title: Bright Star (musical)

text: A reunion concert was held on December 12, 2016, at Town Hall, New York City. Members of the original Broadway cast participated, with Steve Martin and Edie Brickell both hosting and performing.


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: A US national tour was announced in January 2017 for the 2017-2018 touring season, with casting and route to be announced later.


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: The national tour launched on October 11, 2017, at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles, California, with Carmen Cusack, A.J. Shively, Jeff Blumenkrantz, and Stephen Lee Anderson all reprising their original Broadway roles. Subsequent cities scheduled are San Francisco, CA; Salt Lake City, UT; Houston, TX; Worcester, MA; Raleigh, NC; New Haven, CT; Dallas, TX; and Charlotte, NC, through July 1, 2018.


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: Following the completion of the national tour, Musical Theatre West in Long Beach, California, bought the rights along with the original sets and costumes. They presented the show in October 2018 and made the sets and costumes available for other theater companies to lease for their own productions of "Bright Star".


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: In March 2019, "Bright Star" received its Canadian premiere at Rosebud Theatre in Rosebud Alberta, under the direction of Morris Ertman.


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: January 2019 in Ashburn, Virginia the High School premiere of 'Bright Star: School Edition' was edited and performed by Rock Ridge Performing Arts. The production was later chosen to perform at the International Thespian Festival in Lincoln, Nebraska in the same year.


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: In 1946, editor Alice Murphy greets the audience and tells them that, instead of overseeing other people's stories, she is going to tell her own ("If You Knew My Story"). One year earlier, in the town of Hayes Creek, serviceman and aspiring writer Billy Cane returns home after serving in World War II. He reunites with his father and his childhood friend Margo before learning that his mother has died ("She's Gone"). Several weeks later, Billy visits Margo and tells her he is going to submit his stories to "The Asheville Southern Journal" ("Bright Star").


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: Upon arriving at the offices of the "Journal", he finds himself rebuffed by employees Daryl and Lucy. However, Alice finds herself charmed by a brazen lie that Billy tells and considers accepting his stories. She later declines Lucy's invitation to a dance, but privately reflects on a time when she would have gone to a dance ("Way Back in the Day").


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: Flashing back to 1923, a sixteen-year-old Alice flirts with Jimmy Ray Dobbs in her hometown of Zebulon, North Carolina ("Whoa, Mama"). When Alice returns home later that night, her parents reprimand her while pondering her unfortunate future. ("Firmer Hand/Do Right") Meanwhile, Jimmy Ray returns home only to be lectured by his father, Mayor Josiah Dobbs, on what the future holds for him ("A Man's Gotta Do").


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: In 1945, upon receiving encouragement from Alice in the form of a ten dollar check, Billy decides to settle down in Asheville and dedicate his time to writing. Margo reflects that she had other hopes for her future with Billy, but she decides to put her hopes aside and be supportive of his dreams ("Asheville").


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: In 1923, Alice and Jimmy Ray make their way to the riverbank and make love ("What Could Be Better"). Sometime later, Alice goes to see the town physician, Doctor Norquist after feeling ill only to learn she is pregnant. Doctor Norquist and Mayor Dobbs arrange for Alice to stay in a remote cabin for the duration of her pregnancy. She divides her time in isolation by knitting a sweater for the baby and talking about their child with Jimmy Ray when he visits ("I Can't Wait").


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: Shortly after giving birth to a baby son, Alice and her mother learn that Mayor Dobbs and Alice's father have secretly put the child up for adoption. Alice tries to make her father change his mind but loses the argument ("Please, Don't Take Him"). Mayor Dobbs departs with the baby in a valise and boards the train to Hayes Creek before throwing the valise into the river when no one is looking ("A Man's Gotta Do [Reprise]").


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: In 1924, Alice prepares to attend college in Chapel Hill and privately yearns to find her son. Meanwhile, in 1945, Margo talks with her friends about how she misses Billy ("Sun Is Gonna Shine"). Back in 1924, Jimmy Ray tells his now ailing father that he is going to meet Alice in Chapel Hill. When Mayor Dobbs confesses what happened to the baby, Jimmy Ray decides to stay with his father after realizing he can't possibly tell Alice the truth ("Heartbreaker").


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: In 1946, Daryl and Lucy encounter a creatively frustrated Billy while sharing an after-work drink and try to cheer him up, culminating in Lucy and Billy sharing a drunken kiss ("Another Round"). The next day, Alice tells Billy that one of his stories is set to be published in the "Journal". He confesses that he has been writing about Hayes Creek before inviting her to see where his stories take place. She agrees to do so after a planned visit to Raleigh to complete some unfinished business.


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: In Raleigh, Alice requests permission to look through adoption papers drafted during the period when her son would have been registered. After failing to find what she is looking for, Alice encounters Jimmy Ray and learns about Josiah's actions. Believing their son to be dead, the two reaffirm their love for each other ("I Had a Vision"). Back in Hayes Creek, Billy tells Margo that he's moving back home before realizing that she's the girl for him ("Always Will").


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: In Zebulon, Alice reconciles with her father after he apologizes for allowing Josiah to take the baby away from her. Not wanting to continue his distress any longer, she tells him the child was adopted by a good family and is living a successful life. She makes her way to Hayes Creek and sees Billy's childhood home where she discovers the baby sweater she sent with her son, discovering that she is Billy's birth mother as his father explains how he found Billy as a baby in the river, but Billy is too shocked to process it and runs off ("So Familiar/At Long Last"). A few weeks later, after Alice has told Jimmy Ray that their child is still alive, Billy and Margo approach them in Asheville and Billy apologizes to Alice, accepting her as his mother and meeting Jimmy Ray for the first time. In order to run off a flirtatious Lucy, Margo introduces herself as Billy's fiancée, much to Billy's pleasant shock, followed by Jimmy Ray proposing to Alice ("Finale").


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: All songs contain music by Martin and Brickell with lyrics by Brickell except "Way Back in the Day" and "At Long Last" by Edie Brickell and "Bright Star" with ensemble lyrics by Martin. "Way Back in the Day", "I Can't Wait", "Heartbreaker", "Another Round", "I Had a Vision", "Always Will" and "So Familiar" all were included on the album "So Familiar". "Asheville" and "Sun's Gonna Shine" both originated from the album "Love Has Come for You".


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: Charles Isherwood of "The New York Times" wrote: "The shining achievement of the musical is its winsome country and bluegrass score, with music by Mr. Martin and Ms. Brickell, and lyrics by Ms. Brickell. The complicated plot, divided between two love stories that turn out to have an unusual connection, threatens to get a little too diffuse and unravel like a ball of yarn rolling off a knitter’s lap. But the songs — yearning ballads and square-dance romps rich with fiddle, piano and banjo, beautifully played by a nine-person band — provide a buoyancy that keeps the momentum from stalling."


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: Bob Verini of "Variety" praised the music but thought, "characterizations are distinctly undercooked. Guileless Billy seems untouched by wartime service, too callow to craft greeting cards let alone the 'sweeping tale of pain and redemption' Alice unaccountably expects of him", and that the show could benefit with higher stakes in its drama.


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: Kai Elijah Hamilton of "Mountain Xpress", reviewing a regional production of "Bright Star", wrote: "While Martin and singer-songwriter Brickell’s passion is evident, this is not the most authentic representation of life in North Carolina. Incorporating a deeply rooted Southern writer would have made the journey more rewarding. Most of the characters are not well sculpted, and although the script certainly has its moments, it is largely predictable. However, the music here is truly masterful and becomes a prominent storytelling device."


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: The Broadway production received fairly positive reviews. For instance, Elysa Gardner, in her review in "USA Today", wrote: "...Martin, a master ironist, captures some of that old-school spirit with a book that's as forthright as it is smart, funny and charming...Martin and Brickell refuse to condescend to their own characters, from the small-townspeople Billy grows up with to the wry, knowing employees at Alice's highly regarded journal in the city of Asheville...The tone in which that story is delivered can also wobble a bit, especially later on, when what seems destined to be a majestic, Hammerstein-esque resolution is mitigated by zany musical-comedy flourishes. Still, in what may well prove to be the richest Broadway season for new musicals in decades, this gently shining "Star" holds its own."


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: The original Broadway cast album, produced by Ghostlight Records, was recorded in March 2016 and released in May 2016 in stores. It was released in digital format on April 29, 2016. The album peaked at number two on the US Cast albums chart and topped the US Bluegrass and Americana/Folk Albums charts, the first cast recording to enter either of the latter two charts.


title: Bright Star (musical)

text: In its review of the recording, NPR said that the "interlocking narrative can't help but lose some of its detail", but that " 'Bright Star' 's best moments shine, well, brightly...the net result is a set of songs in which lavish stage settings and broad flourishes can't obscure the simple warmth and lovely instrumentation at their core." The recording received a Grammy Award nomination for the 2017 Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album.


title: Whitman Mayo

text: Whitman Blount Mayo Jr. (November 15, 1930 – May 22, 2001) was an American actor, best known for his role as Grady Wilson on the 1970s television sitcom "Sanford and Son".


title: Whitman Mayo

text: Whitman Blount Mayo, Jr. was born in New York City. He was raised in Harlem and later Queens. At the age of 17, he moved with his family to Southern California where he attended Fontana High School.


title: Whitman Mayo

text: While attending college, Mayo began acting in small parts. He held many jobs to support himself and his family, including waiting tables, working in vineyards and as a probation officer. He also spent seven years as a counselor to delinquent boys.


title: Whitman Mayo

text: In the early 1970s, while working for the New Lafayette Theatre, Norman Lear offered Mayo a role as Grady Wilson on "Sanford and Son". The character's name was based on Demond Wilson, the actor who played Lamont Sanford and whose real first name is Grady. During a period where Redd Foxx did not appear on the show due to a contract dispute, Grady moved into the Sanford house and effectively starred in the show for six episodes. Mayo later starred in "Grady", an unsuccessful spin-off in which his character moved in with his daughter and her husband in Beverly Hills. After its cancellation in 1976, Mayo's Grady character returned to "Sanford and Son". Mayo reprised the role in the unsuccessful 1977 NBC-TV spinoff series "Sanford Arms" with actor Theodore Wilson, and for two episodes of "Sanford", another spinoff of "Sanford and Son", this time with Redd Foxx and actor Dennis Burkley, in 1981.


