million views as of December 2022.


title: Quick Style

text: Quick Style is currently involved in artist management, shows, teaching classes and workshops. They have two working dance studios and judge international dance events and competitions.


title: Quick Style

text: A concept which started out as a fun project was what really drew international audiences to Quick Style. Strawhatz allows for the blending of different cultures into urban dance to create a unique style with both fusion visuals and sound.


title: Quick Style

text: Quick Style has worked thrice so far on choreography for BTS' songs in collaboration with Keone Madrid, BTS' choreographer Son Sung Deuk and Team Quick Style MG.


title: Quick Style

text: A 5-part documentary-based travel series presented by Quick Style filmed by director/filmmaker Christian Bastiansen. It takes the viewer on a journey through 5 different cities in China through the eyes of Bilal, Suleman and Nasir (Quick Style). It covers dance, travel, cultural experiences and interactions, and also gives an insight into the personalities of all three members. In these episodes, they also dance free-style to music by the Shanghai Restoration Project .


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2), the virus that causes COVID-19, was isolated in late 2019. Its genetic sequence was published on 11 January 2020, triggering the urgent international response to prepare for an outbreak and hasten development of a preventive COVID-19 vaccine. Since 2020, vaccine development has been expedited via unprecedented collaboration in the multinational pharmaceutical industry and between governments. By June 2020, tens of billions of dollars were invested by corporations, governments, international health organizations, and university research groups to develop dozens of vaccine candidates and prepare for global vaccination programs to immunize against COVID‑19 infection. According to the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), the geographic distribution of COVID‑19 vaccine development shows North American entities to have about 40% of the activity, compared to 30% in Asia and Australia, 26% in Europe, and a few projects in South America and Africa.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In February 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) said it did not expect a vaccine against SARS‑CoV‑2 to become available in less than 18 months. Virologist Paul Offit commented that, in hindsight, the development of a safe and effective vaccine within 11 months was a remarkable feat. The rapidly growing infection rate of COVID‑19 worldwide during 2020 stimulated international alliances and government efforts to urgently organize resources to make multiple vaccines on shortened timelines, with four vaccine candidates entering human evaluation in March (see ).


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: On 24 June 2020, China approved the CanSino vaccine for limited use in the military, and two inactivated virus vaccines for emergency use in high-risk occupations. On 11 August 2020, Russia announced the approval of its Sputnik V vaccine for emergency use, though one month later only small amounts of the vaccine had been distributed for use outside of the phase 3 trial.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: The Pfizer–BioNTech partnership submitted an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) request to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the mRNA vaccine BNT162b2 (active ingredient tozinameran) on 20 November 2020. On 2 December 2020, the United Kingdom's Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) gave temporary regulatory approval for the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine, becoming the first country to approve the vaccine and the first country in the Western world to approve the use of any COVID‑19 vaccine. As of 21 December 2020, many countries and the European Union had authorized or approved the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID‑19 vaccine. Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates granted emergency marketing authorization for the Sinopharm BIBP vaccine. On 11 December 2020, the FDA granted an EUA for the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID‑19 vaccine. A week later, they granted an EUA for mRNA-1273 (active ingredient elasomeran), the Moderna vaccine.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: On 31 March 2021, the Russian government announced that they had registered the first COVID‑19 vaccine for animals. Named Carnivac-Cov, it is an inactivated vaccine for carnivorous animals, including pets, aimed at preventing mutations that occur during the interspecies transmission of SARS-CoV-2.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In October 2022 China began administering an oral vaccine developed by CanSino Bioligics, using its adenovirus model.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Despite the availability of mRNA and viral vector vaccines, worldwide vaccine equity has not been achieved. The ongoing development and use of whole inactivated virus (WIV) and protein-based vaccines has been recommended, especially for use in developing countries, to dampen further waves of the pandemic.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Since 2020, vaccine development has been expedited via unprecedented collaboration in the multinational pharmaceutical industry and between governments. According to the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), the geographic distribution of COVID‑19 vaccine development puts North American entities having about 40% of the activity compared to 30% in Asia and Australia, 26% in Europe, and a few projects in South America and Africa.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Commitment to first-in-human testing of a vaccine candidate represents a substantial capital cost for vaccine developers, estimated to be from million to million for a typical PhaseI trial program, but possibly as much as million. For comparison, during the Ebola virus epidemic of 2013–16, there were 37 vaccine candidates in urgent development with only one becoming a licensed vaccine at a total cost to confirm efficacy in PhaseII–III trials of about billion.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Canada announced million in funding for 96 vaccine research projects at Canadian companies and universities, with plans to establish a "vaccine bank" that could be used if another coronavirus outbreak occurs. A further investment of billion was added to support clinical trials and develop manufacturing and supply chains for vaccines. On 4May, the Canadian government committed million to the WHO's live streaming effort to raise billion for COVID‑19 vaccines and preparedness.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: China provided low-rate loans to a vaccine developer through its central bank and "quickly made land available for the company" to build production plants. As of June 2020, six of the eleven COVID‑19 vaccine candidates in early-stage human testing were developed by Chinese organizations. Three Chinese vaccine companies and research institutes are supported by the government for financing research, conducting clinical trials, and manufacturing the most promising vaccine candidates, prioritizing rapid evidence of efficacy over safety. On 18 May, China had pledged billion to support overall efforts by the WHO for programs against COVID‑19. On 22 July, China announced plans to provide a US$1 billion loan to make its vaccine accessible for Latin America and the Caribbean. On 24 August, Chinese Premier Li Keqiang announced it would provide Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam priority access to the vaccine once it was distributed.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Great Britain formed a COVID‑19 vaccine task force in April 2020, to stimulate local efforts for accelerated development of a vaccine through collaborations of industry, universities, and government agencies. It encompassed every phase of development from research to manufacturing. The vaccine development initiatives at the University of Oxford and Imperial College of London were financed with million.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In the United States, the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA), a federal agency funding disease-fighting technology, announced investments of nearly billion to support American COVID‑19 vaccine development and manufacture of the most promising candidates. On 16 April, BARDA made a million investment in vaccine developer Moderna and its partner, Johnson & Johnson. BARDA has earmarked an additional billion for development. It will have a role in other programs for development of six to eight vaccine candidates destined for clinical study into 2021 by companies such as Sanofi Pasteur and Regeneron. On 15 May, the government announced funding for a fast-track program called Operation Warp Speed to place multiple vaccine candidates into clinical trials by the fall of 2020 and manufacture 300million doses of a licensed vaccine by January 2021. The project's chief advisor is Moncef Slaoui and its chief operating officer is General Gustave Perna. In June, the Warp Speed team said it would work with seven companies developing vaccine candidates: Moderna, Johnson & Johnson, Merck, Pfizer, the University of Oxford in collaboration with AstraZeneca, and two others, although Pfizer later stated that "all the investment for R&D was made by Pfizer at risk."


