title: Susan Pevensie

text: In the 2008 film adaptation, Susan is seen in a brief scene (newly added for the film) set in front of the Strand Underground station in London before the children are drawn into Narnia by magic. Susan encounters a boy who recognizes her and tries to chat her up. He comments that he has seen her before and that she often sits alone. She replies that she likes being alone, and when the boy asks her name she gives him the false name "Phyllis". In Narnia, Susan and Prince Caspian are attracted to one another, but this relationship leads to a bittersweet conclusion as Susan must return to Earth. The film gives Susan a more active role during the battle scene at the end of the story. She demonstrates herself a capable combatant, slashing Telmarines with her arrows between shots, as well as clubbing them with her bow.


title: Susan Pevensie

text: In "The Voyage of the Dawn Treader", Susan accompanies her parents on a trip to America, while Peter is being tutored by Professor Digory Kirke. Edmund and Lucy have to stay with their relatives, the Scrubbs. Susan is considered "the pretty one of the family", which makes Lucy insecure. Lucy is tempted to recite a spell she finds in Coriakin's magic book, which will make her beautiful "beyond the lot of mortals", and she pictures a plain-looking Susan jealous of her beauty - clearly hinting at a sibling rivalry not evident before. Susan is not very good at school work and acts old for her age (14 at the time).


title: Susan Pevensie

text: The 2010 film adaptation shows Susan in a few brief scenes newly added for the film. She is seen at the beginning of the film writing a letter to Edmund and Lucy. Later in the film, Lucy steals the page with the beauty spell from Coriakin's book and at night recites the spell. Looking in the cabin's full-length mirror, she sees herself, grown-up and beautiful, in effect becoming Susan. The mirror swings aside to reveal a society lawn party back in Lucy's world, and she steps through into the party to be joined by both Peter and Edmund, both of whom address her as "Susan". When she tries to remind them about Narnia, to her growing horror, neither of them seem to know what she's talking about or to know anything about a younger sister named Lucy. Lucy then wakes up in the ship's cabin and is confronted by Aslan about what she has done. Aslan tells her not to judge herself by the standards of others, and reminds her that it was only through her actions that her siblings became aware of Narnia in the first place.


title: Susan Pevensie

text: In "The Horse and His Boy", set during the Pevensie siblings' reign in Narnia, Susan plays a minor part. She is described as a gentle lady with black hair falling to her feet. Shasta thinks her the most beautiful woman he has ever seen. Susan has become a motherly or sisterly figure to Prince Corin of Archenland following the death of his mother. She is asked to make a diplomatic marriage to the Calormene Prince Rabadash. She finds him gallant at tournaments in Narnia, but tyrannical and repellant on his home ground. The prince intends to hold her in Tashbaan by force; but her guarded rejection and subsequent escape from Calormen on "The Splendor Hyaline" with her brother Edmund and their entourage lead the Prince to rash action. He seeks the secret approval of his father, the Tisroc, for his plan to attack Archenland as a means of capturing Susan, and in the hope of subsequently conquering Narnia.


title: Susan Pevensie

text: In "The Last Battle", Susan is conspicuous by her absence. Peter says that she is "no longer a friend of Narnia", and (in Jill Pole's words) "she's interested in nothing now-a-days except nylons and lipstick and invitations." Similarly, Eustace Scrubb quotes her as saying, "What wonderful memories you have! Fancy you still thinking about all those funny games we used to play when we were children," and Polly Plummer adds, "She wasted all her school time wanting to be the age she is now, and she'll waste all the rest of her life trying to stay that age. Her whole idea is to race on to the silliest time of one's life as quick as she can and then stop there as long as she can." Thus, Susan does not enter the real Narnia with the others at the end of the series. It is left ambiguous whether Susan's absence is permanent, especially since Lewis stated elsewhere that:


title: Susan Pevensie

text: C. S. Lewis further elaborated on Susan's fate in a 19 February 1960 letter to Pauline Bannister, who wrote to Lewis, upset that Susan was excluded from her brothers and sister from Aslan's country. He stated:


title: Susan Pevensie

text: In his "Companion to Narnia", Paul F. Ford writes at the end of the entry for "Susan Pevensie" that "Susan's is one of the most important Unfinished Tales of The Chronicles of Narnia", but adds in Footnote 1 for that entry:


title: Susan Pevensie

text: Reviewer Barbara Wheatley wrote: "C.S. Lewis left to a whole generation of devoted fans an unsolved perplexing riddle - why did Susan have to be excluded and alienated from Narnia? It certainly serves no purpose in the plot of "The Last Battle" or of the Narnia Series as a whole. To my mind, there is a logical explanation – though admittedly, I found no quotation of Lewis to support it. The fate of Susan makes perfect sense when viewed as leaving the way open for a sequel. Susan needs to be separated from the others and become immersed in the mundane world so that she would grow up, get married and have children of her own, and it is they who would have a whole new series of adventures – presumably not in Narnia, whose story is most definitely concluded, but in some brand-new world. Unfortunately, if that was Lewis' aim, he never got around to writing that sequel, and we are all the poorer for it".


title: Susan Pevensie

text: Fantasy author Neil Gaiman's 2004 short story "The Problem of Susan" depicts its protagonist, Professor Hastings (who strongly resembles an adult version of Susan), dealing with the grief and trauma of her entire family's death in a train crash, as she is interviewed by a college literature student regarding her opinion on Susan's place in the Narnia books. Since the publication of Gaiman's story, "the problem of Susan" has become used more widely as a catchphrase for the literary and feminist investigation into Susan's treatment.


title: Susan Pevensie

text: Authors J. K. Rowling and Philip Pullman, both of whom were influenced by Lewis, have also commented on the issue:


title: Carl Anderson (singer)

text: Carlton Earl "Carl" Anderson (February 27, 1945 – February 23, 2004) was an American singer, film and theater actor best known for his portrayal of Judas Iscariot in the Broadway and film versions of the rock opera "Jesus Christ Superstar" by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice. Anderson and singer-actress Gloria Loring performed the duet "Friends and Lovers", which reached No. 2 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in 1986.


title: Carl Anderson (singer)

text: Born in Lynchburg, Virginia, Anderson was one of 12 children of James and Alberta Anderson. During his junior year of high school, Anderson enlisted in the U.S. Air Force, where he served as a communications technician for two years. He returned to Lynchburg to complete high school and he graduated in 1965. With his honorable discharge, following high school, Anderson sang at military bases across the United States as part of the World Wide Air Force Talent Contest.


title: Carl Anderson (singer)

text: Anderson moved to Washington, D.C., in 1969, where he and some friends formed a group called "The Second Eagle", with Anderson handling the vocals. Among the many jazz and rock tunes that the Second Eagle covered were some from the album "Jesus Christ Superstar", which had been released long before there were ever any definitive plans for a stage production.


title: Carl Anderson (singer)

text: In 1971, a talent agent from the William Morris Agency saw Anderson perform some songs from the show at St. Stephen's Church and recognized his potential as a solo performer.


title: Carl Anderson (singer)

text: Anderson played the role of Judas in the pre-Broadway touring company's production of "Jesus Christ Superstar" but was passed over for the initial 1971 Broadway production when producers opted for the more well-known Ben Vereen for the part, and was cast as an understudy. One of his most significant opportunities came when he took over the role from Vereen and performed it on Broadway and in Los Angeles when Vereen fell ill. After Vereen recovered, both actors took turns playing the role. Castmate and close friend Ted Neeley was performing in the tour as well, but – like Anderson – was cast as chorus and the Jesus understudy. Yvonne Elliman was also in the tour as Mary Magdalene. While performing in Los Angeles, Anderson was flown to London for a screen test for the film adaptation of the rock opera. Two weeks later, he left that production to begin filming in Israel alongside Neeley and Elliman, who were cast for the main roles as Jesus and Magdalene, respectively. The film, released in 1973 by director Norman Jewison, catapulted Anderson's career with two Golden Globe nominations as "Most Promising Newcomer" and "Best Musical Actor".


title: Carl Anderson (singer)

text: In the late 1970s, he reprised his performance as Judas for two regional productions in California, both under the auspices of the California Youth Theatre organization. The first reunited him with his Broadway and film co-stars Ted Neeley and Yvonne Elliman, and the second reunited him again with his close friend Ted.


title: Carl Anderson (singer)

text: Other movie appearances by Anderson include: "The Black Pearl" (1978) and Steven Spielberg's "The Color Purple" (1985). Television appearances include "The Eddie Capra Mysteries", "Cop Rock", "Days of Our Lives", and "Hill Street Blues".


title: Carl Anderson (singer)

text: As a recording artist, Anderson was equally prolific. He signed with Motown Records in 1972. Several of the most recognizable albums to be released in the 1970s would bear the mark of Anderson, including his work with Stevie Wonder on his "Songs in the Key of Life" double album.


title: Carl Anderson (singer)

text: Anderson also made numerous appearances at several notable clubs in Los Angeles during the 1970s and, with Columbia Records' talent scout Larkin Arnold, signed a record deal for which Anderson would release four albums on the Epic label beginning in 1983. In total, Anderson released nine jazz and Soul albums as a solo artist, including hits "How Deep Does It Go", "Pieces of a Heart", "Hot Coffee", and the hit from his self-titled 1986 album, "Friends and Lovers", a duet with Gloria Loring. The song reached the number-two spot on the charts that year and endeared Anderson to soap opera fans, after he and Loring performed the song on "Days of Our Lives". In 1989, Anderson recorded the song "Between You and Me", which was used as the title theme for the film "Her Alibi". He also recorded on albums with other leading artists.


title: Carl Anderson (singer)

text: In 1994, Anderson released an album titled "Heavy Weather Sunlight Again" which is full of soulful songs such as "Love'll Hold My Baby Tonight".


title: Carl Anderson (singer)

text: In 1992, Anderson reprised his role as Judas in "Jesus Christ Superstar" for a "20th Anniversary of the Movie" tour, alongside Ted Neeley who also reprised his role as Jesus. Both men had agreed to do the tour only if they got to work together. Initially planned for three months, the production lasted five years and grossed over $100 million, visiting over 50 North American cities, including the Paramount Theater at Madison Square Garden in New York City, the Universal Amphitheater in Los Angeles, the Fox Theaters in Detroit, St. Louis and Atlanta, the Morris Mechanic Theatre in Baltimore, The Orpheum in San Francisco, Providence Performing Arts Center in Providence, Rhode Island, the Wang Center and Shubert Theater during multiple returns to Boston as well as dates in Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, Miami, Toronto, Vancouver and Montreal. All these showings allowed Anderson to reprise his role over 1,700 times.


