title: Married to the Mob

text: Supporting players Dean Stockwell and Mercedes Ruehl also received praise for their performances. "The Washington Post" described Ruehl's character as "majestic in her jealousy, stealing scenes but never the show from the sweetly determined Pfeiffer." Maslin of "The New York Times" found that Pfeiffer and Modine were "readily upstaged by Miss Ruehl and, especially, by Mr. Stockwell. His shoulder-rolling caricature of this suave, foppish and thoroughly henpecked kingpin is the film's biggest treat." "Variety" described Stockwell as "a hoot."


title: The Winds of War (miniseries)

text: The Winds of War is a 1983 miniseries, directed and produced by Dan Curtis, that follows the 1971 book of the same name written by Herman Wouk. Just as in the book, in addition to the lives of the Henry and Jastrow families, much time in the miniseries is devoted to the major global events of the early years of World War II. Adolf Hitler and the German General Staff, with the fictitious general Armin von Roon as a major character, is a prominent subplot of the miniseries. "The Winds of War" also includes segments of documentary footage, narrated by William Woodson, to explain major events and important characters.


title: The Winds of War (miniseries)

text: It was followed by a sequel, "War and Remembrance," in 1988, also based on a novel written by Wouk and also directed and produced by Curtis.


title: The Winds of War (miniseries)

text: With 140 million viewers of part or all of "Winds of War", it was the most-watched miniseries at that time.


title: The Winds of War (miniseries)

text: The film follows the plot of Wouk's novel closely, depicting events from March 1939 until the entry of the United States into World War II in December 1941. It tells the story of Victor "Pug" Henry, and his family, and their relationships with a mixture of real people and fictional characters. Henry is a Naval Officer and friend of President Franklin D. Roosevelt.


title: The Winds of War (miniseries)

text: Author Herman Wouk was exceedingly pessimistic about a film adaptation of his beloved and scrupulously researched novel, because he had been extremely unhappy with earlier film adaptations of his novels "Marjorie Morningstar", "The Caine Mutiny" and "Youngblood Hawke". He was convinced by Paramount Pictures and the ABC television network that a miniseries would allow the full breadth of his epic story to be brought to life onscreen. Wouk required unusual control over the production in his contract, including considerable influence on the production and veto power over what products could be advertised during the miniseries and how many, commercials would be allowed. Wouk also has a cameo as the archbishop of Siena.


title: The Winds of War (miniseries)

text: "I, Claudius" screenwriter Jack Pulman was originally hired to adapt the novel. He and Wouk worked for months preparing an outline. After Pulman died suddenly in 1979, Wouk himself wrote the teleplay for the series.


title: The Winds of War (miniseries)

text: The casting of Lee Strasberg as Aaron Jastrow was publicly announced in February 1981. Strasberg had to withdraw from the production before filming any scenes, due to ill health (he died in 1982). He was replaced by John Houseman. Houseman later had to withdraw from the sequel miniseries, "War and Remembrance," due to his own ill health (he died in 1988). Houseman was replaced by John Gielgud.


title: The Winds of War (miniseries)

text: Paramount produced the miniseries for $40 million ($ in dollars). ABC paid $32 million for the broadcast rights, then charged advertisers $175,000 for 30-second commercials and $350,000 for one-minute commercials. ABC expected simply to break even on the original broadcast and make any profits from later reruns and syndication.


title: The Winds of War (miniseries)

text: The miniseries was shown by ABC in seven parts over seven evenings, between February 6 and February 13, 1983. It had a runtime of 18 hours including commercials, or 14 hours 40 minutes excluding commercials. Parts One, Two, Six and Seven ran for three hours including commercials, while parts Three, Four and Five ran for two hours including commercials. It attracted an average of 80 million viewers per night.


title: The Winds of War (miniseries)

text: A premiere screening of the first episode was held in Washington D.C. at the Kennedy Center on Thursday, February 3, 1983, three nights before airing on ABC. The screening was attended by members of the cast including Robert Mitchum, Ali MacGraw, John Houseman, Polly Bergen and Peter Graves. Producer/director Dan Curtis and writer and Washington resident Herman Wouk also attended, though Wouk refused all requests for interviews, saying "I'm a very private person." Also attending were Paramount owner Charles Bluhdorn, who hosted the event, as well as ABC Motion Pictures President Brandon Stoddard, Jack Valenti, Ted Kennedy, Robert McNamara, Art Buchwald, two senators, and numerous other Washington luminaries.


title: The Winds of War (miniseries)

text: After running a massive year-long advertising campaign, which cost an additional $23 million, ABC reported that the miniseries had 140 million viewers for all or part of its eighteen hours, making it the most-watched miniseries up to that time.


title: The Winds of War (miniseries)

text: "New York Times" TV critic John O'Connor said that the "hoopla on "'The Winds of War"' has been nearly as massive as the project itself. The result, while not as artistically impressive as '"Brideshead Revisited,"' is less manipulative than '"Holocaust"' and at least as emotionally compelling as '"Roots".'" Mitchum, he said, "manages to carry the art of acting to the extremes of minimalism. He moves like an imposing battleship." Most of the actors, he said, are "at least 10 years older than the characters they are playing." Overall, O'Connor said, "the story does hold. It rumbles along, creating its own momentum, until it eventually becomes the television equivalent of a good read that can't be put down."


title: The Winds of War (miniseries)

text: "Washington Post" columnist Tom Shales called the miniseries "bulbous and bloated" and said "a first-year film-school student could edit three or four hours out of the thing without hurting the flow at all." Watching "Winds of War," he said, "ecstatic superlatives like 'competent' and 'acceptable' come to mind." He ridiculed the performances, and described the actors as too old for their roles.


title: The Winds of War (miniseries)

text: The show was a success throughout the United States and received many accolades, including Golden Globe nominations and various Emmy wins and nominations.


title: Paola Lázaro

text: Paola Lázaro (/pao-lah/ born October 24, 1996) is a Puerto Rican actress, writer, and playwright. She is best known for portraying Juanita "Princess" Sanchez on the apocalyptic drama television series "The Walking Dead."


title: Paola Lázaro

text: Lázaro was born and raised in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Lázaro later left to study at the State University of New York at Purchase. In 2009, she graduated as a Bachelor of Fine Arts with a degree in dramatic writing. Lázaro completed her Master's Degree in playwriting from Columbia University in 2013. At the end of her final year at Columbia, she was mentored by playwright Stephen Adly Guirgis over the course of the production of her thesis play. Over the years the two have become very close, and Guirgis finds her to be a “kindred spirit,” often referring to Lázaro as his best friend. His presence has heavily influenced both her writing and her career. Following her thesis production with Guirgis, Lázaro also participated in the Emerging Young Writer's Group at the Public Theatre, worked on a summer program with Labyrinth Theatre Company, and received an Arts Entertainment Scholarship Award from the National Hispanic Foundation for the Arts.


title: Paola Lázaro

text: After earning her M.F.A., Lázaro was asked to join Atlantic Theatre Company in New York City, as playwright-in-residence for the 2016–2017 season. This selective playwright-in-residency program was created by the Tow Foundation and provides funds to New York City theatre companies to support a playwright's production of a new work, and focused on Lázaro's new play, "Tell Hector I Miss Him" (2017). The play dramatizes a cast of eccentric characters in Old San Juan, Puerto Rico, coping with love, addiction, and fear. The Atlantic Theatre Company's production, directed by David Mendizabal, opened January 11, 2017 and was scheduled to close January 23; the run was extended due to popular demand. One reviewer described the play as “"Our Town" with salsa and cocaine.” Though Lázaro grew up in a neighborhood very different from her characters, she said the play has “a lot of me in it” and parallels her own past experiences with love. Lázaro hopes the play will offer universal themes and characters for Latinos, while also representing the humanity in her characters. As she asks, “where is the love in macho culture, in tradition?”


title: Paola Lázaro

text: While Lázaro is dedicated to relating to Latinos everywhere through her playwriting, she has a background as an actress as well. Under the direction of Lisa Peterson, Lázaro performed in Cherry Lane Theatre's recent production of Lisa Ramirez's "To the Bone", a play based on interviews Ramirez conducted with Latina immigrant poultry workers. Lázaro played Lupe, daughter of Olga (played by Ramirez), a hip-hopping, skateboarding student of political science and law. Her work on this production is described as played with “vivacious urgency,” and it earned her a Drama Desk Award nomination for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Play. In 2017 she was acting in film, playing a sex worker in a drama called "Pimp" and an undercover officer in the film "Scenes from the Underground."