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Large pharmaceutical companies with experience in making vaccines at scale, including Johnson & Johnson, AstraZeneca, and GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), formed alliances with biotechnology companies, governments, and universities to accelerate progression to an effective vaccine. To combine financial and manufacturing capabilities for a pandemic with adjuvanted vaccine technology, GSK joined with Sanofi in an uncommon partnership of multinational companies to support accelerated vaccine development.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: By June 2020, tens of billions of dollars were invested by corporations, governments, international health organizations, and university research groups to develop dozens of vaccine candidates and prepare for global vaccination programs to immunize against COVID‑19 infection. The corporate investment and need to generate value for public shareholders raised concerns about a "market-based approach" in vaccine development, costly pricing of eventual licensed vaccines, preferred access for distribution first to affluent countries, and sparse or no distribution to where the pandemic is most aggressive, as predicted for densely-populated, impoverished countries unable to afford vaccinations. The collaboration of the University of Oxford with AstraZeneca (a global pharmaceutical company based in the UK) raised concerns about price and sharing of eventual profits from international vaccine sales, arising from whether the British government and university as public partners had commercialization rights. AstraZeneca stated that initial pricing of its vaccine would not include a profit margin for the company while the pandemic was still expanding.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In June, AstraZeneca made a deal allowing CEPI and Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance to manufacture and distribute 300 million doses if its Oxford vaccine candidate proved to be safe and effective, reportedly increasing the company's total production capacity to over 2 billion doses per year. Commercialization of pandemic vaccines is a high-risk business venture, potentially losing billions of dollars in development and pre-market manufacturing costs if the candidate vaccines fail to be safe and effective. Pfizer indicated it was not interested in a government partnership, considering it to be a "third party" slowing progress. Further, there are concerns that rapid-development programslike Operation Warp Speedare choosing candidates mainly for their manufacturing advantages rather than optimal safety and efficacy.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: CEPI classifies development stages for vaccines as "exploratory" (planning and designing a candidate, having no evaluation in vivo), "preclinical" (in vivo evaluation with preparation for manufacturing a compound to test in humans), or initiation of PhaseI safety studies in healthy people. Some 321 total vaccine candidates were in development as either confirmed projects in clinical trials or in early-stage "exploratory" or "preclinical" development, as of September.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: After a coronavirus was isolated in December 2019, its genetic sequence was published on 11 January 2020, triggering an urgent international response to prepare for an outbreak and hasten development of a preventive vaccine.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In February 2020, the WHO said it did not expect a vaccine against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative virus, to become available in less than 18 months. The rapidly growing infection rate of COVID‑19 worldwide during 2020 stimulated international alliances and government efforts to urgently organize resources to make multiple vaccines on shortened timelines, with four vaccine candidates entering human evaluation in March (see the table of clinical trials started in 2020, below).


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: By April 2020, "almost 80 companies and institutes in 19 countries" were working on this virtual gold rush. Also in April, CEPI estimated that as many as six of the vaccine candidates against COVID‑19 should be chosen by international coalitions for development through PhaseII–III trials, and three should be streamlined through regulatory and quality assurance for eventual licensing at a total cost of at least billion. Another analysis estimates ten candidates will need simultaneous initial development, before a select few are chosen for the final path to licensing.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In July 2020, the UK's National Cyber Security Centre, the Canadian Communications Security Establishment, and the U.S.'s Homeland Security Department Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency, and the National Security Agency (NSA) issued a joint statement saying that Russian state-backed hackers, specifically Cozy Bear (APT29) were attempting to steal COVID‑19 treatment and vaccine research from academic and pharmaceutical institutions in other countries. Russia denied the claim, but has a history of cyber-espionage and cyberattacks on foreign targets. In November 2020, Microsoft reported that the Russian state-sponsored hacking group Fancy Bear (APT28) and North Korean state-sponsored hacking groups nicknamed "Zinc" and "Cerium" had been implicated in recent cyberattacks against researchers developing a COVID-19 vaccine (including in Canada, France, India, South Korea, and the U.S.) as well as against the World Health Organization, and that the cyberattackers had used both brute force and phishing techniques to compromise computer systems. Microsoft reported that at least nine healthcare institutions were targeted, and that some attempts were successful. In February 2021, South Korean's National Intelligence Service gave a closed-door briefing to members of the South Korean parliament about North Korean efforts to steal COVID-19 vaccine technology from Pfizer.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In April 2020, the WHO issued a statement representing dozens of vaccine scientists around the world, pledging collaboration to speed development of a vaccine against COVID‑19. The WHO coalition is encouraging international cooperation between organizations developing vaccine candidates, national regulatory and policy agencies, financial contributors, public health associations, and governments, for eventual manufacturing of a successful vaccine in quantities sufficient to supply all affected regions, particularly low-resource countries.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Industry analysis of past vaccine development shows failure rates of 84–90%. Because COVID‑19 is a novel virus target with properties still being discovered and requiring innovative vaccine technologies and development strategies, the risks associated with developing a successful vaccine across all steps of preclinical and clinical research are high.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: To assess the potential for vaccine efficacy, unprecedented computer simulations and new COVID‑19-specific animal models are being developed multinationally. Of the confirmed active vaccine candidates, about 70% are being developed by private companies, with the remaining projects under development by academic, government coalitions, and health organizations. Historically, the probability of success for an infectious disease vaccine candidate to pass preclinical barriers and reach PhaseI of human testing is 41–57%.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: The rapid development and urgency of producing a vaccine for the COVID‑19 pandemic may increase the risks and failure rate of delivering a safe, effective vaccine. One study found that between 2006 and 2015, the success rate of obtaining approval from PhaseI to successful PhaseIII trials was 16.2% for vaccines, and CEPI indicates a potential success rate of only 10% for vaccine candidates in 2020 development.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Early research to assess vaccine efficacy using COVID‑19-specific animal models, such as ACE2-transgenic mice, other laboratory animals, and non-human primates, indicates a need for biosafety-level3 containment measures for handling live viruses, and international coordination to ensure standardized safety procedures.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Although the quality and quantity of antibody production by a potential vaccine is intended to neutralize the COVID‑19 infection, a vaccine may have an unintended opposite effect by causing antibody-dependent disease enhancement (ADE), which increases the virus attachment to its target cells and might trigger a cytokine storm if a vaccinated person is later attacked by the virus. The vaccine technology platform (for example, viral vector vaccine, spike (S) protein vaccine or protein subunit vaccine), vaccine dose, timing of repeat vaccinations for the possible recurrence of COVID‑19 infection, and elderly age are factors determining the risk and extent of ADE. The antibody response to a vaccine is a variable of vaccine technologies in development, including whether the vaccine has precision in its mechanism, and choice of the route for how it is given (intramuscular, intradermal, oral, or nasal).