title: Carl Anderson (singer)

text: In 1997, Anderson performed on Broadway in an adaptation of William Shakespeare's "Twelfth Night" called "Play On!" featuring the music of Duke Ellington, playing The Duke. Beginning in 1998, and in later years of his life, he reprised his role as Judas in "Superstar" to sold-out auditoriums around the world.


title: Carl Anderson (singer)

text: One of his later albums, "Why We Are Here!", was recorded at the Agape International Spiritual Center, then located in Santa Monica, California. He continued to perform, with Linda Eder, in a show called "Once in a Lifetime" produced by Eder's then-husband, Frank Wildhorn.


title: Carl Anderson (singer)

text: In 2002, Anderson reprised his role as Judas in another national tour of "Jesus Christ Superstar" with ex-Skid Row singer Sebastian Bach playing Jesus. Bach received mixed reviews while Anderson was again praised. In April 2003, following a disagreement with the director, Bach walked out on the tour and was replaced with Broadway actor Eric Kunze. Anderson stayed on the tour for three more months, but eventually left the show after being diagnosed with leukemia. The tour closed a year after his death.


title: Carl Anderson (singer)

text: Anderson was diagnosed with leukemia in 2003 while performing with the national tour of "Superstar" that had started in 2002. According to a page on Anderson's memorial website, he had a minor car accident on his way to perform and, while being treated for his injuries, doctors discovered that Anderson had leukemia. Anderson died from the illness on February 23, 2004, in Los Angeles, just four days before his 59th birthday. The Leonard Cohen / Anjani song "Nightingale" from 2004 was recorded in his memory.


title: Candle Cove

text: Candle Cove is an online creepypasta horror story written by web cartoonist and author Kris Straub in 2009. The story centers on a fictional television series titled "Candle Cove", that could only be viewed by a small group of people, predominantly children, who later recall the disturbing show on a web forum. Straub has stated that he was inspired to write the creepypasta after reading an article by the satirical news outlet "The Onion" titled "Area 36-Year-Old Still Has Occasional Lidsville Nightmare".


title: Candle Cove

text: Straub's story quickly became popular, inspiring numerous YouTube videos, and fan fictions. In 2015, Straub self-published "Candle Cove" in a collection of short stories entitled "Candle Cove and Other Stories". The Verge commented that "Candle Cove" differed from other creepypastas in that while most creepypasta have an "anonymous folkloric quality", "Candle Cove"'s originated from a known source and author.


title: Candle Cove

text: The story was adapted for the first season of the Syfy anthology series "Channel Zero", which aired in 2016. Additionally, Straub began the spin-off YouTube series "Local 58" centered around strange broadcasts from the fictitious public access television channel where "Candle Cove" originally aired.


title: Candle Cove

text: The story is told via a thread on a forum called the "NetNostalgia Forums", where a group of users discuss an unusual low-budget children's television show, "Candle Cove", that they all remember watching on Channel Local 58 when they were children. The show is about a young girl named Janice, who imagines herself to be friends with pirates. The pirate characters are said to be portrayed by string marionettes.


title: Candle Cove

text: As the users continue to reminisce they begin to recall more disturbing details about the show, such as a character known as the "Skin-Taker", a skeleton pirate who wears clothing made out of children's skin, and an episode that consisted entirely of the puppets flailing and screaming while Janice cries. It develops that there are no external records of the show's existence and that even those who say they remember seeing it have different memories of certain episodes. The story closes with a user stating that he recently asked his mother if she remembered the show. She responded that every time the user claimed "Candle Cove" was on, there was only static on the screen.


title: Candle Cove

text: In 2015 the SyFy Channel announced their intent to adapt the "Candle Cove" story as the first season of a newly-announced series, "Channel Zero". The season, named after the creepypasta, expands on the story and centers on a child psychologist who has returned home in order to investigate the 1980s disappearances of his brother and other children. "Channel Zero: Candle Cove" stars Paul Schneider and Fiona Shaw, and premiered on October 11, 2016.


title: Candle Cove

text: Will Wiles of "Aeon" wrote that "Candle Cove" was "among the best creepypastas out there" and a good example of using the messageboard and forum format as a storytelling tactic. The Verge has written praise for the creepypasta, stating that it was "a perfectly dark spin on our nostalgia for the half-remembered stories of our childhood, that realization that the things we liked as kids were much, much creepier than we thought."


title: Anatolian beyliks

text: Anatolian beyliks (, Ottoman Turkish: "Tavâif-i mülûk", "Beylik" ) were small principalities (or petty kingdoms) in Anatolia governed by beys, the first of which were founded at the end of the 11th century. A second more extensive period of foundations took place as a result of the decline of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rûm in the second half of the 13th century.


title: Anatolian beyliks

text: One of the beyliks, that of the Osmanoğlu from the Kayi tribe of the Oghuz Turks, from its capital in Bursa completed its conquest of other beyliks by the late 15th century, becoming the Ottoman Empire.


title: Anatolian beyliks

text: The word "beylik" denotes a territory under the jurisdiction of a bey, equivalent in other European societies to a lord.


title: Anatolian beyliks

text: Following the 1071 Seljuq victory over the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Manzikert and the subsequent conquest of Anatolia, Oghuz clans began settling in present-day Turkey. The Seljuq Sultanate's central power established in Konya was largely the result of using these clans under Beys called "uç bey" or "uj begi" especially in border areas to ensure safety against the Byzantines; "uç" is a Turkish term for a border territory equivalent to marches, thus "uç beyi" is similar to margrave in Europe. These clans, led by beys, would receive military and financial aid from the Seljuqs in return for their services and full allegiance.


title: Anatolian beyliks

text: Seljuq power deteriorated with the Mongol invasions from the east. The Ilkhanate commanders in Anatolia then gained strength and authority and this encouraged the beys to declare sovereignty. With the fall of Seljuq centralized power in Konya, many beys joined forces with the atabegs (former Seljuq leaders) and other religious Muslim leaders and warriors from Persia and Turkistan which were fleeing the Mongols that were invading the Byzantine empire. To maintain control of their new territory, these reestablished beys employed Ghazi warriors from Persia and Turkestan, who also fled the Mongols. The ghazis fought under the inspiration of either a mullah or a general, trying to assert Islamic power, their assaults of the reestablished beys upon the Byzantine Empire reaching even further expanded the power sphere of the beyliks.


title: Anatolian beyliks

text: As the Byzantine empire weakened, their cities in Asia Minor could resist the assaults of the beyliks less and less, and many Turks gradually settled in the western parts of Anatolia. As a result, many more beyliks were founded in these newly conquered western regions who entered into power struggles with the Byzantines, the Genoese, the Knights Templar as well as between each other.


title: Anatolian beyliks

text: By 1300, Turks had reached the Aegean coastline, held momentarily two centuries before. In the beginning, the most powerful states were the Karamanids and the Germiyanids in the central area. The Beylik of Osmanoğlu Dynasty who were later to found the Ottoman Empire was situated to the northwest, around Söğüt, and was a small and at that stage, insignificant power. Along the Aegean coast, from north to south, stretched Karasids, Sarukhanids, Aydinids, Menteşe and Teke principalities. The Jandarids (later called Isfendiyarids) controlled the Black Sea region around Kastamonu and Sinop.


title: Anatolian beyliks

text: Under its eponymous founder, Osman I, the Beylik of Osmanoğlu expanded at Byzantine expense south and west of the Sea of Marmara in the first decades of the 14th century. With their annexation of the neighboring Beylik of Karasi and their advance into Roumelia as of 1354, they soon became strong enough to emerge as the main rivals of Karamanids, who at that time were thought to be the strongest. Towards the end of the 14th century, the Ottomans advanced further into Anatolia by acquiring towns, either by buying them off or through marriage alliances. Meanwhile, the Karamanids assaulted the Ottomans many times with the help of other beyliks, Mamluks, Aq Qoyunlu ("White Sheep Turkomans"), Byzantines, Pontics and Hungarians, failing and losing power every time. By the close of the century, the early Ottoman leaders had conquered large parts of land from Karamanids and other less prominent beyliks. These had a short respite when their territories were restored to them after the Ottoman defeat suffered against Tamerlane in 1402 in the Battle of Ankara.


title: Anatolian beyliks

text: But the Ottoman state quickly collected itself under Mehmed I and his son Murad II, who re-incorporated most of these beyliks into Ottoman territory in a period of about 25 years. The final blow for the Karamanids was struck by Mehmed II who conquered their lands and re-assured a homogeneous rule in Anatolia. The further steps towards a single rule by the Ottomans were taken by Selim I who conquered territories of Ramadanids and Dulkadirids in 1515 during his campaign against the Mamluks, and his son Süleyman the Magnificent who more or less completely united the present territories of Turkey (and much more) in his 1534 campaign. Many of the former Anatolian beyliks became the basis for administrative subdivisions in the Ottoman Empire.


title: Anatolian beyliks

text: In the list below, only the beyliks that were founded immediately after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, mostly situated towards the Eastern Anatolia, and who were vassals (or sometimes at war) to the centralized power of Seljuq Sultanate of Rûm based in Konya are listed.


title: Anatolian beyliks

text: A second group beyliks that emerged as a result of the weakening of this central state under the Mongol blow with the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243 which had the indirect consequence of extending the Turkic territory in Western Anatolia toward the end of the 13th century.


title: Anatolian beyliks

text: Combined with the Seljuqs and the immigration of Turkic tribes into the Anatolian mainland, the Anatolian Beyliks spread Turkic language and Islamic culture in Anatolia.


title: Anatolian beyliks

text: Unlike the Seljuqs, whose language of administration was Persian, the Anatolian beyliks adopted spoken Turkic as their formal literary language.


title: Anatolian beyliks

text: The Turkish language achieved widespread use in these principalities and reached its highest sophistication during the Ottoman era.


