title: Amanda Young

text: Smith's depiction of Amanda in the reverse bear trap was used in promotional posters for the first film. The same image also appears on the soundtrack for the first film. A depiction of Amanda in this device was released as a collectable statue by Hollywood Collectables, indicating the iconic status that the character has obtained.


title: Andrew Phung

text: Andrew Phung is a Canadian actor, improviser, and comedian. He played the character Kimchee Han on the CBC Television sitcom "Kim's Convenience". For this role, he has been a five-time Canadian Screen Award winner for Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series.


title: Andrew Phung

text: Andrew Phung was born and raised in Calgary, Alberta, and attended Bishop McNally High School. Phung's father is of Vietnamese descent and his mother is Chinese. He joined the Loose Moose Theatre Company when he was 16 years old. As of 2020, he is a senior ensemble performer and instructor with the theatre. He studied economics at the University of Calgary and worked as a non-profit director before pursuing acting.


title: Andrew Phung

text: In 2008, he joined the comedy group Sciencebear. Together they created and produced various comedic shorts, and in 2009 they released the film "Sketch", which was produced on a $100 budget. It was an official entry into the 2010 Calgary International Film Festival.


title: Andrew Phung

text: In 2009 Phung was named one of Calgary's Top 40 under 40 by "Avenue Magazine". That year he was also a featured cast member on the television series "Drafted" on the Score Television Network.


title: Andrew Phung

text: Phung is the co-creator of the hit improvised comedy shows "Past your Bedtime", "Northeast: The Show", and "Kill Hard".


title: Andrew Phung

text: From 2015 to 2016, he co-wrote and starred in two seasons of "Cowtown", a sketch comedy series produced by Nur Films and Telus Optik.


title: Andrew Phung

text: From 2016-2021 Phung played the role of Kimchee in the CBC Television sitcom "Kim's Convenience". He has won several Canadian Screen Awards for Canadian Screen Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series, at the 5th Canadian Screen Awards in 2017, the 6th Canadian Screen Awards in 2018, and the 8th Canadian Screen Awards in 2020. In March of 2021 it was announced that despite being renewed to a 6th season, "Kim's Convenience" would be ending after five seasons due to the departure of the show runners.


title: Andrew Phung

text: Post-"Kim's Convenience", Phung stars in the lead role on "Run the Burbs" for CBC; he also is a co-creator of the series.


title: Andrew Phung

text: Phung won two awards at the 9th Canadian Screen Awards in 2021, winning both his fourth award for Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series for "Kim's Convenience", and Best Host in a Web Program or Series for his role as host of the 2019 Canadian Improv Games.


title: Andrew Phung

text: Phung is the co-founder of YYCSolediers, an online sneaker group which also produces Sneaker SWAP, a Calgary-based sneaker event. He is heavily involved in an organization called Youth Central, a non profit organization which helps youth get involved in their communities.


title: Silicate

text: In chemistry, a silicate is any member of a family of polyatomic anions consisting of silicon and oxygen, usually with the general formula , where . The family includes orthosilicate (), metasilicate (), and pyrosilicate (, ). The name is also used for any salt of such anions, such as sodium metasilicate; or any ester containing the corresponding chemical group, such as tetramethyl orthosilicate. The name "silicate" is sometimes extended to any anions containing silicon, even if they do not fit the general formula or contain other atoms besides oxygen; such as hexafluorosilicate .Most commonly, silicates are encountered as silicate minerals.


title: Silicate

text: For diverse manufacturing, technological, and artistic needs, silicates are versatile materials, both natural (such as granite, gravel, and garnet) and artificial (such as Portland cement, ceramics, glass, and waterglass).


title: Silicate

text: In all silicates, silicon atom occupies the center of an idealized tetrahedron whose corners are four oxygen atoms, connected to it by single covalent bonds according to the octet rule. The oxygen atoms, which bears some negative charge, link to other cations (M). This Si-O-M-O-Si linkage is strong and rigid, which properties are manifested in the rock-like silicates. The silicates can be classified according to the length and crosslinking of the silicate anions.


title: Silicate

text: Ttwo or more silicon atoms can share oxygen atoms in various ways, to form more complex anions, such as pyrosilicate .


title: Silicate

text: With two shared oxides bound to each silicon, cyclic or polymeric structures can result. The cyclic metasilicate ring is a hexamer of SiO. Polymeric silicate anions of can exist also as long chains.


title: Silicate

text: In single-chain silicates, which are a type of inosilicate, tetrahedra link to form a chain by sharing two oxygen atoms each. A common mineral in this group is pyroxene.


title: Silicate

text: Double-chain silicates, the other category of inosilicates, occur when tetrahedra form a double chain (not always but mostly) by sharing two or three oxygen atoms each. Common minerals for this group are amphiboles.


title: Silicate

text: In this group, known as phyllosilicates, tetrahedra all share three oxygen atoms each and in turn link to form two-dimensional sheets. This structure does lead to minerals in this group having one strong cleavage plane. Micas fall into this group. Both muscovite and biotite have very weak layers that can be peeled off in sheets.


title: Silicate

text: In a framework silicate, known as a tectosilicate, each tetrahedron shares all 4 oxygen atoms with its neighbours, forming a 3D structure. Quartz and feldspars are in this group.


title: Silicate

text: Although the tetrahedron is a common coordination geometry for silicon(IV) compounds, silicon may also occur with higher coordination numbers. For example, in the anion hexafluorosilicate , the silicon atom is surrounded by six fluorine atoms in an octahedral arrangement. This structure is also seen in the hexahydroxysilicate anion that occurs in thaumasite, a mineral found rarely in nature but sometimes observed among other calcium silicate hydrates artificially formed in cement and concrete submitted to a severe sulfate attack.


title: Silicate

text: At very high pressure, such as exists in the majority of the earth's crust, even SiO adopts the six-coordinated octahedral geometry in the mineral stishovite, a dense polymorph of silica found in the lower mantle of the Earth and also formed by shock during meteorite impacts.


title: Silicate

text: Silicates with alkali cations and small or chain-like anions, such as sodium ortho- and metasilicate, are fairly soluble in water. They form several solid hydrates when crystallized from solution. Soluble sodium silicates and mixtures thereof, known as waterglass are in fact important industrial and household chemicals. Silicates of non-alkali cations, or with sheet and tridimensional polymeric anions, generally have negligible solubility in water at normal conditions.


title: Silicate

text: Silicates are generally inert chemically. Hence they are common minerals. Their resiliency also recommends their use as building materials.


title: Silicate

text: Equilibria involving hydrolysis of silicate minerals are difficult to study. The chief challenge is the very low solubility of SiO and its various protonated forms. Such equilibria are relevant to the processes occurring on geological time scales. Some plants excrete ligands that dissolve silicates, a step in biomineralization.


title: Silicate

text: Silicate anions in solution react with molybdate anions yielding yellow silicomolybdate complexes. In a typical preparation, monomeric orthosilicate was found to react completely in 75 seconds; dimeric pyrosilicate in 10 minutes; and higher oligomers in considerably longer time. In particular, the reaction is not observed with suspensions of colloidal silica.


title: Silicate

text: The nature of soluble silicates is relevant to understanding biomineralization and the synthesis of aluminosilicates, such as the industrially important catalysts called zeolites.


title: Saindhavi

text: Saindhavi is a Carnatic music vocalist and an Indian film playback singer. She has been performing from the age of 12.


title: Saindhavi

text: In Telugu, she sang "Maamidi komma ki" in Sekhar Kammula's film "Avakai Biryani", "Yedho" in "Sasirekha Parinayam", "Premadesam Yuvarani" in Shakti (along with Hemachandra), Sutiga Choodaku in "Ishq", a Telugu movie. In Kannada, she sang "Mussanje rangalli" and "Beladingalante minu minuguta" in the movie "Psycho", which became a super-hit.