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Prior to the pandemic, ADE was observed in animal studies of laboratory rodents with vaccines for SARS-CoV, the virus that causes severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Researchers therefore emphasized the need to carefully assess the potential for ADE to occur with COVID-19.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: However, there have been no observed incidences with vaccines for COVID-19 in trials with nonhuman primates, in clinical trials with humans, or following the widespread use of approved vaccines.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In April 2020, the WHO published an "R&D Blueprint (for the) novel Coronavirus" (Blueprint). The Blueprint documented a "large, international, multi-site, individually randomized controlled clinical trial" to allow "the concurrent evaluation of the benefits and risks of each promising candidate vaccine within 3–6 months of it being made available for the trial." The Blueprint listed a "Global Target Product Profile" (TPP) for COVID‑19, identifying favorable attributes of safe and effective vaccines under two broad categories: "vaccines for the long-term protection of people at higher risk of COVID‑19, such as healthcare workers", and other vaccines to provide rapid-response immunity for new outbreaks. The international TPP team was formed to 1) assess the development of the most promising candidate vaccines; 2) map candidate vaccines and their clinical trial worldwide, publishing a frequently-updated "landscape" of vaccines in development; 3) rapidly evaluate and screen for the most promising candidate vaccines simultaneously before they are tested in humans; and 4) design and coordinate a multiple-site, international randomized controlled trialthe "Solidarity trial" for vaccinesto enable simultaneous evaluation of the benefits and risks of different vaccine candidates under clinical trials in countries where there are high rates of COVID‑19 disease, ensuring fast interpretation and sharing of results around the world. The WHO vaccine coalition will prioritize which vaccines should go into Phase II and III clinical trials, and determine harmonized PhaseIII protocols for all vaccines achieving the pivotal trial stage.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: PhaseI trials test primarily for safety and preliminary dosing in a few dozen healthy subjects, while PhaseII trialsfollowing success in PhaseIevaluate immunogenicity, dose levels (efficacy based on biomarkers) and adverse effects of the candidate vaccine, typically in hundreds of people. A PhaseI–II trial consists of preliminary safety and immunogenicity testing, is typically randomized, placebo-controlled, while determining more precise, effective doses. PhaseIII trials typically involve more participants at multiple sites, include a control group, and test effectiveness of the vaccine to prevent the disease (an "interventional" or "pivotal" trial), while monitoring for adverse effects at the optimal dose. Definition of vaccine safety, efficacy, and clinical endpoints in a PhaseIII trial may vary between the trials of different companies, such as defining the degree of side effects, infection or amount of transmission, and whether the vaccine prevents moderate or severe COVID‑19 infection. Phase III trials of AstraZeneca's intervention started 28 August 2020 and ended 5 March 2021.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In January 2022 'Moderna' and 'Pfizer' both started trials of vaccine tailored to immunize against the Omicron variant. See Response by vaccine producers for vaccine development aimed at providing immunity to Omicron.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Vaccine developers have to invest resources internationally to find enough participants for PhaseII–III clinical trials when the virus has proved to be a "moving target" of changing transmission rate across and within countries, forcing companies to compete for trial participants. As an example in June, the Chinese vaccine developer Sinovac formed alliances in Malaysia, Canada, the UK, and Brazil among its plans to recruit trial participants and manufacture enough vaccine doses for a possible PhaseIII study in Brazil where COVID‑19 transmission was accelerating during June. As the COVID‑19 pandemic within China became more isolated and controlled, Chinese vaccine developers sought international relationships to conduct advanced human studies in several countries, creating competition for trial participants with other manufacturers and the international Solidarity trial organized by the WHO. In addition to competition over recruiting participants, clinical trial organizers may encounter people unwilling to be vaccinated due to vaccine hesitancy or disbelieving the science of the vaccine technology and its ability to prevent infection.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Having an insufficient number of skilled team members to administer vaccinations may hinder clinical trials that must overcome risks for trial failure, such as recruiting participants in rural or low-density geographic regions, and variations of age, race, ethnicity, or underlying medical conditions.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Eligibility criteria for AstraZeneca's Phase III trial included: Ages, 18 to 130 Years, All Sexes, and Healthy Volunteers. Inclusion Criteria specified, Increased risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection and medically stable. Exclusion criteria included; 1) confirmed or suspected immunosuppressive or immunodeficient state, 2) significant disease, disorder, or finding, and 3) Prior or concomitant vaccine therapy for COVID‑19.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: A clinical trial design in progress may be modified as an "adaptive design" if accumulating data in the trial provide early insights about positive or negative efficacy of the treatment. The WHO Solidarity trial of multiple vaccines in clinical studies during 2020, will apply adaptive design to rapidly alter trial parameters across all study sites as results emerge. Candidate vaccines may be added to the Solidarity trial as they become available if priority criteria are met, while vaccine candidates showing poor evidence of safety or efficacy compared to placebo or other vaccines will be dropped from the international trial.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Adaptive designs within ongoing PhaseII–III clinical trials on candidate vaccines may shorten trial durations and use fewer subjects, possibly expediting decisions for early termination or success, avoiding duplication of research efforts, and enhancing coordination of design changes for the Solidarity trial across its international locations.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Challenge studies are a type of clinical trial involving the intentional exposure of the test subject to the condition tested, an approach that can significantly accelerate vaccine development. Human challenge studies may be ethically controversial because they involve exposing test subjects to dangers beyond those posed by potential side effects of the substance being tested. Challenge studies have been used for diseases less deadly than COVID‑19 infection, such as common influenza, typhoid fever, cholera, and malaria. The World Health Organization developed a guidance document with criteria for conducting COVID‑19 challenge studies in healthy people, including scientific and ethical evaluation, public consultation and coordination, selection and informed consent of the participants, and monitoring by independent experts. Beginning in January 2021, dozens of young adult volunteers will be deliberately infected with COVID‑19 in a challenge trial conducted in a London hospital under management by the British government COVID‑19 Vaccine Taskforce. Once an infection dose of COVID‑19 is identified, two or more of the candidate COVID‑19 vaccines will be tested for effectiveness in preventing infection.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: At the beginning of the COVID‑19 pandemic in 2020, the WHO issued a guideline as an Emergency Use Listing of new vaccines, a process derived from the 2013–16 Ebola epidemic. It required that a vaccine candidate developed for a life-threatening emergency be manufactured using GMP and that it complete development according to WHO prequalification procedures.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Even as new vaccines are developed during the COVID‑19 pandemic, licensure of COVID‑19 vaccine candidates requires submission of a full dossier of information on development and manufacturing quality. In the UK and the EU, companies may use a "rolling review process", supplying data as they become available during Phase III trials, rather than developing the full documentation over months or years at the end of clinical research, as is typical. This rolling process allows the UK's regulator (MHRA) and the European Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use to evaluate clinical data in real time, enabling a promising vaccine candidate to be approved on a rapid timeline by both the UK's MHRA and the European Medicines Agency (EMA). A rolling review process for the Moderna vaccine candidate was initiated in October by Health Canada and the EMA, and in November in Canada for the Pfizer-BioNTech candidate.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: On 24 June 2020, China approved the CanSino vaccine for limited use in the military and two inactivated virus vaccines for emergency use in high-risk occupations. On 11 August 2020, Russia announced the approval of its Sputnik V vaccine for emergency use, though one month later only small amounts of the vaccine had been distributed for use outside of the phase 3 trial. In September, the United Arab Emirates approved emergency use of the Sinopharm BIBP vaccine for healthcare workers, followed by similar emergency use approval from Bahrain in November.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In the United States, an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) is "a mechanism to facilitate the availability and use of medical countermeasures, including vaccines, during public health emergencies, such as the current COVID‑19 pandemic." Once an EUA is issued by the FDA, the vaccine developer is expected to continue the Phase III clinical trial to finalize safety and efficacy data, leading to application for licensure (approval) in the United States. In mid-2020, concerns that the FDA might grant a vaccine EUA before full evidence from a Phase III clinical trial was available raised broad concerns about the potential for lowered standards in the face of political pressure. On 8 September 2020, nine leading pharmaceutical companies involved in COVID‑19 vaccine research signed a letter, pledging that they would submit their vaccines for emergency use authorization only after Phase III trials had demonstrated safety and efficacy.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: The Pfizer-BioNTech partnership submitted an EUA request to the FDA for the mRNA vaccine BNT162b2 (active ingredient tozinameran) on 20 November 2020. On 2 December 2020, the United Kingdom's Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) gave temporary regulatory approval for the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine, becoming the first country to approve this vaccine and the first country in the Western world to approve the use of any COVID‑19 vaccine. On 8 December 2020, 90-year-old Margaret Keenan received the vaccine at University Hospital Coventry, becoming the first person known to be vaccinated outside of a trial, as the UK's vaccination programme began. However, other vaccines had been given earlier in Russia. On 11 December 2020, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) for the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine. On 19 December 2020, the Swiss Agency for Therapeutic Products (Swissmedic) approved the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine for regular use, two months after receiving the application. This was the first authorization by a stringent regulatory authority under a standard procedure for any COVID‑19 vaccine. On 23 December, a 90-year-old Lucerne resident became the first person to receive the vaccine in continental Europe.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: As of December 2020, many countries and the European Union have authorized or approved the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID‑19 vaccine. Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates granted emergency marketing authorization for the Sinopharm BIBP vaccine. In the United Kingdom, 138,000 people had received the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID‑19 vaccine Comirnaty by 16 December, during the first week of the UK vaccination programme. On 18 December 2020, the US FDA granted an EUA for mRNA-1273, the Moderna vaccine. Vaccine manufacturers are awaiting full approvals to name their vaccines.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: Moderna submitted a request for an EUA for mRNA-1273 to the FDA on 30 November 2020. On 18 December 2020, the FDA granted an EUA for the Moderna vaccine.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: The UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) gave the first approval to the Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine on 30 December 2020, as its second vaccine to enter the national rollout under a conditional and temporary authorization to supply.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In October 2020, the Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) granted provisional determinations to AstraZeneca Pty Ltd in relation to its COVID‑19 vaccine, ChAdOx1-S [recombinant] and to Pfizer Australia Pty Ltd in relation to its COVID‑19 vaccine, BNT162b2 [mRNA]. Janssen Cilag Pty Ltd was granted a provisional determination in relation to its COVID‑19 vaccine, Ad26.COV2.S, in November 2020.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: On 24 June 2021, the TGA granted provisional determination to Moderna Australia Pty Ltd for Elasomeran.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In October 2020, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) started 'rolling reviews' of the vaccines known as "COVID‑19 Vaccine AstraZeneca" (ChAdOx1-SARS-CoV-2) and "Pfizer-BioNTech COVID‑19 Vaccine" (BNT162b2). The EMA released an update on the status of its rolling review of the COVID‑19 Vaccine AstraZeneca in December 2020, after the UK granted a temporary authorization of supply for the vaccine.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In November 2020, the EMA published a safety monitoring plan and guidance on risk management planning (RMP) for COVID‑19 vaccines. The plan outlines how relevant new information emerging after the authorization and uptake of COVID‑19 vaccines in the pandemic situation will be collected and promptly reviewed. All RMPs for COVID‑19 vaccines will be published on the EMA's website. The EMA published guidance for developers of potential COVID‑19 vaccines on the clinical evidence to include in marketing authorization applications.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In November 2020, the CHMP started a rolling review of the Moderna vaccine for COVID‑19 known as mRNA-1273.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In December 2020, the EMA received application for conditional marketing authorizations (CMA) for the mRNA vaccines "BNT162b2" and "mRNA1273" ("Moderna Covid‑19 vaccine"). The assessments of the vaccines are scheduled to proceed under accelerated timelines with the possibility of opinions issued within weeks.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In December 2020, the CHMP started a rolling review of the Ad26.COV2.S COVID‑19 vaccine from Janssen-Cilag International N.V.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: On 21 December 2020, the CHMP recommended granting a conditional marketing authorization for the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID‑19 vaccine, Comirnaty (active ingredient tozinameran), developed by BioNTech and Pfizer. The recommendation was accepted by the European Commission the same day.<ref name="doi 10.1016/s0140-6736(21)00085-4"></ref>