title: Anatolian beyliks

text: In spite of their limited sources and the political climate of their era, art during the Anatolian beyliks flourished, probably building the basis for Ottoman art. Although the artistic style of the Anatolian beyliks can be considered as representatives of a transition period between Seljuks and Ottomans, new trends were also acquired. Especially wandering traditional crafts artists and architects helped spread these new trends and localized styles to several beyliks across Anatolia, which resulted in innovative and original works particularly in architecture. Wood and stone carving, clay tiles and other similar decorative arts of the Seljuqs were still used, however with the influence of the pursuit for new spaces and its reflections in other arts as well.


title: Anatolian beyliks

text: Some representative examples of the Anatolian beyliks' architecture are İlyas Bey Mosque at Balat (Milet) (1404), "İsabey Mosque" at Selçuk (1375), "Ulucami Mosque" at Birgi (1312) built by the Aydın beylik. The above mosques, although being successors of Seljuq architecture, differ greatly in the increase of decorations in the interior and exterior spaces and the different placement of the courtyards and minarets. Karaman beylik also left noteworthy architectural works, such as "Ulucami Mosque" in Ermenek (1302), "Hatuniye Madrassa" in Karaman (1382), "Akmedrese Madrassa" in Niğde (1409), all of which respect a new style that considers and incorporates the exterior surroundings also. One of the first examples of the Anatolian beylik architecture hinting at the forming of the Ottoman architecture that aims at uniting the interior space beneath one big dome and forming a monumental architectural structure is "Ulucami Mosque" in Manisa (1374) built by the Saruhan beylik. Also worth noting is the increase in constructions of madrassas that points at the beyliks' attaching greater importance to sciences.


title: Diesel generator

text: A diesel generator (DG) (also known as a diesel Genset) is the combination of a diesel engine with an electric generator (often an alternator) to generate electrical energy. This is a specific case of engine generator. A diesel compression-ignition engine is usually designed to run on diesel fuel, but some types are adapted for other liquid fuels or natural gas.


title: Diesel generator

text: Diesel generating sets are used in places without connection to a power grid, or as an emergency power supply if the grid fails, as well as for more complex applications such as peak-lopping, grid support, and export to the power grid.


title: Diesel generator

text: Diesel generator size is crucial to minimize low load or power shortages. Sizing is complicated by the characteristics of modern electronics, specifically non-linear loads. In size ranges around 50 MW and above, an open cycle gas turbine is more efficient at full load than an array of diesel engines, and far more compact, with comparable capital costs; but for regular part-loading, even at these power levels, diesel arrays are sometimes preferred to open cycle gas turbines, due to their superior efficiencies.


title: Diesel generator

text: The packaged combination of a diesel engine, a generator, and various ancillary devices (such as base, canopy, sound attenuation, control systems, circuit breakers, jacket water heaters, and starting system) is referred to as a "generating set" or a "genset" for short.


title: Diesel generator

text: Set sizes range from 8 to 30 kW (also 8 to 30 kVA single phase) for homes, small shops, and offices, with the larger industrial generators from 8 kW (11 kVA) up to 2,000 kW (2,500 kVA three phase) used for office complexes, factories, and other industrial facilities. A 2,000 kW set can be housed in a ISO container with a fuel tank, controls, power distribution equipment and all other equipment needed to operate as a standalone power station or as a standby backup to grid power. These units, referred to as power modules, are gensets on large triple axle trailers weighing or more. A combination of these modules are used for small power stations and these may use from one to 20 units per power section, these sections can be combined to involve hundreds of power modules. In these larger sizes, the power module (engine and generator) are brought to site on trailers separately and are connected with large cables and a control cable to form a complete synchronized power plant.


title: Diesel generator

text: A number of options also exist to tailor specific needs, including control panels for autostart and mains paralleling, acoustic canopies for fixed or mobile applications, ventilation equipment, fuel supply systems, exhaust systems, etc.


title: Diesel generator

text: Diesel generators are not only for emergency power, but may also have a secondary function of feeding power to utility grids either during peak periods, or periods when there is a shortage of large power generators. In the UK, this program is run by the national grid and is called STOR.


title: Diesel generator

text: Ships often also employ diesel generators, sometimes not only to provide auxiliary power for lights, fans, winches etc., but also indirectly for main propulsion. With electric propulsion ,the generators can be placed in a convenient position, to allow more cargo to be carried. Electric drives for ships were developed before World War I. Electric drives were specified in many warships built during World War II because manufacturing capacity for large reduction gears was in short supply, compared to capacity for manufacture of electrical equipment. Such a diesel-electric arrangement is also used in some very large land vehicles ,such as railroad locomotives.


title: Diesel generator

text: Generating sets are selected based on the electrical load they are intended to supply, the electrical load's characteristics such as kW, kVA, var, harmonic content, surge currents (e.g., motor starting current) and non-linear loads. The expected duty (such as emergency, prime or continuous power)as well as environmental conditions (such as altitude, temperature, and exhaust emissions regulations) must also be considered.


title: Diesel generator

text: Most of the larger generator set manufacturers offer software that will perform the complicated sizing calculations by simply inputting site conditions and connected electrical load characteristics.


title: Diesel generator

text: One or more diesel generators operating without a connection to an electrical grid are referred to as operating in island mode. Operating generators in parallel provides the advantage of redundancy and can provide better efficiency at partial loads. The plant brings generator sets online and takes them offline depending on the demands of the system at a given time. An islanded power plant intended for a primary power source of an isolated community will often have at least three diesel generators, any two of which are rated to carry the required load. Groups of up to 20 are not uncommon.


title: Diesel generator

text: Generators can be electrically connected through the process of synchronization. Synchronization involves matching voltage, frequency, and phase before connecting the generator to the system. Failure to synchronize before connection, could cause a high short circuit current or wear and tear on the generator or its switchgear. The synchronization process can be done automatically by an auto-synchronizer module, or manually by the instructed operator. The auto-synchronizer will read the voltage, frequency and phase parameters from the generator and busbar voltages, while regulating the speed through the engine governor or ECM (Engine Control Module).


title: Diesel generator

text: The load can be shared among parallel running generators through load sharing. Load sharing can be achieved by using droop speed control controlled by the frequency at the generator, while it constantly adjusts the engine fuel control to shift load to and from the remaining power sources. A diesel generator will take more load when the fuel supply to its combustion system is increased, while load is released if the fuel supply is decreased.


title: Diesel generator

text: In addition to their well known role as power supplies during power failures, diesel generator sets also routinely support main power grids worldwide in two distinct ways:


title: Diesel generator

text: Emergency standby diesel generators, such as those used in hospitals and water plants, are, as a secondary function, widely used in the US and, in the recent past, in Great Britain to support the respective national grids at times for a variety of reasons. In the UK the tenders known as the Short Term Operating Reserve have exhibited quite variable prices, and from 2012 the volume of demand-side participation, which mainly entails the use of on-site diesels, has dropped as the tendered prices fell. Some 0.5 GWe of diesels have at times been used to support the National Grid, whose peak load is about 60 GW. These are sets in the size range of 200 kW to 2 MW. This usually occurs during, for example, the sudden loss of a large conventional 660 MW plant, or a sudden unexpected rise in power demand eroding the normal spinning reserve available.


title: Diesel generator

text: This is beneficial for both parties - the diesels have already been purchased for other reasons; but to be reliable need to be fully load tested. Grid paralleling is a convenient way of doing this. This method of operation is normally undertaken by a third-party aggregator who manages the operation of the generators and the interaction with the system operator.


title: Diesel generator

text: These diesels can in some cases be up and running in parallel as quickly as two minutes, with no impact on the site (the office or factory need not shut down). This is far quicker than a base load power station which can take 12 hours from cold, and faster than a gas turbine, which can take several minutes. Whilst diesels are very expensive in fuel terms, they are only used a few hundred hours per year in this duty, and their availability can prevent the need for a base load station running inefficiently at part load continuously. The diesel fuel used is the fuel that would have been used in testing anyway.


title: Diesel generator

text: In Great Britain, National Grid can generally rely upon about 2 GW of customer demand reduction via back-up diesels being self-dispatched for about 10 to 40 hours a year at times of expected peak national demand. National Grid does not control these diesels - they are run by the customer to avoid "triad" transmission network use of system (TNUoS) charges which are levied only on consumption of each site, at the three half-hours of peak national demand. It is not known in advance when the three half-hours of peak national demand (the "triad" periods) will be, so the customer must run his diesels for a good deal more half-hours a year than just three.


title: Diesel generator

text: The total capacity of reliably operable standby generation in Britain is estimated to be around 20 GW, nearly all of which is driven by diesel engines. This is equivalent to nearly 29% of the British system peak, although only a very small fraction will ever be generating at the same time. The most plant is for large office blocks, hospitals, supermarkets, and various installations where continuous power is important such as airports. Therefore, most are in urban areas, particularly city and commercial centers. It is estimated that around 10% of the plant exceeds 1 MW, about 50% is in the 200 kW-1 MW range, and the remaining 40% is sub-200 kW. Although it is growing, only a very small proportion is believed to be used regularly for peak lopping, the vast majority just being only for standby generation. The information in this paragraph is sourced from section 6.9 of the government report : "Overcoming Barriers To Scheduling Embedded Generation To Support Distribution Networks"


title: Diesel generator

text: Increasing use of banks of diesel generators (known as "diesel farms") is being made in Britain to balance the fluctuating output from renewable energy sources, such as wind farms.


title: Diesel generator

text: A similar system to Great Britain's Short Term Operating Reserve operates in France. It is known as EJP; at times of grid stress, special tariffs can mobilize at least 5 GW of diesel generating sets to become available. In this case, the diesels prime function is to feed power into the grid.


title: Diesel generator

text: During normal operation in synchronization with the electricity net, powerplants are governed with a five percent droop speed control. This means the full load speed is 100% and the no load-speed is 105%. This is required for the stable operation of the net without hunting and dropouts of power plants. Normally the speed changes are minor. Adjustments in power output are made by slowly raising the droop curve by increasing the spring pressure on a centrifugal governor. Generally, this is a basic system requirement for all powerplants because the older and newer plants have to be compatible in response to the instantaneous changes in frequency without depending on outside communication.


title: Diesel generator

text: Fuel consumption is the major portion of diesel plant owning and operating cost for power applications, whereas capital cost is the primary concern for backup generators. Specific consumption varies, but a modern diesel plant will, at its near-optimal 65-70% loading, generate at least 3 kWh per litre (ca. 30% fuel efficiency ratio).