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: The Eurasian hoopoe (Upupa epops) is the most widespread species of the genus "Upupa". It is a distinctive cinnamon coloured bird with black and white wings, a tall erectile crest, a broad white band across a black tail, and a long narrow downcurved bill. Its call is a soft "oop-oop-oop". It is native to Europe, Asia and the northern half of Africa. It is migratory in the northern part of its range. It spends most of the time on the ground probing for grubs and insects. The clutch of seven to eight eggs is laid in an existing cavity. The eggs are incubated by the female and hatch asynchronously. Some ornithologists treat the African and Madagascar hoopoes as subspecies of the Eurasian hoopoe.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: The Eurasian hoopoe was formally described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his "Systema Naturae". He cited the earlier descriptions by the French naturalist Pierre Belon and by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner, both of which had been published in 1555. Linnaeus placed the Eurasian hoopoe with the northern bald ibis and the red-billed chough in the genus "Upupa" and coined the binomial name "Upupa epops". The specific epithet "epops" in the Ancient Greek word for a hoopoe.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: Nine subspecies of Eurasian hoopoe are recognised by Krištín (in the 2001 "Handbook of the Birds of the World"). They vary mostly in size and the depth of colour in the plumage. A further subspecies has been proposed: "U. e. orientalis" in northwestern India.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: The Eurasian hoopoe is a medium-sized bird, long, with a wingspan. It weighs . The species is highly distinctive, with a long, thin tapering bill that is black with a fawn base. The strengthened musculature of the head allows the bill to be opened when probing inside the soil. The hoopoe has broad and rounded wings capable of strong flight; these are larger in the northern migratory subspecies. The hoopoe has a characteristic undulating flight, which is like that of a giant butterfly, caused by the wings half closing at the end of each beat or short sequence of beats. Adults may begin their moult after the breeding season and continue after they have migrated for the winter.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: The call is typically a trisyllabic "oop-oop-oop", which may give rise to its English and scientific names, although two and four syllables are also common. An alternative explanation of the English and scientific names is that they are derived from the French name for the bird, "huppée", which means crested. In the Himalayas, the calls can be confused with that of the Himalayan cuckoo ("Cuculus saturatus"), although the cuckoo typically produces four notes. Other calls include rasping croaks, when alarmed, and hisses. Females produce a wheezy note during courtship feeding by the male.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: The Eurasian hoopoe is widespread in Europe, Asia, and North Africa and northern Sub-Saharan Africa. Most European and north Asian birds migrate to the tropics in winter. Those breeding in Europe usually migrate to the Sahel belt of sub-Saharan Africa. The birds predominantly migrate at night. In contrast, the African populations are sedentary all year. The species has been a vagrant in Alaska; "U. e. saturata" was recorded there in 1975 in the Yukon Delta. Hoopoes have been known to breed north of their European range, and in southern England during warm, dry summers that provide plenty of grasshoppers and similar insects, although as of the early 1980s northern European populations were reported to be in the decline, possibly due to changes in climate. In 2015, a record numbers of hoopoes were recorded in Ireland, with at least 50 birds recorded in the southwest of the country. This was the highest recorded number since 1965 when 65 individuals were sighted.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: The hoopoe has two basic requirements of its habitat: bare or lightly vegetated ground on which to forage and vertical surfaces with cavities (such as trees, cliffs or even walls, nestboxes, haystacks, and abandoned burrows) in which to nest. These requirements can be provided in a wide range of ecosystems, and as a consequence the hoopoe inhabits a wide range of habitats such as heathland, wooded steppes, savannas and grasslands, as well as forest glades.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: Hoopoes make seasonal movements in response to rain in some regions such as in Ceylon and in the Western Ghats. Birds have been seen at high altitudes during migration across the Himalayas. One was recorded at about by the first Mount Everest expedition.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: In what was long thought to be a defensive posture, hoopoes sunbathe by spreading out their wings and tail low against the ground and tilting their head up; they often fold their wings and preen halfway through. They also enjoy taking dust and sand baths.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: The diet of the Eurasian hoopoe is mostly composed of insects, although small reptiles, frogs and plant matter such as seeds and berries are sometimes taken as well. It is a solitary forager which typically feeds on the ground. More rarely they will feed in the air, where their strong and rounded wings make them fast and manoeuvrable, in pursuit of numerous swarming insects. More commonly their foraging style is to stride over relatively open ground and periodically pause to probe the ground with the full length of their bill. Insect larvae, pupae and mole crickets are detected by the bill and either extracted or dug out with the strong feet. Hoopoes will also feed on insects on the surface, probe into piles of leaves, and even use the bill to lever large stones and flake off bark. Common diet items include crickets, locusts, beetles, earwigs, cicadas, ant lions, bugs and ants. These can range from in length, with a preferred prey size of around . Larger prey items are beaten against the ground or a preferred stone to kill them and remove indigestible body parts such as wings and legs.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: The hoopoe genus is monogamous, although the pair bond apparently only lasts for a single season, and territorial. The male calls frequently to advertise his ownership of the territory. Chases and fights between rival males (and sometimes females) are common and can be brutal. Birds will try to stab rivals with their bills, and individuals are occasionally blinded in fights. The nest is in a hole in a tree or wall, and has a narrow entrance. It may be unlined, or various scraps may be collected. The female alone is responsible for incubating the eggs. Clutch size varies with location: Northern Hemisphere birds lay more eggs than those in the Southern Hemisphere, and birds at higher latitudes have larger clutches than those closer to the equator. In central and northern Europe and Asia the clutch size is around 12, whereas it is around four in the tropics and seven in the subtropics. The eggs are round and milky blue when laid, but quickly discolour in the increasingly dirty nest. They weigh . A replacement clutch is possible.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: The incubation period for the species is between 15 and 18 days, during which time the male feeds the female. Incubation begins as soon as the first egg is laid, so the chicks are born asynchronously. The chicks hatch with a covering of downy feathers. By around day three to five, feather quills emerge which will become the adult feathers. The chicks are brooded by the female for between 9 and 14 days. The female later joins the male in the task of bringing food. The young fledge in 26 to 29 days and remain with the parents for about a week more. Hoopoes show hatching asynchrony of eggs which is thought to allow for brood reduction when food availability is low.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: Hoopoes have well-developed anti-predator defences in the nest. The uropygial gland of the incubating and brooding female is quickly modified to produce a foul-smelling liquid, and the glands of nestlings do so as well. These secretions are rubbed into the plumage. The secretion, which smells like rotting meat, is thought to help deter predators, as well as deter parasites and possibly act as an antibacterial agent. The secretions stop soon before the young leave the nest. From the age of six days, nestlings can also direct streams of faeces at intruders, and will hiss at them in a snake-like fashion. The young also strike with their bill or with one wing.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: The diet of the Eurasian hoopoe includes many species considered by humans to be pests, such as the pupae of the processionary moth, a damaging forest pest. For this reason the species is afforded protection under the law in many countries.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: Hoopoes are distinctive birds and have made a cultural impact over much of their range. They were considered sacred in Ancient Egypt, and were "depicted on the walls of tombs and temples". During the Old Kingdom, the hoopoe was used in the iconography as a symbolic code to indicate the child was the heir and successor of his father. They achieved a similar standing in Minoan Crete.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: In the Torah, Leviticus 11:13–19, hoopoes were listed among the animals that are detestable and should not be eaten. They are also listed in Deuteronomy 14:18 as not kosher.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: The hoopoe also appears in the Quran and is known as the "Hudhud" (هدهد), in Surah Al-Naml 27:20–22: "And he Solomon sought among the birds and said: How is it that I see not the hoopoe, or is he among the absent? (20) I verily will punish him with hard punishment or I verily will slay him, or he verily shall bring me a plain excuse. (21) But he [the hoopoe] was not long in coming, and he said: I have found out (a thing) that thou apprehendest not, and I come unto thee from Sheba with sure tidings."


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: Hoopoes were seen as a symbol of virtue in Persia. A hoopoe was a leader of the birds in the Persian book of poems "The Conference of the Birds" ("Mantiq al-Tayr" by Attar) and when the birds seek a king, the hoopoe points out that the Simurgh was the king of the birds.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: Hoopoes were thought of as thieves across much of Europe, and harbingers of war in Scandinavia. In Estonian tradition, hoopoes are strongly connected with death and the underworld; their song is believed to foreshadow death for many people or cattle.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: The hoopoe is the king of the birds in the Ancient Greek comedy "The Birds" by Aristophanes. In Ovid's "Metamorphoses", book 6, King Tereus of Thrace rapes Philomela, his wife Procne's sister, and cuts out her tongue. In revenge, Procne kills their son Itys and serves him as a stew to his father. When Tereus sees the boy's head, which is served on a platter, he grabs a sword but just as he attempts to kill the sisters, they are turned into birds—Procne into a swallow and Philomela into a nightingale. Tereus himself is turned into an "epops" (6.674), translated as "lapwing" by Dryden and "lappewincke" ("lappewinge") by John Gower in his "Confessio Amantis", or "hoopoe" in A. S. Kline's translation. The bird's crest indicates his royal status, and his long, sharp beak is a symbol of his violent nature. English translators and poets probably had the northern lapwing in mind, considering its crest.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: The hoopoe was chosen as the national bird of Israel in May 2008 in conjunction with the country's 60th anniversary, following a national survey of 155,000 citizens, outpolling the white-spectacled bulbul. The hoopoe appears on the Logo of the University of Johannesburg and is the official mascot of the University's sports. The municipalities of Armstedt and , Germany, have hoopoes in their coats of arms.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: In Morocco, hoopoes are traded live and as medicinal products in the markets, primarily in herbalist shops. This trade is unregulated and a potential threat to local populations


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: Three CGI enhanced hoopoes, together with other birds collectively named "the tittifers", are often shown whistling a song in the BBC children's television series "In the Night Garden...".


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: The Eurasian Hoopoe is listed as a species of "Least concern" by the IUCN. Despite the fact, the species has been in a continuous decline according to the organisation since 2008, the causes being loss of habitat and over-hunting.


title: Eurasian hoopoe

text: In Europe, the hoopoe seems to have a stable population though it is threatened in several regions. The bird is considered extinct in Sweden and "needing active conservation" in Poland. The species has recovered and stabilised in Switzerland, however they remain vulnerable.


title: Claudia Jennings

text: Mary Eileen Chesterton (December 20, 1949 – October 3, 1979), known professionally as Claudia Jennings, was an American actress and model. Jennings was "Playboy" magazine's Playmate of the Month for November 1969 and also Playmate of the Year for 1970. She subsequently pursued a career in acting, and was known as the "Queen of B movies". She died in an automobile accident in 1979.


title: Claudia Jennings

text: Mary Eileen Chesterton (known as "Mimi" to friends and family) was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota in 1949, later moving to Milwaukee, Wisconsin. When her family moved from Richmond, Indiana to Evanston, Illinois as a result of her father becoming the advertising director with Skilsaw, she transferred at the start of her sophomore year to Evanston Township High School (ETHS) where she graduated in 1968. She was featured in a silent, plotless movie titled after her nickname which was shot on Super 8 film by fellow ETHS classmate Todd McCarthy. She worked as a receptionist at "Playboy" and then posed for the magazine in 1969. She adopted the name Claudia Jennings because she didn't want to embarrass her family and that she thought "Mimi" sounded too girlish. Her original pictorial was photographed by Pompeo Posar. She was Playmate of the Year in 1970, and was awarded a pink Mercury Capri.


title: Claudia Jennings

text: After her appearances in "Playboy", Jennings became an actress in exploitation movies and in television. In 1973, she had a guest appearance on "The Brady Bunch" episode titled "Adios, Johnny Bravo". Jennings auditioned for the role as Kate Jackson's replacement on the hit television show "Charlie's Angels", but the role was awarded to Shelley Hack.


title: Claudia Jennings

text: On October 3, 1979, Jennings died in an automobile collision on the Pacific Coast Highway near Malibu, California. She was 29.