title: Saindhavi

text: She has sung title songs for the TV series "Idhu oru kaadhal kadhai", "Edhir neechal", "Chellamay Chellam" and "Magalir Mattum". She is also one of the lead vocalists in the popular series of albums "Sacred Chants" by Kosmic Music. Her devotional album on Lord Krishna titled "Alilayil Urangukinra Mayakkannane" was released in 2012 by Gaananjali Recordings.


title: EncroChat

text: EncroChat was a Europe-based communications network and service provider that offered modified smartphones allowing encrypted communication among subscribers. It was used primarily by organized crime members to plan criminal activities. Police infiltrated the network between at least March and June 2020 during a Europe-wide investigation. An unidentified source associated with EncroChat announced on the night of 12–13 June 2020 that the company would cease operations because of the police operation.


title: EncroChat

text: The service had around 60,000 subscribers at the time of its closure. As a result of police being able to read unencrypted EncroChat messages, at least 1,000 arrests had been made across Europe as of 22 December 2020.


title: EncroChat

text: EncroChat handsets emerged in 2016 as a replacement for a previously disabled end-to-end encrypted service. The company had revealed on 31 December 2015 the Version 115 of EncroChat OS, which appears to be the first public release of their operating system. The earliest version of the company's website archived by the Wayback Machine dates to 23 September 2015.


title: EncroChat

text: According to a May 2019 report by the "Gloucester Citizen", EncroChat was originally developed for "celebrities who feared their phone conversations were being hacked". In the 2015 murder of English mobster Paul Massey, the killers used a similar service providing encrypted BlackBerry phones based on PGP. After the Dutch and Canadian police compromised their server in 2016, EncroChat turned into a popular alternative among criminals for its security-oriented services in 2017–2018.


title: EncroChat

text: The founders and owners of EncroChat are not known. According to Dutch journalist Jan Meeus, a Dutch organized crime gang was involved and financed the developers.


title: EncroChat

text: Through a marketing strategy of "relentless online advertising", EncroChat rapidly expanded during its four and a half years of existence, benefiting from the closure of its competitors PGP Safe and Ennetcom. The network eventually reached an estimated 60,000 total subscribers at the time of its closure in June 2020. According to the French National Gendarmerie, 90 percent of subscribers were criminals, and the British National Crime Agency (NCA) said it found no evidence of non-criminals using it.


title: EncroChat

text: EncroChat first came to the attention of the media when it was revealed that high-profile criminals Mark Fellows and Steven Boyle had been using the encrypted devices to communicate during the May 2018 gangland murder of John Kinsella in Rainhill. The service resurfaced in the media during the summer of 2020 after law enforcement announced that they had infiltrated the encrypted network and investigative journalist Joseph Cox, who had been reviewing EncroChat for months, published an exposé in "Vice Motherboard".


title: EncroChat

text: The EncroChat service was available for handsets called "carbon units", whose GPS, camera and microphone functions were disabled by the company for privacy reasons. Devices were sold with pre-installed applications, including EncroChat, an OTR-based messaging app which routed conversations through a central server based in France, EncroTalk, a ZRTP-based voice call service, and EncroNotes, which allowed users to write encrypted private notes. They generally used modified Android devices, with some models based on the BQ Aquaris X2 phone hardware, others on Samsung devices, and sometimes on non-Android BlackBerry mobile phones. Devices with EncroChat were able to boot in two modes. When only the power button was pressed to turn the handset on, they booted into a dummy Android home screen. But when the handset was switched on by pressing the power button together with the volume button, the phone booted to a secret, encrypted partition which facilitated secret communication via EncroChat's French servers. A "panic button" feature was available, where a certain PIN inputted to the device via the unlock screen would erase all data on the phone. According to journalist Jurre van Bergen, the IP of EncroChat's server points to French web hosting company OVH. EncroChat's SIM provider was the Dutch telecommunications firm KPN.


title: EncroChat

text: EncroChat devices were particularly popular in Europe, although they were also sold in the Middle East and elsewhere in the world. One source told "Vice Motherboard" that they became the "industry standard" among criminals. They were reported in July 2020 to cost €1,000 (£900) each, then €1,500 (£1,350) for a six-month contract to use EncroChat's solution. EncroChat's website says that the firm had resellers in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Madrid and Dubai, although Cox describes EncroChat as a "highly secretive" firm which "does not operate like a normal technology company". The phones were reportedly bought via a physical transaction which "looked like a drug deal", and at least one case involves an ex-military operative selling devices in Northern Ireland.


title: EncroChat

text: The EncroChat encrypted messaging service and the related customized phones were discovered by the French National Gendarmerie in 2017 when conducting operations against organized crime gangs. At the time of the Fellows and Boyle trial in December 2018, the NCA struggled to crack the lock screen passcode, as anything was wiped out after a set number of attempts.


title: EncroChat

text: The investigation accelerated in early 2019 after receiving EU funding. At the end of January 2020, a judge in Lille, France, authorized the infiltration of the EncroChat servers. Intelligence and technical collaboration between the NCA, the National Gendarmerie and Dutch police culminated in gaining access to messages after the National Gendarmerie put a "technical tool" on EncroChat's servers in France. The malware allowed them to read messages before they were sent and record lock screen passwords. Messages could be read by law enforcement beginning in April. EncroChat estimated that around 50 percent of devices in Europe were affected in June 2020.


title: EncroChat

text: The National Gendarmerie formed a special unit to investigate the hacked information on 15 March 2020, then signed an agreement with the Dutch Police to form a joint investigation team (JIT) on 10 April, co-operating through Eurojust with the support of Europol. The data was distributed by the JIT to other European partners, including the UK, Sweden and Norway. The NCA began to receive information about the content of messages on 1 April 2020, then started to build data analysis technology to automatically "identify and locate offenders by analysing millions of messages and hundreds of thousands of images". The chief of the Dutch National Police Force, , compared the malware to "sitting at the table where criminals were chatting among themselves". In May 2020, the wipe feature was disabled at distance by law enforcement in some units. The company initially tried to push an update in response to what was initially regarded as a bug, but the devices were struck again by malware altering lock screen passwords.


title: EncroChat

text: On the night of 12–13 June 2020, once EncroChat suspected the infiltration by law enforcement had occurred, users received a secret message:


title: EncroChat

text: A few days later, an "email address long associated with EncroChat" informed "Vice Motherboard" that the service was shutting down permanently "following several attacks carried out by a foreign organization that seems to originate in the UK"; Cox publicly disclosed excerpts of the email on 22 June. Europol and the National Crime Agency refused to comment at the time. The identity of the persons in charge of EncroChat has not been revealed as of 3 July 2020.


title: EncroChat

text: The Europol-supported JIT, code named "Emma 95" in France and "26Lemont" in the Netherlands, allowed the gathering in real time of millions of messages between suspects. Information was also shared with law enforcement in several countries that were not participating in the JIT, including the UK, Sweden and Norway.


title: EncroChat

text: The Dutch police arrested more than 100 suspects and seized more than 8 tonnes of cocaine, around 1.2 tonnes of crystal methamphetamine, 19 synthetic drug laboratories, dozens of guns and luxury cars, and around €20 million in cash. On 22 June 2020 in a property in Rotterdam, authorities found police uniforms, stolen vehicles, 25 firearms, and 25 kg of drugs in a different property. On 22 June 2020, the Dutch police also discovered a "torture chamber" in a warehouse near the town of about 7.15 km east of Bergen op Zoom. The facility, which was still under construction when discovered, consisted of seven cells made out of sound-proofed shipping containers; torture tools were found including a dentist's chair, hedge trimmers, scalpels and pliers. The place was nicknamed by criminals the "treatment room" or the "ebi", in reference to Extra Beveiligde Inrichting (EBI), a Dutch maximum security prison.