title: Diesel generator

text: Generators must provide the anticipated power required reliably and without damage and this is achieved by the manufacturer giving one or more ratings to a specific generator set model. A specific model of a generator operated as a standby generator may only need to operate for a few hours per year, but the same model operated as a prime power generator must operate continuously. When running, the standby generator may be operated with a specified - e.g. 10% overload that can be tolerated for the expected short running time. The same model generator will carry a higher rating for standby service than it will for continuous duty. Manufacturers give each set a "rating" based on internationally agreed definitions.


title: Diesel generator

text: These standard rating definitions are designed to allow valid comparisons among manufacturers, prevent manufacturers from misrating their machines, and guide designers.


title: Diesel generator

text: Standby Rating based on Applicable for supplying emergency power for the duration of normal power interruption. No sustained overload capability is available for this rating. (Equivalent to Fuel Stop Power in accordance with ISO3046, AS2789, DIN6271 and BS5514). Nominally rated.


title: Diesel generator

text: Typical application - emergency power plant in hospitals, offices, factories etc. Not connected to grid.


title: Diesel generator

text: Prime (Unlimited Running Time) Rating: Should not be used for Construction Power applications. Output available with varying load for an unlimited time. Typical peak demand 100% of prime-rated ekW with 10% of overload capability for emergency use for a maximum of 1 hour in 12. A 10% overload capability is available for limited time. (Equivalent to Prime Power in accordance with ISO8528 and Overload Power in accordance with ISO3046, AS2789, DIN6271, and BS5514). This rating is not applicable to all generator set models.


title: Diesel generator

text: Typical application - where the generator is the sole source of power for say a remote mining or construction site, fairground, festival etc.


title: Diesel generator

text: Base Load (Continuous) Rating based on: Applicable for supplying power continuously to a constant load up to the full output rating for unlimited hours. No sustained overload capability is available for this rating. Consult an authorized distributor for rating. (Equivalent to Continuous Power in accordance with ISO8528, ISO3046, AS2789, DIN6271, and BS5514). This rating does not apply to all generator set models


title: Diesel generator

text: Typical application - a generator running a continuous unvarying load, or paralleled with the mains and continuously feeding power at the maximum permissible level of 8,760 hours per year. This also applies to sets used for peak shaving /grid support even though this may only occur for say 200 hours per year.


title: Diesel generator

text: As an example if in a particular set the Standby Rating was 1000 kW, then a Prime Power rating might be 850 kW, and the Continuous Rating 800 kW. However these ratings vary according to the manufacturer and should be taken from the manufacturer's datasheet.


title: Diesel generator

text: Often a set might be given all three ratings stamped on the data plate, but sometimes it may have only a standby rating or only a prime rating.


title: Diesel generator

text: Typically however it is the size of the maximum load that has to be connected and the acceptable maximum voltage drop which determines the set size, not the ratings themselves. If the set is required to start motors, then the set will have to be at least three times the largest motor, which is normally started first. This means it will be unlikely to operate anywhere near the ratings of the chosen set.


title: Diesel generator

text: Many gen-set manufacturers have software programs that enable the correct choice of a set for any given load combination. Sizing is based on site conditions and the type of appliances, equipment, and devices that will be powered by the generator set.


title: Diesel generator

text: Diesel fuel is named after diesel engines, and not vice versa; diesel engines are simply compression-ignition engines, and can operate on a variety of different fuels, depending on configuration and location. Where a gas grid connection is available, gas is often used, as the gas grid will remain pressurized during almost all power cuts. This is implemented by introducing gas with the intake air and using a small amount of diesel fuel for ignition. Conversion to 100% diesel fuel operation can be achieved instantaneously.


title: Diesel generator

text: In more rural situations, or for low load factor plants, diesel fuel derived from crude oil is a common fuel; it is less likely to freeze than heavier oils. Endurance will be limited by tank size. Diesel engines can work with the full spectrum of crude oil distillates, from natural gas, alcohols, gasoline, and wood gas to "fuel oils" from diesel oil to cheaper residual fuels that are like lard at room temperature, and must be heated to enable them to flow down a fuel line.


title: Diesel generator

text: Larger engines (from about 3 MWe to 30 MWe) sometimes use heavy oils, essentially tars, derived from the end of the refining process. The slight added complexity of keeping the fuel oil heated to enable it to flow, whilst mitigating the fire risks that come from over-heating fuel, makes these fuels unpopular for smaller, often unmanned, generating stations.


title: Diesel generator

text: Other possible fuels include: biodiesel, straight vegetable oil, animal fats and tallows, glycerine, and coal-water slurry. These should be used with caution: because of their composition, the engine must be properly adjusted or they have a detrimental effect on engine life. For example engines using Coal-water slurry fuel are often modified with larger injectors to permit the higher density fuel to be injected in the short fraction of a second time needed. Other high viscosity fuels like tallow, vegetable oil or paraffin wax can be used with standard fuel injectors if the fuel is preheated to reduce its viscosity to the range of standard Diesel fuel. The engine designed by and built by Rudolf Diesel for the 1900 World's Fair was fueled with Peanut oil rather than a petroleum product like most modern engines using his system.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Hermann Hoth (12 April 1885 – 25 January 1971) was a German army commander, war criminal, and author. He served as a high-ranking panzer commander in the Wehrmacht during World War II, playing a prominent role in the Battle of France and on the Eastern Front. Contemporaries and later historians consider Hoth one of the most talented armoured warfare commanders of the war. He was also a strong believer in Nazism, and units under his command committed several war crimes including the murder of prisoners of war and civilians.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Born in Prussia, Hoth embarked on a career as a military officer early in his youth. After graduating from the Royal Prussian Military Academy, he slowly rose in the ranks of the Imperial German Army. Hoth mainly served in various staff positions in World War I, and after the conflict's conclusion continued to do so in the armed forces of the newly formed Weimar Republic. Following Hitler's seizure of control in Germany, Hoth began to rapidly rise in the ranks and became known as a proponent of motorization in the Wehrmacht.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: When World War II broke out, Hoth successfully led the XV Army Corps during the German invasions of Poland and France. He commanded the 3rd Panzer Group during Operation Barbarossa in 1941, a position in which he assisted in the destruction of several Soviet armies. From October 1941, Hoth headed the 17th Army, a period during which he advocated for a war of annihilation against the Soviet Union, the merciless destruction of partisans, and the murder of Jews. In the Wehrmacht's 1942 summer offensive, Hoth led the 4th Panzer Army and took part in the Battle of Stalingrad. When the German 6th Army was encircled at Stalingrad in November 1942, Hoth's army group made an unsuccessful relief attempt. Afterwards, Hoth was involved in the Third Battle of Kharkov as well as the Battle of Kursk, while increasingly suffering from near-burnout. He led the German defense in eastern Ukraine during the Battle of the Dnieper, but was sacked by Adolf Hitler due to the surprise Soviet reconquest of Kiev in November 1943. For the rest of the war, he was mostly relegated to powerless positions.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: After the war, Hoth was convicted of war crimes and crimes against humanity in the High Command Trial, mainly regarding his implementation of the criminal Commissar Order and the mistreatment of POWs as well as civilians. He was sentenced to 15 years in prison, but released on parole in 1954. Hoth subsequently became an author, writing about armoured warfare, the development of West Germany's military, and in support of the myth of the clean Wehrmacht.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Born on 14 April 1885 in Neuruppin, Hoth grew up in Demmin which like Neuruppin was located in Prussia. His parents were Hermann Hoth, a Prussian staff officer surgeon, and Margarethe Hoth (née Hübener). He attended the "Gymnasium" in Demmin from 1894 to 1896, followed by the Cadet Corps at Potsdam, and the "Preußische Hauptkadettenanstalt" (Royal Prussian Military Academy) from 1900 to 1904. During his preparation and training to become an officer, Hoth developed what he later recognised was a strong authority bias, something that he did never entirely discard even after the conclusion of his education. The educators at the Cadet Corps also instilled monarchism and the rejection of social democracy in Hoth. He was commissioned as a "Leutnant" in the Prussian Army in 1903, but his rise in the ranks was slow. He attended the Prussian Staff College from 1910 to 1913, where he learned Russian, and was appointed "Oberleutnant" in 1912 and "Hauptmann" in 1914. At this point, he was working at the German General Staff. His first son, Hans Joachim, was born in 1913.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Hoth spent almost all of World War I as a staff officer on higher headquarters and only four weeks on the front line. As a result of his skill in Russian, he was assigned to the 8th Army on the Eastern Front in August 1914. In this role, he witnessed the 1914 Russian invasion of East Prussia. This campaign left a deep impact on Hoth, as he saw the Russians waging war with what he regarded as "bestial cruelty". He served under "Generalfeldmarschall" Paul von Hindenburg during this period, including during the Battle of Tannenberg, and came to greatly admire his superior. In June 1916, he was moved to the Western Front. During the war, Hoth held positions at the German General Staff, various armies, and units, including the "Luftstreitkräfte" (air arm of the Imperial German Army). He was awarded both classes of the Iron Cross during the war.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: When Germany surrendered in 1918 amid growing internal turmoil, Hoth felt more loyalty to Hindenburg than the newly formed democratic government in Berlin. In the German Revolution of 1918–1919, Hoth served as a "Reichswehr" officer and helped to put down left-wing uprisings at Halle. This period hardened his hatred for any form of Communism. Hoth also believed that the failure of the right-wing Kapp Putsch proved that the military had to prevent its misuse in politics. He also married Lola Schubering in 1918. Hoth's second son, Hermann, was born in 1923.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: He remained in the "Reichswehr" (the armed forces of the Weimar Republic) in the interwar period, serving at the organization department of the General Staff. He was promoted to "Major" in 1924. Three years later, Hoth was sent to the Soviet Union as part of secret military cooperation missions. In 1929, he was promoted to "Oberstleutnant".