title: Whitman Mayo

text: Also in the late 1970s, Mayo appeared on the Los Angeles children's television program "That's Cat", offering sage advice in a sweet manner to the main character Alice. In 1990, he appeared in an episode of "In the Heat of the Night" titled "Hello in There". In 1991, he appeared in an episode of "Full House" titled "The Volunteer". He played a senior named Eddie Johnson with Alzheimer's. In 1996, "Late Night with Conan O'Brien" spent several weeks trying to have Mayo appear on the show. Conan even went as far to set up the "Grady Hotline", a 1–800 number where viewers could call in with any Grady "sightings". The show also aired a mock episode of "Unsolved Mysteries". On February 8, 1996, Mayo appeared on "Late Night" to much fanfare. In 1997, he guest-starred in the Nickelodeon sitcom "Kenan and Kel," playing Kenan and Kyra's rude, impatient Uncle Raymond.


title: Whitman Mayo

text: Mayo also played a role in "The Cape" as Sweets, the owner of Moonshot Bar and Grill. Mayo made several film appearances, including "The Main Event" with Barbra Streisand, "D.C. Cab", "Boyz n the Hood", and "Waterproof" with Burt Reynolds. Mayo also appeared as Reverend Banyon on the BET TV Movie "Boycott" in 2001 and in an episode of "Martin". He hosted "Liars and Legends" on Turner South. He also made appearances in Sesame Street. Mayo taught drama at Clark Atlanta University. He opened a travel agency in Inglewood, California. Mr. Mayo was a member of Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity.


title: Whitman Mayo

text: Mayo died of a heart attack on May 22, 2001, at Atlanta's Grady Memorial Hospital. His son Rahn Mayo became a member of the Georgia House of Representatives in 2009.


title: Jeanne Robertson

text: Jeanne Flinn Swanner Robertson (; September 21, 1943 – August 21, 2021) was an American athlete, teacher, humorist, motivational speaker, YouTube personality, and Miss North Carolina 1963.


title: Jeanne Robertson

text: Jeanne Flinn Swanner was born at the Naval Hospital Boston in Chelsea, Massachusetts and raised in Graham, North Carolina, one of three daughters. According to one of her YouTube videoclips, not only was she taller than sisters Katherine and Andrea, she was also especially tall as a youth, growing to by age 13. She was an avid basketball player.


title: Jeanne Robertson

text: In 1963, at age 19, she was named Miss North Carolina and went on to be named Miss Congeniality in that year's Miss America competition. As of 2021, Jeanne Swanner, at 6 foot 2, is still the tallest contestant ever in the Miss America pageant. Robertson credited her reign as the catalyst for her career.


title: Jeanne Robertson

text: Following her Miss North Carolina reign, Robertson used her scholarship to fund her college education at Auburn University, where she majored in physical education, joined Alpha Gamma Delta, and played college basketball. Robertson graduated in 1967, and in 1990 she was inducted as an alumni member of the Omicron Delta Kappa Circle at Auburn University.


title: Jeanne Robertson

text: Although she began her public speaking career with her pageant title, Robertson achieved much more national attention as a humorist and speaker. Her anecdotes have been broadcast regularly on satellite radio comedy channels, including XM Radio's "Laugh USA", Sirius Radio's "Blue Collar Comedy" and its Family Comedy Channel, and "Laugh Break". Her popularity soared, however, in 2009 after a handful of humorous clips from her talks became popular videos. Robertson distinguished between a humorist, which she considered herself, and a comedian, stating, "The humorist weaves the longer stories with a point. We don't go 'after' anybody. I'm telling my life."


title: Jeanne Robertson

text: In 1980 she was designated a Certified Speaking Professional by the National Speakers Association, and served as the association's president in 1985. She was also a Golden Gavel award-winning Toastmaster.


title: Jeanne Robertson

text: On April 29, 2008, she spoke at the White House for National Volunteer Week to honor the 1,300 volunteers who donate time to work at the White House.


title: Jeanne Robertson

text: Graham Historical Museum, in her hometown of Graham, North Carolina, features a permanent exhibit, Jeanne Swanner Robertson.


title: Jeanne Robertson

text: Jeanne married Walter Bowline III in 1965; they had one son and divorced in the early 1970s. In 1974, she married Jerry Robertson, a graduate of Duke University where, at tall and on an athletic scholarship, he played on its basketball team, serving as its captain in 1959. Jerry received his master's degree and doctorate at the University of North Carolina; he was an educator and principal, eventually serving as superintendent of Burlington City Schools, and later working in business. In her performances, Jeanne would frequently refer to him as "Left Brain", or sometimes "LB". They were married until his death in June 2021.


title: Jeanne Robertson

text: Robertson's son, Walter Bailey "Beaver" Bowline, is a 1989 graduate of Elon University, where Jeanne was a trustee. Two of Jeanne's grandchildren also attended Elon. Jeanne and Jerry Robertson were both members of Elon University's Phoenix Club, which supports the athletic program, and the university's track and field complex is named after the couple.


title: Jeanne Robertson

text: Robertson was a member of the Methodist church. She said her favorite television series was "The Andy Griffith Show". Her 1995 book, "Mayberry Humor Across the USA", furthers her connection to Griffith's show.


title: Jeanne Robertson

text: On August 12, 2021, it was announced that some of Robertson's future engagements had been canceled due to a "serious but non-COVID-related" illness. She died at her home in Burlington, North Carolina on August 21, 2021, at age 77.


title: Jeanne Robertson

text: Robertson's performances have been recorded on both DVD and CD, with nine titles currently available:


title: Jeanne Robertson

text: Many short segments of her speeches (individual stories, outtakes, etc) are also available on Jeanne's YouTube channel, as well as recordings of her 2020–2021 livestream series "Live from the Back Porch".


title: Commodity money

text: Commodity money is money whose value comes from a commodity of which it is made. Commodity money consists of objects having value or use in themselves (intrinsic value) as well as their value in buying goods.


title: Commodity money

text: This is in contrast to representative money, which has no intrinsic value but represents something of value such as gold or silver, in which it can be exchanged, and fiat money, which derives its value from having been established as money by government regulation.


title: Commodity money

text: Examples of commodities that have been used as media of exchange include gold, silver, copper, salt, peppercorns, tea, decorated belts, shells, alcohol, cigarettes, silk, candy, nails, cocoa beans, cowries and barley. Several types of commodity money were sometimes used together, with fixed relative values, in various commodity valuation or price system economies.


title: Commodity money

text: Commodity money is to be distinguished from representative money, which is a certificate or token which can be exchanged for the underlying commodity, but only by a formal process. A key feature of commodity money is that the value is directly perceived by its users, who recognize the utility or beauty of the tokens as goods in themselves.


title: Commodity money

text: Since payment by commodity generally provides a useful good, commodity money is similar to barter, but is distinguishable from it in having a single recognized unit of exchange. Radford (1945) described the establishment of commodity money in P.O.W camps.


title: Commodity money

text: Radford documented the way that this 'cigarette currency' was subject to Gresham's law, inflation, and especially deflation.


title: Commodity money

text: In another example, in US prisons after smoking was banned circa 2003, commodity money has switched in many places to containers of mackerel fish fillets, which have a fairly standard cost and are easy to store. These may be exchanged for many services in prisons where currency is prohibited.


title: Commodity money

text: In metallic currencies, a government mint will coin money by placing a mark on metal tokens, typically gold or silver, which serves as a guarantee of their weight and purity. In issuing this coinage at a face value higher than its costs, the government gains a profit known as seigniorage.


title: Commodity money

text: The role of a mint and of coin differs between commodity money and fiat money. In commodity money, the coin retains its value if it is melted and physically altered, while in a fiat money it does not. Usually, in a fiat money the value drops if the coin is converted to metal, but in a few cases the value of metals in fiat moneys have been allowed to rise to values larger than the face value of the coin. In India, for example fiat Rupees disappeared from the market after 2007 when their content of stainless steel became larger than the fiat or face value of the coins. In the US, the metal in pennies (97.5% zinc since 1982, 95% copper in 1982 and before) and nickels (75% copper, 25% nickel) has a value close to, and sometimes exceeding, the fiat face value of the coin.


title: Commodity money

text: Commodities often come into being in situations where other forms of money are not available or not trusted, and these are social norms.


title: Commodity money

text: Various commodities were used in pre-Revolutionary America including wampum (shell beads), maize (corn), iron nails, beaver pelts, and tobacco.


title: Commodity money

text: In Canada, where the Hudson's Bay Company and other fur trading companies controlled most of the country, fur traders quickly realized that gold and silver were of no interest to the First Nations. They wanted goods such as metal knives and axes. Rather than use a barter system, the fur traders established the made beaver (representing a single beaver pelt) as the standard currency, and created a price list for goods:


title: Commodity money

text: Other animal furs were convertible into beaver pelts at a standard rate as well, so this created a viable currency in an economy where precious metals were not valued. However, for convenience, Hudson's Bay post managers exchanged made beaver coins, which were stamped pieces of copper or brass.


title: Commodity money

text: Long after gold coins became rare in commerce, the Fort Knox gold repository of the United States functioned as a theoretical backing for Federal Reserve. Between 1933 and 1970 (when the U.S. officially left the gold standard), one U.S. dollar was technically worth exactly 1/35 of a troy ounce (889 mg) of gold. However, actual trade in gold bullion as a precious metal within the United States was banned after 1933, with the explicit purpose of preventing the "hoarding" of private gold during an economic depression period in which maximal circulation of money was desired by government policy. This was a fairly typical transition from commodity to representative to fiat money, with people trading in other goods being forced to trade in gold, then to receive paper money that purported to be "as good as gold," and finally a fiat currency backed by government authority and social perceptions of value.