title: Claudia Jennings

text: Jennings was featured in a 2000 episode of "E! True Hollywood Story" in which several of her friends and acquaintances were interviewed. The episode was made without the cooperation of her family, who considered the show too "tabloid" in style.


title: Badwater Basin

text: Badwater Basin is an endorheic basin in Death Valley National Park, Death Valley, Inyo County, California, noted as the lowest point in North America and the United States, with a depth of below sea level. Mount Whitney, the highest point in the contiguous United States, is only to the northwest.


title: Badwater Basin

text: The site itself consists of a small spring-fed pool of "bad water" next to the road in a sink; the accumulated salts of the surrounding basin make it undrinkable, thus giving it the name. The pool does have animal and plant life, including pickleweed, aquatic insects, and the Badwater snail.


title: Badwater Basin

text: Adjacent to the pool, where water is not always present at the surface, repeated freeze–thaw and evaporation cycles gradually push the thin salt crust into hexagonal honeycomb shapes.


title: Badwater Basin

text: The pool is not the lowest point of the basin: the lowest point (which is only slightly lower) is several miles to the west and varies in position, depending on rainfall and evaporation patterns. The salt flats are hazardous to traverse (in many cases being only a thin white crust over mud), and so the sign marking the low point is at the pool instead. The basin was considered the lowest elevation in the Western Hemisphere until the discovery of Laguna del Carbón in Argentina at .


title: Badwater Basin

text: At Badwater Basin, significant rainstorms flood the valley bottom periodically, covering the salt pan with a thin sheet of standing water. Newly formed lakes do not last long though, because the of average rainfall is overwhelmed by a annual evaporation rate. This is the greatest evaporation potential in the United States, meaning that a lake could dry up in a single year. When the basin is flooded, some of the salt is dissolved; it is redeposited as clean crystals when the water evaporates.


title: Badwater Basin

text: A popular site for tourists is the sign marking "sea level" on the cliff above the Badwater Basin. Similar to Owens Lake, it is characterized by a deep bed of unconsolidated valley fill from which the salt crust emerges.


title: Badwater Basin

text: The current best understanding of the area's geological history is that the entire region between the Colorado River in the east and Baja California in the southwest (and bordered by various uplifts and mountains around the west-northwest-northern perimeters) has seen numerous cycles since at least the start of the Pleistocene (and perhaps up to 3 Ma) of pluvial lakes of varying size in a complex cycle mainly tied to changing climate patterns (particularly, glaciation during the numerous recent Ice Age cycles), but also influenced by the progressive depositing of alluvial plains and deltas by the Colorado River (cf. Salton Sea), alternating with periodic water body breakthroughs and rearrangements due to erosion and the proximity of the San Andreas Fault. This has resulted in a high number of evaporating and reforming endorheic lakes throughout the Quaternary Period in the area, with an intertwined history of various larger bodies of water subsuming smaller ones during water table maxima and the subsequent splitting and disappearance thereof during the evaporative part of the cycles. Although these local cycles are now somewhat modified by human presence, their legacy persists; despite appearances much to the contrary, Death Valley actually sits atop one of the largest aquifers in the world.


title: Badwater Basin

text: Throughout the Quaternary's wetter spans, streams running from nearby mountains filled Death Valley, creating Lake Manly, which during its greatest extents was approximately 80 mi (130 km) long and up to 600 ft (180 m) deep. Numerous evaporation cycles and a lack of outflow caused an increasing hypersalinity, typical for endorheic bodies of water. Over time, this hypersalinization, combined with sporadic rainfall and occasional aquifer intrusion, has resulted in periods of "briny soup", or salty pools, on the lowest parts of Death Valley's floor. Salts (95% table salt – NaCl) began to crystallize, coating the surface with the thick crust, ranging from , now observable at the basin floor.


title: Badwater Basin

text: The Timbisha tribe of Native Americans, formerly known as the Panamint Shoshone, are the original inhabitants of the Badwater Basin area. They have inhabited the valley for at least the past millennium.


title: Pelasgians

text: The name Pelasgians (, "Pelasgoí", Πελασγός, "Pelasgós") was used by classical Greek writers to refer either to the predecessors of the Greeks, or to all the inhabitants of Greece before the emergence or arrival of the Greeks. In general, "Pelasgian" has come to mean more broadly all the indigenous inhabitants of the Aegean Sea region and their cultures, "a hold-all term for any ancient, primitive and presumably indigenous people in the Greek world".


title: Pelasgians

text: During the classical period, enclaves under that name survived in several locations of mainland Greece, Crete, and other regions of the Aegean. Populations identified as "Pelasgian" spoke a language or languages that at the time Greeks identified as "barbarian", though some ancient writers nonetheless described the Pelasgians as Greeks. A tradition also survived that large parts of Greece had once been Pelasgian before being Hellenized. These parts fell largely, though far from exclusively, within the territory which by the 5th century BC was inhabited by those speakers of ancient Greek who were identified as Ionians and Aeolians.


title: Pelasgians

text: Much like all other aspects of the "Pelasgians", their ethnonym ("Pelasgoi") is of extremely uncertain provenance and etymology. Michael Sakellariou collects fifteen different etymologies proposed for it by philologists and linguists during the last 200 years, though he admits that "most [...] are fanciful".


title: Pelasgians

text: An ancient etymology based on mere similarity of sounds linked "pelasgos" to "pelargos" ("stork") and postulates that the Pelasgians were migrants like storks, possibly from Arcadia, where they nest. Aristophanes deals effectively with this etymology in his comedy "The Birds". One of the laws of "the storks" in the satirical cloud-cuckoo-land, playing upon the Athenian belief that they were originally Pelasgians, is that grown-up storks must support their parents by migrating elsewhere and conducting warfare.


title: Pelasgians

text: Gilbert Murray summarized the derivation from "pelas gē" ("neighboring land"), current at his time: "If Pelasgoi is connected with πέλας, 'near', the word would mean 'neighbor' and would denote the nearest strange people to the invading Greeks".


title: Pelasgians

text: Julius Pokorny derived Pelasgoi from "*pelag-skoi" ("flatland-inhabitants"); specifically "inhabitants of the Thessalian plain". He details a previous derivation, which appears in English at least as early as William Gladstone's "Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age". If the Pelasgians were not Indo-Europeans, the name in this derivation must have been assigned by the Hellenes. Ernest Klein argued that the ancient Greek word for "sea", "pelagos" and the Doric word "plagos", "side" (which is flat) shared the same root, *plāk-, and that "*pelag-skoi" therefore meant "the sea men", where the sea is flat. This could be connected to the maritime marauders referred to as the Sea People in Egyptian records.


title: Pelasgians

text: Literary analysis has been ongoing since classical Greece, when the writers of those times read previous works on the subject. No definitive answers were ever forthcoming by this method; it rather served to better define the problems. The method perhaps reached a peak in the Victorian era when new methods of systematic comparison began to be applied in philology. Typical of the era is the study by William Ewart Gladstone, who was a trained classicist. Unless further ancient texts come to light, advances on the subject cannot be made. Therefore the most likely source of progress regarding the Pelasgians continues to be archaeology and related sciences.


title: Pelasgians

text: The Pelasgians first appear in the poems of Homer: those who are stated to be Pelasgians in the "Iliad" are among the allies of Troy. In the section known as the "Catalogue of Trojans", they are mentioned between the Hellespontine cities and the Thracians of Southeastern Europe (i.e., on the Hellespontine border of Thrace). Homer calls their town or district "Larisa" and characterises it as fertile, and its inhabitants as celebrated for their spearsmanship. He records their chiefs as Hippothous and Pylaeus, sons of Lethus, son of Teutamides, thus giving all of them names that were Greek or so thoroughly Hellenized that any foreign element has been effaced.


title: Pelasgians

text: In the "Odyssey", Odysseus, affecting to be Cretan himself, instances Pelasgians among the tribes in the ninety cities of Crete, "language mixing with language side by side". Last on his list, Homer distinguishes them from other ethnicities on the island: "Cretans proper", Achaeans, Cydonians (of the city of Cydonia/modern Chania), Dorians, and "noble Pelasgians".


title: Pelasgians

text: The "Iliad" also refers to "Argos Pelasgikon", which is most likely to be the plain of Thessaly, and to "Pelasgic Zeus", living in and ruling over Dodona, which must be the oracular one in Epirus. However, neither passage mentions actual Pelasgians; Myrmidons, Hellenes, and Achaeans specifically inhabit Thessaly and the Selloi are around Dodona. They all fought on the Greek side.


title: Pelasgians

text: According to the "Iliad", Pelasgians were camping out on the shore together with the following tribes,


title: Pelasgians

text: Towards the sea lie the Carians and the Paeonians, with curved bows, and the Leleges and Caucones, and the goodly Pelasgi.


title: Pelasgians

text: Hesiod, in a fragment known from Strabo, calls Dodona, identified by reference to "the oak", the "seat of Pelasgians", thus explaining why Homer, in referring to Zeus as he ruled over Dodona, did "not" style him ""Dodonic"" but "Pelasgic" Zeus. He mentions also that Pelasgus (Greek: Πελασγός, the eponymous ancestor of the Pelasgians) was the father of King Lycaon of Arcadia.


title: Pelasgians

text: In Aeschylus's play, "The Suppliants", the Danaids fleeing from Egypt seek asylum from King Pelasgus of Argos, which he says is on the Strymon, including Perrhaebia in the north, the Thessalian Dodona and the slopes of the Pindus mountains on the west and the shores of the sea on the east; that is, a territory including but somewhat larger than classical Pelasgiotis. The southern boundary is not mentioned; however, Apis is said to have come to Argos from Naupactus "across" ("peras"), implying that Argos includes all of east Greece from the north of Thessaly to the Peloponnesian Argos, where the Danaids are probably to be conceived as having landed. He claims to rule the Pelasgians and to be the "child of Palaichthon (or 'ancient earth') whom the earth brought forth".


title: Pelasgians

text: The Danaids call the country the "Apian hills" and claim that it understands the "karbana audan" (accusative case, and in the Dorian dialect), which many translate as "barbarian speech" but Karba (where the "Karbanoi" live) is in fact a non-Greek word. They claim to descend from ancestors in ancient Argos even though they are of a "dark race" ("melanthes ... genos"). Pelasgus admits that the land was once called Apia but compares them to the women of Libya and Egypt and wants to know how they can be from Argos on which they cite descent from Io.