title: Hermann Hoth

text: In the 1920s, Hoth had little interest in the Nazi Party, and even regarded its activities as disruptive for the "Reichswehr". His views changed with the 1930 German federal election when the Nazi Party became the second-strongest political force. Hoth started to view Hitler's nationalist ambitions with approval, and admired the Nazis' attention to workers which he viewed as unusual for a right-wing party. He was among the officers who were most favorably disposed toward Hitler's seizure of control, regarding it as a chance to improve the military. Like several other Reichswehr officers such as Heinz Guderian and Georg-Hans Reinhardt, Hoth hoped that a Nazi-led government would allow him to push through his ideas in regards to greater motorization and armoured warfare. In the aftermath of the takeover, however, Hoth (by then promoted to "Oberst") clashed with Nazi Party officials when he criticised the murder of Communists and Social Democrats in Braunschweig, resulting in his transfer to Lübeck.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: According to his own account, Hoth studied the ideology of the Nazi Party in some depth over the next years; historian Johannes Hürter regarded this as quite unusual for higher-ranking German officers, most of whom believed that they could remain apolitical. Hoth generally approved of the aims and achievements of the Nazi Party, although he expressed some disquiet about the elimination of German Jews. In the end, however, he believed the fate of Jews to be less important than the elimination of Communism in Germany and the restoration of what he saw as Germany's status as an equal in world affairs. In October 1932, he was appointed head of the 17th Infantry Regiment, and transferred to command the 6th Infantry Regiment in August 1933. He was promoted to "Generalmajor" in 1934. Following the reorganization of the German military into the Wehrmacht in 1935, Hoth was appointed to command the 18th Infantry Division. He was regarded as one of the most modern Wehrmacht officers at the time, advocating motorization and other modernization. He was promoted to "Generalleutnant" in 1936, followed by "General der Infanterie" two years later. In 1938, he led the 18th Infantry Division during the occupation of Sudetenland.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Hoth was given command of the XV Motorised Corps in 1938, leading it in the invasion of Poland the following year. At the time, this corps included two "light" divisions which were mixed formations of tanks, infantry, and artillery. Convinced of Hitler's capability as leader, Hoth believed the new war served a higher purpose and would decide the fate of the German people. Under Hoth's command, the XV Motorised Corps initially encountered only light resistance and quickly advanced. By 4 September 1939, Hoth's corps had routed three Polish divisions belonging to Operational Group Kielce and broke through towards the important industrial center of Kielce. Afterwards, Hoth's XV Motorised Corps "relentlessly hound[ed] Szylling's Army Kraków to extinction". Historian Robert Forczyk described Hoth as a "hard-charging" commander during the invasion of Poland, and he received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross for his military achievements during this campaign. Hoth believed that the XV Motorised Corps, including its "light" divisions, had "exceeded high expectations" during the invasion of Poland. Despite this, his corps' light divisions were transformed into panzer divisions for the following Western campaign, possibly due to suffering "unnecessarily high losses".


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Hoth continued to lead the XV Army Corps during the invasion of France from May 1940. The initial German advance of "Generaloberst" Günther von Kluge's 4th Army through the Ardennes was spearheaded by "General der Panzertruppe" Guderian's XIX Motorised Corps on the left and Hoth's corps on the right. Hoth's corps consisted of the 5th and 7th Panzer Divisions, the latter commanded by "Generalmajor" Erwin Rommel. After moving through the Ardennes, Hoth was tasked with capturing crossings of the Meuse near Dinant. His forces quickly secured two bridgeheads across the river on 12/13 May, exploiting the disorganization and overextension of the local French Army units. Initially confined to the bridgeheads due to the resistance organized by the 102nd Fortress Division, the XV Motorised Corps broke through and was pushing into the French 9th Army's left flank by 14/15 May. French counter-attacks near Maubeuge on 18 May temporarily threatened Hoth's advance, but ultimately failed to stop the XV Motorised Corps, allowing it to capture Cambrai. Amid continuing Allied counter-attacks Hoth subsequently moved toward Arras which the Germans captured on 21 May. In the Battle of Dunkirk, Hoth's corps broke through the British Expeditionary Force's defensive line at La Bassée Canal on 27 May, thus assisting in encircling the French 1st Army under René Prioux at Lille.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: On 6–7 June, Hoth's divisions achieved a major breakthrough at Airaines and then Forges-les-Eaux, effectively splitting the French 10th Army into two parts. After capturing Airaines, soldiers of the XV Corps murdered French prisoners of war, mainly black colonial soldiers such as Charles N'Tchoréré. The German units, including XV Motorised Corps, exploited the breakthrough to occupy Rouen and encircle a large Allied force at Saint-Valery-en-Caux, capturing about 10,000 British soldiers. Afterwards, Hoth's corps broke through Allied defensive lines at the Seine. He then split his forces in order to capture important locations in Brittany and Normandy, before advancing south to La Rochelle. His successes in France made Hoth one of the Wehrmacht's most popular generals. He was promoted to "Generaloberst" in July 1940, as part of an "orgy of promotions" by Hitler.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Hoth commanded the 3rd Panzer Group during Operation Barbarossa in 1941. This unit included the XXXIX Panzer Corps, LVII Panzer Corps, V Army Corps, and VI Army Corps which consisted of four Panzer divisions (7th, 12th, 19th, and 20th), three motorized divisions (14th, 20th, 18th), and four infantry divisions (5th, 6th, 26th, 35th). The 3rd Panzer Group fielded 626 tanks at the offensive's start. In his diaries, Hoth expressed no doubts about or opposition to the invasion, mirroring the opinion of most high-ranking German commanders. From a moral and ideological standpoint, Hoth believed that Russia had been overtaken by "Jewish Bolshevism", causing the country to turn away from its European heritage, transforming it into an expansionist, Asiatic, and despotic state as well as setting it on an unavoidable collision course with Germany. Hürter argued that Hoth's beliefs showcased remarkable similarities with Hitler's. Even after the war, Hoth continued to maintain that the invasion had been just based on these arguments. Despite his belief in the necessity of the invasion, Hoth had misgivings about its strategic planning and execution. He tried to convince his superior, "Generalfeldmarschall" Fedor von Bock, commander of Army Group Center, that the 3rd Panzer Group had to operate with greater flexibility and prepare to strike deeper into the Soviet Union than intended by the high command (OKH). Bock rebuffed these requests. Regardless of his misgivings, Hoth generally adhered to the decided-upon plans and Bock's commands during the invasion. Researcher Robert Kirchubel described him as a "team player" and reliable in crisis situations during Operation Barbarossa.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: In course of the early stages of Operation Barbarossa, Hoth's 3rd Panzer Group broke through the Soviet border defenses with relative ease. Beck consequently released Hoth from the 9th Army, allowing him to operate more freely. Guderian's 2nd Panzer Group and Hoth's 3rd Panzer Group proceeded to encircle Minsk as part of Army Group Center's operations, trapping 300,000 Red Army soldiers and capturing or destroying 2,500 tanks. At this point, Hoth again argued that the 3rd Panzer Group should move deeper into the Soviet territory and encircle more enemy troops before closing the pocket. This time he was supported by Bock, but they were overruled by the OKH. Alongside Guderian's 2nd Panzer Group, Hoth then pushed further to attack Smolensk, believing that they had to continue their advance to not allow the Red Army to reorganize. Before reaching the city, the panzer groups of Guderian and Hoth had almost outrun their supply lines, but were able to keep moving thanks to captured Soviet fuel depots. Hoth split his force into two, and secured vital crossings of the Daugava river on 3–4 July. His panzer group then kept advancing between the Daugava and Dnieper, capturing Vitebsk. The breakthrough of Hoth's 3rd Panzer Group at the Daugava-Dnieper line allowed for the encirclement of three Soviet armies.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: As the Wehrmacht advanced, questions arose about the treatment of suspected Red Army soldiers or deserters in civilian clothing. Hoth ordered the 3rd Panzer Group's officers to subject such individuals to a limited examination; if the officers concluded that the prisoners were Red Army soldiers, they were to be shot. Like all German armies on the Eastern Front, Hoth's Panzer Group also implemented the Commissar Order. Following the war, Hoth was the only German general who admitted that he had agreed with the order, believing that the Soviet political commissars could not be regarded as regular soldiers. According to reports from subordinate units, the order was carried out on a widespread basis.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: In mid-July 1941, the 3rd Panzer Group was subordinated to Army Group North to shore up the flanks and attempted to seize Velikie Luki. This was part of a larger operation aimed at seizing Leningrad. Hoth's forces were driven back on 20 July when Red Army forces broke through the German lines, prompting criticism from Bock for unnecessarily striking out too far to the north east. In early August, Hitler ordered a southward diversion of the German advance at Bryansk to the objection of many leading German officers, including Hoth, who advocated for a continued direct drive to Moscow. In mid to late August, Hoth's forces faced another setback owing to heavy losses and dispersal of efforts: facing the heavily reinforced Soviet 19th Army, he committed the 7th Panzer Division without infantry support, which resulted in what the historian David Stahel describes as a "debacle". The division's attack ran into fortified Soviet lines and was repulsed with the loss of 30 tanks. By September, the constant fighing had heavily depleted Hoth's force, as the 3rd Panzer Group had only about 250 tanks remaining. Hoth's panzer group subsequently assisted in Operation Typhoon, the offensive to capture Moscow. Stationed on the left flank, his force and the 9th Army were supposed to attack from Dukhovshchina toward Vyazma. As the plans for Operation Typhoon were discussed by the OKH and frontline commanders, Hoth argued for a delay of one day regarding the offensive, but was overruled.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: At the start of Operation Typhoon, the 3rd Panzer Group made good progress, though was slowed down by Soviet air attacks and the worn-down state of some of its units. Hoth's force and the 9th Army successfully captured two bridges across the Dnieper east of Kholm-Zhirkovsky and were just from Vyazma, close to achieving another encirclement, when they were stopped by counter-attacks ordered by General Ivan Konev on 3 October. The resulting fighting and the exhaustion of its fuel supplies pinned down the 3rd Panzer Group until 6 October, when Hoth was able to restart the advance and sealed the Vyazma-Bryansk pockets. He was then redirected north to capture Rzhev and Kalinin, even though this effectively removed the 3rd Panzer Group from the Battle of Moscow. Hitler and the OKH believed that the "fatal blow" to the Red Army had been already delivered at Vyazma-Bryansk, and hoped for more great encirclements.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: On 9 October, Hoth was appointed commander of the 17th Army in Ukraine. This army's previous commander, Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel, had been criticized for his "timid leadership", and the OKH deemed Hoth to be the right individual to get the 17th Army to advance more aggressively. This decision was motivated by the assessment of Army Group North commander Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb who had lauded Hoth as "intelligent, deliberate, good mind for operational questions, leads very well", and "suitable as an army commander". Even though the appointment as 17th Army head was a promotion, Hoth unsuccessfully asked to remain with the 3rd Panzer Group; Fedor von Bock also expressed his opposition, not wanting to lose an "outstanding armoured commander". Upon moving to the 17th Army, Hoth ordered an advance against Lozova, taking it after two days of fighting. He then split the army to attack both Izium as well as Stalino. However, the German operations in the region slowed down due to bad weather and the widespread destruction of infrastructure, causing Hitler to order a focus on Kharkov. The 17th Army was supposed to help in this operation as well, forcing it to attack in three directions. Spread across a wide area, Hoth's force also encountered heavy resistance as the Red Army mobilized about 150,000 workers to assist the defense of the Donbas. Though the 17th Army ultimately captured most of the middle Don, its advance was slow and costly. Eventually, Hoth argued for a pause of offensive operations due to logistical issues and the exhaustion of his troops.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Hoth was an active supporter of the war of annihilation ("") against the Soviet Union, calling on his men to understand the need for "harsh punishment of Jewry". Under Hoth's command, units of the 17th Army took part in the hunt for and murder of Jews in its territory of control. In response to the issuance of the Severity Order by Walter von Reichenau, he issued an order of the day in November 1941. The document began with a relatively lengthy discussion of history, decrying Jewish influence on Europe, before extolling recent German victories as part of a mission to "save European culture from Asiatic barbarism" and promising the impending collapse and complete "annihilation" of the Soviet Union, an "enslaved and joyless country". Finally, he gave the following directive to troops under his command:


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Hürter argued that this order reflected that Hoth was fully aware of the ongoing Holocaust, and evidently urged his troops to kill Jews not just due to their alleged support for anti-German elements, but also to prevent them from taking revenge in the future. According to researcher Linden Lyons, the order reflected Hoth's "obsequiousness" to Hitler, a tendency to blame the German "national trauma" of World War I on Jewish Bolshevism, and an attempt to "outdo" the extremity of Reichenau's order. Researcher and Manstein biographer Marcel Stein argued that the order as a whole "can cast doubt upon Hoth's sanity" and was "full of repetitive venom and hatred".


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Based on his order's reasoning and claiming that the Red Army was also operating with extreme brutality, Hoth additionally ordered the 17th Army's soldiers to kill all suspected partisans. He advised subordinate officers to cultivate the growing hatred for Soviet troops among the common German soldiers. Hoth also ordered the shooting of any civilians encountered in the woods, as these could potentially support or be partisans. He also agreed with and ordered the mass requisitioning of food, despite causing starvation in occupied cities. In his diaries, Hoth expressed his belief that leniency was the main reason for resistance in the rear areas; accordingly the German security forces should exterminate any opposition without mercy. At the same time, Hoth moderated some of the most extreme orders from the OKH; for instance, he ordered his troops to not treat the Ukraine as a colony, and to show local civilians some respect. Hoth believed that the Ukrainians would become part of the new order in Europe.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: In early January 1942, Hoth became the acting commander of the entire Army Group South, just before the start of the Soviet winter offensives. In the Barvenkovo–Lozovaya offensive, the Red Army successfully drove the 17th Army back and created a bulge in the German frontline around Izium. Hoth's requests to orderly retreat during this campaign were denied by Bock who had assumed control of Army Group South. As the Soviet military had greatly enlarged the Izium bridgehead by 25 January, Hoth told Bock that the 17th Army should focus on defending Dnipropetrovsk and that only two options remained to the German defenders: a "desperate" counter-attack to stop the Red Army from reaching Dnipropetrovsk or the "quick" shifting of troops from other areas to shore up the defenses along the bulge. Bock interpreted these proposals as Hoth threatening to move his entire army westward, and ordered him to remain where he was until reserves arrived. Concluding that Hoth and his staff were "overtired", Bock also decided to temporarily transfer the 17th Army's leadership to Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist. "Less a prima donna than many German army commanders," Hoth did not oppose this change. Despite having been temporarily replaced, he avoided being sacked, and helped to stabilize the southern frontline after the Germans lost Rostov-on-Don. In the Second Battle of Kharkov during May 1942, Hoth initially led the 17th Army, but took over from General Richard Ruoff as commander of 4th Panzer Army on 15 May 1942.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: As part of Case Blue, the German summer offensive in the southern Soviet Union, Hoth demonstrated "great operational command skill". Under his leadership, the 4th Panzer Army initially broke through the Soviet defensive lines of the Bryansk Front at the start of Case Blue on 28 June 1942, making quick progress despite Soviet counter-attacks. The army reached the Don River and assaulted Voronezh by 5 July; Hoth's force quickly secured most of the city. Significant pockets of resistance remained in the city, but Hitler ordered Hoth to keep advancing. The Soviet military responded by launching a counter-offensive led by Alexander Lizyukov to retake Voronezh. The OKH initially did not recognize that the 4th Panzer Army faced an entire Soviet tank army and several tank corps, and dismissed the counter-offensive as "insignificant". The 4th Panzer Army was thus not properly reinforced, but Hoth was still able to organize an effective defense. By 15 July, the Soviet counter-offensive had been repulsed, and the 4th Panzer Army was advancing again.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Hoth and his force were subsequently redirected by Hitler to support Army Group A in the Donbas, disregarding the original plans of Case Blue in which the 4th Panzer Army would have continued to support the direct advance toward Stalingrad. Though the 4th Panzer Army and other German forces participating in this "gambit" were short on fuel at this time, the redirected attack initially met considerable success. Hoth's force and the 1st Panzer Army encircled five Soviet armies west of Millerovo, but the pocket could not be contained and much of the Soviet force was able to retreat. Regardless of the result, this diversion of forces to assist Army Group A had greatly slowed down the direct German advance toward Stalingrad. Frustrated at this development, Hitler transferred the majority of Hoth's force to help the 6th Army's attempt to capture Stalingrad, leaving 4th Panzer Army with just two corps and some support forces. On 31 July, most of the remaining 4th Panzer Army was also reassigned to the 6th Army, though Hoth was ordered to leave one panzer corps behind in the south. This reorganization was received poorly by the 4th Panzer Army, as its members had expected to be used in the pursuit of Soviet forces over open terrain into the Caucasus instead of having to take part in urban warfare. On his part, Hoth reacted to the change of plans by working out an operation of the 4th Panzer Army to encircle Stalingrad.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Hoth's tanks attempted to flank Stalingrad from the south-west through the Kalmyk Steppe, forcing the Soviet Stalingrad Front commander Andrey Yeryomenko to concentrate most of his forces to slow down the 4th Panzer Army. With his force being reduced to two corps and facing growing Soviet resistance, the advance of Hoth's troops slowed down. The encirclement attempt had failed by 11 August, as Hoth had too few forces to overcome the increasingly effective Soviet defenses. Thus, the panzer army was redirected to take part in the direct attack on Stalingrad. From 17 August to 2 September, it advanced northward, helping to take off pressure from the 6th Army and breaking through several Soviet armies despite being weakened in manpower and tank numbers. By the time it fully linked up with the 6th Army and had reached Stalingrad's outskirts, the 4th Panzer Army was a "panzer army in name" with just one weakened tank corps.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: By mid-September, the 4th Panzer Army attacked Stalingrad's concrete grain elevator; despite greatly outnumbering the defenders, the Germans only captured the location after an extended battle on 21 September. At this point, the Red Army was massing forces for large-scale counter-offensives. Most German generals believed the Soviet military to be close to exhaustion and only capable of one offensive, expected to target Army Group Centre. Hoth was one of the few German commanders who realized that a possible Soviet attack from south of Stalingrad could pose a grave threat to the 6th Army. His warnings regarding the 6th Army's southern flank were largely ignored. In October, Hitler ordered Hoth to transfer his last full tank division to the 6th Army.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: By 12 November, Hoth had noticed that the Red Army was massing forces opposite 4th Panzer Army and concluded that the Soviet military was evidently not just improving its defenses. On 19 November 1942, the Soviet Operation Uranus began with a major attack on Romanian Third Army in the north. The Third Army was soon overrun, and the Germans responded by shifting forces from the south to reinforce their collapsing left flank. This left their southern flank even more exposed. The Red Army subsequently attacked south of Stalingrad, breaking through Axis lines as Hoth attempted to muster a defense. Even his own headquarters came under threat, and 4th Panzer Army was forced to withdraw. As the Soviet troops advanced and threatened to encircle the 6th Army, Hitler ordered it to "stand firm" with Hoth being assigned to assist Paulus in keeping the railway lines open. By late November, however, the 6th Army was trapped in Stalingrad, as was half of Hoth's 4th Panzer Army.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Outside the pocket, the remainder of the 4th Panzer Army and the Romanian VI and VII Corps were designated "Army Group Hoth" and attempted to slow the Red Army's advance north of Kotelnikovo. Hoth subsequently worked out a plan for the 4th Panzer Army to relieve the 6th Army, called Operation Winter Storm, and outlined it on 3 December. However, he did not receive the 17th Panzer Division to complete his strike force on time; his understrength force began its relief attempt under the overall command of "Generalfeldmarschall" Erich von Manstein's Army Group Don on 12 December. Hoth's army was stalled at Verkhnekumsky until 15 December, allowing the Soviet 2nd Guards Army to reinforce its positions at the Myshkova River and prepare for Operation Little Saturn. On 16 December, three Soviet armies began Operation Little Saturn, threatening Army Group Don's flank and stopping the 4th Panzer Army. By 25 December, Operation Winter Storm had failed, and Manstein ordered Hoth to abandon his breakthrough attempts. He was instead directed to help shore up the German defenses as the Soviet Operation Little Saturn threatened Army Group Don's rear. However, the 4th Panzer Army was no longer in the position to cover a large section of the frontline. Overall, Hoth's forces suffered heavy losses during these operations and were forced to retreat into the eastern Ukraine.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: On 18 February, Hoth passed the command of his troops, by then part of the Mius-Front, to Karl-Adolf Hollidt. He then met with Manstein at Dnipropetrovsk where he was informed that the 4th Panzer Army was being refounded, consisting of two tank corps, two tank divisions, two infantry divisions, and Waffen-SS units, including the II SS Panzer Corps, "Das Reich" and "Totenkopf". Under his command, this force was ordered to halt the Soviet 1st Guards and 6th Army east of Dnipropetrovsk and push them back across the river Samara. This operation was part of the Third Battle of Kharkov, a counteroffensive against the Soviet forces advancing in the Donbass region.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: The newly refounded 4th Panzer Army launched its attack on 21 February. The German forces cut off the Soviet mobile spearheads and continued the drive north, with Hoth's force starting its attack on Kharkov on 28 February. By early March, however, an early thaw threatened the German advance; Hoth and Manstein decided that the 4th Panzer Army should press on regardless. Kharkov was retaken by the Germans on 15 March and Belgorod on 18 March. Exhaustion of both the Wehrmacht and the Red Army coupled with the loss of mobility due to the onset of the spring rasputitsa resulted in the cessation of operations for both sides by mid-March. The counteroffensive left a salient extending into the German area of control, centered around the city of Kursk, and leading up to Operation Citadel.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: In July 1943, Hoth commanded the 4th Panzer Army in the Battle of Kursk as part of Army Group South. Operation Citadel called for a double envelopment, directed at Kursk, to surround the Soviet defenders and seal off the salient. The Army Group South committed Hoth's 4th Panzer Army, alongside Army Detachment "Kempf". At this point, Hoth was considered one of the Wehrmacht's most experienced senior-level tank commanders, but his leadership was less effective compared to earlier periods of the war. Forczyk argued that Hoth showed signs of "approaching burnout". As the offensive at Kursk was repeatedly delayed, Hoth became increasingly pessimistic about Operation Citadel's chances of success due to the increasing Soviet defenses. Despite this, both Hoth as well as Werner Kempf, commander of the eponymous army detachment, decided not to prepare for obstacle breaching at Kursk, assuming that the German engineers would remove Soviet minefields without much difficulty. They also did not realize the depth and strength of Nikolai Vatutin's defense lines. As a result of German mistakes in planning, coordination between Hoth and Kempf would be poor during the offensive, with each fighting a separate battle.