title: Commodity money

text: Cigarettes and gasoline were used as a form of commodity money in some parts of Europe, including Germany, France and Belgium, in the immediate aftermath of World War II. They have continued to be used as currency in war-torn locations experiencing inadequate supply of common goods and monetary collapse, such as during the Siege of Sarajevo in 1993 or in Russian-occupied Kherson in 2022.


title: Commodity money

text: Although grains such as barley have been used historically in relations of trade and barter (Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC), they can be inconvenient as a medium of exchange or a standard of deferred payment due to transport and storage concerns and eventual spoilage. Gold or other metals are sometimes used in a price system as a durable, easily warehoused store of value (demurrage).


title: Commodity money

text: The use of barter-like methods using commodity money may date back to at least 100,000 years ago. Trading in red ochre is attested in Swaziland, shell jewellery in the form of strung beads also dates back to this period, and had the basic attributes needed of commodity money. To organize production and to distribute goods and services among their populations, before market economies existed, people relied on tradition, top-down command, or community cooperation. Relations of reciprocity, and/or redistribution, substituted for market exchange.


title: Commodity money

text: The city-states of Sumer developed a trade and market economy based originally on the commodity money of the Shekel, which was a certain weight measure of barley, while the Babylonians and their city-state neighbors later developed the earliest system of economics using a metric of various commodities, that was fixed in a legal code.


title: Commodity money

text: Several centuries after the invention of cuneiform script, the use of writing expanded beyond debt/payment certificates and inventory lists to codified amounts of commodity money being used in contract law, such as buying property and paying legal fines.


title: Commodity money

text: Today, the face value of specie and base-metal coins is set by government fiat, and it is only this value which must be legally accepted as payment for debt, in the jurisdiction of the government which declares the coin to be legal tender. The value of the precious metal in the coin may give it another value, but this varies over time. The value of the metal is subject to bilateral agreement, just as is the case with pure metals or commodities which had not been monetized by any government. As an example, gold and silver coins from other non-U.S. countries are specifically exempted in U.S. law from being legal tender for the payment of debts in the United States, so that a seller who refuses to accept them cannot be sued by the payer who offers them to settle a debt. However, nothing prevents such arrangements from being made if both parties agree on a value for the coins.


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: In homeopathy, homeopathic dilution (known by practitioners as "dynamisation" or "potentisation") is a process in which a substance is diluted with alcohol or distilled water and then vigorously shaken in a process called "succussion". Insoluble solids, such as quartz and oyster shell, are diluted by grinding them with lactose ("trituration"). The founder of homeopathy, Samuel Hahnemann (1755–1843), asserted that the process of succussion activated the "vital energy" of the diluted substance, and that successive dilutions increased the "potency" of the preparation, although other strands of homeopathy (such as Schuessler's) disagreed.


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: The concept is pseudoscience because, at commonly used dilutions, no molecules of the original material are likely to remain. Therefore high homeopathic dilutions must be distinguished from low dilutions where there can be an overlap with herbal medicine.


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: The founder of homeopathy, Samuel Hahnemann found that undiluted doses caused reactions, sometimes dangerous ones, so specified that preparations be given at the lowest possible dose. To counter the reduced potency at high dilutions he formed the view that vigorous shaking by striking on an elastic surface – a process termed "succussion" – was necessary. It has been said that Hahnemann came to this conclusion after deciding preparations subjected to agitation in transit, such as in saddle bags or in a carriage, were more "potent". Hahnemann had a saddle-maker construct a special wooden striking board covered in leather on one side and stuffed with horsehair. The process of dilution and succussion is termed "dynamization" or "potentization" by homeopaths. In industrial manufacture this may be done by machine. There are differences of opinion on the number and force of strikes, and some practitioners dispute the need for succussion at all. There are no laboratory assays and the importance and techniques for succussion cannot be determined with any certainty from the literature.


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: Three main logarithmic dilution scales are in regular use in homeopathy. Hahnemann created the "centesimal" or "C scale", diluting a substance by a factor of 100 at each stage. There is also a decimal dilution scale (notated as "X" or "D") in which the preparation is diluted by a factor of 10 at each stage. The centesimal scale was favoured by Hahnemann for most of his life, although in his last ten years Hahnemann developed a quintamillesimal (Q) scale which diluted the drug 1 part in 50,000 The greatest dilution reasonably likely to contain at least one molecule of the original substance is around 12C.


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: A 2C dilution requires a substance to be diluted to one part in one hundred, and then some of that diluted solution diluted by a further factor of one hundred. This works out to one part of the original substance in 10,000 parts of the solution.


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: A 6C dilution repeats this process six times, ending up with the original material diluted by a factor of 100=10. Higher dilutions follow the same pattern. In homeopathy, a solution that is more dilute is described as having a higher "potency", and more dilute substances are considered by homeopaths to be stronger and deeper-acting. The end product is often so diluted that it is indistinguishable from the dilutant (typically ethanol or pure water for liquids, milk sugar for insoluble solids).


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: Hahnemann advocated 30C dilutions for most purposes (that is, dilution by a factor of 10). Hahnemann regularly used dilutions up to 300C but opined that "there must be a limit to the matter". A solution that is more dilute is described as having a higher "potency", and more dilute substances are considered by homeopaths to be stronger and deeper-acting. In Hahnemann's time it was reasonable to assume that preparations could be diluted indefinitely, as the concept of the atom or molecule as the smallest possible unit of a chemical substance was just beginning to be recognized. We now know that the greatest dilution that is reasonably likely to contain one molecule of the original substance is 12C, if starting from 1 mole of original substance (see "Avogadro constant" for justification).


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: Some homeopaths developed a decimal scale (D or X), diluting the substance to ten times its original volume each stage. The D or X scale dilution is therefore half that of the same value of the C scale; for example, "12X" is the same level of dilution as "6C". Hahnemann never used this scale but it was very popular throughout the 19th century and still is in Europe. This potency scale appears to have been introduced in the 1830s by the American homeopath Constantine Hering. In the last ten years of his life, Hahnemann also developed a quintamillesimal (Q) or LM scale diluting the drug 1 part in 50,000 parts of diluent. A given dilution on the Q scale is roughly 2.35 times its designation on the C scale. For example, a preparation described as "20Q" has about the same concentration as one described with "47C".


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: Potencies of 1000C and above are usually labelled with Roman numeral M and with the centesimal 'C' indicator implied (since all such high potencies are centesimal dilutions): 1M = 1000C; 10M = 10,000C; CM = 100,000C; LM (which would indicate 50,000C) is typically not used because of confusion with the LM potency scale.


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: The following table is a synopsis comparing the X and C dilution scales and equating them by equivalent dilution. However, the homeopathic understanding of its principles is not explained by dilution but by "potentisation", hence one can not assume that the different potencies can be equated on the basis of equivalence of dilution factors.


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: Serial dilution of a solution results, after each dilution step, in fewer molecules of the original substance per litre of solution. Eventually, a solution will be diluted beyond any likelihood of finding a single molecule of the original substance in a litre of the total dilution product. The "Korsakovian" method may also be used. In the Korsakovian method the vessel in which the preparations are manufactured is emptied, refilled with solvent, with the volume of fluid adhering to the walls of the vessel deemed sufficient for the new batch. The Korsakovian method is sometimes referred to as K on the label of a homeopathic preparation. Another method is Fluxion, which dilutes the substance by continuously passing water through the vial. Insoluble solids, such as granite, diamond, and platinum, are diluted by grinding them with lactose ("trituration").


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: If one begins with a solution of 1 mol/L of a substance, the dilution required to reduce the number of molecules to less than one per litre is 1 part in 1×10 (24X or 12C) since:


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: Homeopathic dilutions beyond this limit (equivalent to approximately 12C) are unlikely to contain even a single molecule of the original substance and lower dilutions contain no detectable amount. ISO 3696 (Water for analytical laboratory use) specifies a purity of ten parts per billion, or 10×10 ― this water cannot be kept in glass or plastic containers as they leach impurities into the water, and glassware must be washed with hydrofluoric acid before use. Ten parts per billion is equivalent to a homeopathic dilution of 4C.


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: Critics and advocates of homeopathy alike commonly attempt to illustrate the dilutions involved in homeopathy with analogies.


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: An example given states that a 12C solution is equivalent to a "pinch of salt in both the North and South Atlantic Oceans", which is approximately correct. One-third of a drop of some original substance diluted into all the water on earth would produce a preparation with a concentration of about 13C.


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: A popular homeopathic treatment for the flu is a 200C dilution of duck liver, marketed under the name "Oscillococcinum". As there are only about 10 atoms in the entire observable universe, a dilution of one molecule in the observable universe would be about 40C. Oscillococcinum would thus require 10 times more atoms to simply have one molecule in the final substance.


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: Another illustration of dilutions used in common homeopathic preparations involves comparing a homeopathic dilution to dissolving the therapeutic substance in a swimming pool. There are on the order of 10 molecules of water in an Olympic-size swimming pool and if such a pool were filled entirely with a 15C homeopathic preparation, to have a 63% chance of consuming at least one molecule of the original substance, one would need to swallow 1% of the volume of such a pool, or roughly 25 metric tonnes of water.


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: The high dilutions characteristically used are often considered to be the most controversial and implausible aspect of homeopathy.


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: Homeopaths maintain that this water retains some "essential property" of the original material, because the preparation has been shaken after each dilution. Hahnemann believed that the dynamisation or shaking of the solution caused a "spirit-like" healing force to be released from within the substance. Even though the homeopathic preparations are often extremely diluted, homeopaths maintain that a healing force is retained by these homeopathic preparations. Modern advocates of homeopathy have proposed a concept of "water memory", according to which water "remembers" the substances mixed in it, and transmits the effect of those substances when consumed. This concept is inconsistent with the current understanding of matter, and water memory has never been demonstrated to have any detectable effect, biological or otherwise. The claim often given to support "water memory" is that science does not fully understand water. In fact a great deal is known about the structure and properties of liquid water, from both theoretical and experimental studies, because of its importance in biochemistry, its relative molecular simplicity and the quantum mechanical nature of hydrogen bonding which make it a popular substance to study in theoretical chemistry. The actual memory of water can be measured experimentally and is found to be around 50 femtoseconds, which is 0.00000000000005 seconds. Generally considered to be pseudoscience by the scientific community, one disputed study into the so-called memory of water, conducted by Jacques Benveniste, claims to have demonstrated that water can be energetically imprinted upon. Another such study, published in 2003 by Swiss chemist Louis Rey, claims to have found that homeopathically diluted solutions of sodium chloride and lithium chloride have a very different hydrogen bond structure from normal water, as measured by thermoluminescence.