title: Pelasgians

text: According to Strabo, Aeschylus' "Suppliants" defines the original homeland of the Pelasgians as the region around Mycenae.


title: Pelasgians

text: Sophocles presents Inachus, in a fragment of a missing play entitled "Inachus", as the elder in the lands of Argos, the Heran hills and among the Tyrsenoi Pelasgoi, an unusual hyphenated noun construction, "Tyrsenians-Pelasgians". Interpretation is open, even though translators typically make a decision, but Tyrsenians may well be the ethnonym "Tyrrhenoi".


title: Pelasgians

text: Euripides uses the term for the inhabitants of Argos in his "Orestes" and "The Phoenician Women". In a lost play entitled "Archelaus", he says that Danaus, on coming to reside in the city of Inachus (Argos), formulated a law whereby the Pelasgians were now to be called Danaans.


title: Pelasgians

text: Hecataeus of Miletus in a fragment from "Genealogiai" states that the "genos" ("clan") descending from Deucalion ruled Thessaly and that it was called "Pelasgia" from king Pelasgus. A second fragment states that Pelasgus was the son of Zeus and Niobe and that his son Lycaon founded a dynasty of kings of Arcadia.


title: Pelasgians

text: A fragment from the writings of Acusilaus asserts that the Peloponnesians were called "Pelasgians" after Pelasgus, a son of Zeus and Niobe.


title: Pelasgians

text: Hellanicus of Lesbos concerns himself with one word in one line of the "Iliad", "pasture-land of horses", applied to Argos in the Peloponnesus. According to Hellanicus, from Pelasgus and his wife Menippe came a line of kings: Phrastōr, Amyntōr, Teutamides and Nanas (kings of Pelasgiotis in Thessaly). During Nanas's reign, the Pelasgians were driven out by the Greeks and departed for Italy. They landed at the mouth of the Po River, near the Etruscan city of Spina, then took the inland city "Crotona" ("Κρότωνα"), and from there colonized Tyrrhenia. The inference is that Hellanicus believed the Pelasgians of Thessaly (and indirectly of the Peloponnese) to have been the ancestors of the Etruscans.


title: Pelasgians

text: In the "Histories", the Greek historian Herodotus of Halicarnassus made many references to the Pelasgians. In Book 1, the Pelasgians are mentioned within the context of Croesus seeking to learn who the strongest Greeks were in order to befriend them. Afterwards, Herodotus ambivalently classified the Pelasgian language as "barbarian" though he thought of the Pelasgians to have been essentially Greek. Herodotus also discussed various areas inhabited (or previously inhabited) by Pelasgians/Pelasgian-speakers along with their different neighbors/co-residents:


title: Pelasgians

text: I am unable to state with certainty what language the Pelasgians spoke, but we could consider the speech of the Pelasgians who still exist in settlements above Tyrrhenia in the city of Kreston, formerly neighbors to the Dorians who at that time lived in the land now called Thessaliotis; also the Pelasgians who once lived with the Athenians and then settled Plakia and Skylake in the Hellespont; and along with those who lived with all the other communities and were once Pelasgian but changed their names. If one can judge by this evidence, the Pelasgians spoke a barbarian language. And so, if the Pelasgian language was spoken in all these places, the people of Attica being originally Pelasgian, must have learned a new language when they became Hellenes. As a matter of fact, the people of Krestonia and Plakia no longer speak the same language, which shows that they continue to use the dialect they brought with them when they migrated to those lands.


title: Pelasgians

text: Furthermore, Herodotus discussed the relationship between the Pelasgians and the (other) Greeks, which, according to Pericles Georges, reflected the "rivalry within Greece itself between [...] Dorian Sparta and Ionian Athens." Specifically, Herodotus stated that the Hellenes separated from the Pelasgians with the former group surpassing the latter group numerically:


title: Pelasgians

text: As for the Hellenes, it seems obvious to me that ever since they came into existence they have always used the same language. They were weak at first, when they were separated from the Pelasgians, but they grew from a small group into a multitude, especially when many peoples, including other barbarians in great numbers, had joined them. Moreover, I do not think the Pelasgian, who remained barbarians, ever grew appreciably in number or power.


title: Pelasgians

text: In Book 2, Herodotus alluded to the Pelasgians as inhabitants of Samothrace, an island located just north of Troy, before coming to Attica. Moreover, Herodotus wrote that the Pelasgians simply called their gods "theoi" prior to naming them on the grounds that the gods established all affairs in their order ("thentes"); the author also stated that the gods of the Pelasgians were the Cabeiri. Later, Herodotus stated that the entire territory of Greece (i.e., "Hellas") was initially called "Pelasgia".


title: Pelasgians

text: In Book 6, the Pelasgians of Lemnos were originally Hellespontine Pelasgians who had been living in Athens but whom the Athenians resettled on Lemnos and then found it necessary to reconquer the island. This expulsion of (non-Athenian) Pelasgians from Athens may reflect, according to the historian Robert Buck, "a dim memory of forwarding of refugees, closely akin to the Athenians in speech and custom, to the Ionian colonies". Also, Herodotus wrote that the Pelasgians on the island of Lemnos opposite Troy once kidnapped the Hellenic women of Athens for wives, but the Athenian wives created a crisis by teaching their children "the language of Attica" instead of the Pelasgian.


title: Pelasgians

text: In Book 7, Herodotus mentioned "the Pelasgian city of Antandrus" and wrote about the Ionian inhabitants of "the land now called Achaea" (i.e., northwestern Peloponnese) being "called, according to the Greek account, Aegialean Pelasgi, or Pelasgi of the Sea Shore"; afterwards, they were called "Ionians". Moreover, Herodotus mentioned that the Aegean islanders "were a Pelasgian race, who in later times took the name Ionians" and that the Aeolians, according to the Hellenes, were known anciently as "Pelasgians."


title: Pelasgians

text: In the "History of the Peloponnesian War", the Greek historian Thucydides wrote about the Pelasgians stating that:


title: Pelasgians

text: Before the time of Hellen, son of Deucalion [...] the country went by the names of the different tribes, in particular of the Pelasgian. It was not till Hellen and his sons grew strong in Phthiotis, and were invited as allies into the other cities, that one by one they gradually acquired from the connection the name of Hellenes; though a long time elapsed before that name could fasten itself upon all.


title: Pelasgians

text: The author regards the Athenians as having lived in scattered independent settlements in Attica; but at some time after Theseus, they changed residence to Athens, which was already populated. A plot of land below the Acropolis was called "Pelasgian" and was regarded as cursed, but the Athenians settled there anyway.


title: Pelasgians

text: In connection with the campaign against Amphipolis, Thucydides mentions that several settlements on the promontory of Actē were home to:


title: Pelasgians

text: [...] mixed barbarian races speaking the two languages. There is also a small Chalcidian element; but the greater number are Tyrrheno-Pelasgians once settled in Lemnos and Athens, and Bisaltians, Crestonians and Eonians; the towns all being small ones.


title: Pelasgians

text: The historian Ephorus, building on a fragment from Hesiod that attests to a tradition of an aboriginal Pelasgian people in Arcadia, developed a theory of the Pelasgians as a people living a "military way of life" ("stratiōtikon bion") "and that, in converting many peoples to the same mode of life, they imparted their name to all", meaning "all of Hellas". They colonized Crete and extended their rule over Epirus, Thessaly and by implication over wherever else the ancient authors said they were, beginning with Homer. The Peloponnese was called "Pelasgia".


title: Pelasgians

text: In the "Roman Antiquities", Dionysius of Halicarnassus in several pages gives a synoptic interpretation of the Pelasgians based on the sources available to him then, concluding that Pelasgians were Greek:


title: Pelasgians

text: Afterwards some of the Pelasgians who inhabited Thessaly, as it is now called, being obliged to leave their country, settled among the Aborigines and jointly with them made war upon the Sicels. It is possible that the Aborigines received them partly in the hope of gaining their assistance, but I believe it was chiefly on account of their kinship; for the Pelasgians, too, were a Greek nation originally from the Peloponnesus [...]


title: Pelasgians

text: He goes on to add that the nation wandered a great deal. They were originally natives of "Achaean Argos" descended from Pelasgus, the son of Zeus and Niobe. They migrated from there to Haemonia (later called Thessaly), where they "drove out the barbarian inhabitants" and divided the country into Phthiotis, Achaia, and Pelasgiotis, named after Achaeus, Phthius and Pelasgus, "the sons of Larissa and Poseidon." Subsequently, "about the sixth generation they were driven out by the Curetes and Leleges, who are now called Aetolians and Locrians".


title: Pelasgians

text: From there, the Pelasgians dispersed to Crete, the Cyclades, Histaeotis, Boeotia, Phocis, Euboea, the coast along the Hellespont and the islands, especially Lesbos, which had been colonized by Macar son of Crinacus. Most went to Dodona and eventually being driven from there to Italy (then called Saturnia), they landed at Spina at the mouth of the Po River. Still others crossed the Apennine Mountains to Umbria and being driven from there went to the country of the Aborigines where they consented to a treaty and settled at Velia. They and the Aborigenes took over Umbria but were dispossessed by the Tyrrhenians. The author then continues to detail the tribulations of the Pelasgians and then goes on to the Tyrrhenians, whom he is careful to distinguish from the Pelasgians.


title: Pelasgians

text: In his "Description of Greece", Pausanias mentions the Arcadians who state that Pelasgus (along with his followers) was the first inhabitant of their land. Upon becoming king, Pelasgus invented huts, sheep-skin coats, and a diet consisting of acorns while governing the land named after him, "Pelasgia". When Arcas became king, Pelasgia was renamed "Arcadia" and its inhabitants (the Pelasgians) were renamed "Arcadians". Pausanias also mentions the Pelasgians as responsible for creating a wooden image of Orpheus in a sanctuary of Demeter at Therae, as well as expelling the Minyans and Lacedaemonians from Lemnos.


title: Pelasgians

text: Strabo dedicates a section of his "Geography" to the Pelasgians, relating both his own opinions and those of prior writers. He begins by stating:


title: Pelasgians

text: Almost every one is agreed that the Pelasgi were an ancient race spread throughout the whole of Greece, but especially in the country of the Æolians near to Thessaly.