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: On 6 January 2021, the CHMP recommended granting a conditional marketing authorization for COVID-19 Vaccine Moderna and the recommendation was accepted by the European Commission the same day.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In January 2021, the EMA received an application for conditional marketing authorization (CMA) for the COVID‑19 vaccine known as "COVID‑19 Vaccine AstraZeneca", developed by AstraZeneca and Oxford University. On 29 January 2021, the CHMP recommended granting the conditional marketing authorization and the recommendation was accepted by the European Commission the same day.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In February 2021, the CHMP started a rolling review of NVX-CoV2373, a COVID‑19 vaccine being developed by Novavax CZ AS (a subsidiary of Novavax, Inc.) and a rolling review of CVnCoV, a COVID‑19 vaccine being developed by CureVac AG.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In February 2021, the EMA announced that they are developing vaccine guidance to address the virus variants.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In February 2021, the EMA received an application for conditional marketing authorization (CMA) for the COVID-19 Vaccine Janssen developed by Janssen-Cilag International N.V. The EMA recommended a conditional marketing authorization of the COVID-19 Vaccine Janssen on 11 March 2021, and it was accepted by the European Commission the same day.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In March 2021, the CHMP started a rolling review of Sputnik V (Gam-COVID-Vac). The EU applicant is R-Pharm Germany GmbH.


title: History of COVID-19 vaccine development

text: In May 2021, the CMMP started evaluating the use of Comirnaty to include young people aged 12 to 15, and it started a rolling review of Sinovac COVID-19 Vaccine. The EU applicant for Sinovac is Life'On S.r.l.


title: The Letter for the King (TV series)

text: The Letter for the King is a coming-of-age fantasy adventure television series developed by Will Davies and FilmWave for Netflix inspired by the classic 1962 Dutch novel by Tonke Dragt. The six-episode series was released on Netflix on 20 March 2020.


title: The Letter for the King (TV series)

text: A young aspiring knight Tiuri (Amir Wilson) finds himself on a perilous mission to deliver a secret letter to the King who lives across the Great Mountains.


title: The Letter for the King (TV series)

text: In July 2018, it was announced Netflix had ordered an original series based on Tonke Dragt's "De brief voor de Koning" with Will Davies as showrunner and executive producer. This is the first Netflix adaptation of a Dutch book, although it will be adapted in English; the series is titled after the English translation, which was published in 2014. FilmWave acquired the international rights in a deal with Leopold. Paul Trijbits of FilmWave is executive producing, Chris Clark is producing, and Alex Holmes and Felix Thompson are directing.


title: The Letter for the King (TV series)

text: Brandon Campbell composed the music for the series. "It’s an orchestral, adventure score, but we wove in a lot of Western elements. There are acoustic guitars, some vocals, the fiddle, and trumpet. Our approach to this project, and our vision as it came together, was a Western that takes place in the middle of this magical adventure," he told "Awards Daily".


title: The Letter for the King (TV series)

text: Jussipo uses the score of "In Hell, I'll Be in Good Company" from the band "The Dead South" as music for his songs, this music is also sung for his burial.


title: The Letter for the King (TV series)

text: First-look promotional pictures were released in January 2020 followed by a teaser and trailer in February.


title: The Letter for the King (TV series)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 60% based on reviews from 20 critics, with an average rating of 6.69/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "The Letter for the King aspires for greatness, but poor pacing stretched across too many episodes hinder what could be an epic journey." On Metacritic, the series has a score of 55 out of 100 based on reviews from 6 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: The Letter for the King (TV series)

text: Jack Seale of "The Guardian" awarding the series 3 out of 5 stars and wrote: "But while The Letter for the King doesn’t feel like an adults’ show that kids can get away with watching, it's also not a kids’ show that's fun enough for adults to enjoy, with its bowdlerised fights and romance." David Opie of "Digital Spy" gave it 2 out of 5 stars and wrote: "Unfortunately, The Letter For The King is not the new fantasy smash we were hoping for, so you can toss out any high expectations you might have like a coin to your Witcher. In fact, it's not even that great for fans of the book either.".


title: The Letter for the King (TV series)

text: "The Letter for the King" was frequently dubbed as a "Game of Thrones" for children. Patrick Cremona of "Radio Times" gave it 2 out of 5 stars and wrote: "The show is watchable enough, and might serve as a useful way into medieval fantasy for younger audiences who aren’t yet ready for the more adult-orientated series that have recently dominated the genre, which is by no means a bad thing. It seems unlikely, however, that this is the next big fantasy series that Netflix might have hoped for. The hunt for the next Game of Thrones goes on…".


title: The Letter for the King (TV series)

text: Although the series topped the Netflix ratings in the Netherlands, it also received very mixed critical reviews, mostly directed towards the execution of the series based on the book by Dragt. Mark Moorman of "De Volkskrant" awarded the show 3 out of 5 stars and commented: "With nice young actors, beautiful cinematography and a strong quest, The Letter for the King is a reasonable success. But it does feel a bit like Netflix has crushed our favourite children's book with a steam engine." Belinda van de Graaf of "Trouw" also awarded the series 3 out of 5 stars and wrote: "In their dedication to inclusivity, the creators went even further. Tiuri's most important companion is no longer a boy (Piak) but a girl, Lavinia. And near the end, there is an intimate kiss between two trainees. Sweet, that kiss between two guys, but that scene just appeared out of thin air. The same counts for all the hocus pocus that the creators added. It's understandable why Tonke Dragt prefers talking about literary adaptions of her book, rather than visual adaptions."


title: You Bet Your Life

text: You Bet Your Life is an American comedy quiz series that has aired on both radio and television. The original and best-known version was hosted by Groucho Marx of the Marx Brothers, with announcer and assistant George Fenneman. The show debuted on ABC Radio on October 27, 1947, moved to CBS Radio debuting October 5, 1949, and went to NBC-TV and NBC Radio on October 4, 1950. Because of its simple format, it was possible to broadcast the show on both radio and television but not simultaneously. Many of the laughs on the television show were evoked by Groucho's facial reactions and other visual gimmicks; the two versions were slightly different. The last episode in a radio format aired on June 10, 1960. The series continued on television for another year, recording a season on September 22, 1960 with a new title, The Groucho Show.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Gameplay on each episode of "You Bet Your Life" was generally secondary to Groucho's comedic interplay with contestants and often with Fenneman. The show was so popular that it was the first primetime series to be shown in reruns during the summer months. The common practice at the time was to have a series go on hiatus during the summer, being replaced temporarily by a 13-week comedy or variety series before the main series returned in the fall. The "You Bet Your Life" summer reruns were broadcast as "The Best of Groucho," to make clear to viewers that these were repeat broadcasts.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: After the show went off the air, NBC prepared a syndicated version for local stations in 1961. Because the reruns were already established as "The Best of Groucho", the syndicated version retained this title. NBC removed all references to the original sponsors by cropping the image whenever the sponsor's logo appeared, along with the "NBC" mark on Groucho's microphone. This is why some shots in the syndicated versions appear grainy and less focused: by deleting the sponsor's logo, the image zoomed in on what remained on the screen, sometimes cropping out a contestant while the screen showed only Groucho.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: "You Bet Your Life" has been revived three times since the original series ended, the most recent being an ongoing version hosted by Jay Leno that launched in first-run syndication in September 2021.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: The mid-1940s were a lull in Groucho Marx's career. His radio show "Blue Ribbon Town", sponsored by Pabst Blue Ribbon beer, had begun in March 1943 and had failed to catch on. Groucho left the program in June 1944 and was replaced by vocalist Kenny Baker (who appeared with Groucho in 1939's "At the Circus") until the show ended two months later. He also reluctantly appeared in two films with brothers Chico and Harpo Marx, "A Night in Casablanca" and the lackluster "Love Happy".