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: Not all homeopaths advocate extremely high dilutions. Many of the early homeopaths were originally doctors and generally used lower dilutions such as "3X" or "6X", rarely going beyond "12X"; these dilution ("trituration") levels were still popular in the late 20th century with advocates of Wilhelm Heinrich Schüßler's 12 biochemic tissue salts, for example. The split between lower and higher dilutions followed ideological lines. Those favoring low dilutions stressed pathology and a strong link to conventional medicine, while those favoring high dilutions emphasised vital force, miasms and a spiritual interpretation of disease.


title: Homeopathic dilutions

text: Some products with both low and high dilutions continue to be sold, but like their counterparts, they have not been conclusively demonstrated to have any effect when tested against placebo.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: Dunnottar Castle (, "fort on the shelving slope") is a ruined medieval fortress located upon a rocky headland on the north-eastern coast of Scotland, about south of Stonehaven. The surviving buildings are largely of the 15th and 16th centuries, but the site is believed to have been fortified in the Early Middle Ages. Dunnottar has played a prominent role in the history of Scotland through to the 18th-century Jacobite risings because of its strategic location and defensive strength.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: Dunnottar is best known as the place where the Honours of Scotland, the Scottish crown jewels, were hidden from Oliver Cromwell's invading army in the 17th century. The property of the Keiths from the 14th century, and the seat of the Earl Marischal, Dunnottar declined after the last Earl forfeited his titles by taking part in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715. The castle was restored in the 20th century and is now open to the public.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: The ruins of the castle are spread over , surrounded by steep cliffs that drop to the North Sea, below. A narrow strip of land joins the headland to the mainland, along which a steep path leads up to the gatehouse. The various buildings within the castle include the 14th-century tower house as well as the 16th-century palace. Dunnottar Castle is a scheduled monument, and twelve structures on the site were listed buildings.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: A chapel at Dunnottar is said to have been founded by St Ninian in the 5th century, although it is not clear when the site was first fortified, but in any case the legend is late and highly implausible. Possibly the earliest written reference to the site is found in the "Annals of Ulster" which record two sieges of 'Dún Foither' in 681 and 694. The earlier event has been interpreted as an attack by Brude, the Pictish king of Fortriu, to extend his power over the north-east coast of Scotland. The "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba" records that King Donald II of Scotland, the first ruler to be called "rí Alban" (King of Alba), was killed at Dunnottar during an attack by Vikings in 900. The English king Æthelstan led a force into Scotland in 934, and raided as far north as Dunnottar according to the account of Symeon of Durham.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: W. D. Simpson speculated that a motte might lie under the present castle, but excavations in the 1980s failed to uncover substantive evidence of early medieval fortification. The discovery of a group of Pictish stones at Dunnicaer, a nearby sea stack, has prompted speculation that Dún Foither was actually located on the adjacent headland of Bowduns, to the north.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: During the reign of King William the Lion (ruled 1165–1214) Dunnottar was a centre of local administration for The Mearns. The castle is named in the "Roman de Fergus", an early 13th-century Arthurian romance, in which the hero Fergus must travel to Dunnottar to retrieve a magic shield. In May 1276 a church on the site was consecrated by William Wishart, Bishop of St Andrews. The poet Blind Harry relates that William Wallace captured Dunnottar from the English in 1297, during the Wars of Scottish Independence. He is said to have imprisoned 4,000 defeated English soldiers in the church and burned them alive.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: In 1336 Edward III of England ordered William Sinclair, 8th Baron of Roslin, to sail eight ships to the partially ruined Dunnottar for the purpose of rebuilding and fortifying the site as a forward resupply base for his northern campaign. Sinclair took with him 160 soldiers, horses, and a corps of masons and carpenters. Edward himself visited in July, but the English efforts were undone before the end of the year when the Scottish Regent Sir Andrew Murray led a force that captured and again destroyed the defences of Dunnottar.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: In the 14th century, Dunnottar was granted to William de Moravia, 5th Earl of Sutherland (d.1370), and in 1346 a licence to crenellate was issued by David II. Around 1359 William Keith, Marischal of Scotland, married Margaret Fraser, niece of Robert the Bruce, and was granted the barony of Dunnottar at this time. Keith then gave the lands of Dunnottar to his daughter Christian and son-in-law William Lindsay of Byres, but in 1392 an excambion (exchange) was agreed whereby Keith regained Dunnottar and Lindsay took lands in Fife. William Keith completed construction of the tower house at Dunnottar, but was excommunicated for building on the consecrated ground associated with the parish church. Keith had provided a new parish church closer to Stonehaven, but was forced to write to the Pope, Benedict XIII, who issued a bull in 1395 lifting the excommunication. William Keith's descendants were made Earls Marischal in the mid 15th century, and they held Dunottar until the 18th century.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: James IV came to Dunnotar on 15 October 1504. A child played a musical instrument called a monochord for him, and he gave money to poor people. The king had brought his Italian minstrels and an African drummer, known as the "More taubronar".


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: Through the 16th century, the Keiths improved and expanded their principal seats: at Dunnottar and also at Keith Marischal in East Lothian. James IV visited Dunnottar in 1504, and in 1531 James V exempted the Earl's men from military service on the grounds that Dunnottar was one of the "principall strenthis of our realme". Mary, Queen of Scots, visited in 1562 after the Battle of Corrichie, and returned in 1564. James VI stayed for 10 days in 1580, as part of his progress through Fife and Angus, during which a meeting of the Privy Council was convened at Dunnottar. King James came again on 17 April 1589 and spent the night at Cowie watching for the Catholic rebel earls of Huntly and Erroll. During the rebellion of Catholic nobles in 1592, Dunnottar was captured by Captain Carr on behalf of the Earl of Huntly, but was restored to Lord Marischal just a few weeks later.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: In 1581 George Keith succeeded as 5th Earl Marischal, and began a large-scale reconstruction that saw the medieval fortress converted into a more comfortable home. As the founder of Marischal College in Aberdeen, the 5th Earl valued Dunnottar as much for its dramatic situation as for its security. A "palace" comprising a series of ranges around a quadrangle was built on the north-eastern cliffs, creating luxurious living quarters with sea views. The 13th-century chapel was restored and incorporated into the quadrangle. An impressive stone gatehouse was constructed, now known as Benholm's Lodging, featuring numerous gun ports facing the approach. Although impressive, these are likely to have been fashionable embellishments rather than genuine defensive features. The earl had a suite of 'Samson' tapestries which may have represented his religious outlook.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: In 1639 William Keith, 7th Earl Marischal, came out in support of the Covenanters, a Presbyterian movement who opposed the established Episcopal Church and the changes which Charles I was attempting to impose. With James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose, he marched against the Catholic James Gordon, 2nd Viscount Aboyne, Earl of Huntly, and defeated an attempt by the Royalists to seize Stonehaven. However, when Montrose changed sides to the Royalists and marched north, Marischal remained in Dunnottar, even when given command of the area by Parliament, and even when Montrose burned Stonehaven.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: Marischal then joined with the Engager faction, who had made a deal with the king, and led a troop of horse to the Battle of Preston (1648) in support of the royalists. Following the execution of Charles I in 1649, the Engagers gave their allegiance to his son and heir. Charles II was proclaimed king, arriving in Scotland in June 1650. He visited Dunnottar in July 1650, but his presence in Scotland prompted Oliver Cromwell to lead a force into Scotland, defeating the Scots at Dunbar in September 1650.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: Charles II was crowned at Scone Palace on 1 January 1651, at which the Honours of Scotland (the regalia of crown, sword and sceptre) were used. However, with Cromwell's troops in Lothian, the honours could not be returned to Edinburgh. The Earl Marischal, as Marischal of Scotland, had formal responsibility for the honours, and in June the Privy Council duly decided to place them at Dunnottar. They were brought to the castle by Katherine Drummond, hidden in sacks of wool. Sir George Ogilvie (or Ogilvy) of Barras was appointed lieutenant-governor of the castle, and given responsibility for its defence.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: In November 1651, Cromwell's troops called on Ogilvie to surrender, but he refused. During the subsequent blockade of the castle, the removal of the Honours of Scotland was planned by Elizabeth Douglas, wife of Sir George Ogilvie, and Christian Fletcher, wife of James Granger, minister of Kinneff Parish Church. The king's papers were first removed from the castle by Anne Lindsay, a kinswoman of Elizabeth Douglas, who walked through the besieging force with the papers sewn into her clothes. Two stories exist regarding the removal of the honours themselves. Fletcher stated in 1664 that over the course of three visits to the castle in February and March 1652, she carried away the crown, sceptre, sword and sword case hidden amongst sacks of goods. Another account, given in the 18th century by a tutor to the Earl Marischal, records that the honours were lowered from the castle onto the beach, where they were collected by Fletcher's servant and carried off in a creel (basket) of seaweed. Having smuggled the honours from the castle, Fletcher and her husband buried them under the floor of the Old Kirk at Kinneff.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: Meanwhile, by May 1652 the commander of the blockade, Colonel Thomas Morgan, had taken delivery of the artillery necessary for the reduction of Dunnottar. Ogilvie surrendered on 24 May, on condition that the garrison could go free. Finding the honours gone, the Cromwellians imprisoned Ogilvie and his wife in the castle until the following year, when a false story was put about suggesting that the honours had been taken overseas. Much of the castle property was removed, including twenty-one brass cannons, and Marischal was required to sell further lands and possessions to pay fines imposed by Cromwell's government.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: At the Restoration of Charles II in 1660, the honours were removed from Kinneff Church and returned to the king. Ogilvie quarrelled with Marischal's mother over who would take credit for saving the honours, though he was eventually rewarded with a baronetcy. Fletcher was awarded 2,000 merks by Parliament but the sum was never paid.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: Religious and political conflicts continued to be played out at Dunnottar through the 17th and early 18th centuries. In 1685, during the rebellion of the Earl of Argyll against the new king James VII, 167 Covenanters were seized and held in a cellar at Dunnottar. The prisoners included 122 men and 45 women associated with the Whigs, an anti-Royalist group within the Covenanter movement, and had refused to take an oath of allegiance to the new king. The Whigs were imprisoned from May 24 until late July. A group of 25 escaped, although two of these were killed in a fall from the cliffs, and another 15 were recaptured. Five prisoners died in the vault, and 37 of the Whigs were released after taking the oath of allegiance. The remaining prisoners were transported to Perth Amboy, New Jersey, as part of a colonisation scheme devised by George Scot of Pitlochie. Many, like Scot himself, died on the voyage. The cellar, located beneath the "King's Bedroom" in the 16th-century castle buildings, has since become known as the "Whigs' Vault".