title: Pelasgians

text: He defines Pelasgian Argos as being "between the outlets of the Peneus River and Thermopylae as far as the mountainous country of Pindus" and states that it took its name from Pelasgian rule. He includes also the tribes of Epirus as Pelasgians (based on the opinions of "many"). Lesbos is named Pelasgian. Caere was settled by Pelasgians from Thessaly, who called it by its former name, "Agylla". Pelasgians also settled around the mouth of the Tiber River in Italy at Pyrgi and a few other settlements under a king, Maleos.


title: Pelasgians

text: In the absence of certain knowledge about the identity (or identities) of the Pelasgians, various theories have been proposed. Some of the more prevalent theories supported by scholarship are presented below. Since Greek is classified as an Indo-European language, the major question of concern is whether Pelasgian was an Indo-European language.


title: Pelasgians

text: The theory that Pelasgian was an Indo-European language, which has "fascinated scholars" and concentrated research during the second part of the 20th century, has since been critiqued; an emerging consensus among modern linguists is that the substrate language spoken in the southern Balkans was non-Indo-European. García-Ramón remarked that "the attempt to determine phonological rules for an Indo-European pre-Greek language ('Pelasgian') [...] is considered a complete failure today", while Beekes (2018) notes that "one of the demerits of Georgiev's Pelasgian theory was that it drew attention away from the Pre-Greek material itself", concluding that "the search for Pelasgian was an expensive and useless distraction." However, Biliana Mihaylova finds no contradiction between "the idea of [an] Indo-European Pre-Greek substratum" and "the possibility of the existence of an earlier non-Indo-European layer in Greece" given certain Pre-Greek words possessing Indo-European "pattern[s] of word formation."


title: Pelasgians

text: Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, an English writer and intellectual, argued that the Pelasgians spoke Greek based on the fact that areas traditionally inhabited by the "Pelasgi" (i.e. Arcadia and Attica) only spoke Greek and the few surviving Pelasgian words and inscriptions (i.e., Lamina Borgiana, Herodotus 2.52.1) betray Greek linguistic features despite the classical identification of Pelasgian as a barbarian language. According to Thomas Harrison of Saint Andrews University, the Greek etymology of Pelasgian terms mentioned in Herodotus such as "θεοί" (derived from "θέντες") indicates that the "Pelasgians spoke a language at least 'akin to' Greek". According to French classical scholar Pierre Henri Larcher, if this linguistic affiliation is true, then it proves that the Pelasgians and the Greeks were the same people.


title: Pelasgians

text: In western Anatolia, many toponyms with the "-ss-" infix derive from the adjectival suffix also seen in cuneiform Luwian and some Palaic; the classic example is Bronze Age Tarhuntassa (loosely meaning "City of the Storm God Tarhunta"), and later Parnassus possibly related to the Luwian word "parna-" or "house". These elements have led to a second theory that Pelasgian was to some degree an Anatolian language, or that it had areal influences from Anatolian languages.


title: Pelasgians

text: Vladimir I. Georgiev, a Bulgarian linguist, asserted that the Pelasgians spoke an Indo-European language and were, more specifically, related to the Thracians. Georgiev also proposed, relying on a sound-shift model, that "pelasgoi" was a cognate of a Proto-Indo-European root and Greek Πέλαγος "pelagos" "sea".


title: Pelasgians

text: Georgiev also suggested that the Pelasgians were a sub-group of the Bronze Age Sea Peoples and identifiable in Egyptian inscriptions as the exonym PRŚT or PLŚT. However, this Egyptian name has more often been read as a cognate of a Hebrew exonym, פלשת "Peleshet" (Pəlešeth) – that is, the Biblical Philistines.


title: Pelasgians

text: In 1854, an Austrian diplomat and Albanian language specialist, Johann Georg von Hahn, identified the Pelasgian language with Proto-Albanian. This theory is not supported by any scientific evidence, and is seen as a myth by modern scholars.


title: Pelasgians

text: Albert Joris Van Windekens (1915—1989) offered rules for an unattested hypothetical Indo-European Pelasgian language, selecting vocabulary for which there was no Greek etymology among the names of places, heroes, animals, plants, garments, artifacts and social organization. His 1952 essay "Le Pélasgique" was skeptically received.


title: Pelasgians

text: One theory utilizes the name "Pelasgian" to describe the inhabitants of the lands around the Aegean Sea before the arrival of Proto-Greek speakers, as well as traditionally identified enclaves of descendants that still existed in classical Greece. The theory derives from the original concepts of the philologist Paul Kretschmer, whose views prevailed throughout the first half of the 20th century and are still given some credibility today.


title: Pelasgians

text: Though Wilamowitz-Moellendorff wrote them off as mythical, the results of archaeological excavations at Çatalhöyük by James Mellaart and Fritz Schachermeyr led them to conclude that the Pelasgians had migrated from Asia Minor to the Aegean basin in the 4th millennium BC. In this theory, a number of possible non-Indo-European linguistic and cultural features are attributed to the Pelasgians:


title: Pelasgians

text: There are, indeed, various names affirmed to designate the ante-Hellenic inhabitants of many parts of Greece – the Pelasgi, the Leleges, the Curetes, the Kaukones, the Aones, the Temmikes, the Hyantes, the Telchines, the Boeotian Thracians, the Teleboae, the Ephyri, the Phlegyae, &c. These are names belonging to legendary, not to historical Greece – extracted out of a variety of conflicting legends by the logographers and subsequent historians, who strung together out of them a supposed history of the past, at a time when the conditions of historical evidence were very little understood. That these names designated real nations may be true but here our knowledge ends.


title: Pelasgians

text: The poet and mythologist Robert Graves asserts that certain elements of that mythology originate with the native Pelasgian people (namely the parts related to his concept of the White Goddess, an archetypical Earth Goddess) drawing additional support for his conclusion from his interpretations of other ancient literature: Irish, Welsh, Greek, Biblical, Gnostic, and medieval writings.


title: Pelasgians

text: According to the Russian historian and linguist Igor M. Diakonoff, the Pelasgians may have been related to the Minoans. A number of scholars consider Minoan to be essentially the same language as Pelasgian.


title: Pelasgians

text: Some Georgian scholars (including R. V. Gordeziani, M. G. Abdushelishvili and Z. Gamsakhurdia) connect the Pelasgians with the Ibero-Caucasian peoples of the prehistoric Caucasus, known to the Greeks as Colchians and Iberians. These scholars portray Georgia as a source of spirituality in the Greek world by manipulating Greek and Roman sources in a highly dubious manner.


title: Pelasgians

text: During the early 20th century, archaeological excavations conducted by the Italian Archaeological School and by the American Classical School on the Athenian Acropolis and on other sites within Attica revealed Neolithic dwellings, tools, pottery and skeletons from domesticated animals (such as sheep and fish). All of these discoveries showed significant resemblances to the Neolithic discoveries made on the Thessalian acropolises of Sesklo and Dimini. These discoveries help provide physical confirmation of the literary tradition that describes the Athenians as the descendants of the Pelasgians, who appear to descend continuously from the Neolithic inhabitants in Thessaly. Overall, the archaeological evidence indicates that the site of the Acropolis was inhabited by farmers as early as the 6th millennium BC.


title: Pelasgians

text: The results on the prehistoric material of the American excavations near the Clepsydra have also been analyzed by Immerwahr, arguing (in contrast to Prokopiou) that no Dimini-type pottery was unearthed.


title: Pelasgians

text: In August and September 1926, members of the Italian School of Archaeology conducted trial excavations on the island of Lemnos. A short account of their excavations appeared in the "Messager d'Athènes" for 3 January 1927. The overall purpose of the excavations was to shed light on the island's "Etrusco-Pelasgian" civilization. The excavations were conducted on the site of the city of Hephaisteia (i.e., Palaiopolis) where the Pelasgians, according to Herodotus, surrendered to Miltiades of Athens. There, a necropolis (c. 9th-8th centuries BC) was discovered revealing bronze objects, pots, and more than 130 ossuaries. The ossuaries contained distinctly male and female funeral ornaments. Male ossuaries contained knives and axes whereas female ossuaries contained earrings, bronze pins, necklaces, gold diadems, and bracelets. The decorations on some of the gold objects contained spirals of Mycenean origin, but had no Geometric forms. According to their ornamentation, the pots discovered at the site were from the Geometric period. However, the pots also preserved spirals indicative of Mycenean art. The results of the excavations indicate that the Early Iron Age inhabitants of Lemnos could be a remnant of a Mycenaean population and, in addition, the earliest attested reference to Lemnos is the Mycenaean Greek "ra-mi-ni-ja", "Lemnian woman", written in Linear B syllabic script.