title: You Bet Your Life

text: During a radio appearance with Bob Hope in March 1947, Marx ad-libbed most of his performance after being forced to stand by in a waiting room for 40 minutes before going live on the air. John Guedel, the Hope program's producer, formed an idea for a quiz show and approached Marx about the subject.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: After initial reluctance on Marx's part, Guedel was able to convince him to host the program once Marx realized the quiz would be only a backdrop for his contestant interviews and the storm of ad-libbing that they would elicit. Guedel also convinced Marx to invest in 50% of the show, in part by saying that he was "untouchable" at ad-libbing, but not at following a script.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: As Marx and the contestants were ad-libbing, Guedel insisted that each show be filmed and edited before release to remove the risqué or less interesting material. The show for the studio audience ran longer than the broadcast version.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: On December 28, 1949, episode #49-13 was filmed as a visual test in preparation for the show to be broadcast on television. The president of Film Craft Productions, Regina Lindenbaum (who did the subsequent filming), cited it as the first television show filmed before a live audience. Most television histories incorrectly credit "I Love Lucy" with that achievement, but Lucy premiered a year after Groucho's first filmed season. While filming both shows did indeed allow for greater control in post-production editing, the principal reason they were filmed was so that they could be produced in Hollywood before the advent of the "coaxial cable" that allowed live coast-to-coast broadcasts. They also produced clearer images for the West Coast than the fuzzy kinescope recordings that dominated network programming there in television's early days.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Contestant teams usually consisted of one male and one female, most of whom were selected from the studio audience. Occasionally, famous or otherwise interesting figures were invited to play (e.g., a Korean-American contestant who was a veteran and had been a prisoner of war during the Korean War).


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Each episode began with the introduction "And now, here he is: the one, the "only"..." by Fenneman, who would pause, evoking the audience to finish the sentence by shouting in unison "GROUCHO!" Groucho replies, "Oh, that's me!" and the show's band would then play a portion of the tune "Hooray for Captain Spaulding", Marx's signature song. Groucho next would be introduced to the first two contestants and engage in humorous conversations in which he would improvise his responses or employ prepared lines written by the show's writers using pre-show interviews. The total number of contestants in each episode varied depending on the length of Groucho's conversations and the time taken for gameplay in each segment. Generally, however, the 30-minute format of the televised show provided time for two or three two-person teams to play in each episode.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Some show tension revolved around whether a contestant would say the "secret word", a common word revealed to the audience at the outset of each episode. If one of the contestants said the word, a toy duck resembling Groucho—with eyeglasses and a mustache—descended from the ceiling to bring a $100 prize, which would then be divided equally between that segment's two-person team. A cartoon of a duck with a cigar was also used in the opening title sequence. The duck was occasionally replaced with various other things, for example a wooden Indian figure, carrying the required $100 prize to the lucky team. In one episode, Groucho's brother Harpo came down instead of the duck, and in another a female model attired in a tight bodice and very short skirt came down in a birdcage with the money. In his conversations with contestants, Marx would at times direct their exchanges in ways to increase the likelihood that someone would use the secret word.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: In November 1955, Groucho announced on the air that he had noticed the success of big-money quiz programs (referring to, but not naming, "The $64,000 Challenge") and declared that "You Bet Your Life" was itself going to raise its "Secret Word" bonus: from $100 to $101. This gimmick lasted until the end of the year.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: After the contestants' introduction and interview, the actual game began. Couples were allowed to choose from a list of 20 available categories before the show; then they tried to answer a series of questions within that category. From 1947 to 1956, couples were asked four questions.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: From 1947 to 1956, if a couple ended their quiz with $25 or less, Marx would ask a very easy question so they could receive consolation money of $25 (later $100), which did not count toward the scores. The question was often patently obvious so there was virtually no chance that departing contestants would answer it incorrectly. Some examples include the following: "Who is buried in Grant's Tomb?", "When did the War of 1812 start?", "How long do you cook a three-minute egg?", and "What color is an orange?" The question about Grant's Tomb became such a staple of the show that both Marx and Fenneman were shocked when one man got the question "wrong" by answering "No one". As the contestant then pointed out, Grant's Tomb is an above-ground mausoleum.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: In all formats, one of the two players on the team could keep their half of the winnings while the other risked their half. In this case, all amounts being played for were divided in half.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Seasonal Nielsen ratings covered the period between October and April of the following year. The rating number represents the percentage of homes tuned into that program.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Despite not being involved with the quiz show scandals, the show's popularity waned and "You Bet Your Life" fell out of the top 25. NBC stopped making the show in 1961.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: The radio program was sponsored by Allen Gellman, president of Elgin American, maker of watch cases and compacts, during its first two and a half seasons. Later, seasons of the television show (as well as the radio show, after January 1950) were sponsored by Chrysler, with advertisements for DeSoto automobiles incorporated into the opening credits and the show itself. Each show would end with Marx sticking his head through a hole in the DeSoto logo and saying, "Friends...go in to see your DeSoto-Plymouth dealer tomorrow. And when you do, tell 'em Groucho sent you." Still later sponsors included the Toni Company (Prom home permanent, White Rain shampoo) with commercials featuring Harpo and Chico Marx, Lever Brothers (Lux liquid, Wisk detergent), Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (Geritol), and Lorillard Tobacco Co. (Old Gold cigarettes).


title: You Bet Your Life

text: In 1953 the show became embroiled in controversy when its musical director, Jerry Fielding, was called to appear before the House Committee on UnAmerican Activities and refused to testify, citing his Fifth Amendment privileges. The show's sponsor, the DeSoto-Plymouth Dealers of America, demanded that Marx fire Fielding, and he complied. Fielding later accused the House committee of calling him up to testify because they wanted him to name Marx as a Communist sympathizer, and Marx himself later wrote, "That I bowed to sponsors' demands is one of the greatest regrets of my life."