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: Both the Jacobites (supporters of the exiled Stuarts) and the Hanoverians (supporters of George I and his descendants) used Dunnottar Castle. In 1689 during Viscount Dundee's campaign in support of the deposed James VII, the castle was garrisoned for William III and Mary II with Lord Marischal appointed captain. Seventeen suspected Jacobites from Aberdeen were seized and held in the fortress for around three weeks, including George Liddell, professor of mathematics at Marischal College. In the Jacobite Rising of 1715 George Keith, 10th Earl Marischal, took an active role with the rebels, leading cavalry at the Battle of Sheriffmuir. After the subsequent abandonment of the rising Lord Marischal fled to the Continent, eventually becoming French ambassador for Frederick the Great of Prussia. Meanwhile, in 1716, his titles and estates including Dunnottar were declared forfeit to the crown.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: The seized estates of the Earl Marischal were purchased in 1720 for £41,172, by the York Buildings Company who dismantled much of the castle. In 1761 the Earl briefly returned to Scotland and bought back Dunnottar only to sell it five years later to Alexander Keith (1736–1819), an Edinburgh lawyer who served as Knight Marischal of Scotland. Dunnottar was held by Alexander Keith then his son, Sir Alexander Keith (1768–1832) before being inherited in 1852 by Sir Patrick Keith-Murray of Ochtertyre, who in turn sold it in July 1873 to Major Alexander Innes of Cowie and Raemoir for about £80,000. It was purchased by Weetman Pearson, 1st Viscount Cowdray, in 1925, after which his wife embarked on a programme of repairs. Since that time the castle has remained in the family, and has been open to the public, attracting 52,500 visitors in 2009.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: Dunnottar Castle, and the headland on which is stands, was designated as a Scheduled monument in 1970.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: In 1972 twelve of the structures at Dunnottar were listed. Three buildings were listed at category A as being of "national importance": the keep; the entrance gateway; and Benholm's Lodging. The remaining listings were at category B as being of "regional importance". However, in 2018 the listed status for these buildings was removed as part of Historic Environment Scotlands "Dual Designation 2A Project".


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: The Hon. Charles Anthony Pearson, the younger son of the 3rd Viscount Cowdray, currently owns and runs Dunnottar Castle which is part of the Dunecht Estates. Portions of the 1990 film "Hamlet", starring Mel Gibson and Glenn Close, were shot there.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: Dunnottar's strategic location allowed its owners to control the coastal terrace between the North Sea cliffs and the hills of the Mounth, inland, which enabled access to and from the north-east of Scotland. The site is accessed via a steep, footpath (with modern staircases) from a car park on the coastal road, or via a cliff-top path from Stonehaven.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: Dunnottar's several buildings, put up between the 13th and 17th centuries, are arranged across a headland covering around . The dominant building, viewed from the land approach, is the 14th-century keep or tower house. The other principal buildings are the gatehouse; the chapel; and the 16th-century "palace" which incorporates the "Whigs' Vault".


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: The approach to the castle is overlooked by outworks on the "Fiddle Head", a promontory on the western side of the headland. The entrance is through the well-defended main gate, set in a curtain wall which entirely blocks a cleft in the rocky cliffs. The gate has a portcullis and has been partly blocked up. Alongside the main gate is the 16th-century Benholm's Lodging, a five-storey building cut into the rock, which incorporated a prison with apartments above. Three tiers of gun ports face outwards from the lower floors of Benholm's Lodging, while inside the main gate, a group of four gun ports face the entrance. The entrance passage then turns sharply to the left, running underground through two tunnels to emerge near the tower house.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: Simpson contends that these defences are "without exception the strongest in Scotland", although later writers have doubted the effectiveness of the gun ports. Cruden notes that the alignment of the gun ports in Benholm's Lodging, facing across the approach rather than along, means that they are of limited efficiency. The practicality of the gun ports facing the entrance has also been questioned, though an inventory of 1612 records that four brass cannons were placed here.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: A second access to the castle leads up from a rocky cove, the aperture to a marine cave on the northern side of the Dunnottar cliffs into which a small boat could be brought. From here a steep path leads to the well-fortified postern gate on the cliff-top, which in turn offers access to the castle via the Water Gate in the palace. Artillery defences, taking the form of earthworks, surround the north-west corner of the castle, facing inland, and the south-east, facing seaward. A small sentry box or guard house stands by the eastern battery, overlooking the coast.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: The late 14th-century tower house has a stone-vaulted basement, and originally had three further storeys and a garret above. Measuring , the tower house stood high to its gable. The principal rooms included a great hall and a private chamber for the lord, with bedrooms upstairs. Beside the tower house is a storehouse, and a blacksmith's forge with a large chimney. A stable block is ranged along the southern edge of the headland. Nearby is Waterton's Lodging, also known as the Priest's House, built around 1574, possibly for the use of William Keith (died 1580), son of the 4th Earl Marischal. This small self-contained house includes a hall and kitchen at ground level, with private chambers above, and has a projecting spiral stair on the north side. It is named for Thomas Forbes of Waterton, an attendant of the 7th Earl.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: The palace, to the north-east of the headland, was built in the late 16th century and early to mid-17th century. It comprises three main wings set out around a quadrangle, and for the most part is probably the work of the 5th Earl Marischal who succeeded in 1581. It provided extensive and comfortable accommodation to replace the rooms in the tower house. In its long, low design it has been compared to contemporary English buildings, in contrast to the Scottish tradition of taller towers still prevalent in the 16th century.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: Seven identical lodgings are arranged along the west range, each opening onto the quadrangle and including windows and fireplaces. Above the lodgings of the west range comprised a gallery. Now roofless, the gallery originally had an elaborate oak ceiling, and on display was a Roman tablet taken from the Antonine Wall. At the north end of the gallery was a drawing room linked to the north range. The gallery could also be accessed from the Silver House to the south, which incorporated a broad stairway with a treasury above.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: The basement of the north range incorporates kitchens and stores, with a dining room and great chamber above. At ground floor level is the Water Gate, between the north and west ranges, which gives access to the postern on the northern cliffs. The east and north ranges are linked via a rectangular stair. The east range has a larder, brewhouse and bakery at ground level, with a suite of apartments for the countess above. A north-east wing contains the Earl's apartments, and includes the "King's Bedroom" in which Charles II stayed. In this room is a carved stone inscribed with the arms of the 7th Earl and his wife, and the date 1645. Below these rooms is the Whigs' Vault, a cellar measuring . This cellar, in which the Covenanters were held in 1685, has a large eastern window, as well as a lower vault accessed via a trapdoor in the floor. Of the chambers in the palace, only the dining room and the Silver House remain roofed, having been restored in the 1920s.


title: Dunnottar Castle

text: The central area contains a circular cistern or fish pond, across and deep, and a bowling green is located to the west. At the south-east corner of the quadrangle is the chapel, consecrated in 1276 and largely rebuilt in the 16th century. Medieval walling and two 13th-century windows remain, and there is a graveyard to the south.


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: Michael Stanton Jeffries (born ) is an American businessman who served as CEO of clothing retailer Abercrombie & Fitch from 1992 to 2014. During Jeffries' tenure, Abercrombie & Fitch grew from a "fashion backwater" losing $25 million yearly to a lifestyle brand grossing $2 billion yearly by 2006. Despite Jeffries' success, he received significant criticism for using semi-nude models in his company's advertising, selling clothes with racially and sexually off-color slogans, and his candid stance that Abercrombie & Fitch markets solely to the "cool kids."


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: Jeffries grew up in Los Angeles, the son of Donald R. Jeffries, who owned a chain of party supply stores. Jeffries attended Claremont Men's College and the London School of Economics before receiving an MBA from Columbia Business School in 1968. In 1971, Jeffries married Susan Hansen, and they have a grown son.


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: In 1968, Jeffries joined the management training program at Abraham & Straus, a now-defunct New York City department store. During this time Jeffries worked along with Allen Questrom (of J.C. Penney) and Mickey Drexler (the previous CEO of Gap Inc., who now works at J. Crew).


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: In 1984, Jeffries founded Alcott & Andrews, a brand targeted at career women. The brand was initially successful, but in 1989 it fell into bankruptcy due to overexpansion, and closed. Afterward, Jeffries took a position at Paul Harris, a Midwest clothing chain.


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: Jeffries was hired in 1992 by Les Wexner (CEO of LBrands, then named The Limited) to invigorate Abercrombie & Fitch. The company, founded in 1892, had been purchased by Limited Brands in 1988 after bankruptcy. Jeffries is considered to have been the main creator of the new look for the company.


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: It was rebuilt as an upscale apparel retailer for the collegiate, and by the mid-1990s, Abercrombie & Fitch had opened dozens of new stores. By 1996, LBrands was no longer heavily involved with the company, and eventually left it under the management of Jeffries.


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: During this time, A&F has attracted controversy from different groups such as the feminist movement and the American Decency Association, and a number of lawsuits. An outspoken businessman, Jeffries has been quoted making statements in the press that can be considered controversial. Such comments include his assertion that "We hire good-looking people in our stores. Because good-looking people attract other good-looking people, and we want to market to cool, good-looking people. We don't market to anyone other than that."