title: Pelasgians

text: During the 1980s, the Skourta Plain Project identified Middle Helladic and Late Helladic sites on mountain summits near the plains of Skourta in Boeotia. These fortified mountain settlements were, according to tradition, inhabited by Pelasgians up until the end of the Bronze Age. Moreover, the location of the sites is an indication that the Pelasgian inhabitants sought to distinguish themselves "ethnically" (a fluid term) and economically from the Mycenaean Greeks who controlled the Skourta Plain.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: "Overwatch" and "Overwatch 2" are online team-based first-person shooters developed by Blizzard Entertainment, and released worldwide in May 2016 and October 2022, respectively. Players select from one of over 30 heroes, broadly classified into the three roles of Tank, Damage, and Support, and work with their team to attack or defend map objectives. Each hero has a unique set of weapons, abilities, and skills, which players use to coordinate with their team to overpower the other. "Overwatch" supports both casual and ranked matchmaking, as well as a rotating set of arcade modes, and the game has since become a popular esport, featuring the Overwatch League that started in 2018. The game has been both a critical and financial success for Blizzard, exceeding over 30 million players and obtaining over 1 billion in revenue within its first year.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: To support ongoing interest in the game, Blizzard has run several seasonal events, typically coinciding with worldwide events and holidays. These events last for two to three weeks, updating levels to incorporate elements of that theme, and provide new game modes along with the opportunity to buy items with credits or acquire them through the game's loot box system. Players keep their earned character cosmetic options after the event ends, but the rest of the themed elements return to normal.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: Over the course of developing "Overwatch", Blizzard opted against using a downloadable content model to extend the game and bring post-sale revenues, as they had developed the game around the mechanic of allowing players to switch out to new heroes during the course of a match as to meet current strategic conditions; by requiring players to purchase new heroes, such a model would have hampered this approach. Instead, they opted to include microtransactions through which players can buy loot boxes, which contain four randomized cosmetic items, including characters skins, victory poses, emotes, spray tags, highlight introductions, and player icons. This allowed them to create an incentivized level progression system that would reward players with a loot box for every level they earned from experience gained in playing matches. Working alongside this, players can earn in-game coins through some loot box rewards or as a consolation prize for receiving a duplicate loot box reward. These coins can be used to purchase any of the available cosmetic items (except for player icons), the cost reflecting the rarity of obtaining the item through a loot box.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: Beginning in August 2016, Blizzard began introducing seasonal events, starting with the Summer Games event which corresponded with the 2016 Summer Olympics. "Overwatch"s director Jeff Kaplan said the goal of these seasonal events was to make the game "feel alive", correlating with real-world events. The company has a history of creating in-game seasonal events, such as the Valentine's Day and New Year's events in "World of Warcraft". Other competitor games, such as "Destiny", "League of Legends" and "Team Fortress 2", also implement in-game seasonal events.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: Events have generally included at least one new game mode, which typically is only available to play while that event is active; one exception is the "Capture the Flag" mode introduced during the Lunar New Year event in early 2017, which has been brought back to the game as a permanent feature in the game's casual Arcade matchmaking mode. Players are typically rewarded with loot boxes for playing matches in these seasonal game modes, and the game offers unique achievements and associated cosmetic rewards for completing certain goals within them.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: In addition to new game modes, these seasonal events include unique cosmetic items that can be obtained primarily during the event. Blizzard develops a large amount of content for these events, not all of which ends up available to players. Initially, these items could only be obtained through event-themed loot boxes that are guaranteed to contain at least one event-themed item, which could either be earned through leveling up, completing the event game modes, or through microtransactions; however, in response to player feedback and avoid an apparent paywall access to these items, Blizzard allowed players to purchase these items with in-game currency at a higher cost than a non-event item of the same rarity, starting from the second seasonal event onward. When the event is completed, the themed loot boxes and cosmetic items are no longer are available until the event is run again. However, players retain and can use all unique event items they have earned after the event. Not all event items will be limited in this manner, as Blizzard plans to have certain event items be possible loot obtained from a regular loot box in the future.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: Several seasonal events, such as Summer Games, Halloween Terror, and Winter Wonderland, have recurred. However, on bringing these events back, the development team has added new changes to the event to keep them fresh and to reflect any new heroes or other content added to the game since the previous event's occurrence; for example, the 2017 Halloween "Junkenstein's Revenge" included a new endless mode and support for some of the newer heroes. Recurring events also feature new themed cosmetic items for these recurring events, along with the return of the previous cosmetics which can be found in the event loot boxes or bought for a reduced coin amount. Not all seasonal events are designed for recurrence, such as the lore-heavy "Uprising" event which took place in April 2017. Kaplan said that Blizzard has plans as to how these events will evolve in the future.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: Blizzard has also made single day changes to the game for April Fool's Day, which has included giving all characters googly eyes, though no other event rewards are associated with the day.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: The sequel "Overwatch 2" was released in October 2022, and will continue the seasonal events. According to Kaplan, while the game will be a sequel, they want to allow all content from the first "Overwatch" to be brought forward into "Overwatch 2", requiring them to slow down new content development for the original game, particularly new heroes and maps. Kaplan saw the seasonal events as a means to still provide some type of fresh content to "Overwatch" players during this interim.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: To correlate to the real-world Lunar New Year, the Overwatch event is held around the same time (typically from late January to early February), and named following the Chinese Zodiac; for example, the first such event occurring in 2017 was named the "Year of the Rooster". Cosmetics in these events have followed the themes from Asian legends. The event introduced the first Capture the Flag mode for "Overwatch" called "Capture the Rooster"; Blizzard had looked at adding such a mode for a few years during "Overwatch"s development but had difficulty with the mechanics due to the vastly different set of abilities offered by the characters that could imbalance the mode towards fast-moving characters. Played on the Lijiang Tower map, normally used for Control modes, each team has a flag near their base. To capture the other opponent's flag, a character must stay near the flag and not take damage for a few seconds. Once they have taken the flag, they then must return it to their team's base, scoring a point if they do so. If they die while bringing the flag back, either a teammate can try to capture it, or the opposing team must stay near the flag, avoiding taking damage for a few seconds, to return it to their base. Teams can score with the opposing team's flag even if their team's flag has been taken. The first team to three scores, or the team with the highest score after five minutes, wins the match. Following the event, Blizzard introduced a more general Capture the Flag mode, playable on any of the Control maps, into the Arcade modes as well as making it an option for custom games with several adjustable parameters.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: A second new mode, Bounty Hunter Brawl, was added in the 2021 Lunar New Year. This mode is similar to the deathmatch mode, except that players earn more points by eliminating the current player that is marked as the target; the player landing the final blow becomes the new target, whose location is visible to all, but they also gain full health and obtain a full Ultimate skill meter. After the event, the Bounty Hunter Brawl was also added as a mode to the Arcade gameplay. The Bounty Hunter Brawl mode was developed by Blizzard while toying around with a free-for-all approach to the Capture the Flag mode and eliminating the flag objective while still tracking one target player.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: The Overwatch Archive events are typically held in April of the year, and feature story-driven cooperative player versus environment Archive modes that Blizzard has used to explore the history of the characters and narrative. According to Kaplan, the Archive modes were something Blizzard felt had been asked for by players since they started offering the seasonal events. Players had requested non-holiday-themed events, as well as sought more details on the setting and history of the "Overwatch" world. Also, these events add additional cosmetic items based on the uniforms and backstory of the original Overwatch forces. A digital comics tied to the narrative of the mode have been released alongside the event.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: In the normal Archive events, players select from four pre-selected characters, and then fight as directed by in-game narration to attack or defend points from enemy forces. If a player was downed, any of the other still-surviving players could help them up by interacting with that character for a few moments. If all four players are downed, or the explosive is destroyed before reaching the sealed doors, the round ends as a loss. A separate mode allowed players to complete the same mission without being limited in character selection, but without any of the character-specific dialogue; Blizzard added this based on feedback from Junkenstein's Revenge, to provide a less restrictive way to enjoy the game mode. For the first three years of the Archives event, Blizzard added a new mission, while in the fourth year, they added special variants of these missions that altered the conditions of the match, such as where each heroes' health is halved but they deal twice as much damage.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: The Archive mode was considered a much-improved version of a player-versus-environment mode compared to Junkenstein's Revenge from the Halloween event. Cecilia D'Anastasio for "Kotaku" felt the mode was much more dynamic since it required players to move throughout the map rather than stay in one general location, and as the four default characters represent a balanced team, the mode calls for more careful teamwork and strategy. D'Anastasio also felt that with new voice lines to support this mode, it helped to establish the game's lore for players. "PC Gamer" argued that the Uprising event demonstrated the potential for a strong team-based story-driven campaign developed within the "Overwatch" narrative. Elements of these Archive missions were used as the basis to develop the cooperative side of the upcoming "Overwatch 2".


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: Corresponding to the game's release in May of each year, the Anniversary event features several new cosmetics for many characters. It also makes all special cosmetics that are normally locked except during the special events available for purchase with in-game coins and possible to obtain through loot boxes. Nearly all special game modes from all events are made playable as well. The Anniversary mode has been used to introduce major new features to the game following testing on the Public Test Region. The first Anniversary event added three new Arena maps used for the smaller-scale Elimination games, and which remained in rotation after the events' conclusion, as well as adding new Elimination game modes. "The Workshop", a script-based system for users to create their own games, launched alongside the 3rd Anniversary event, with several of the more successful user game modes brought into the Arcade for all to play.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: Overwatch's "Summer Games" event was first run concurrent to the 2016 Summer Olympics and since ran annually. The events are generally themed around summer sports and activities. During this event, a special game mode called Lúcioball is available. Lúcioball was designed as a futuristic soccer game in which two teams of three Lúcio characters attempt to push a ball into their opponents' goal. Played in four-minute matches on the special stadium map, Estádio das Rãs, players use two kinds of attacks to control the ball's movements: primarily, a melee attack and a secondary, powerful sonic boom that could knock back opponents as well (frequently called "booping" by players). Players can also use the level's environmental perks (e.g., jump pads and speed-boosting walls) to secure a strategic advantage on the field. "PC Gamer" felt that the mode felt closer to a "multiplayer carnival game than a fleshed-out, standalone mode".


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: The Halloween Terror events fall around the end of October to celebrate Halloween. Most new cosmetics added are based on classic monster and horror tropes. During Halloween Terror, the "Junkenstein's Revenge" cooperative game mode against computer players is available. In Junkenstein's Revenge, four players cooperatively guard a castle door against oncoming waves of enemies and bosses. Set in a themed section of the game's Eichenwalde map, players select a difficulty level and choose between the characters Ana, Hanzo, McCree, and , before fighting off approaching mindless "zomnic" drones, long-range "zombardiers," exploding tires, and costumed versions of the characters Reaper, Roadhog, Symmetra, Mercy, and Junkrat (as the titular Dr. Junkenstein). The game mode includes new voice work and is based on a companion comic book released concurrently. Later iterations have added other heroes that can be selected, as well as a secondary mode where any hero can be selected.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: The new mode was generally praised by commentators. "PC Gamer" wrote that the event resembled a similar event run on the team shooter "Team Fortress 2" since 2012. Though the reviewer found the Junkenstein mode pleasant, he wrote that in comparison to "Team Fortress 2" Mann vs. Machine mode, Junkenstein felt "shallow" and similar to Lúcioball in its simplistic map flow, giving little room for player movement. He also wondered why the mode was limited to four specific characters. "Eurogamer"s Robert Purchase found the event fun and considered it a good distraction from "Overwatch"s main modes, but also recognized that if it was kept on after the Halloween Terror event, it would become a stale game mode. Heather Alexandra for "Kotaku" felt that the mode demonstrated that a co-operative player-versus-environment mode would fit well as a permanent feature within "Overwatch" as it required good team coordination to complete more challenging matches.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: The Winter Wonderland events typically run late in the calendar year into the new year timed with winter in the Northern Hemisphere. Its cosmetics tend to feature both winter-themed cosmetics as well as those related to Christmas and other similar holiday events.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: Two event modes have been added during Winter Wonderland. The first is a deathmatch mode called "Mei's Snowball Offensive". The mode takes place on the smaller Ecopoint: Antarctica map, introduced in the previous months for standard deathmatch play. Six players each play Mei, but where her Endothermic Blaster, which normally fires a stream of damaging cold, can only fire a single snowball. Players must find a snowball pile scattered around the map to reload the weapon. Further, her Ultimate ability allows her to fire a machine-gun-like string of snowballs for a brief period. Otherwise, Mei's other abilities (Ice Wall and Cyro-Freeze) remain the same. A single snowball hit kills the struck until the round is complete. Kotaku claims this mode was generally not well received by players as the act of having to reload the Blaster made one too vulnerable, and with the permadeath mechanic in play, the mode was not fun nor captured the spirit of a snowball fight.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: The second new mode is "Yeti Hunter", an asymmetric mode where five players, each playing as Mei, attempt to defeat one player controlling Winston (acting as the Yeti) in a boss battle on Nepal's Village stage. Yeti Hunt is the first Overwatch mode to use role selection; players can indicate their preference to play as a Mei or as the Yeti. The Winston player must elude the Mei team, which can freeze him, use ice walls to impede his movement, or catch him in a snare trap (which replaces Mei's usual Ultimate). After collecting four pieces of meat, which spawn randomly in predetermined locations around the map, Winston unleashes his Ultimate ability for a short period which temporarily boosts his health, reduces his jump cooldown, and gives him powerful melee attacks. When a Mei player dies, they will respawn after a short delay and cost their team a life. The match is over once the Mei team either defeats Winston or loses all five of their lives. Kaplan described the Yeti Hunt as a light-hearted mode to be played for a few matches rather than hundreds of hours.