title: You Bet Your Life

text: The interviews were sometimes so memorable that the contestants became celebrities: "nature boy" health advocate Robert Bootzin; Mexican-American entertainer Pedro Gonzalez-Gonzalez; comedians Phyllis Diller and Ronnie Schell; author Ray Bradbury; virtuoso cellist Ennio Bolognini; blues singer and pianist Gladys Bentley; strongmen Jack LaLanne and Paul Anderson; and actor John Barbour all appeared as contestants while working on the fringes of the entertainment industry.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Harland Sanders, who talked about his "finger-lickin'" recipe for fried chicken that he parlayed into the Kentucky Fried Chicken chain of restaurants, once appeared as a contestant. A guest purporting to be a wealthy Arabian prince was really writer William Peter Blatty; Groucho saw through the disguise, stating, "It was pretty obvious to me that you weren't an Arabian prince; I used to have an Arabian horse and I know what they look like." Blatty won $10,000 and used the money, after quitting his job, to support himself while he focused on establishing a career as a writer. He would later go on to write "The Exorcist" in 1971. No one in the audience knew the identity of contestant Daws Butler until he began speaking in the voice of cartoon character Huckleberry Hound. He and his partner in the episode went on to win the top prize of $10,000. Cajun politician Dudley J. LeBlanc, a Louisiana state senator and medicine showman, demonstrated his winning style at giving campaign speeches in French, also confessing (in a rare moment of candor) the truth about his signature nostrum, Hadacol: when asked what Hadacol was good for, LeBlanc admitted "about five million dollars for me last year." General Omar Bradley was teamed with an army private, and Marx goaded the private into telling Bradley everything that was wrong with the army. Professional wrestler Wild Red Berry admitted that the outcomes of matches were determined in advance, but that the injuries were real; he revealed a long list of injuries he had sustained.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Other celebrities, already famous, occasionally teamed up with their relatives to win money for themselves or for charities. On February 6, 1958, silent-film star Francis X. Bushman and his wife Iva Millicient Richardson appeared on the show and won $1,000 by successfully answering questions in a geography quiz. Arthur Godfrey's mother Kathryn was a contestant on another episode and held her own with Marx. Edgar Bergen and his then 11-year-old daughter Candice also teamed up with Marx and his daughter Melinda to win $1,000 for the Girl Scouts of the USA, with Fenneman taking on the role of quizmaster for that segment.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Other celebrity guests included Jayne Mansfield, Edith Head, Mickey Walker, Francis X. Bushman, Howard Hill, General Clarence A. Shoop, Louise Beavers, Irwin Allen, Frankie Avalon, Lord Buckley, Sammy Cahn, Ray Corrigan, Sam Coslow, Don Drysdale, Hoot Gibson, physicist and host of "Exploring" Albert Hibbs, Tor Johnson, Ward Kimball, Ernie Kovacs, Laura La Plante, Liberace, Joe Louis, Bob Mathias, Irish McCalla, screenwriter and author Mary Eunice McCarthy, Harry Ruby, Max Shulman, Fay Spain, Colonel John Paul Stapp, John Charles Thomas, Edith Head, Pinky Tomlin, Rocky Marciano and his mother, Charles Goren, and Johnny Weissmuller. In 1961 Groucho's brother Harpo appeared to promote his just-published autobiography, "Harpo Speaks".


title: You Bet Your Life

text: The show's most notorious remark supposedly occurred as Groucho was interviewing Charlotte Story, who had borne 20 children (the exact number varies in tellings of the urban legend). When Marx asked why she had chosen to raise such a large family, Mrs. Story is said to have replied, "I love my husband"; to which Marx responded, "I love my cigar, but I take it out of my mouth once in awhile." The remark was judged too risqué to be aired, according to the anecdote, and was edited out before broadcast.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Marion and Charlotte Story were indeed parents of 20 children and had appeared as contestants on the radio version of the show in 1950. Audio recordings of the interview exist, and a reference to cigars is made ("With each new kid, do you go around passing out cigars?"), but there is no evidence of the infamous line. Marx and Fenneman both denied that the incident took place. "I get credit all the time for things I never said," Marx told Roger Ebert, in 1972. "You know that line in "You Bet Your Life"? The guy says he has seventeen kids and I say, 'I smoke a cigar, but I take it out of my mouth occasionally'? I never said that." Marx's 1976 memoir recounts the episode as fact, but co-writer Hector Arce relied mostly on sources other than Marx himself—who was by then in his late eighties and mentally compromised—and was probably unaware that Marx had specifically denied speaking the legendary line. Snopes surmised the line may have been conflated with another exchange with a girl who had 16 siblings; in that episode, Groucho asked the girl how her father felt about having 17 children. She replied "my daddy loves children," and Groucho responded "Well, I like pancakes, but I haven't got a closet full of them!"


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Seven months after "You Bet Your Life" ended its 11-season run at NBC, Marx hosted another game show in prime time, "Tell It to Groucho". It aired on CBS during the winter months of 1961 and the spring months of 1962. The game involved each of three celebrity pictures being flashed on a screen, each for a quarter of a second. The couple won $500 for each picture they identified. If the couple could not identify any of the three pictures, they were shown one picture and won $100 for a correct guess. As in "You Bet Your Life", the focus of the show was on Marx's interviews with the contestants before they played the game. Replacing George Fenneman were two teenaged sidekicks, Jackson Wheeler and Patti Harmon. Both had appeared on "You Bet Your Life" as contestants during its final season (Harmon under her given name of Joy Harmon).


title: You Bet Your Life

text: "You Bet Your Life" was parodied on a live April 1955 episode of "The Jack Benny Program". Benny pretended to be someone else to get on the quiz show (competing with a female contestant played by Irene Tedrow), and continues to divulge information during an effort to say the secret word. In the skit, Benny is unable to answer the final question, which Groucho asks with a knowing chuckle and ironically is about Benny himself, simply because it asks his real age; as part of his comic persona, Benny would never give his age voluntarily, even for something he valued as much as money. After the sketch Groucho asked him why he opted out of the 3,000 dollar prize. Benny then gave away his age, indirectly, by saying "Where else could I buy 22 years for 3,000 dollars?" After Marx's death this film appeared in the "Unknown Marx Brothers" documentary on DVD. A brief clip of the episode appeared in the 2009 PBS special "Make 'Em Laugh: The Funny Business of America".


title: You Bet Your Life

text: The title of the show was parodied in the 1989 Weird Al Yankovic film "UHF", on the U62 Fall Schedule as "You Bet Your Pink Slip".


title: You Bet Your Life

text: A Bugs Bunny cartoon entitled "Wideo Wabbit" had a scene where Bugs Bunny impersonated Groucho to Elmer Fudd for the game show "You Beat Your Wife", a takeoff on the name "You Bet Your Life".


title: You Bet Your Life

text: An episode of "Animaniacs" had a segment called "You Risk Your Life" where if the secret word was said, Wakko would hit the contestant who said it on the head with a mallet. The contestants were Mrs. Myra Puntridge and Aristotle. The secret word was "yes," and Aristotle said it three times.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: An episode of "In Living Color" had a skit called "You Bet Your Career". Jamie Foxx plays Bill Cosby and it features washed up celebrities competing for a walk-on role in sitcoms.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: In 1980, Buddy Hackett hosted a new version produced by Hill-Eubanks Productions, and syndicated by MCA. Fenneman's announcer/sidekick role was taken over by nightclub entertainer Ron Husmann.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: The show would begin with Hackett performing a brief stand up routine followed by a brief chat with Husmann. Three individual contestants appeared on each episode, one at a time. The contestants were interviewed by Hackett and then played a true or false quiz of five questions in a particular category. The first correct answer to a question earned $25, and the amount doubled with each subsequent correct answer. After the fifth question, the contestant could opt to try to correctly answer a sixth question to triple their winnings; however, if the contestant was incorrect, their earnings were cut in half. Additionally, the secret word was still worth $100, and if anyone said it, each contestant on that episode won $100.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: The contestant with the most money returned at the end of the show to meet "Leonard", the prize duck (If there was a tie, they would be asked a question with a numeric answer, which they wrote down, and whoever was closest without going over won). The contestant then stopped a rotating device, causing a plastic egg to drop out which concealed the name of a bonus prize, one of which was a car.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Some episodes had celebrities, including George Fenneman, Phil Harris, and Greg Evigan appear as contestants; each played for a member of the studio audience.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Another version hosted by Bill Cosby aired from September 7, 1992, to June 4, 1993 (with repeats airing until September 3 of that year) in syndication. Carsey-Werner syndicated the series, the first show they distributed themselves. Cosby was joined on this show by a female announcer and sidekick, Robbi Chong, who was referred to as "Renfield". Organist Shirley Scott contributed the jazzy theme music, and the program was taped in Philadelphia at the studios of public television station WHYY-TV (the former taping site of Nickelodeon's "Double Dare" and "Finders Keepers").