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: In 2004, he made approximately $25 million USD with a "stay bonus" of US$6 million, which dropped from $12 million after a controversy involving his "excessive compensation". After surveying 2,000 US corporations, the Corporate Library named Jeffries as the "Highest Paid Worst Performer" of 2008, after he received a compensation package valued at $71.8 million. Jeffries refused to lower prices or offer discounts at Abercrombie & Fitch stores during the retail recession until September 2009, after the company posted same store sales losses for 17 consecutive months. Jeffries' employment agreement was set to expire December 31, 2008. On December 22, 2008, A&F corporate announced that it had been renewed. It expired on February 22, 2014.


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: After a slump in 2008 due to the financial crisis of 2007–2008, sales recovered in 2011. His total compensation in 2011 was estimated at $46,609,075, most of this being in the form of stock options.


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: , Jeffries owned about 2.9% of the company's shares, making him difficult to remove without his consent. At that time, his recent contract called for a payout of over one hundred million dollars should he lose his job due to an ownership change.


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: On December 9, 2013, it was reported Jeffries had agreed to a new contract with A&F that would tie his pay to company performance. Also in December, market commentator Herb Greenberg named Jeffries the worst CEO of 2013. Greenberg pointed out that the share price for Abercrombie and Fitch had collapsed by 40% during the year. This was after Jim Cramer of CNBC had earlier named Jeffries to his "Wall of Shame".


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: Jeffries was once one of the best-paid CEOs in retail but he saw his compensation shrink 72 percent in 2013. His total pay was $2.24 million in the fiscal year of 2013, which ended February 1. That was down from $8.16 million in the previous year and $48.1 million before that.


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: On December 9, 2014, Jeffries stepped down as A&F CEO amid mass criticism of the company's performance and 11 straight quarters of negative company comparable-store sales. The shares jumped 8 percent after the move was announced, marking the biggest one-day gain in more than nine months.


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: In 2022, Jeffries' leadership of A&F was the subject of a Netflix documentary, "," which focused on Jeffries' transformation of A&F into an "avatar of exclusivity and soft-core sex appeal." The film's focus is the buildup to a 2003 class-action lawsuit against the company.


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: "Salon.com" has stated that Jeffries is a "gay man" and that he lives separately from his wife. As of 2013, Jeffries was reported to be living with his partner, Matthew Smith and three dogs. Smith headed the Jeffries Family Office, an Ohio limited liability corporation that "advocates for the personal interests of Abercrombie's CEO." Smith also reviewed internal Abercrombie & Fitch documents and consulted on real estate matters. His involvement with Abercrombie & Fitch was criticized in some quarters as an example of poor corporate governance, since he held no official position in the company. Smith's presence was a factor in Jeffries being ousted as CEO of Abercrombie & Fitch in 2014.


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: In a 2006 interview with "Salon", Jeffries stated that his clothing line was exclusively for "cool" people. Moreover, he has said he did not want overweight or unattractive people to wear his clothes. The comments, which came to light in 2013, drew negative publicity and criticism for the company. Jeffries issued a public apology on May 15, 2013, stating that "We are completely opposed to any discrimination, bullying, derogatory characterizations or other anti-social behavior based on race, gender, body type or other individual characteristics".


title: Mike Jeffries (CEO)

text: In October 2012, Bloomberg News first reported on Jeffries' standards for his cabin crew on Abercrombie's Gulfstream G-V Jet, used by Jeffries, Smith and their dogs. The male models who work as stewards aboard the company jet were required to wear Abercrombie-branded polos, jeans, boxer briefs and flip-flops as part of their uniform, as well as a "spritz" of cologne. This information then came to light as a result of a lawsuit that claimed Jeffries fired his own jet pilot in order to replace him with a much younger man. The suit was quickly settled out of court when Jeffries was ordered to testify by the presiding judge. Male house staff for Jeffries, paid for by the Jeffries Family Office, were provided by the same modeling firm that supplies male staff for the company jet.


title: No Vaseline

text: "No Vaseline" is a diss track by American rapper Ice Cube from his 1991 album "Death Certificate". The song was written and produced by Ice Cube and Sir Jinx.


title: No Vaseline

text: The UK release of "Death Certificate" omitted this song, along with the 46-second long "Black Korea".


title: No Vaseline

text: The song contains vicious lyrics and remarks towards Ice Cube's former group, N.W.A, which Ice Cube left in December 1989 due to royalty issues. The antagonists are his former bandmates, Eazy-E, Dr. Dre, MC Ren, DJ Yella and their manager, Jerry Heller, whom Ice Cube blames for causing the rift in the group.


title: No Vaseline

text: Ice Cube recorded this song in response to the comments N.W.A made towards him in their albums "100 Miles and Runnin'" and "Niggaz4Life". He had made some brief disses to N.W.A. in the "Kill at Will" EP, mocking the phrase "hundred miles and running" on "Jackin' for Beats" and ending "I Gotta Say What Up!!!" with an answer-phone message asking what had happened to the other members of the group, which leads to Ice Cube hanging up on the caller.


title: No Vaseline

text: The first minute of the song is a reference to N.W.A's "Message to B.A.", in which they call Ice Cube "Benedict Arnold" as well as an "Ice-T wannabe". Ice Cube then begins his full-blown diss on the group and their manager, Jerry Heller.


title: No Vaseline

text: Ice Cube addresses Eazy-E and Heller, employing particularly harsh words to criticize Eazy's decision to align himself with Heller: "Heard you both got the same bank account / Dumb nigga, What you thinkin' 'bout?". He uses homophobic and antisemitic slurs as he accuses both Eazy-E and Heller of unfairly exploiting the rest of the group: "You little maggot, Eazy E turned faggot / With your manager, fella -- fuckin' MC Ren, Dr. Dre, and Yella" and "It's a case of divide and conquer, 'cause you let a Jew break up my crew", and, finally, he claims that this alliance has reduced Eazy's credibility: "house nigga gotta run and hide, yellin' Compton but you moved to Riverside".


title: No Vaseline

text: Heller is not simply dissed as being a bad manager; he is given an antisemitic death-threat: "Get rid of that Devil real simple / Put a bullet in his temple / ’Cause you can’t be the Nigga 4 Life crew / With a white Jew telling you what to do / Pulling wools with your scams / Now I gotta play "Silence of the Lambs"." "A bullet in his temple" is a double-entendre, referring both to a fatal shot to Heller's head and also to a shooting at a Jewish temple or house of worship; the movie "The Silence of the Lambs" is about a killer.


title: No Vaseline

text: Ice Cube continues the homophobic slurs as he refers to his decision to leave Ruthless Records: "Lookin' like straight bozos, I saw it comin', that's why I went solo ... You got jealous when I got my own company. But I'm a man, and ain't nobody humpin' me."


title: No Vaseline

text: Politically, Ice Cube also references Eazy's appearance at a lunch benefiting the Republican Senatorial inner circle, hosted by then-President George H. W. Bush, repeatedly saying, "I never have dinner with the President."


title: No Vaseline

text: The song appears on the "Death Row Greatest Hits" compilation album. Although the song was not released on Death Row Records, it is believed that Suge Knight included it as an act of animosity towards Dr. Dre as the song includes numerous disses towards him. "No Vaseline" was track number 20 in the track listing of "Death Certificate" and was the B-side for the album single "Steady Mobbin'".


title: No Vaseline

text: N.W.A never responded to the song as a group. Not long after the release, Dr. Dre left the group, citing lack of monetary compensation. This led to N.W.A's dissolution as its members went on to start their solo careers.


title: No Vaseline

text: In 1992, the implied death threat against Heller led Rabbi Abraham Cooper of the Los Angeles Jewish human rights organization, the Simon Wiesenthal Center, to observe, "We're not asking Ice Cube to mask the reality of the streets. By all means flag the social problems, but don't exploit them by turning a professional spat between a former manager and an artist into a racial dispute." "It's wrong for the rabbi to call me anti-Semitic," Cube responded. "I respect Jewish people because they're unified. I wish black people were as unified."


title: No Vaseline

text: In 1993 Dr. Dre and his protégé Snoop Dogg dissed Eazy-E in the song "Fuck wit Dre Day (and Everybody's Celebratin')" and also referenced Heller in the video, prompting Eazy-E to respond that same year with "Real Muthaphuckkin G's"


title: No Vaseline

text: In 2006 Jerry Heller's book "Ruthless: A Memoir", written with Gil Reavill, was published by Simon & Schuster/Simon Spotlight Entertainment. In it Heller mentioned the song "No Vaseline" and wrote that he didn't believe that Ice Cube was genuinely antisemitic, but that he had exploited prejudices in the African-American community to further his career.


title: No Vaseline

text: According to a 2013 interview with Ice Cube, when Eazy-E was close to death in 1995 from AIDS, Cube and Dre visited Eazy in the hospital. Cube stated Dre claimed that Eazy was unconscious. Cube left the hospital without seeing Eazy and told Dre to call him when he woke up. Dre later called Cube and told him that Eazy had died.


title: No Vaseline

text: In 2022, Kanye West stated in an interview that Ice Cube's lyrics had "really influenced" him to "get on this antisemite vibe". Ice Cube responded by distancing himself from Ye's antisemitic remarks, tweeting, "I don’t know what Ye meant by his statements, you’re gonna have to ask him. I didn’t put the batteries in his back. Please leave my name out of all the antisemitic talk. I’m not antisemitic and never have been."


title: Crayola

text: Crayola LLC, formerly the Binney & Smith Company, is an American manufacturing company specializing in art supplies. It is known for its brand "Crayola" and best known for its crayons. The company is headquartered in Forks Township, Pennsylvania in the Lehigh Valley region of the state. Since 1984, Crayola has been a wholly owned subsidiary of Hallmark Cards.


title: Crayola

text: Originally an industrial pigment supply company, Crayola soon shifted its focus to art products for home and school use, beginning with chalk, then crayons, followed later by colored pencils, markers, paints, modeling clay, and other related goods. All Crayola-branded products are marketed as nontoxic and safe for use by children. Most Crayola crayons are manufactured in the United States.