title: EncroChat

text: EncroChat probes in Ireland have left criminals scrambling for cover. €1.1 million worth of cocaine was seized in an Amsterdam flat, and €5.5 million of cannabis in a trailer in County Wexford, both belonging to Irish gangs. Prominent Irish gang boss Daniel Kinahan was reported to have fled his "safe-haven" of Dubai on 9 July 2020.


title: EncroChat

text: Arrests were also made in Sweden. French authorities declined to disclose information publicly about the arrests in July 2020.


title: EncroChat

text: Operation Venetic was a British national response initiated by the National Crime Agency (NCA). In June 2020, EncroChat had 10,000 users in the UK alone. As a result of the infiltration of the network, UK police arrested 746 individuals, including major crime bosses, intercepted two tonnes of drugs (with a street value at the time in excess of £100 million), seized £54 million in cash, as well as weapons, including submachine guns, handguns, grenades, an AK-47 assault rifle, and more than 1,800 rounds of ammunition. More than 28 million tablets of the sedative Etizolam were found in a factory in Rochester, Kent. Additionally, 354 kg of cocaine were seized by the Eastern unit in Essex and East Anglia, and 233 kg by the West Midlands unit. Police Scotland seized 164 kg of cocaine, £200,000 of cannabis and £750,000 in cash in several busts. In May 2020, police found two suitcases containing £1.1 million in Sheffield.


title: EncroChat

text: Four people have been charged by the NCA with conspiracy to murder as of 8 July 2020. British police claim to have prevented up to 200 gangland killings, although "Vice News" notes that "the number of homicides linked to high level organised crime—as opposed to street gangs—in this county is relatively low". Two corrupt law enforcement officers were also arrested as a result of the operation.


title: EncroChat

text: On 22 December 2020, Thomas Maher was jailed for 14 years and 8 months at Liverpool Crown Court. He had pleaded guilty to four counts of conspiracy to commit a crime at an earlier hearing. He was involved in conspiracies to smuggle about £1.5 million (€1.6m) of cocaine from the Netherlands to Ireland as well as laundering about £1 million (€1.09m) in cash between Ireland and the Netherlands. He had used two EncroChat phones, which were not recovered, using the aliases "Satirical" and "Snacker".


title: EncroChat

text: In March 2022 the first murder plot convictions due to EncroChat were secured, against Paul Fontaine and Frankie Sinclair. By that time the NCA said that 2,631 people had been arrested in the UK as part of Operation Venetic; 1,384 had been charged, 260 convicted and over five and a half tons of class A drugs, 165 weapons and £75m in criminal cash had been seized.


title: EncroChat

text: Operation Eternal, the London Metropolitan Police arm of the EncroChat operation, described itself as "the most significant operation the Metropolitan Police Service has ever launched against serious and organised crime". Around 1,400 EncroChat users were based in London at the time of its closure in June 2020. The Metropolitan Police seized more than £13.4 million in cash, 16 firearms, more than 500 rounds of ammunition, 620 kg of Class A drugs, and arrested 171 people. As of 8 July 2020, 113 of them have been charged; 88 face charges of conspiracy to supply Class A drugs, and 16 have been charged with firearms offences.


title: EncroChat

text: In September 2020 nine people were arrested after raids in Brighton, Portslade, Kent, and London linked to Operation Eternal. Three men were arrested in Brighton and Portslade, five men and a woman in Kent and London. They were arrested for a variety of charges, including conspiracy to supply cocaine. Police seized 10 kg of Class A drugs and £60,000.


title: EncroChat

text: On 21 May 2021, Carl Stewart of Gem Street, Liverpool was sentenced to 13 years and 6 months at Liverpool Crown Court after pleading guilty to attempting to smuggle cocaine, heroin, MDMA and ketamine, as well as transferring criminal property. He had used EncroChat to transfer large amounts of class A and B drugs under the alias "ToffeeForce" (a reference to Everton F.C.). He was identified from a photo he had sent via Encrochat showing his hands holding a block of Blue Stilton. Police were able to identify him via his fingerprints in the photo.


title: EncroChat

text: The Canada-based company Phantom Secure, which started as a legitimate firm selling modified mobile phones, provided "secure communications to high-level drug traffickers and other criminal organization leaders" according to a 2018 FBI takedown announcement. Its CEO, Vincent Ramos, was sentenced in 2019 to a nine-year prison sentence after telling undercover agents that he created the device to help drug traffickers. Customers included members of the Sinaloa Cartel, and the FBI reportedly asked Ramos to plant a backdoor in Phantom Secure's encrypted network, which he refused to do. After this was shut down, ANOM was launched, but in 2021 was revealed to be a sting operation run by law enforcement agencies. The secure mobile phone company MPC was revealed in 2019 to have been created by Scottish criminals James and Barrie Gillespie. Christopher Hughes, a former employee of the company, is wanted by Dutch police for the murder of criminal turned blogger Martin Kok in December 2016.


title: EncroChat

text: Sky Global was a Canadian service provider that offered encrypted chat services and secure phones known as Sky ECC. Dutch and Belgian police claim to have accessed and decrypted the systems traffic in early 2021, leading to numerous arrests.


title: WGBH-TV

text: WGBH-TV (channel 2), branded on-air as GBH or GBH 2 since 2020, is the primary PBS member television station in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. It is the flagship property of the WGBH Educational Foundation, which also owns Boston's secondary PBS member WGBX-TV (channel 44) and Springfield, Massachusetts PBS member WGBY-TV (channel 57, operated by New England Public Media), Class A Biz TV affiliate WFXZ-CD (channel 24) and public radio stations WGBH (89.7 FM) and WCRB (99.5 FM) in the Boston area, and WCAI radio (and satellites WZAI and WNAN) on Cape Cod. WGBH-TV also effectively, but unofficially serves as one of three flagship stations of PBS, along with WNET in New York City and WETA-TV in Washington, D.C.


title: WGBH-TV

text: WGBH-TV, WGBX-TV, and the WGBH and WCRB radio stations share studios on Guest Street in northwest Boston's Brighton neighborhood; WGBH-TV's transmitter is located on Cabot Street (east of I-95/MA 128) in Needham, Massachusetts, on the former candelabra tower, which is shared with Fox affiliate WFXT and serves as a full power backup facility for sister station WGBX-TV as well as CBS owned-and-operated station WBZ-TV, ABC affiliate WCVB-TV, NBC owned-and-operated station WBTS-CD (which itself shares spectrum with WGBX) and MyNetworkTV affiliate WSBK-TV.


title: WGBH-TV

text: The WGBH Educational Foundation received its first broadcast license for radio in April 1951 under the auspices of the Lowell Institute Cooperative Broadcasting Council, a consortium of local universities and cultural institutions, whose collaboration stems from an 1836 bequest by textile manufacturer John Lowell, Jr. that called for free public lectures for the citizens of Boston. WGBH first signed on the air on October 6, 1951, with a live broadcast of a performance by the Boston Symphony Orchestra.


title: WGBH-TV

text: The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) originally awarded a construction permit to Waltham-based electronics company Raytheon to build a television station that would transmit on VHF channel 2 in Boston. Raytheon planned to launch a commercial television station using the call letters WRTB-TV (for "Raytheon Television Broadcasting"). However, after some setbacks and the cancellation of the construction permit license, WRTB never made it on the air, paving the way for the FCC to allocate channel 2 for non-commercial educational use. WGBH subsequently applied for and received a license to operate on that channel. The WGBH Educational Foundation obtained initial start-up funds for WGBH-TV from the Lincoln and Therese Filene Foundation.


title: WGBH-TV

text: WGBH-TV first signed on the air at 5:20 p.m. on May 2, 1955, becoming the first public television station in Boston and the first non-commercial television station to sign on in New England. The first program to air on the station was "Come and See", a children's program hosted by Tony Saletan and Mary Lou Adams, which was filmed at Tufts Nursery Training School. Channel 2 originally served as a member station of the National Educational Television and Radio Center (NETRC), which evolved into National Educational Television (NET) in 1963; for its first few years on the air, channel 2 only broadcast on Monday through Fridays between 5:30 and 9:00 p.m.