title: Overwatch seasonal events

text: Character-specific challenges are not run on a regular schedule but generally are released alongside new narrative pieces of lore for that character. They feature new cosmetic items that a player can earn either through playing and winning matches in-game and/or through watching "Overwatch" players on streaming media during the set period.


title: Let's Go Luna!

text: Let's Go Luna! is an educational animated children's television series created by Joe Murray for PBS Kids. Murray formerly worked on the Nickelodeon animated series "Rocko's Modern Life" and Cartoon Network animated series "Camp Lazlo". It is co-produced by 9 Story Media Group. Judy Greer provides the voice of the titular Luna. In the first season, there are 38 half-hour episodes and a one-hour special. The second season has 26 episodes and premiered on May 10, 2021. Each episode consists of two 11-minute story segments, with a short segment of one of the characters telling a folktale, song or poem from that country in between. The series aired the total of 64 episodes through November 18, 2022.


title: Let's Go Luna!

text: Unlike "Rocko's Modern Life" and "Camp Lazlo" which are both sitcoms, "Let's Go Luna!" marks the first educational series and the first preschool-focused series created by Joe Murray.


title: Let's Go Luna!

text: "Let's Go Luna!" sets in a world populated by anthropomorphic animals, focuses on three kids—Leo, a wombat from Sydney, Australia, Andy, a frog from the United States and Carmen, a butterfly from Mexico City, Mexico—who travel around the world with their parents' traveling performance troupe "Circo Fabuloso". Along their stops, Luna the Moon, depicted about tall with arms, legs and a face, and wearing a straw hat and red boots, occasionally comes down to Earth to teach them about local languages, music, food, and other customs. Two half-hour episodes, consisting of two segments each and four in total, take place in a single country where the gang stop at, learn about and meet friends around the world. With a team of cultural anthropologists on board, "Let's Go Luna!" is "meticulously researched to ensure cities and regions are authentically and respectfully portrayed."


title: Let's Go Luna!

text: The show was first announced on July 31, 2017, as part of the PBS TCA presentation. PBS broadcasts the show on its stations and also airs on the 24-hour PBS Kids channel, as well as the PBS Kids video app. "Let's Go Luna!" offers digital content for kids, parents and teachers, debuting from its PBS Kids website and a "Luna" app was also confirmed and would have been released shortly after the series' debut. However, the app ceased development and is on the PBS Kids video and games apps. There was going to be an "Elinor Wonders Why" app too, but the same thing happened and that series has been on the PBS Kids video and games apps as well. 9 Story International Distribution owns managing and merchandising rights to the show outside Canada. It is also one of a few shows for preschoolers and PBS' first storyboard-driven show where storyboard artists work with the writers, in order to create "visually-driven narratives that highlight each city's distinctive landscape and features." It was originally going to be titled "Luna Around the World" but was changed to "Let's Go Luna!".


title: Let's Go Luna!

text: The show airs on Nat Geo Kids in Latin America. In Spain, the show airs on Canal Panda. In Italy, it airs on Rai Yoyo. In Canada, the show airs on TVOKids. In Turkey, the show will air on TRT Çocuk. In the half-hour broadcast of "Let's Go Luna!" on TVOKids, the short segment that occurs between the two 11-minute story segments of the show is kept in the broadcast instead of being removed.


title: Let's Go Luna!

text: Five episodes were released on DVD on February 11, 2020. Episodes were also released on PBS Kids compilation DVDs in 2020.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: John Francis "Honey Fitz" Fitzgerald (February 11, 1863 – October 2, 1950) was an American Democratic politician from Boston, Massachusetts. He served as a U.S. Representative and Mayor of Boston. He also made unsuccessful runs for the United States Senate in 1916 and 1942 and Governor of Massachusetts in 1922. Fitzgerald maintained a high profile in the city whether in or out of office, and his theatrical style of campaigning and charisma earned him the nickname "Honey Fitz".


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: He was the father of Rose Fitzgerald and maternal grandfather of her sons President John F. Kennedy, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, and Senator Ted Kennedy. In his old age, Fitzgerald helped his grandson John F. Kennedy win his first election to Congress.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: John Francis Fitzgerald was born on February 11, 1863, in the North End of Boston to Irish immigrant businessman and politician Thomas Fitzgerald of Bruff, County Limerick and Rosanna Cox of County Cavan. He was the fourth of twelve children. Both of his sisters, Ellen and Mary, and his eldest brother, Michael, died in infancy. Fitzgerald's brother Joseph had severe brain damage from malaria and barely functioned. Only three of the children survived in good health.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: Fitzgerald's mother died when he was sixteen. His father wished for him to become a doctor to help prevent future deaths of the sort that had marred the family. Accordingly, after being educated at Boston Latin School and Boston College, he enrolled at Harvard Medical School for one year, but withdrew following the death of his father in 1885. Fitzgerald later became a clerk at the Customs House in Boston and was active in the local Democratic Party.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: In the 1890s, Fitzgerald founded the Jefferson Club, a political club founded to organize the Irish Catholic voters of South Boston. It was modeled on earlier clubs like Tammany Hall in New York and Martin Lomasney's Hendricks Club in the West End of Boston.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: Fitzgerald won election to Boston's Common Council in 1891. In 1892, he became a member of the Massachusetts Senate.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: In 1894, he was elected to Congress for the 9th district, serving from 1895 to 1901. In his first two terms (1895–1899), Fitzgerald was the only Democrat to represent New England in Congress.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: In December 1905, Fitzgerald was elected Mayor of Boston. In the process, he made an enemy of the powerful Lomasney by opposing one of Lomasney's lieutenants, Edward J. Donovan. After Fitzgerald beat Donovan in the mayoral primary, Lomasney endorsed the Republican candidate, Louis Frothingham, and delivered 95% of the vote in his usually Democratic ward to Frothingham. However, the Republican vote was split between Frothingham and judge Henry Dewey, who ran on the Populist ticket after losing the primary. Despite Lomasney's undermining, Fitzgerald won with only a plurality of the vote.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: Another opponent of Fitzgerald's during the campaign was P. J. Kennedy, a behind-the-scenes Democratic figure. They later became allies. In 1914, their families were united when P. J.'s son Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. married Fitzgerald's eldest daughter Rose.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: Job-seekers were frequently granted provisional positions to bypass civil service requirements and the city payroll was expanded.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: He lost the 1907 election in part because his opponent, Republican George A. Hibbard, promised he would "clean up [Fitzgerald's] mess." With control of the city and state Government, Republicans revised the city charter to curb the power of the Irish Democratic ward bosses like Fitzgerald and Lomasney. They eliminated the large common council, replaced the board of aldermen with a nine-seat city council, extending the mayor's term to four years, and making all offices formally non-partisan, removing the advantage of party recognition in the predominantly Democratic city.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: In 1910, Fitzgerald ran for Mayor again. His campaign was almost scuttled by a bribery scandal involving no-bid contracts with kickbacks during his first term. Fitzgerald escaped prosecution, but made a long-term enemy in Daniel H. Coakley, an Irish lawyer who had defended one of the key figures in the business. In addition to his rivalry with Lomasney, Fitzgerald now also had to contend with the rising star of James Michael Curley of Roxbury, who was kept out of the race by assurances that Fitzgerald would serve only one term. Fitzgerald won a narrow victory over James J. Storrow, a stiff Protestant Republican Boston Brahmin.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: Early in his first term as Boston's mayor, Fitzgerald had formulated a plan to revitalize the commercial importance of the city under the banner of "a Bigger, Busier and Better Boston." This plan was not pursued by Hibbard but gained traction after Fitzgerald's return to office. Fitzgerald was able to persuade businesses and the Massachusetts legislature to invest $9 million for improvements to the port by 1912. Within a year, the investments began to pay off in the form of new port traffic to and from Europe.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: In 1914, Fitzgerald broke his promise to Curley and attempted to run for a second consecutive term. Curley made common cause with Daniel Coakley, and they secured Fitzgerald's withdrawal by threatening to expose a dalliance he had with a cigarette girl, Elizabeth "Toodles" Ryan—who was only 24, the same age as Fitzgerald's daughter Rose—at a local gambling club. Curley was elected in January 1914 to his first of four terms as Boston mayor.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: Fitzgerald won a close election for the House in 1918, but his opponent Peter F. Tague contested the race. Investigators found evidence of fraud in three precincts and when those precincts were eliminated they found Tague to be the winner. Fitzgerald served from March 4 until October 23, 1919, when the House voted unanimously that Fitzgerald had not won and that Tague had.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: In his later years, Fitzgerald focused on his business interests and on honing the political instincts of his daughter Rose's promising sons.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: In 1932, he campaigned for Franklin Delano Roosevelt for President. He was joined by James Michael Curley and P.J. Kennedy. Fitzgerald unsuccessfully tried to recruit Martin Lomasney to the cause as well. After Roosevelt won the election, Fitzgerald's son-in-law Joseph was appointed chairman of the new U.S. Maritime Commission. Joseph would later serve as chairman of the new U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission and as U.S. ambassador to Great Britain.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: In 1942, Fitzgerald ran a quixotic campaign for the U.S. Senate and lost the Democratic primary to Congressman Joseph E. Casey. (Daniel Coakley finished a distant fourth.)