title: Crayola

text: Crayola also produces Silly Putty and a line of professional art products under the 'Portfolio Series brand', including acrylics, watercolor, tempera, and brushes.


title: Crayola

text: Crayola, LLC claims the Crayola brand has 99% name recognition in U.S. consumer households, and says its products are marketed and sold in over 80 countries.


title: Crayola

text: The company was founded as Binney & Smith Company by cousins Edwin Binney and Charles Harold Smith in New York City in 1885. Initial products were colorants for industrial use, including red iron oxide pigments used in barn paint and carbon black chemicals used for making tires black and extending their useful lifespan. Binney & Smith's new process of creating inexpensive black colorants was entered into the chemistry industries competition at the 1900 Paris Exposition under the title "carbon gas blacks, lamp or oil blacks, 'Peerless' black" and earned the company a gold medal award in chemical and pharmaceutical arts. Also in 1900, the company added production of slate school pencils. Binney's experimentation with industrial materials, including slate waste, cement, and talc, led to the invention of the first dustless white chalk, for which the company won a gold medal at the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair.


title: Crayola

text: Initially formed as a partnership, Binney & Smith incorporated in 1902, and in that year Binney & Smith developed and introduced the Staonal marking crayon. Then Edwin Binney, working with his wife, Alice Stead Binney, developed his own famous product line of wax crayons beginning on June 10, 1903, which it sold under the brand name Crayola. The "Crayola" name was coined by Alice Binney who was a former schoolteacher. It comes from "craie" (French for "chalk") and "ola" for "oleaginous" or "oily." The suffix "-ola" was also popular in commercial use at the time, lending itself to products such as granola (1886), pianola (1901), Victrola (1905), Shinola (1907), and Mazola (1911). Crayola introduced its crayons not with one box, but with a full product line. By 1905, the line had expanded to offering 18 different-sized crayon boxes with five different-sized crayons, only two of which survive today—the "standard size" (a standard sized Crayola crayon is ) and the "large size" (large sized Crayola crayons are ). The product line offered crayon boxes containing 6, 7, 8, 12, 14, 16, 18, 24, 28, or 30 different color crayons. Some of these boxes were targeted for artists and contained crayons with no wrappers, while others had a color number printed on the wrapper that corresponded to a number on a list of color names printed inside the box lid, but some boxes contained crayons with their color names printed on their wrappers.


title: Crayola

text: The Rubens Crayola line, started in 1903, was directly targeted at artists and designed to compete with the Raphael brand of crayons from Europe. The crayon boxes sold from five cents for a No.6 Rubens box containing six different-colored crayons to $1.50 for the No. 500 Rubens Special Artists and Designers Crayon box containing 24 different-colored, larger () crayons.


title: Crayola

text: In April 1904 at the St. Louis World's Fair, Binney & Smith won the Golden Medal for their An-Du-Septic dustless chalk. Subsequently, Crayola used the opportunity to develop a new packaging strategy by emphasizing their gold medal on the front of many of their products and crayon boxes. This strategy turned out to be so successful and recognizable to their brand that they phased out nearly all of their other Crayola line box designs to adapt to the gold medal format, which appeared on their packaging for the next 50-plus years.


title: Crayola

text: In 1905, the prototype offering of their new No. 8 crayon box (with eight crayons) featured a copy from the side of the medal with an eagle on it. This was changed to the other side of the medal with the 1904 date on it in Roman numerals.


title: Crayola

text: Binney & Smith purchased the Munsell Color Company crayon product line in 1926, and inherited 22 new colors, 11 in the maximum and 11 in the middle hue ranges. They retained the Munsell name on products such as “Munsell-Crayola” and “Munsell-Perma” until 1934, and then incorporated their colors into their own Crayola Gold Medal line of boxes.


title: Crayola

text: In 1939, Crayola, by combining its existing crayon colors with the Munsell colors, introduced its largest color assortment product to date; a "No. 52 Drawing Crayon 52 Color Assortment", which was retired by the 1944 price list.


title: Crayola

text: In 1949, Crayola introduced the "Crayola No. 48" containing 48 color crayons in a non-hangable floor box.


title: Crayola

text: Further expansion took place in 1958 with the introduction of the 64-color pack that included the company's first crayon sharpener built into the box. The 64-color box was called "a watershed" moment in the history of the Crayola crayon by Smithsonian National Museum of American History curator David Shayt.


title: Crayola

text: The corporation became a publicly traded company under the symbol BYS on the American Stock Exchange in 1963, and later moved to the New York Stock Exchange under the same symbol in 1978.


title: Crayola

text: In 1977, Binney & Smith acquired the rights to Silly Putty, a stretchy, bouncy silicon rubber compound. Crayola markers were introduced in 1978 to coincide with the 75th anniversary of Crayola crayons. In 1984, the company was acquired by Hallmark Cards, a privately held corporation. Colored pencils and a line of washable markers were added in 1987.


title: Crayola

text: In August 1997, Crayola collaborated with Alliance Atlantis and the entertainment arm of Hallmark Cards to release three direct-to-video adaptations of famous children's novels under the name Crayola Kids Adventures.


title: Crayola

text: Crayola Crayons were inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame at The Strong in Rochester, New York, in 1998.


title: Crayola

text: On January 1, 2007, Binney & Smith reorganized as Crayola LLC, to reflect the company's number one brand.


title: Crayola

text: In 2015, Crayola announced "Color Escapes" for adults to help them relieve stress. The kit includes four collections, such as geometric, garden, natural, and kaleidoscope.


title: Crayola

text: Crayola crayon packs vary in package counts of just a few crayons sold to establishments such as hotels and restaurants, to hand out to their young guests, to 832-crayon "Classpack" bulk boxes marketed to schools. The colors contained in a package have ranged from two to 200 (although a 200-color package includes "special effect" crayons such as glitters, neons, etc.).


title: Crayola

text: The most common retail packages are multiples of eight, with 4, 8, 16, 24, 48, 64, 96, and 120 packs being marketed today. A 150-crayon pack featuring a plastic telescope-like case was introduced in 2006, and includes 118 regular color crayons, 16 glitter crayons, and 16 "Metallic FX" crayons, as well as a built-in sharpener at the apex of the tower. This was succeeded by a 152-crayon set in a plastic yellow carrying case in 2013, with all the colors from the 150-crayon set plus the standard colors Piggy Pink and Blue Bell.


title: Crayola

text: As the size of Crayola crayon packs increased from the original 1903 crayon packs, the variety of colors available has also increased—reaching 120 colors by 1998. Since 1998, new colors have been added, but always replacing existing colors. In all, 50 colors have been retired, bringing the total number of regular colors produced to 170. On March 31, 2017, Crayola announced that Dandelion would be retired. On September 14, 2017, the replacement color "Bluetiful" was announced. The color is reportedly a new hue realized after experiments done at Oregon State University. It was discovered while scientists were experimenting with electronics.


title: Crayola

text: According to Crayola, they currently manufacture 120 standard crayon colors which are all included in the regular 120-count box. This does not include specialty crayons like the Metallic FX, Gel FX and the glitter crayons, but does include fluorescent crayons.


title: Crayola

text: In 2020, Crayola introduced a new line of 24 colors named "Colors of the World" to reflect nearly 40 skin tones of people around the world. The box of these crayons will include a gradient skin tone label, and for the first time color names will be written in French, English, and Spanish.


title: Crayola

text: The Smithsonian National Museum of American History maintains a collection of Crayola crayons founded by an original 64-color box donated by Binney & Smith in 1998. The collection now includes more than 300 boxes of crayons.


title: Crayola

text: The Crayola crayon was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame as a founding member at its inception.


title: Crayola

text: Crayola has been featured in segments from the popular children's shows "Sesame Street" and "Mister Rogers' Neighborhood", with the official 100 billionth crayon molded by Fred Rogers himself in February 1996 at the plant in Easton.


title: Crayola

text: In 1998, the United States Postal Service issued a 32-cent postage stamp to commemorate the cultural impact the product has had on almost all Americans.


title: Crayola

text: The stamp is part of the 1900s decade sheet of the Celebrate the Century souvenir sheet series, and was designed by Carl Herrman, illustrated by Richard Waldrep and printed by Ashton-Potter USA using the offset/intaglio process.


title: Crayola

text: In 2000, Crayola held the "Crayola Color Census 2000" promotion in which Americans were asked to vote for their favorite Crayola crayon color. Celebrity entrants George W. Bush chose "Blue Bell", Tiger Woods chose "Wild Strawberry", and Courteney Cox chose "Red". Overall, "Blue" came in first, with "Cerulean" second, and "Purple Heart" third.


title: Crayola

text: Originally opening as the Crayola Factory, the Crayola Experience is located at 30 Centre Square, Easton, Pennsylvania at Two Rivers Landing. Open to the public, the Crayola Experience is a roomy, crayon-centric warehouse including events, a cafe, a store, attractions, some familiarizing guests, and Crayola's history with products.


title: Crayola

text: A "discovery center" was built that showcases the manufacturing process of crayons. There is also a "Crayola Hall of Fame" in which the retired crayon colors are displayed.


title: Crayola

text: The Crayola Experience was featured in a Food Network episode of "". A dinner was held for 150 employees of the Crayola Experience to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the 64-box of crayons. Chef Michael Symon's mission was to create an eight-course tasting menu for this event, where all eight items of the menu had to match eight randomly chosen Crayola crayon colors.


title: Crayola

text: On October 11, 2003, the Experience unveiled "The World's Largest Crayon", a 15-foot-long crayon weighing 1,500 lb, as part of its celebration of 100 years of Crayola crayons. The giant crayon, 16 inches in diameter, is blue, and was made of leftover crayon bits ("leftolas") sent in by children across the United States.


title: Crayola

text: It opened its first location in Two Rivers Landing, in Easton, Pennsylvania, in May 2013, its second location in The Florida Mall, Orlando, Florida, in June 2015, its third location in Mall of America, Bloomington, Minnesota, in February 2016, its fourth location in The Shops at Willow Bend, Plano, Texas, in March 2018, and its latest location in Chandler Fashion Center, Chandler, Arizona, in May 2019.