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Three couples competed, with each couple playing the game individually. After the couple was introduced, they spent time talking with Cosby. When the interview was done, the game began. Each couple was staked with $750 and were then asked three questions within a category presented at the start of the game. Before each question, the couple made a wager, which would be added to their winnings if they were correct or subtracted if they were incorrect. The secret word in this version, worth $500, was delivered by a stuffed toy black goose dressed in a sweatshirt from Temple University, Cosby's alma mater; if one couple said it, a new word would be chosen when the next couple was introduced.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: The couple with the most money (independent of any secret word bonuses) advanced to the bonus round, in which they were asked one last question in any given subject. A correct answer won a choice of three envelopes, which were all attached to the goose. Two of the envelopes displayed the goose's face and would double the couple's money, while the third awarded an additional $10,000.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: As the 1992/93 season progressed, many stations carrying the show either moved it to overnight time slots or dropped it entirely due to low ratings.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: In September 2020, it was announced that Fox First Run would reboot the show in syndication, which premiered on September 13, 2021, with Jay Leno as host. Carsey-Werner's Tom Werner will return as executive producer. It was stated that the revival would also include bits carried over from Leno's tenure on "The Tonight Show" and "The Jay Leno Show", such as Headlines, and that Kevin Eubanks, who had been Leno's bandleader on "The Tonight Show" from 1995 to 2009 and for a brief time in 2010, and "The Jay Leno Show" (as the Primetime band). and comic foil for much of his run on "Tonight", would serve as sidekick; Leno plans on avoiding any political or topical humor to keep the show evergreen.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: In this format, two teams of two contestants per show answer four questions in one category; some are multiple-choice, while others are open-ended. The first question is worth $250, and the value increases by $250 per question to a maximum of $1,000. After the fourth question, each member of the team may either end the game and keep their share of the winnings, or play a fifth question; a correct answer doubles their total, while a miss forfeits it. The secret word (sponsored by CarGurus in the first season and Bingo Blitz and Slotomania in the second season), awards a $500 bonus as in the 1992-93 revival. Starting in the second season, if the contestants answer a random question correctly, a follow-up bonus question was asked where if answered correctly, the contestants are awarded a $1,000 bonus. A team can win up to $6,500 by answering all five questions correctly, answering the bonus question correctly, and saying the secret word. If time permits at the end of an episode, one audience member is asked a question and can win a prize for giving the correct answer.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: The opening comedy segments, including "Headlines", were removed without fanfare at the end of November 2021; the program now begins with Jay and Kevin welcoming the first set of contestants. However, the program's website still solicits viewer submissions for the comedy segment.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Most of the episodes still exist, with 1954–61 episodes syndicated by NBC as "The Best Of Groucho". Also existing is the unaired pilot episode (TV version), which was produced for CBS on December 5, 1949. A handful of audio recordings from the radio show also exist dating as far back as 1947, as do a number of one-hour, uncut audio recordings, which were edited to create the radio version, mostly from spring 1949 and fall 1953.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Unlike most pre-1973 NBC in-house productions, it was not part of the package of series sold to National Telefilm Associates. Producer John Guedel explained why the "You Bet Your Life" shows were excluded: "They were slow and in black-and-white and old-fashioned. When NBC sold its library to NTA and went out of the syndication business, NTA had no interest in Groucho." Marx's grandson, Andy Marx, confirmed the story.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: While Groucho Marx was entertaining show business friends at a 1973 party, an employee at an NBC warehouse called and announced that the network was discarding its inventory of "You Bet Your Life" film prints to make room for newer series. The network was willing to give the reels back to Marx for free. Although Marx wasn't interested in the physical film prints, those present at the party convinced him to take the prints so they would not be destroyed. Once the hundreds of film cans arrived, Marx, dismayed at the sheer volume of the library contacted Guedel. Guedel, anxious to see if there was still a market for the show, sold it on a trial basis to a local station for less than $50 for each night. The show became an instant success, prompting Guedel to send the reruns into syndication almost immediately.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: With Guedel having "made a royalty deal with NBC to syndicate" the old shows himself, NBC still held ancillary rights of this version, thus distribution began with NBC Enterprises from 2001 to 2004. Since September 2004, NBCUniversal Syndication Studios handles syndication rights to the Marx (non-public domain) and Hackett versions.


title: You Bet Your Life

text: In the United States, public domain and official releases were distributed on home video by the following companies:


title: You Bet Your Life

text: Additionally, two official DVD compilations were released by Shout! Factory and Sony Music Entertainment; the first was "You Bet Your Life: The Lost Episodes", released in 2003, which contained 18 classic episodes not seen since the original broadcasts, as well as numerous bonus features, including outtakes, a behind-the-scenes piece, and rare audio clips. A second release, "You Bet Your Life: The Best Episodes", followed in 2004 and included another assortment of 18 original episodes, as well as three game show pilots featuring Marx among its bonus features. Both of the DVD presentations in both of SHOUT! Factory/Sony Music Entertainment's DVD releases of "Groucho Marx’s You Bet Your Life" were presented uncut and unedited, remastered and restored from the original kinescopes and in its original NBC broadcast presentation.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: ISO/IEC 8859-1:1998, "Information technology — 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets — Part 1: Latin alphabet No. 1", is part of the ISO/IEC 8859 series of ASCII-based standard character encodings, first edition published in 1987. ISO/IEC 8859-1 encodes what it refers to as "Latin alphabet no. 1", consisting of 191 characters from the Latin script. This character-encoding scheme is used throughout the Americas, Western Europe, Oceania, and much of Africa. It is the basis for some popular 8-bit character sets and the first two blocks of characters in Unicode.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: ISO-8859-1 was (according to the standard, at least) the default encoding of documents delivered via HTTP with a MIME type beginning with "text/" (HTML5 changed this to Windows-1252). , 1.3% of all (but only 8 of the top 1000) web sites use . It is the most "declared" single-byte character encoding in the world on the Web, but as Web browsers interpret it as the superset Windows-1252, the documents may include characters from that set.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: Depending on the country, use can be much higher than the global average, e.g., for Brazil according to website use, use is at 7.9%, and in Germany at 4.0%.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: ISO-8859-1 was the default encoding of the values of certain descriptive HTTP headers, and defined the repertoire of characters allowed in HTML 3.2 documents, and is specified by many other standards. This is sometimes assumed to be the encoding of text on Microsoft Windows (and Unix) if there is no byte order mark (BOM); this is only gradually being changed to UTF-8.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: ISO-8859-1 is the IANA preferred name for this standard when supplemented with the C0 and C1 control codes from ISO/IEC 6429. The following other aliases are registered: iso-ir-100, csISOLatin1, latin1, l1, IBM819. Code page 28591 a.k.a. Windows-28591 is used for it in Windows. IBM calls it code page 819 or CP819 (CCSID 819). Oracle calls it WE8ISO8859P1.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: Each character is encoded as a single eight-bit code value. These code values can be used in almost any data interchange system to communicate in the following languages (while it may exclude correct quotation marks such as for many languages including German and Icelandic):