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: In 1946, when John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy decided to run for Congress, 83-year-old Honey Fitz helped him plan his campaign strategy. At the victory celebration, Fitzgerald danced an Irish jig, sang "Sweet Adeline," and predicted that his grandson would someday occupy the White House. Shortly after his election to the presidency, President Kennedy renamed the presidential yacht the "Honey Fitz" in honor of his maternal grandfather.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: On September 18, 1889, Fitzgerald married his second cousin Mary Josephine "Josie" Hannon (1865–1964). She was a daughter of Michael Hannon and Mary Ann Fitzgerald. John and Mary had six children: Rose Elizabeth (1890–1995), Mary (1892–1936), Thomas (1895–1968), John Jr. (1897–1979), Eunice (1900–1923), and Frederick (1904–1935). They had nineteen grandchildren, including Rose's nine children with Joseph Kennedy.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: Fitzgerald was a member of the Royal Rooters, an early supporters' club for Boston's baseball teams, particularly its American League team, the modern Boston Red Sox. At one point, he was the group's chairman and threw out the ceremonial opening pitch at Fenway Park's inaugural game on April 20, 1912, as well as in the 1912 World Series later that year. His great-granddaughter Caroline Kennedy threw out the first pitch at Fenway Park's 100th anniversary celebration on April 20, 2012.


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: On October 2, 1950, Fitzgerald died in Boston at the age of eighty-seven. His funeral was one of the largest in the city's history. President Harry S. Truman sent his sympathies and Fitzgerald's pallbearers included two U.S. Senators (Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. and Leverett Saltonstall) two future U.S. Speakers of the House (John McCormack and Tip O'Neill), and James Michael Curley. As "Honey Fitz" was carried to his final rest from Holy Cross Cathedral to St. Joseph Cemetery in West Roxbury, Massachusetts, a crowd of thousands gathered along the streets and sang "Sweet Adeline."


title: John F. Fitzgerald

text: Of his stylish manner, Robert Dallek wrote: He was a natural politician—a charming, impish, affable lover of people. ... His warmth of character earned him yet another nickname, "Honey Fitz," and he gained a reputation as the only politician who could sing "Sweet Adeline" sober and get away with it. A pixie-like character with florid face, bright eyes, and sandy hair, he was a showman who could have had a career in vaudeville. But politics, with all the brokering that went into arranging alliances and the hoopla that went into campaigning, was his calling. A verse of the day ran: 'Honey Fitz can talk you blind / on any subject you can find / Fish and fishing, motor boats / Railroads, streetcars, getting votes.' His gift of gab became known as Fitzblarney, and his followers as 'dearos,' a shortened version of his description of his district as 'the dear old North End.'The official name for the Central Artery highway in Boston was "The John F. Fitzgerald Expressway," until it was torn down in the 1990s as part of Boston's "Big Dig" project which eliminated the Central Artery and replaced it with a tunnel. The resulting greenway above the tunnel where the expressway had been was named for Fitzgerald's daughter as the "Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy Greenway."


title: Lake Bonneville

text: Lake Bonneville was the largest Late Pleistocene paleolake in the Great Basin of western North America. It was a pluvial lake that formed in response to an increase in precipitation and a decrease in evaporation as a result of cooler temperatures. The lake covered much of what is now western Utah and at its highest level extended into present-day Idaho and Nevada. Many other hydrographically closed basins in the Great Basin contained expanded lakes during the Late Pleistocene, including Lake Lahontan in northwestern Nevada.


title: Lake Bonneville

text: Shorelines of Lake Bonneville are visible above Salt Lake City along the western front of the Wasatch Mountains and on other mountains throughout the Bonneville basin. These shorelines appear as shelves or benches that protrude from the mountainside above the valley floor, are visible on the ground from long distances and on satellite images, and have both depositional and erosional segments along their lengths. Three shorelines of Lake Bonneville that can be traced throughout the basin, have been given names: Stansbury, Bonneville, and Provo. The Stansbury and Bonneville shorelines formed during the transgressive phase of Lake Bonneville; the Provo shoreline formed during the overflowing phase. Numerous other unnamed shorelines, which cannot be mapped everywhere in the basin, some of which formed during the transgressive phase and some during the regressive phase, are also present on piedmont slopes and alluvial fans. At its maximum, when Lake Bonneville was more than deep and almost in surface area, it covered almost as much area as modern Lake Michigan although its shoreline was more complex with many islands and peninsulas. Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake, and Sevier Lake are the largest post-Bonneville lakes in the Bonneville basin.


title: Lake Bonneville

text: Lake Bonneville was not a "proglacial” lake, although it did form between about 30,000 and 13,000 years ago when glaciers at many places on Earth were expanded relative to today during the last major glaciation. For most of its existence (that is, during the transgressive plus regressive phases) Lake Bonneville had no river outlet and occupied a hydrographically closed basin. Changes in lake level were the result of changes in water balance caused by climate change (a simplified version of the water-balance equation is inputs equal outputs plus-or-minus storage changes). Storage changes are equal to volume changes, and changes in volume are correlated with changes in lake level. When inputs (e.g., precipitation; runoff in rivers) were greater than outputs (e.g., evaporation from the lake surface; evapotranspiration in the basin), lake level rose, and when outputs were greater than inputs, lake level fell. Changes in global atmospheric circulation led to changes in the water budget of Lake Bonneville and other lakes in the Great Basin of western North America. Mountain glaciers in the Bonneville drainage basin stored less than 5% of the water that Lake Bonneville held at its maximum, so that even if all the mountain glaciers in the basin melted at once and the water flowed into the lake (this didn't happen—it took thousands of years for the mountain glaciers to melt, and Lake Bonneville was falling by that time), it would have had little effect on lake level. Lake Bonneville had no river connection with the huge North American ice sheets. While Lake Bonneville existed the patterns of wave- and current-forming winds were not significantly affected by the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets in northern North America.


title: Lake Bonneville

text: Lake Bonneville was named by the geologist G.K. Gilbert after Benjamin Louis Eulalie de Bonneville (1796–1878), a French-born officer in the United States Army who was also a fur trapper and explorer in the American West. Bonneville's adventures were popularized by Washington Irving in the 1800s, but Captain Bonneville probably never saw Great Salt Lake or the Great Basin. G.K. Gilbert was one of the greatest geologists of the 19th Century, and his monumental work on Lake Bonneville, published in 1890, set the stage for scientific research on the paleolake that continues today. Although a general description and understanding of Lake Bonneville has been established by the work of many people, details of the paleolake, including its history and connections to global environmental systems, will be pursued for many years to come.


title: Lake Bonneville

text: Lake Bonneville began to rise from elevations similar to those of modern Great Salt Lake about 30,000 years ago. During its transgressive phase in the closed basin (an endorheic basin), lake level oscillated because of changes in climate but the lake gradually rose until about 18,000 years ago when it reached its highest elevation, marked by the Bonneville shoreline. At that level the lake had risen to the lowest point on its basin rim and had begun to overflow into the Snake River drainage near Red Rock Pass in what is now southeastern Idaho. The overflow, which would have begun as a trickle across the dam formed by the Marsh Creek alluvial fan, quickly evolved into a tremendous flood, the Bonneville flood, which charged down the Marsh Creek valley to the Portneuf River, into the Snake River and then into the Columbia River and Pacific Ocean. Groundwater sapping on the north slope of the Marsh Creek alluvial fan, which began long before the lake had reached its highest level, added to the instability and ultimate collapse of the fan-dam.


title: Lake Bonneville

text: The Bonneville flood probably lasted less than a year, during which time almost of water flowed out of the lake basin with a maximum discharge of about . Downcutting during the flood through the Marsh Creek alluvial-fan deposits and into the underlying Neogene sand, mud, and landslide debris, caused lake level to drop about . River flow from the lake across the Red Rock Pass threshold and out of the lake basin continued non-catastrophically for about 3000 years after the flood ended; the Provo shoreline formed during this overflowing phase. The Provo shoreline is distinguished from other shorelines of Lake Bonneville by its topographic position, strong development, and thick accumulations of tufa. At the end of the overflowing phase, about 15,000 years ago, climate change and a shift to a negative water balance (more water evaporated off the surface of the lake than entered by rivers or direct precipitation) caused the lake to return to its closed-basin status as it declined to lower levels during the regressive phase. By 13,000 years ago the lake had fallen to an elevation similar to the average elevation of modern Great Salt Lake. During the regressive phase lake level declined approximately in about 2000 years because of a change to warmer and drier climate ( is roughly 2/3 of the maximum depth of Lake Bonneville). Although Lake Bonneville and the Great Salt Lake are collectively one lake system, the name “Lake Bonneville” is applied to the lake during the period from 30,000 to 13,000 years ago, and the name “Great Salt Lake” since 13,000 years ago.


title: Lake Bonneville

text: Lake Bonneville was anomalous in the long-term history of the basin. As the largest of four deep lakes in the basin during the past 800,000 years, Lake Bonneville plus the other three deep Pleistocene lakes, persisted for less than 10% of the time. The conditions experienced in the basin today are typical of over 90% of the past 800,000 years: a dry desert basin with a few scattered low-elevation lakes, the largest of which (Great Salt Lake) was hypersaline. For most of the time between the end of the youngest of the deep pre-Bonneville lakes (the Little Valley lake cycle, about 150,000 years ago) and the initial rise of Lake Bonneville about 30,000 years ago, the lake would have resembled modern Great Salt Lake in surface area and depth. A short episode of slightly higher lake levels during the Cutler Dam lake cycle occurred about 60,000 years ago; at this time a moderate-sized lake rose above the level of Great Salt Lake, but not as high as Lake Bonneville.