title: WGBH-TV

text: For the first six years, operations were based out of studio facilities located at 84 Massachusetts Avenue in Cambridge, Massachusetts, directly across from the Rogers Building main entrance to MIT. The first television studios were located in second-floor space which originally housed a roller skating rink. The uneven and rippled maple floors caused difficulties moving the heavy TV cameras, and loud creaking noises plagued the sound engineers.


title: WGBH-TV

text: The station's callsign refers to Great Blue Hill (the highest point in the Boston area at an elevation of ), a location in Milton that served as the original location of WGBH-TV's transmitter facility and where the transmitter for WGBH radio continues to operate to this day (the callsign is occasionally jokingly referred as "God Bless Harvard", although the station's connections with the university are at best indirect; Harvard was one of several Boston-area universities which took part in the Lowell Institute Cooperative Broadcasting Council and rented space to WGBH on Western Avenue in Allston for the station's studio operations).


title: WGBH-TV

text: In 1957, Hartford N. Gunn Jr. was appointed general manager of WGBH; he would later earn the Corporation for Public Broadcasting's Ralph Lowell Award for his achievements in programming development. Under Gunn, who resigned in February 1970 to become president of PBS, WGBH made significant investments in technology and programming to improve the station's profile and set out to make it a producer of public television programming. That February, WGBH expanded its programming to weekends for the first time, adding a four-hour schedule on Sunday afternoons from 2:30 to 6:30 p.m. (its sign-on time on Sundays was later extended to 11:00 a.m. that May). In March 1958, channel 2 began offering academic instructional television programs, with the debut of eight weekly science programs aimed at students in the sixth grade, which were televised “in some 48 separate school systems in and around the Boston area.” In November of that year, the station installed a new full-power transmitter donated by Westinghouse, which increased channel 2's transmitting power to 100,000 watts.


title: WGBH-TV

text: During the early morning hours of October 14, 1961, a large fire devastated the Cambridge studios of WGBH-TV and WGBH radio. Until the WGBH Educational Foundation was able to build a new studio complex to replace the destroyed former building, the two stations arranged to operate from temporary offices and had to produce their local programming from the studio facilities of various television stations in the Boston area and southern New Hampshire. WGBH-TV maintained a splintered operation, basing its master control operations at Newman Catholic Center at Boston University, production facilities (for which it was reserved to use late nights and on weekends) at the studios of then CBS affiliate WHDH-TV (channel 5, now defunct; allocation as of March 1972 operated by ABC affiliate WCVB-TV) on Morrissey Boulevard in Boston's Dorchester section, and its film and tape library (including those which were salvaged from the fire) was housed at the studios of fellow NET station WENH-TV (channel 11) in Durham, New Hampshire.


title: WGBH-TV

text: WGBH was only off the air for one day after the fire. Before the conflagration, WGBH had purchased a used Greyhound bus, and had begun refitting it as a mobile TV studio. It was parked behind the 84 Massachusetts Avenue building but somehow survived the disaster, and became a vital temporary facility for continued operations.


title: WGBH-TV

text: Several area universities also chipped in to temporarily house other operations displaced by the fire: WGBH's scenic department was relocated to Northeastern University, its arts department was set up on the Boston University campus, and programming and production offices were based in Cambridge's Kendall Square neighborhood. WHDH, NBC affiliate WBZ-TV (channel 4, as of January 1995 a CBS owned-and-operated station) and ABC affiliate WNAC-TV (channel 7, now defunct; allocation now occupied by independent station WHDH that is unrelated to the above-mentioned WHDH which is now WCVB-TV) also provided technical and production assistance to the WGBH television and radio stations until a permanent facility was built to reintegrate the stations' operations. On August 29, 1963, WGBH-TV and WGBH radio both began operating from a new studio facility for the stations that was built at 125 Western Avenue in Boston's Allston neighborhood (the post office box address that the station adopted at that time – P.O. Box 350, Boston, MA 02134 – would become associated with a jingle used on the WGBH-produced children's program, "ZOOM", both in its 1972 and 1999 adaptations, exhorting viewers to send in ideas for use on the show).


title: WGBH-TV

text: On June 18, 1966, WGBH-TV relocated its transmitter to a broadcast tower in Needham, Massachusetts, The following year on September 25, 1967, WGBH-TV gained a sister television station in the Boston area, WGBX-TV (channel 44), which has transmitted its signal from the Needham site since the station signed on (WGBX's digital signal on UHF channel 32 shares the master antenna at the very top of the tower with several commercial stations in the market, while WGBH-TV's channel 5 digital transmitter operates from a different tower on Cabot St, also in Needham).. The launch of WGBX was one facet of a plan developed by the WGBH Educational Foundation in the late 1960s to operate a network of six non-commercial television stations around Massachusetts. However, these plans never materialized in their intended form; besides WGBX, the only other station that ultimately made it on the air was WGBY (channel 57) in Springfield, which launched in 1971. Three additional WGBH-owned stations were to have launched, all of which were slated to use the "WGB" prefix for their call letters; these included WGBW, which was to broadcast on channel 35 in Adams (the "W" in its callsign was to stand for "West"; the callsign has since been reassigned to a radio station in Two Rivers, Wisconsin), along with two stations in New Bedford and Worcester.


title: WGBH-TV

text: On the night of April 5, 1968, WGBH-TV (at roughly three hours' notice) broadcast a James Brown concert from the Boston Garden, the night after Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated. Boston Mayor Kevin White, who was worried that the concert would set off a riot, and certain that cancellation would be worse, contacted WGBH to air the concert on TV, and told the public to stay home and watch, helping prevent boycotts in the region. The concert would later be seen numerous times in the following days, helping the Boston area stay in peace.


title: WGBH-TV

text: In 1970, WGBH-TV became a member station of the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), which was launched as an independent entity to supersede NET (which itself was integrated into its Newark, New Jersey outlet, WNDT (now WNET), per request by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting) and assumed many of the functions of its predecessor network. Over time, WGBH became a pioneer in public television, producing many programs that were seen on NET and later, PBS, that either originated at the station's studio facilities or were otherwise produced by channel 2.


title: WGBH-TV

text: On October 31, 2003, WGBH launched Boston Kids & Family TV, a PBS Kids Channel-affiliated local cable service that was developed in partnership with the City of Boston. Available to Comcast and RCN subscribers, the service took over channel space previously occupied by one of the city's cable access channels, which carried a mix of public affairs programs, footage of city-sponsored events, and mayoral press conferences (some of the aforementioned content was moved to the city-managed Educational Channel). Boston Kids & Family carried a mix of children's programs produced by WGBH and other distributors—which were scheduled to avoid simulcasts with WGBH-TV or WGBX-TV—daily from 7:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m., and a repeating block of telecourse programs aimed at adults from 8:00 p.m. to 7:00 a.m. The channel intended to affiliate the subchannel with the planned PBS Kids Go! network, which was scheduled to launch in October 2006; however, PBS scuttled plans to launch the Kids Go! network prior to its launch (opting only to launch the brand as an afternoon-only sub-block within PBS's existing children's program lineup). After PBS Kids ceased network operations, Boston Kids & Family was replaced by The Municipal Channel, which carried much of the programming offered by the service prior to the WGBH partnership.