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: ISO-8859-1 was commonly used for certain languages, even though it lacks characters used by these languages. In most cases, only a few letters are missing or they are rarely used, and they can be replaced with characters that are in ISO-8859-1 using some form of typographic approximation. The following table lists such languages.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: The letter "ÿ", which appears in French only very rarely, mainly in city names such as L'Haÿ-les-Roses and never at the beginning of words, is included only in lowercase form. The slot corresponding to its uppercase form is occupied by the lowercase letter "ß" from the German language, which did not have an uppercase form at the time when the standard was created.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: For some languages listed above, the correct typographical quotation marks are missing, as only , , and are included. Also, this scheme does not provide for oriented (6- or 9-shaped) single or double quotation marks. Some fonts will display the spacing grave accent (0x60) and the apostrophe (0x27) as a matching pair of oriented single quotation marks, but this is not considered part of the modern standard.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: ISO 8859-1 was based on the Multinational Character Set (MCS) used by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in the popular VT220 terminal in 1983. It was developed within the European Computer Manufacturers Association (ECMA), and published in March 1985 as ECMA-94, by which name it is still sometimes known. The second edition of ECMA-94 (June 1986) also included ISO 8859-2, ISO 8859-3, and ISO 8859-4 as part of the specification.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: The original draft of ISO 8859-1 placed French "Œ" and "œ" at code points 215 (0xD7) and 247 (0xF7), as in the MCS. However, the delegate from France, being neither a linguist nor a typographer, falsely stated that these are not independent French letters on their own, but mere ligatures (like "ﬁ" or "ﬂ"), supported by the delegate team from Bull Publishing Company, who regularly did not print French with "Œ/œ" in their house style at the time. An anglophone delegate from Canada insisted on retaining "Œ/œ" but was rebuffed by the French delegate and the team from Bull. These code points were soon filled with × and ÷ under the suggestion of the German delegation. Support for French was further reduced when it was again falsely stated that the letter "ÿ" is "not French", resulting in the absence of the capital "Ÿ". In fact, the letter "ÿ" is found in a number of French proper names, and the capital letter has been used in dictionaries and encyclopedias. These characters were added to ISO/IEC 8859-15:1999. BraSCII matches the original draft.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: In 1985, Commodore adopted ECMA-94 for its new AmigaOS operating system. The Seikosha MP-1300AI impact dot-matrix printer, used with the Amiga 1000, included this encoding.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: In 1990, the very first version of Unicode used the code points of ISO-8859-1 as the first 256 Unicode code points.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: In 1992, the IANA registered the character map ISO_8859-1:1987, more commonly known by its preferred MIME name of ISO-8859-1 (note the extra hyphen over ISO 8859-1), a superset of ISO 8859-1, for use on the Internet. This map assigns the C0 and C1 control codes to the unassigned code values thus provides for 256 characters via every possible 8-bit value.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: ISO/IEC 8859-15 was developed in 1999, as an update of ISO/IEC 8859-1. It provides some characters for French and Finnish text and the euro sign, which are missing from ISO/IEC 8859-1. This required the removal of some infrequently used characters from ISO/IEC 8859-1, including fraction symbols and letter-free diacritics: , , , , , , , and . Ironically, three of the newly added characters (, , and ) had already been present in DEC's 1983 Multinational Character Set (MCS), the predecessor to ISO/IEC 8859-1 (1987). Since their original code points were now reused for other purposes, the characters had to be reintroduced under different, less logical code points.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: ISO-IR-204, a more minor modification, had been registered in 1998, altering ISO-8859-1 by replacing the universal currency sign (¤) with the euro sign (the same substitution made by ISO-8859-15).


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: The popular Windows-1252 character set adds all the missing characters provided by ISO/IEC 8859-15, plus a number of typographic symbols, by replacing the rarely used C1 controls in the range 128 to 159 (hex 80 to 9F). It is very common to mislabel Windows-1252 text as being in ISO-8859-1. A common result was that all the quotes and apostrophes (produced by "smart quotes" in word-processing software) were replaced with question marks or boxes on non-Windows operating systems, making text difficult to read. Many Web browsers and e-mail clients will interpret ISO-8859-1 control codes as Windows-1252 characters, and that behavior was later standardized in HTML5.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: The Apple Macintosh computer introduced a character encoding called Mac Roman in 1984. It was meant to be suitable for Western European desktop publishing. It is a superset of ASCII, and has most of the characters that are in ISO-8859-1 and all the extra characters from Windows-1252, but in a totally different arrangement. The few printable characters that are in ISO/IEC 8859-1, but not in this set, are often a source of trouble when editing text on Web sites using older Macintosh browsers, including the last version of Internet Explorer for Mac.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: DOS has code page 850, which has all printable characters that ISO-8859-1 has, albeit in a totally different arrangement, plus the most widely used graphic characters from code page 437.


title: ISO/IEC 8859-1

text: Between 1989 and 2015, Hewlett-Packard used another superset of ISO-8859-1 on many of their calculators. This proprietary character set was sometimes referred to simply as "ECMA-94" as well.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: Margaret Douglas, Countess of Lennox (8 October 1515 – 7 March 1578), was the daughter of the Scottish queen dowager Margaret Tudor and her second husband Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus. In her youth she was high in the favour of her uncle, Henry VIII of England, but later incurred his anger for her unauthorised engagement to Lord Thomas Howard, who died in the Tower of London in 1537. In 1544, she married Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox. Her son Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, married Mary, Queen of Scots, and was the father of James VI and I.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: Margaret was born at Harbottle Castle in Northumberland on 8 October 1515. Her mother had crossed the border from Scotland when her father was facing difficulties in Scotland. In October 1528, Angus was threatened by James V of Scotland and sent Margaret back over the River Tweed into England at Norham Castle. After a brief stay at Berwick Castle accompanied by her nurse or 'gentlewoman' Isobel Hoppar, Margaret joined the household of her godfather, Cardinal Wolsey. When Wolsey died in 1530, Lady Margaret was invited to the royal Palace of Beaulieu, where she resided in the household of Princess Mary. Because of her nearness to the English crown, Lady Margaret Douglas was brought up chiefly at the English court in close association with Mary, her first cousin, the future Queen Mary I, who remained her lifelong friend; even when her father fled to England in May 1529 and remained there until 1542, Margaret never entered her father's custody, remaining in royal custody instead. Margaret gave Princess Mary gifts on New Year's Day, in 1543 her gift was a satin gown of carnation silk in Venice fashion. At Christmastime at Greenwich Palace in 1530, 1531, and 1532, Henry VIII gave Margaret the generous sum of 10 marks (£6-13s–4d).


title: Margaret Douglas

text: When Anne Boleyn's court was established, Margaret was appointed as a lady-in-waiting. There she met Anne Boleyn's uncle, Lord Thomas Howard (not to be confused with his brother Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk), and they began their courtship. Thomas was a younger son of Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, by his second marriage to Agnes Tilney. By the end of 1535 Thomas and Margaret had fallen in love and become secretly engaged.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: King Henry turned against Anne Boleyn in May 1536. When in early July 1536 he learned of Margaret's engagement to Thomas Howard (Anne's uncle), he was furious. Henry had declared his daughters Mary and Elizabeth bastards, leaving Margaret very high in the line of succession; for her to contract an unauthorised marriage was politically outrageous, especially with the son of a powerful nobleman and near kin of the disgraced queen. Both Lord Thomas and Lady Margaret were committed to the Tower. On 18 July 1536, Parliament, by an Act of Attainder, condemned Thomas to death for attempting to 'interrupt ympedyte and lett the seid Succession of the Crowne'. The Act also forbade the marriage of any member of the King's family without his permission. Thomas was spared execution, but remained in the Tower even after Margaret broke off their relationship. He died there on 31 October 1537.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: Margaret also fell ill in the Tower, and the King allowed her to move to Syon Abbey under the supervision of the abbess. She was released from imprisonment on 29 October 1537. According to G. J. Meyer in his work "The Tudors", King Henry VIII had interpreted the marriage between Lord Thomas Howard and Margaret Douglas to be an attempt by Lord Howard to "make himself the King of England." However, the many love letters between Margaret Douglas and Lord Thomas reveal a true love affair wrongfully ended by the paranoia of King Henry VIII.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: In 1539, Margaret and the Duchess of Richmond were appointed to greet Henry VIII's bride, Anne of Cleves, at Greenwich Palace, join her household, and convey her to the King. This would have been a great honour, but instead Henry chose to meet Anne at Rochester.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: In 1540, Margaret was again in disgrace with the King when she had an affair with Lord Thomas Howard's half-nephew Sir Charles Howard. He was the son of Thomas' elder half-brother Lord Edmund Howard, and a brother of Henry VIII's fifth wife, Catherine Howard.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: In 1543, Margaret was one of the few witnesses of King Henry's final marriage to Catherine Parr, Dowager Lady Latimer, at Hampton Court. Margaret became one of Queen Catherine's chief ladies. Catherine Parr and Margaret had known each other since they both had come to court in the 1520s.


title: Margaret Douglas

text: In 1544, Lady Margaret married a Scottish exile, Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox (1516–1571), who later became regent of Scotland in 1570–1571. In total the couple had eight or nine children, four boys: Henry, Henry, Philip and Charles, and four unnamed daughters, though only two sons—Henry Stuart (1546–1567), born in 1546 at Temple Newsam; and Charles Stuart (1555–1576), who later married Elizabeth Cavendish in 1574—survived to manhood; one of their other siblings was called Philip, presumably after the Spanish king and husband of Margaret's cousin, Mary I. Elizabeth Cavendish, wife of Charles, Earl of Lennox, was the daughter of Sir William Cavendish and Bess of Hardwick.