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: When Operation Citadel started, Hoth's divisions, reinforced by the II SS Panzer Corps under Paul Hausser, penetrated several Soviet defensive lines, before being brought to a halt in the Battle of Prokhorovka. This was partially the result of Hoth hesitating to keep advancing as his flanks were threatened by Soviet counter-attacks, while Kempf's force had been unable to keep up. On the other side, Forczyk argued that Hoth "rightly" chose to ignore orders by Manstein to reinforce failing attacks by Hermann Breith. Overall, the Battle of Kursk was a major Soviet victory.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: In the aftermath of Kursk, the Red Army mounted a series of successful offensives that crossed the Dnieper. Hoth was unable to destroy the Soviet bridgeheads across the river. In September 1943, Hoth's army was operationally penetrated by Red Army units and was unable to maintain a continuous front line even in retreat. The army crossed the Dnieper south and north of Kiev with heavy losses. Despite this, he received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords for this strategic withdrawal and his defense at the Dnieper. In November, the Red Army broke through Hoth's defenses in a surprise offensive which retook Kiev and ultimately pushed the Germans out of eastern Ukraine. The rapid loss of Kiev "humiliated" Hoth who was blamed by Hitler for this defeat. Historian Earl F. Ziemke also contended that by this point Hitler "wanted generals who would hold without giving an inch", whereas Hoth was an expert in mobile defense. In November 1943, Hoth was put on leave, officially "to unwind", and relieved of command on 10 December 1943. Forczyk argued that the German failures in the battle of the Dnieper had resulted from both Hitler's interferences in tactical matters as well as the inability of the Wehrmacht commanders, including Hoth, to anticipate Soviet actions. According to him, they had not recognized the rapid improvement of the Red Army.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: After being removed from his position, Hoth was denounced by Hitler as "a bird of ill-omen" and "an instigator of defeatism of the worst sort". Hoth spent the following time in the "Führerreserve". Though he was named commander of the Ore Mountains in April 1944, this position was "completely meaningless". Hoth was only properly recalled in April 1945. He was appointed commander of the Saale, and ordered to defend the Halle-Leipzig area until the 12th Army was combat-ready again. He organized a defensive line at Mulde and Elbe and offered some resistance to the advancing United States Armed Forces before his forces broke. Afterwards, he served as commander of the Ore Mountains again before surrendering to U.S. American troops on 7 May 1945.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Following the end of the war, Hoth was tried at the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials, in the High Command Trial.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: During his testimony he sought to explain his November 1941 order as being only aimed at the elimination of the "Bolshevik-Jewish resistance". He denied any knowledge of the Holocaust, and claimed that his instructions only meant that his troops should be vigilant and were intended to improve morale: "The German soldier in his good nature ... easily forgot that he was still in enemy territory" and that the "power of Bolshevism [had to be] broken". He insisted that no physical harm came to civilians as the result of this measure, which his troops executed with "clean hands". Hoth maintained that if any Jews had been killed it was due to their connection to crimes against the German forces. "It was a matter of common knowledge in Russia that it was the Jew in particular who participated in a very large extent in sabotage, espionage, etc.," Hoth claimed. However, he also maintained that the Russians were instinctually adjusted to a severe form of leadership, regarding leniency as weakness. Hoth believed this argument to sufficiently justify the brutality of the German occupation.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: In regards to the criminal Commissar Order, Hoth claimed that he had been "compelled" to transmit it to the troops under his command, as otherwise he would have been replaced by a more compliant officer. He also denied having demanded that the Commissar Order be carried out, maintaining that he had opposed it. He expressed the view that his subordinates would have known of his disapproval of the order even though he had never actually voiced any opposition to it. Despite this, he made contradictory remarks as well. For once, he argued that Hitler would not have ordered his commanders to do anything criminal, claiming that the "Führer" had only wanted to "protect" soldiers from the commissars who had been "bloodthirty beast[s]". Hoth also maintained that any orders by Hitler superseded Section 48 of the German Military Penal Code which affirmed that soldiers were under no obligation to adhere to clearly criminal orders. In response to evidence of his troops killing hostages, Hoth denied this as well. He instead posited that only partisans were executed, while blaming the brutality of partisan warfare on Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. Furthermore, he stated that Soviet prisoners of war had always been treated well, arguing that the usage of the nickname "Ivan" for the POWs showcased the "family-like relationship that our soldiers had to the Russian prisoners of war". In an attempt to sway the tribunal, Hoth's attorney submitted 92 affidavits testifying to his good character.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: The International Military Tribunal found Hoth's arguments unconvincing. According to Stein, "apart of Wöhler, no other general was subject to more mockery" during the High Command Trial. Relating to Hoth's alleged lack of knowledge of the massacre of Jews, the tribunal pointed out the Artemovsk massacre. On 14 December 1941, the "Sicherheitsdienst" (SD) had murdered 1,224 Jews and 93 other prisoners at Artemovsk in an area of Hoth's command; he admitted that he had been informed of the mass killing. The tribunal concluded that he was thus fully aware of the SD's murder of Jews, but the 17th Army under Hoth still continued to hand over prisoners to the SD and continued to cooperate with the agency.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Furthermore, there was clear evidence that Hoth had transmitted the Commissar Order with his full knowledge and approval, and several reports confirmed that he had been aware of the execution of hundreds of captured commissars. There was also a large amount of evidence showcasing Hoth's knowledge and approval of the mass execution of not just partisans, but also "partisan suspects or sympathizers". Relating to the mistreatment of POWs under Hoth's commamd, the tribunal referenced a report by the 17th Army's "Oberquartiermeister" (chief quartermaster) to Hoth on 25 November 1941, outlining cases of murder, deliberate starvation, usage as human shields, and a general neglect of the POWs' walfare. The tribunal admitted that "not all of these conditions" could be attributed to Hoth, but that the commander had made no efforts to counteract and in some cases approved the mistreatment. Hoth had also ordered POWs to be used for forced labour and as ammunition loaders.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Hoth was acquitted under counts one and four. He was convicted under count two relating to the Commissar Order and the unlawful treatment of POWs. He was also convincted under count three for war crimes and crimes against humanity consisting of crimes against civilians in regards to the murder of civilians suspected to be associated with partisans and Jews. The International Military Tribunal gave the following verdict against Hoth:


title: Hermann Hoth

text: On 27 October 1948, he was sentenced to 15 years in prison. Hoth served his time in the prison of Landsberg am Lech. He complied with his prison duties, though continued to maintain his innocence. In January 1951, Hoth's sentence was reviewed with no changes. He was released on parole in April 1954; his sentence was reduced to time served in 1957.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: After his release, he settled down in Goslar where he spent the rest of his life. He took up walking the Harz mountains as a hobby, and began writing on topics related to World War II. In 1956, Hoth wrote a book titled "Panzer-Operationen". The book was translated into Russian under the title "Tankovye operacii" in 1961, and as "Panzer Operations: Germany's Panzer Group 3 During the Invasion of Russia, 1941" into English in 2015. Chris Buckham, reviewer of the English translation, described it as "very readable and thought-provoking". Hoth also penned several articles for the journal "Wehrkunde". In one of these articles, Hoth made an "almost hysterical" appeal for the "Bundeswehr", West Germany's new armed forces, to mobilize strong tank divisions. He maintained contacts with Wehrmacht officers who had been recruited into the Bundeswehr such as Friedrich Foertsch.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: In the 1960s, he began to speak out against German historians who began to study the war and highlight the crimes committed by Nazi Germany. Hoth claimed that German veterans were the ones who should have the "greater right" to shape the perception on the war. In his view, accounts of the conflict should not focus on defeats and instead maintain a "heroic image" of the Wehrmacht in order to protect the ability of the "Bundeswehr" to motivate potential officers to enlist. He spent his last years trying to "preserve" the German military's public perception, giving interviews to journalists and historians. In addition, Hoth, Fritz Bayerlein, and several ex-SS officers worked closely with Paul Carell, assisting him to write a book titled "Unternehmen Barbarossa" (published 1963). Carell had worked as a German propagandist during World War II, and "Unternehmen Barbarossa" supported the myth of the clean Wehrmacht as well as the portrayal of Waffen-SS members as regular soldiers, ignoring the Holocaust and other German war crimes. In the writing process for "Unternehmen Barbarossa", Hoth influenced Carell to portray Manstein's performance in the campaigns of Stalingrad in a positive light. Reviewer Raymond L. Garthoff argued that the English translation of "Unternehmen Barbarossa", called "Hitler Moves East: 1941-1943", was a "first-class military historical narrative", though exhibted a pro-Wehrmacht bias and tended to "skip over more reprehensible German accomplishments". Michael Parrish was more critical, characterizing the book as an attempt "to glorify the German Army, and heap blame on that most convenient of all scapegoats, Adolf Hitler", while also suffering from factual errors and deliberate omissions. Historians Ronald Smelser and Edward J. Davies concurred, stating that "Hitler Moves East: 1941-1943" is often misleading, portraying the "Wehrmacht as heroes" fighting "the Asiatic hordes of Communism", while solely blaming Hitler for atrocities and the ultimate German defeat.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: From 1965, Hoth developed close contacts with Ulrich de Maizière, Inspector General of the Bundeswehr. The two men had already known each other since World War II, as they had first met while serving in the Wehrmacht. Their first post-war meeting was organized by their common acquaintance, Friedrich Foertsch, and de Maizière discovered that they shared the belief that tank units should form the core of the West German military. The two began to regularly discuss topics, and the Inspector General publicly voiced his high opinion of Hoth.