title: WGBH-TV

text: As WGBH's operations grew, the 125 Western Avenue building proved inadequate to facilitate it and its sister stations; some administrative operations were moved across the street to 114 Western Avenue, with an overhead pedestrian bridge connecting the two buildings. By 2005, WGBH had facilities in more than a dozen buildings in the Allston area. The station's need for more studio space dovetailed with Harvard Business School's desire to expand its adjacent campus; Harvard already owned the land on which the WGBH studios were located, which the university had donated to WGBH for use to construct the Western Avenue facility in 1962 at a value of $250,000. WGBH built a new studio complex – designed by James Polshek & Partners – in nearby Brighton, which was inaugurated in June 2007. The building spans the block of Market Street from Guest Street to North Beacon Street (1 Guest Street, where the lobby entrance of the new studio building is located, is the building's postal address), with radio studios facing pedestrian traffic on Market Street. The outside of the building carries a "digital mural" LED screen, which displays a different image each day to commuters on the passing Massachusetts Turnpike. Television and radio programs continued to be recorded at the Western Avenue studios until the WGBH stations completed the migration of their operations into the new facility in September 2007. The old Western Avenue studios were renovated by Harvard University in 2011 to house the Harvard Innovation Lab.


title: WGBH-TV

text: On August 27, 2020, it was announced that the WGBH Educational Foundation would re-brand all of its operations as "GBH", with WGBH-TV subsequently re-branding from "WGBH 2" to "GBH 2". The organization felt that the inclusion of the "W" prefix was too synonymous with terrestrial broadcasting, and did not reflect its current multi-platform operations. WGBH also cited that "GBH" was already commonly-used as a shorthand name for the station. Along with the rebrand came a modified version of its iconic wordmark logo, in use since 1974.


title: WGBH-TV

text: The station's digital signal is multiplexed. Note that due to WGBX's channel share agreement with NBC's WBTS-CD, WGBH instead carries the high definition feed identified as channel 44.1:


title: WGBH-TV

text: In 2010, WGBH-TV became the first television station in the Boston market to provide a mobile DTV signal. It transmits two free-to-air channels using the ATSC-M/H standard, at 2.75 Mbit/s, with its first subchannel labelled as "WGBH CH 2".


title: WGBH-TV

text: WGBH launched a digital subchannel on virtual channel 2.2 in December 2005, which initially served as an affiliate of the PBS World news and documentary service (the subchannel was branded as "WGBH World"). In 2007, World programming was moved to the 44.2 subchannel of WGBX; WGBH replaced the network with a standard definition simulcast of its analog feed. The station discontinued the SD simulcast of channel 2.1 on April 17, 2012, when WGBH-DT2 re-assumed the local affiliation rights to World, which was simulcast on WGBX-DT2 for several months after the switch, before the former subchannel became its exclusive Boston outlet.


title: WGBH-TV

text: WGBH launched a tertiary subchannel on virtual channel 2.3 in 2005, which offered high definition program content separate from that seen on the station's analog signal via the PBS-HD satellite feed; in 2008, the subchannel switched to a high-definition simulcast of the analog signal, with standard-definition programming presented in a windowboxed or letterboxed format. WGBH decommissioned the DT3 feed in 2010.


title: WGBH-TV

text: In a list announcing the winning bids for stations which participated in the 2016 United States wireless spectrum auction released by the FCC on April 13, 2017, WGBH-TV was disclosed to have agreed to sell a portion of the broadcast spectrum allocated to its UHF channel 19 digital signal for a bid of $161,723,929; in a statement, the station said it would "use the proceeds to expand its educational services to children and students, further its in-depth journalism, and strengthen its modest endowment." The station also consigned to move its digital allocation to a low-band VHF channel; the FCC assigned VHF channel 5 (the former analog channel allocation of WCVB-TV) as the post-repack digital allocation to which WGBH was reassigned once the repacking of auction and repack participant stations were occurred on August 2, 2019. WGBH-TV's post repack facility on VHF 5 is located at the nearby American Tower owned facility on Cabot Street, also in Needham.


title: WGBH-TV

text: Because the VHF channel 5 signal was significantly weaker than the prior UHF channel 19 signal, the repack initially left many over-the-air viewers in the Greater Boston area unable to receive the station's primary broadcasts on WGBH 2.1 and WGBX 44.1. A notice posted on the station's website in August 2018 stated that a power upgrade was forthcoming which would boost the signal from 6.9 kW to 34.5 kW, but that the upgrade was "temporarily on hold, pending the mitigation of the COVID-19 pandemic". In the spring of 2021, the upgrade to 34.5 kW was finally completed, but a VHF antenna specifically designed to receive low-band signals (channels 2-6) is now required for most viewers.


title: WGBH-TV

text: WGBH-TV operates a secondary station in the Boston market, WGBX-TV (channel 44), which signed on the air on September 25, 1967. The station's schedule focuses on program genres not covered by WGBH-TV. Reruns of programs aired the previous evening on WGBX and WGBH-TV also make up a portion of the station's programming schedule. WGBX also maintains several digital subchannels that rebroadcast programs produced by WGBH and other PBS member stations around the U.S.


title: WGBH-TV

text: GBH also owns WGBY (channel 57), the PBS member station for the Springfield, Massachusetts market, which signed on the air on September 26, 1971. It was run separately from the Boston operations of WGBH television and radio and WGBX-TV.


title: WGBH-TV

text: In 2019, the station became part of New England Public Media, a joint venture with the local NPR station WFCR.


title: WGBH-TV

text: WGBH formerly operated a low-power translator in Hyannis, W08CH (channel 8), which later ceased operations. The translator's license and callsign were deleted by the FCC in 2004.


title: WGBH-TV

text: Since its creation in 1990, WGBH's Media Access Group is a leading provider of accessible media services to television producers, home video, websites, and movie theaters throughout the United States. The unit originated with the founding of The Caption Center in 1972, which invented the method of closed captioning to improve access to television programs for the deaf and hard-of-hearing ("The French Chef" was the first program to offer captioning provided by the unit), and created the Rear Window Captioning System for films. Along with providing closed captions for television programs seen on channel 2 and its sister stations, the Media Access Group is a major captioning provider for programs on other broadcast television networks (with the exception of ABC) and several cable channels. It also developed the Descriptive Video Service, and is the main provider for audio description soundtracks that give blind and low-vision viewers details about events occurring on-screen within an individual program, which can be found on streaming services as well as PBS stations, select broadcast networks and cable channels.


title: WGBH-TV

text: The internet is WGBH's third platform; all radio and television programs produced by the stations have web components that are available at wgbh.org. The WGBH website also incorporates "web-only" productions:


title: WGBH-TV

text: As a PBS member station, much of WGBH-TV's program schedule consists of educational and entertainment programming distributed by PBS to its member stations, including non-WGBH productions such as the "PBS NewsHour", the "Nightly Business Report", "Sesame Street", "Peg + Cat" and "Nature"; it also carries programs distributed by American Public Television and other sources to fill its schedule, alongside programs produced for exclusive local broadcast in the Boston market.


title: WGBH-TV

text: WGBH features a mix of live-action and animated children's programs produced by the station and other distributors between 6:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m., as well as on Saturday and Sunday mornings. The remainder of its weekday lineup includes a two-hour block of news and travel programs leading into prime time, with documentary, arts and entertainment programs provided by PBS shown Sunday through Fridays during prime time (encores of WGBH national productions typically air on Saturday evenings). Programming on Saturday afternoons focuses heavily on cooking and home improvement how-to shows (at one point, the station's Saturday afternoon lineup was branded as "How 2 Saturday"), while Sunday afternoons focus mainly on travel shows along with some how-to programs.


title: WGBH-TV

text: For the better part of its history, WGBH-TV has been a major producer of programming for PBS and its predecessor, NET. Channel 2 produces more than two-thirds of the programs that PBS distributes nationally to its member stations. Among them are longstanding PBS mainstays such as "NOVA", "Frontline", "Masterpiece", "American Experience", "The Victory Garden", and "This Old House".


title: WGBH-TV

text: Other notable programs originated by WGBH have included "The French Chef" (a pioneering cooking show featuring Julia Child), and "The Scarlet Letter" (a major costume drama miniseries produced on-location that was the first challenger to the British dominance in such programming in America, and was PBS's highest-rated series for many years). The station has co-produced many other period dramas in conjunction with British production companies. Broadcasts of concerts by the Boston Symphony established the genre as a staple on television.