title: Crayola

text: Although marketed to children and amateur artists, several professional artists have specialized in using Crayola crayons as their primary medium. Don Marco, who works with Crayola crayons and construction paper, is one of the better known crayon artists—having sold over one million prints of his original artworks.


title: Crayola

text: Crayola LLC produces a broad range of products other than their famous crayons under the Crayola brand name. These include colored pencils, markers, inks and paints, modeling clays, coloring books, and artists' tools. As with all Crayola products, these are all marketed as non-toxic and safe for use by children.


title: Crayola

text: Silly Putty is a silicone polymer children's toy used for various purposes. Silly Putty was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame in 2001.


title: Crayola

text: The Portfolio Series is a line of water-soluble oil pastels, watercolors, drawing pencils, colored pencils, and acrylic paints marketed to artists and educators.


title: Crayola

text: Binney & Smith acquired the Liquitex corporation, a producer of fine art supply products, in 1964, but sold it to the Colart company in 2000.


title: Crayola

text: Marketed as a general (non-coloring)-use crayon for industrial purposes, Staonal was developed in 1902 and still continues .


title: Crayola

text: Scribble Scrubbie Pets are animal figurines that can be written on with washable markers. Various 'digital pets' are available using the Scribble Scrubbie Pets App.


title: Crayola

text: Numerous products, ranging from bath and personal care items to bedding and electronics, are produced by other companies using the Crayola brand name under license. Firebrand Games developed a Crayola-themed video game, titled "Crayola Treasure Adventures", which was published by Crave Entertainment for Nintendo DS in 2007. Climax Studios developed another Crayola-themed video game, titled "Crayola Scoot", which was published by Outright Games for Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One in 2018.


title: Crayola

text: In 2021, Kellogg's and Crayola teamed up to create a fruit-flavored cereal with a coloring book on the box. Kellogg's Crayola Jazzberry Cereal are rainbow-colored corn puffs, and the package included access to a digital pet in the Scribble Scrubbie Pets App.


title: Crayola

text: In the 1996–1997 season, Crayola produced Christmas lights using its name with colors such as pink, orange, blue, gold, green, red, and more.


title: Crayola

text: Crayola has manufacturing plants in Forks Township, Pennsylvania; Bethlehem, Pennsylvania; Lindsay, Ontario; and Mexico City. The colored pencils are made by Faber-Castell in Brazilian plants.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: Kirkland is a city in King County, Washington, United States. A suburb east of Seattle, its population was 92,175 in the 2020 U.S. census which made it the sixth largest city in the county and the twelfth largest in the state.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: The city's downtown waterfront has restaurants, art galleries, a performing arts center, public parks, beaches, and a collection of public art, primarily bronze sculptures.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: Kirkland was the original home of the Seattle Seahawks; the NFL team's headquarters and training facility were located at the Lake Washington Shipyard (now Carillon Point) along Lake Washington for their first ten seasons then at nearby Northwest University through 2007. Warehouse chain Costco previously had its headquarters in Kirkland. While Costco is now headquartered in Issaquah, the city is the namesake of its "Kirkland Signature" store brand.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: The land around Lake Washington to the east of Seattle was first settled by Native Americans. English settlers arrived in the late 1860s, when the McGregor and Popham families built homesteads in what is now the Houghton neighborhood. to the north people also settled near what is now called Juanita Bay, a favored campsite of the Natives because a wild potato, "wapato", thrived there. The Curtis family arrived in the area in the 1870s, followed by the French family in 1872. The Forbes family homesteaded what is now Juanita Beach Park in 1876, and settled on Rose Hill in 1877. Gradually, additional people settled in the area, and by the end of the 1880s a small number of logging, farming and boat-building communities were established.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: In 1886, Peter Kirk, a British-born enterprising businessman seeking to expand the family's Moss Bay steel production company, moved to Washington after hearing that iron deposits had been discovered in the Cascade Range. Other necessary components such as limestone, needed in steel smelting, were readily available in the area. Further yet, a small number of coal mines (a required fuel source for steel mills) had recently been established nearby in Newcastle and train lines were already under construction. Plans were also underway to build the Lake Washington Ship Canal.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: Kirk realized that if a town were built near the water it would be a virtual freshwater port to the sea, as well as help support any prospective mill. At the time, however, Kirk was not a U.S. citizen and could not purchase any land. Leigh S. J. Hunt, then owner of the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer", offered to partner with Kirk and buy the necessary real estate.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: Under their new venture, the Kirkland Land and Development Company, Kirk and Hunt purchased thousands of acres of land in what is now Kirkland's downtown in July 1888. Kirk and his associates started the construction of a new steel mill soon after, named the Moss Bay Iron and Steel Company of America. After founding the city of Kirkland in 1888, officially one of the earliest on the Eastside at the time, Kirk's vision of a "Pittsburgh of the West" was beginning to take form. Construction soon commenced on several substantial brick homes and business blocks that would house and serve the steel mill employees.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: However, the Seattle, Lake Shore and Eastern Railway, which had recently been purchased by Tacoma-based Northern Pacific, had now refused to construct a rail line to the lake. This would, after all, have a negative impact on Tacoma, which was furiously competing with Seattle as the dominant Puget Sound seaport. The ensuing financial issues and numerous obstacles took a toll on Kirk, who was running out of investors. Hunt was also in debt from the purchase of land.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: Nevertheless, the plans continued and the steel mill was eventually completed in late 1892 on Rose Hill (a full from the lake's shore). Financial issues arose and due to the Panic of 1893 the mill subsequently closed without ever producing any steel. In spite of everything, Kirk was determined not to give up on his namesake town, and Kirkland was finally incorporated in 1905 with a population of approximately 532. A final attempt at a steel mill in Kirkland was planned by James A. Moore in 1906. His Northwestern Iron & Steel Company paid $250,000 in cash for a site, but the mill never materialized. This came at the heels of the Pacific Steel Company, incorporated earlier in 1906 by J.F. Duthie, William Calvert and L.S. Cragin. This company soon amounted to nothing.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: In 1900, the Curtis family made a living operating a ferry-construction business on Lake Washington. Along with Captain John Anderson, the Curtises were among the first to run ferries in the area. "Leschi", first operated on December 27, 1913, was the original wooden ferry to transport automobiles and people between the Eastside and Madison Park until her retirement in 1950. The ferry operations ran nearly continuously for 18 hours each day. The construction of the first Lake Washington floating bridge in 1940, however, made ferry service unprofitable and eventually led to its cancellation. Subsequent years saw wool milling and warship building become the major industries.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: The first woolen mill in the state of Washington was built in Kirkland in 1892. The mill was the primary supplier of wool products for the Alaska Gold Rush prospectors and for the U.S. military during World War I. By 1917, after the completion of the Lake Washington Ship Canal, the construction of ocean-going vessels had become a major business. By 1940, the thriving Lake Washington Shipyard had constructed more than 25 warships during World War II for the U.S. Navy, on what is now Carillon Point.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: Since the incorporation of Kirkland in 1905, the city has grown to approximately 12 times its original geographic boundaries, nearly doubling in size during the 1940s and 1960s.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: Kirkland consolidated with the neighboring town of Houghton on July 31, 1968, to form one city of 13,500. It annexed the neighborhood of Totem Lake in 1974, and the neighborhoods of South Juanita, North Rose Hill, and South Rose Hill in 1988, which were the largest annexations undertaken in Washington in nearly two decades. This added a further 16,119 people to Kirkland's population and was responsible for 76 percent of Kirkland's population increase between 1980 and 1990.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: On November 3, 2009, responding to a county initiative to encourage cities to annex or incorporate many of the unincorporated areas within the county, as well as a state sales tax incentive intended to ease the process, three previously unincorporated districts north of the city—Finn Hill, North Juanita, and Kingsgate—voted on whether to annex to Kirkland. The measure failed by seven votes to reach the 60% margin, which was required because the measure included accepting a share of the city's voter-approved debt. However, since the affirmative vote was over 50%, the city council could and did vote to accept the annexation, without the assumption of debt.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: The annexation added 33,000 residents (combined total population of around 80,000) and nearly to Kirkland on June 1, 2011. For a 10-year period from 2011 to 2021, the city was eligible and filed annually for a special Annexation State Sales Tax Credit (ASTC) from the State of Washington to bridge the millions of dollars deficit in providing municipal services in the annexation area. The ASTC expired in 2021.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: Kirkland is bordered to the west by Lake Washington, to the east by Redmond, to the south by Bellevue, and to the north by Kenmore, Woodinville, and Bothell.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: Kirkland is accessible via Interstate 405, which connects it with other Eastside cities, including Bellevue, Renton, and Bothell. Seattle, which is west of Kirkland, as well as Redmond to the east, are both accessible through State Highway 520.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which are land and are water. The elevation varies from 14 to above sea level.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: Kirkland's average temperature is , and the average annual precipitation . The highest temperature was recorded as on June 28, 2021. The lowest temperature was recorded as in January 1950.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts for 2019, the median income for a household in the city was $117,190. The per capita income for the city was $63,135.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts for 2020, there were 92,175 people residing in the city. Additional demographics breakouts are not yet available.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 48,787 people, 22,445 households, and 12,014 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 24,345 dwelling units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 79.3% White, 1.8% African American, 0.4% Native American, 11.3% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 2.5% from other races, and 4.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.3% of the population.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: There were 22,445 households, of which 24.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.3% were married couples living together, 7.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46.5% were non-families. 36.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.15 and the average family size was 2.83.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: The median age in the city was 37.5 years. 18.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 35.1% were from 25 to 44; 27% were from 45 to 64; and 10.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.7% male and 51.3% female.


title: Kirkland, Washington

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 45,054 people, 20,736 households, and 11,031 families residing in the city. The population density was 4,220.3 people per square mile (1,628.8/km). There were 21,831 dwelling units at an average density of 2,045.0 per square mile (789.2/km). The racial makeup of the city was 85.28% White, 1.59% African American, 0.53% Native American, 7.80% Asian, 0.20% Pacific Islander, 1.69% from other races, and 2.92% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos, who may be of any race, were 4.11% of the population.