title: Hermann Hoth

text: Historians David M. Glantz and Jonathan M. House described Hoth as "one of Germany's most experienced armored tacticians". Ziemke argued that Hoth displayed "mastery of the mobile defense" in his campaigns. According Buckham, Hoth "is considered by many to have been one of the greatest armoured commanders serving in the German Army during the Second World War". Researcher Linden Lyons, translator of "Panzer Operations", argued that Hoth "was undoubtedly one of the most brilliant tank commanders of the Second World War, yet this is overshadowed by his strong enthusiasm for the expansionist and racist ideology of Nazism". Stein described Hoth as "an outstanding "Panzer" commander. But in the larger historic context of the war, he was a nobody". In course of the war, Hoth had written down extensive notes, comparable in length to "The Halder Diaries". Even though these notes were long ignored in historiography, Hürter argued that Hoth's writings were of high value as they complement the information contained in Halder's diaries. For instance, Hoth documented Hitler's speech to his high-ranking officers before Operation Barbarossa in much more detail than any other source, outlining German strategic and ideological aims.


title: Alaska's at-large congressional district

text: Since becoming a U.S. state in 1959, Alaska has been entitled to one member in the United States House of Representatives, elected in the state's sole, at-large congressional district. By area, Alaska's congressional district is the largest congressional district in the United States, and is the second largest electoral district represented by a single member in the world, behind only Nunavut's sole electoral district in Canada.


text: On August 31, 2022, Democrat Mary Peltola defeated Republican former governor Sarah Palin in the special election to replace Don Young, who died on March 18. Peltola became the first Democrat elected to the House of Representatives from Alaska since 1972, and the first Alaskan Native to be elected to the United States House of Representatives in history.


text: As of 2022, the district is the most Republican-leaning congressional district represented by a Democrat, with a partisan lean of R+8.


text: The district was created when Alaska achieved statehood on January 3, 1959. Alaska is still entitled to only one member in the House of Representatives.


title: Neue Deutsche Welle

text: Neue Deutsche Welle (NDW, , "New German Wave") is a genre of West German rock music originally derived from post-punk and new wave music with electronic influences. The term was first coined by Dutch radio DJ Frits Spits on the popular nationwide radio station Hilversum 3, which was very popular among German listeners. Soon after that, the term was used in a record-shop advertisement by Burkhardt Seiler in an August 1979 issue of the West German magazine "Sounds". It was then used by journalist Alfred Hilsberg in an article about the movement titled ("New German Wave — From Grey Cities' Walls") in "Sounds" in October 1979.


title: Neue Deutsche Welle

text: The history of the Neue Deutsche Welle consists of two major parts. From its beginnings to 1981, the genre was mostly an underground movement with roots in British punk and new wave music. It quickly developed into an original and distinct style, influenced in no small part by the different sound and rhythm of the German language, which many of the bands had adapted from early on. Whilst some of the lyrics of artists like and epitomized the zeitgeist of urban West Germany during the Cold War, others used the language in a surreal way, merely playing with its sound or graphic quality rather than using it to express meaning, as done by bands and artists such as , Joachim Witt and .


title: Neue Deutsche Welle

text: The main centers of the NDW movement during these years were West Berlin, Düsseldorf, Hamburg, Hannover and Hagen, as well as, to a lesser extent, the Frankfurt Rhein-Main Region, Limburg an der Lahn and Vienna.


title: Neue Deutsche Welle

text: From about 1980 on, the music industry began noticing the ; however, because of the idiosyncratic nature of the music, focus shifted to creating new bands more compatible with the mainstream rather than promoting existing bands. Many one-hit wonders and short-lived bands appeared and were forgotten again in rapid succession. The overly broad application of the NDW label to these bands, as well as to almost any German musicians not using English lyrics, even if their music was apparently not influenced at all by the original NDW sound (including pure rock bands like or even Udo Lindenberg), quickly led to the decay of the entire genre when many of the original musicians turned their backs in frustration.


title: Neue Deutsche Welle

text: Around 1983/1984, the era of the came to an early end, following the oversaturation of the market with what was perceived as stereotypical, manufactured hits.


title: Neue Deutsche Welle

text: A revival of interest in the style in the Anglophone world occurred in 2003, with the release of DJ Hell's compilation "New Deutsch". The NDW has come to be acknowledged as a forerunner to later developments in dance-punk, electronic body music and electroclash.


title: Neue Deutsche Welle

text: In the 2000s, the term was used by the Berlin-based rap label to describe a supposed new German rap movement of which they claimed to be a part. This was the subject of artist Fler's 2005 single . The band was also influenced by the .


title: Bartending terminology

text: In bartending, the terms "straight up" and "up" ordinarily refer to an alcoholic drink that is shaken or stirred with ice and then strained and served in a stemmed glass without ice. "Straight" ordinarily refers to a single, unmixed liquor served without any water, ice, or other mixer. In this sense, "straight" can sometimes be used as a synonym for "either" "straight up" or "neat".


title: Bartending terminology

text: Furthermore, "straight" is also a term of art for a particular type of whiskey produced in the United States. United States federal law defines the term "straight whiskey" as whiskey that has met particular requirements for its ingredients, production process, and aging. For example, the label of a bottle of top-shelf bourbon typically identifies the product as "Kentucky straight bourbon whiskey" (since about 95% of all bourbon is produced in Kentucky).


title: Bartending terminology

text: While the meaning of "up" and "neat" is ordinarily clear, some clarification may be needed for "straight" and "straight up", to determine whether the spirit is intended to be chilled and strained or served undiluted at room temperature.


title: Bartending terminology

text: A drink served "neat" is a single, unmixed liquor served without being chilled and without any water, ice, or other mixer. Neat drinks are typically served in a rocks glass, shot glass, snifter, Glencairn glass, or copita.


title: Bartending terminology

text: "On the rocks" refers to liquor poured over ice cubes, and a "rocks drink" is a drink served on the rocks. Rocks drinks are typically served in a rocks glass, highball glass, or Collins glass, all of which refer to a relatively straight-walled, flat-bottomed glass; the rocks glass is typically the shortest and widest, followed by the highball which is taller and often narrower, then the Collins which is taller and narrower still.


title: Bartending terminology

text: "With a twist" signals the bartender to add a "twist" of the zest of a citrus fruit (bar choice, if unspecified) to the cocktail. Often, the bartender will hang the rind of the citrus on the glass as a garnish (see martini photo above).


title: Bartending terminology

text: Cocktails are generally served chilled, although some (e.g., margaritas) may be served either with or without ice, and this must be specified. Cocktails can be served "frozen", which is with crushed ice or blended with ice instead of cubes. "Hot Toddy" drinks are cocktails served hot as the name implies.


title: Bartending terminology

text: Unmixed liquors may be served either neat, up, or on the rocks, with differing conventions. High-quality whisky and other aged liquor are most often served neat, while lower-quality whisky is usually served with a mixer or on the rocks. Vodka can be stored as a liquid well below the freezing point of water because of its high proof and low particulate content, and cocktails made with sub-freezing vodka are sometimes requested to minimize the amount of added water from melted ice during shaking.


title: Bartending terminology

text: A shot of whisky, tequila, or vodka, when served neat in a shot glass, is often accompanied by a "chaser" (a mild drink consumed after a shot of hard liquor) or a "water back" (a separate glass of water). These terms commingle as well; it is common in many locales to hear a "beer back" ordered as the chaser to a shot. A drink may specifically be ordered "no chaser" as well.


title: Bartending terminology

text: In the Philippines and Canada, "chasers" are beverages, mostly sweet ones, that are drunk immediately after downing a shot to relieve the bitter taste or strong kick of the alcohol.


title: Bartending terminology

text: Drinks establishments will often have a lower-priced category of drinks, known as "well drinks" or "rail drinks", and a higher-priced category known as "top-shelf" or "call" drinks, and will use upselling by offering the higher-priced category when taking orders. The terms come from the relative positions of the bottles of spirit used for the drinks; the cheapest version of a spirit offered by a bar is typically stored in a long rail or "well" making it readily available to a busy bartender, while the more expensive, better-quality liqueurs and spirits are displayed on shelves behind the bar where they attract patrons to the available selection.


title: Bartending terminology

text: Rather than use measuring equipment, professional bartenders usually use a pour spout inserted into the mouth of the bottle, which restricts the flow of liquid to a standard rate allowing reasonably accurate time-based pours. For instance, a "6-count" is a common analogue for a 1.5oz jigger, which can be trained to by having the bartender upend the bottle (with pour spout installed) and counting to 6 out loud as quickly as the words can be said clearly. This method breaks down into convenient sub-measures; each count is approximately one-quarter fluid ounce, making a "pony" 4 counts and a "half-jigger" 3 counts. This system is not perfect because liquids of different viscosities will pour at different rates through the same spout, but it does allow consistent pours from drink to drink for a consistent result from each bartender, while being much faster than using a thimble measure or similar spirit measure.