title: WGBH-TV

text: WGBH has also engaged in several experiments in programming and technology that have become standard in television, including:


title: WGBH-TV

text: WGBH alumni maintain a website where stories and photographs are shared; reunions were held in 2000 and 2006.


title: Banana Massacre

text: The Banana Massacre () was a massacre of United Fruit Company workers that occurred between December 5 and 6, 1928 in the town of Ciénaga near Santa Marta, Colombia. A strike began on November 12, 1928, when the workers ceased to work until the company would reach an agreement with them to grant them dignified working conditions. After several weeks with no agreement, in which the United Fruit Company refused to negotiate with the workers, the conservative government of Miguel Abadía Méndez sent the Colombian Army in against the strikers, resulting in the massacre of 47 to 2,000 people.


title: Banana Massacre

text: U.S. officials in Colombia and United Fruit representatives portrayed the workers' strike as "communist" with a "subversive tendency" in telegrams to Frank B. Kellogg, the United States Secretary of State. The Colombian government was also compelled to work for the interests of the company, considering they could cut off trade of Colombian bananas with significant markets such as the United States and Europe.


title: Banana Massacre

text: Gabriel García Márquez depicted a fictional version of the massacre in his novel "One Hundred Years of Solitude", as did Álvaro Cepeda Samudio in his "La Casa Grande". Although García Márquez references the number of dead as around three thousand, the actual number of dead workers is unknown.


title: Banana Massacre

text: The workers of the banana plantations in Colombia went on strike on November 12, 1928. The workers made nine demands from the United Fruit Company:


title: Banana Massacre

text: The strike turned into the largest labor movement ever witnessed in the country until then. Radical members of the Liberal Party, as well as members of the Socialist and Communist Parties, participated.


title: Banana Massacre

text: The workers wanted to be recognized as employees, and demanded the implementation of the Colombian legal framework of the 1920s.


title: Banana Massacre

text: An army regiment from Bogotá was dispatched by the government to deal with the strikers, which it deemed to be subversive. Whether these troops were sent in at the behest of the United Fruit Company did not at first clearly emerge.


title: Banana Massacre

text: Three hundred soldiers were sent from Antioquia to Magdalena. There were no soldiers from Magdalena involved because General Cortes Vargas, the army-appointed military chief of the banana zone in charge of controlling the situation, did not believe they would be able to take effective actions, as they might be related to the plantation workers.


title: Banana Massacre

text: The troops set up their machine guns on the roofs of the low buildings at the corners of the main square, closed off the access streets,


title: Banana Massacre

text: and, after issuing a five-minute warning that people should leave, opened fire into a dense Sunday crowd of workers and their families including children. The people had gathered after Sunday Mass to wait for an anticipated address from the governor.


title: Banana Massacre

text: General Cortés Vargas, who commanded the troops during the massacre, took responsibility for 47 casualties. In reality, the exact number of casualties has never been confirmed. Herrera Soto, co-author of a comprehensive and detailed study of the 1928 strike, has put together various estimates given by contemporaries and historians, ranging from 47 to as high as 2,000. According to Congressman Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, the killed strikers were thrown into the sea. Other sources claim that the bodies were buried in mass graves.


title: Banana Massacre

text: Among the survivors was Luis Vicente Gámez, later a famous local figure, who survived by hiding under a bridge for three days. Every year after the massacre he delivered a memorial service over the radio.


title: Banana Massacre

text: The press has reported different numbers of deaths and different opinions about the events that took place that night. The conclusion is that there is no agreed-on story, but rather diverse variations depending on the source they come from. The American press provided biased information on the strike. The Colombian press was also biased depending on the political alignment of the publication. For example, the Bogotá-based newspaper "El Tiempo" stated that the workers were within their rights in wanting to improve their conditions. However, since the newspaper was politically conservative, they also noted that they did not agree with the strike.


title: Banana Massacre

text: Telegram from Bogotá Embassy to the U.S. Secretary of State, Frank B. Kellogg, dated December 5, 1928, stated:


title: Banana Massacre

text: Guerrilla movements in Colombia such as the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) argued that the growth of Communism in Colombia was triggered by atrocities like these, and called it state terrorism.


title: Banana Massacre

text: Some sources claim there are connections between this massacre and the atrocities committed in more recent years by Chiquita Brands in Colombian territory. Chiquita admitted paying 1.7 million dollars to the paramilitary group AUC (United Self Defense Forces of Colombia), who have killed hundreds of Colombian citizens. This company has financed war machines by paying this terrorist group. They claimed that they had been victims of extortion and said the payments were made as a way to protect their workers from the paramilitaries, but the people seem to object. In the documentary “Banana Land” Colombian plantain workers speak up about how they feel terrorized by multinational companies like Chiquita and their work with paramilitaries. They even say that people who speak up about the way they feel are at risk of being targeted by the AUC.


title: Banana Massacre

text: The event also inspired Italian singer-songwriter Francesco De Gregori's song "Ninetto e la colonia", released with his 1976 album Bufalo Bill. Before the soldiers start shooting on the frightened and praying crowd, only Ninetto "scemo", a silly little child, due to his innocence, is able to ask the relevant question, though in vain: ""Who are those who sent you?"" The soldier replies that the answer does not matter, as those who sent him do not speak their language and live far away.


title: Coal gas

text: Coal gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made from coal and supplied to the user via a piped distribution system. It is produced when coal is heated strongly in the absence of air. Town gas is a more general term referring to manufactured gaseous fuels produced for sale to consumers and municipalities.


title: Coal gas

text: The original coal gas was produced by the coal gasification reaction, and thus the burnable component consisted of a roughly equal molecular mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Thus, coal gas was highly toxic. Other compositions contain additional calorific gases such as methane, produced by the Fischer-Tropsch process, and volatile hydrocarbons together with small quantities of non-calorific gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen.


title: Coal gas

text: Prior to the development of natural gas supply and transmission—during the 1940s and 1950s in the United States and during the late 1960s and 1970s in the United Kingdom and Australia—almost all gas for fuel and lighting was manufactured from coal. Town gas was supplied to households via municipally owned piped distribution systems. Sometimes, this was called artificial gas, in contrast to natural gas. At the time, a popular method for committing suicide was to turn on an oven without lighting the gas, open the oven door, and slide the top half of one's body in. The carbon monoxide would kill quickly. Sylvia Plath famously committed suicide that way.


title: Coal gas

text: Originally created as a by-product of the coking process, its use developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries tracking the industrial revolution and urbanization. By-products from the production process included coal tars and ammonia, which were important raw materials (or "chemical feedstock") for the dye and chemical industry with a wide range of artificial dyes being made from coal gas and coal tar. Facilities where the gas was produced were often known as a manufactured gas plant (MGP) or a gasworks.


title: Coal gas

text: The discovery of large reserves of natural gas in the Southern North Sea off the coasts of Norfolk and Yorkshire in 1965 led to the expensive conversion or replacement of most of the Britain's gas cookers and gas heaters, from the late 1960s onwards.


title: Coal gas

text: The production process differs from other methods used to generate gaseous fuels known variously as manufactured gas, syngas, Dowson gas, and producer gas. These gases are made by partial combustion of a wide variety of feedstocks in some mixture of air, oxygen, or steam, to reduce the latter to hydrogen and carbon monoxide although some destructive distillation may also occur.


title: Coal gas

text: Manufactured gas can be made by two processes: carbonization or gasification. Carbonization refers to the devolatilization of an organic feedstock to yield gas and char. Gasification is the process of subjecting a feedstock to chemical reactions that produce gas.


title: Coal gas

text: The first process used was the carbonization and partial pyrolysis of coal. The off gases liberated in the high-temperature carbonization (coking) of coal in coke ovens were collected, scrubbed and used as fuel. Depending on the goal of the plant, the desired product was either a high quality coke for metallurgical use, with the gas being a side product, or the production of a high quality gas, with coke being the side product. Coke plants are typically associated with metallurgical facilities such as smelters or blast furnaces, while gas works typically served urban areas.


title: Coal gas

text: A facility used to manufacture coal gas, carburetted water gas (CWG), and oil gas is today generally referred to as a manufactured gas plant (MGP).


title: Coal gas

text: In the early years of MGP operations, the goal of a utility gas works was to produce the greatest amount of illuminating gas. The illuminating power of a gas was related to amount of soot-forming hydrocarbons ("illuminants") dissolved in it. These hydrocarbons gave the gas flame its characteristic bright yellow color. Gas works would typically use oily bituminous coals as feedstock. These coals would give off large amounts of volatile hydrocarbons into the coal gas, but would leave behind a crumbly, low-quality coke not suitable for metallurgical processes. Coal or coke oven gas typically had a calorific value between ; with values around being typical.


title: Coal gas

text: The advent of electric lighting forced utilities to search for other markets for manufactured gas. MGPs that once produced gas almost exclusively for lighting shifted their efforts towards supplying gas primarily for heating and cooking, and even refrigeration and cooling.


title: Coal gas

text: Fuel gas for industrial use was made using producer gas technology. Producer gas is made by blowing air through an incandescent fuel bed (commonly coke or coal) in a gas producer. The reaction of fuel with insufficient air for total combustion produces carbon monoxide (CO); this reaction is exothermic and self-sustaining. It was discovered that adding steam to the input air of a gas producer would increase the calorific value of the fuel gas by enriching it with CO and hydrogen (H) produced by water gas reactions. Producer gas has a very low calorific value of ; because the calorific gases CO/H are diluted with much inert nitrogen (from air) and carbon dioxide (CO) (from combustion)


title: Coal gas

text: The problem of nitrogen dilution was overcome by the blue water gas (BWG) process, developed in the 1850s by Sir William Siemens. The incandescent fuel bed would be alternately blasted with air followed by steam. The air reactions during the blow cycle are exothermic, heating up the bed, while the steam reactions during the make cycle, are endothermic and cool down the bed. The products from the air cycle contain non-calorific nitrogen and are exhausted out the stack while the products of the steam cycle are kept as blue water gas. This gas is composed almost entirely of CO and H, and burns with a pale blue flame similar to natural gas. BWG has a calorific value of .


title: Coal gas

text: Blue water gas lacked illuminants; it would not burn with a luminous flame in a simple fishtail gas jet as existed prior to the invention of the gas mantle in the 1890s. Various attempts were made to enrich BWG with illuminants from gas oil in the 1860s. Gas oil (an early form of gasoline) was the flammable waste product from kerosene refining, made from the lightest and most volatile fractions (tops) of crude oil.


title: Coal gas

text: In 1875 Thaddeus S. C. Lowe invented the carburetted water gas process. This process revolutionized the manufactured gas industry and was the standard technology until the end of manufactured gas era. A CWG generating set consisted of three elements; a producer (generator), carburettor and a super heater connected in series with gas pipes and valves.


title: Coal gas

text: During a make run, steam would be passed through the generator to make blue water gas. From the generator the hot water gas would pass into the top of the carburettor where light petroleum oils would be injected into the gas stream. The light oils would be thermocracked as they came in contact with the white hot checkerwork fire bricks inside the carburettor. The hot enriched gas would then flow into the superheater, where the gas would be further cracked by more hot fire bricks.


title: Coal gas

text: Following the Second World War the slow recovery of the British coal mining industry led to shortages of coal and high prices.


title: Coal gas

text: The decline of coal as a feedstock for town gas production using carbonisation is demonstrated in this graph.


title: Coal gas

text: }</graph>New technologies for manufacturing coal gas using oil, refinery tail gases, and light distillates were developed. Processes included the Lurgi Process, catalytic reforming, the catalytic rich gas process, steam reforming of rich gas, and the gas recycle hydrogenator process. The catalytic rich gas process used natural gas as a feedstock to manufacture town gas. These facilities utilised the chemical reaction processes described above.


title: Coal gas

text: The rise of oil as a feedstock to manufacture town gas is shown on the graph below. The peak usage in 1968/9 and subsequent decline coincides with the availability of North Sea gas which, over the next few years, displaced town gas as a primary fuel and led to the decline of oil as a feedstock for gas making, as shown.


title: Coal gas

text: By the 1960s, manufactured gas, compared with its main rival in the energy market, electricity, was considered "nasty, smelly, dirty and dangerous" (to quote market research of the time) and seemed doomed to lose market share still further, except for cooking where its controllability gave it marked advantages over both electricity and solid fuel. The development of more efficient gas fires assisted gas to resist competition in the market for room heating. Concurrently a new market for whole house central heating by hot water was being developed by the oil industry and the gas industry followed suit. Gas warm air heating found a market niche in new local authority housing where low installation costs gave it an advantage. These developments, the realignment of managerial thinking away from commercial management (selling what the industry produced) to marketing management (meeting the needs and desires of customers) and the lifting of an early moratorium preventing nationalised industries from using television advertising, saved the gas industry for long enough to provide a viable market for what was to come.


title: Coal gas

text: In 1959 the Gas Council in Great Britain demonstrated that liquid natural gas (LNG) could be transported safely, efficiently and economically over long distances by sea. The "Methane Pioneer" shipped a consignment of LNG from Lake Charles, Louisiana, US, to a new LNG terminal on Canvey Island, in the Thames estuary in Essex, England. A long high-pressure trunk pipeline was built from Canvey Island to Bradford. The pipeline and its branches provided Area Gas Boards with natural gas for use in reforming processes to make town gas. A large-scale LNG reception plant was commissioned on Canvey in 1964, which received LNG from Algeria in two dedicated tankers, each of 12,000 tonnes.


title: Coal gas

text: The slow decline of the town gas industry in the UK was signalled by the discovery of natural gas by the drilling rig "Sea Gem", on 17 September 1965, some forty miles off Grimsby, over below the seabed. Subsequently, the North Sea was found to have many substantial gas fields on both sides of the median line defining which nations should have rights over the reserves.


title: Coal gas

text: In a pilot scheme customers on Canvey Island were converted from town gas to natural gas supplied from the LNG plant on Canvey.


title: Coal gas

text: The Fuel Policy White Paper of 1967 (Cmd. 3438) pointed the industry in the direction of building up the use of natural gas speedily to 'enable the country to benefit as soon as possible from the advantages of this new indigenous energy source'. As a result, there was a 'rush to gas' for use in peak load electricity generation and in low grade uses in industry. The effects on the coal industry were very significant; not only did coal lose its market for town gas production, it came to be displaced from much of the bulk energy market also.


title: Coal gas

text: The growth in availability of natural gas is shown in the graph below. Until 1968 this was from supplies of LNG from Algeria, until North Sea gas was available from 1968.


title: Coal gas

text: The exploitation of the North Sea gas reserves, entailing landing gas at Easington, Bacton and St Fergus made viable the building of a national distribution grid, of over , consisting of two parallel and interconnected pipelines running the length of the country. This became the National Transmission System. All gas equipment in Great Britain (but not Northern Ireland) was converted (by the fitting of different-sized burner jets to give the correct gas/air mixture) from town gas to natural gas (mainly methane) over the period from 1967 to 1977 at a cost of about £100 million, including writing off redundant town gas manufacturing plants. All the gas-using equipment of almost thirteen million domestic, four hundred thousand commercial, and sixty thousand industrial customers were converted. Many dangerous appliances were discovered in this exercise and were taken out of service. The UK town gas industry died in 1987 when operations ceased at the last town gas manufacturing plants in Northern Ireland (Belfast, Portadown and Carrickfergus; Carrickfergus gas works is now a restored gasworks museum). The Portadown site has been cleared and is now the subject of a long-term experiment into the use of bacteria for the purpose of cleaning up contaminated industrial land. As well as requiring little processing before use, natural gas is non-toxic; the carbon monoxide (CO) in town gas made it extremely poisonous, accidental poisoning and suicide by gas being commonplace. Poisoning from natural gas appliances is only due to incomplete combustion, which creates CO, and flue leaks to living accommodation. As with town gas, a small amount of foul-smelling substance (mercaptan) is added to the gas to indicate to the user that there is a leak or an unlit burner, the gas having no odour of its own.


title: Coal gas

text: The organisation of the British gas industry adapted to these changes, first, by the Gas Act 1965 by empowering the Gas Council to acquire and supply gas to the twelve area gas boards. Then, the Gas Act 1972 formed the British Gas Corporation as a single commercial entity, embracing all the twelve area gas boards, allowing them to acquire, distribute and market gas and gas appliances to industrial commercial and domestic customers throughout the UK. In 1986, British Gas was privatised and the government no longer has any direct control over it.


title: Coal gas

text: During the era of North Sea gas, many of the original cast iron gas pipes installed in towns and cities for town gas were replaced by plastic.


title: Coal gas

text: As reported in the DTI Energy Review 'Our Energy Challenge' January 2006 North Sea gas resources have been depleted at a faster rate than had been anticipated and gas supplies for the UK are being sought from remote sources, a strategy made possible by developments in the technologies of pipelaying that enable the transmission of gas over land and under sea across and between continents. Natural gas is now a world commodity. Such sources of supply are exposed to all the risks of any import.


title: Coal gas

text: Monty Python parodied the conversion from coal to North Sea gas, and the jumping through hoops some encountered, in their "New Cooker Sketch," as part of the episode that began its second series in 1970.


title: Coal gas

text: Nazi Germany to develop the Fischer–Tropsch synthesis to produce synthetic fuel for aircraft and tanks.


title: Coal gas

text: The by-products of coal gas manufacture included coke, coal tar, sulfur and ammonia and these were all useful products. Dyes, medicines such as sulfa drugs, saccharine, and dozens of organic compounds are made from coal tar.


title: Coal gas

text: The coal used, and the town gas and by-products produced, by the major three gas companies of London are summarised in the table.


title: Coal gas

text: Coal gas was initially manufactured by independent companies but in the United Kingdom many of these later became municipal services. In 1948 there was a total of 1,062 gas undertakings. Both the private companies, about two-thirds of the total, and the municipal gas undertakings, about one-third, were nationalised under the Gas Act 1948. Further restructuring took place under the Gas Act 1972. For further details see British Gas plc.


title: Coal gas

text: Apart from in the steel industry's coke ovens' by-products plants, coal gas is no longer made in the UK. It was replaced first by gas made from oil and later by natural gas from the North Sea.


title: Burns supper

text: A Burns supper is a celebration of the life and poetry of the poet Robert Burns (25 January 175921 July 1796), the author of many Scots poems. The suppers are normally held on or near the poet's birthday, 25 January, known as Burns Night (; ; also called Robert Burns Day or Rabbie Burns Day). However, in principle, celebrations may be held at any other time of the year. Burns suppers are held all around the world.


title: Burns supper

text: The first supper was held "in memoriam" at Burns Cottage in Ayrshire by Burns's friends, on 21 July 1801, the fifth anniversary of his death; it has been a regular occurrence ever since. The first still extant Burns Club was founded in Greenock in 1801 by merchants who were born in Ayrshire, some of whom had known Burns. They held the first Burns supper on what they thought was his birthday, 29 January 1802, but in 1803, they discovered the Ayr parish records that noted his date of birth was actually 25 January 1759. Since then, suppers have been held on or about 25 January.


title: Burns supper

text: The Scottish Parliament considers the celebration of Burns Night each year to be a key cultural heritage event.The Parliament welcomes the annual celebration of Scotland’s national poet, Robert Burns, which is held on 25 January each year to mark the Bard’s birthday; considers that Burns was one of the greatest poets and that his work has influenced thinkers across the world; notes that Burns' first published collection, Poems Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, also known as the "Kilmarnock Edition", published in 1786, did much to popularise and champion the Scots language, and considers that this is one of his most important legacies; believes that the celebration of Burns Night is an opportunity to raise awareness of the cultural significance of Scots and its status as one of the indigenous languages of Scotland, and further believes in the importance of the writing down of the Scots language to ensure its continuation through written documentation, as well as oral tradition.


title: Burns supper

text: Burns suppers may be formal or informal. Both typically include haggis (a traditional Scottish dish celebrated by Burns in ""), Scotch whisky and the recitation of Burns's poetry. Formal dinners are hosted by organisations such as universities, sporting clubs, Burns Clubs, the Freemasons or St. Andrew's Societies; they occasionally end with dancing or a cèilidh. During the global COVID-19 pandemic in 2021, Burns Night celebrations moved online and were popular amongst families eating at home. Formal suppers follow a standard order.


title: Burns supper

text: A bagpiper generally greets the guests, who gather and mix as at any informal party. At less formal gatherings, traditional Scottish music is played.


title: Burns supper

text: All the guests are seated and grace is said, usually using the "", a well-known thanksgiving said before meals that uses the Scots language. Although attributed to Burns, the "Selkirk Grace" was already known in the 17th century as the "Galloway Grace" or the "Covenanters' Grace". It came to be called the "Selkirk Grace" because Burns was said to have delivered it at a dinner given by Dunbar Douglas, 4th Earl of Selkirk.


title: Burns supper

text: The supper starts with the soup course. Normally a Scottish soup, such as Scotch broth, potato soup, cullen skink, or cock-a-leekie, is served.


title: Burns supper

text: Everyone stands as the haggis is brought in. Haggis is a meat dish but in recent decades, a vegetarian alternative is often available. It is usually brought in by the cook on a large dish, generally while a bagpiper leads the way to the host's table, where the haggis is laid down. "A Man's A Man for A' That", "Robbie Burns Medley" or "The Star O' Robbie Burns" might be played. The host, or perhaps a guest, then recites the


title: Burns supper

text: At the line ', the speaker normally draws and sharpens a knife. At the line ', he plunges it into the haggis and cuts it open from end to end. When done properly, the "ceremony" is a highlight of the evening.


title: Burns supper

text: At the end of the poem, a whisky toast will be proposed to the haggis, and the company will sit down to the meal. The haggis is traditionally served with mashed potatoes (tatties) and mashed swede turnip (neeps).


title: Burns supper

text: A dessert course, cheese courses, coffee, etc., may also be part of the meal. The courses normally use traditional Scottish recipes. For instance, dessert may be cranachan or tipsy laird (whisky trifle), followed by oatcakes and cheese, all washed down with the "water of life" (), Scotch whisky.


title: Burns supper

text: The main speaker gives a speech remembering some aspect of Burns's life or poetry. It may be either light-hearted or serious, and may include the recitation of a poem or a song by Burns. A toast to the Immortal Memory of Robert Burns then follows.


title: Burns supper

text: This was originally a short speech given by a male guest in thanks to the women who had prepared the meal. However, it is now much more wide-ranging and generally covers the male speaker's view on women. It is normally amusing and not offensive, particularly since it will be followed by a reply from the "lassies" concerned. The men drink a toast to the women's health.


title: Burns supper

text: This is occasionally (and humorously) called the "Toast to the Laddies". Like the previous toast, it is generally now quite wide-ranging. A female guest will give her views on men and reply to any specific points raised by the previous speaker. Like the previous speech, it should be amusing but not offensive. Quite often, the speakers giving this toast and the previous one will collaborate so that the two toasts complement each other.


title: Burns supper

text: After the speeches there may be singing of songs by Burns (such as "Ae Fond Kiss", "Such a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation", and "A Man's A Man for A' That") and more poetry (such as "To a Mouse", "To a Louse", "Tam o' Shanter", "", and "Holy Willie's Prayer").


title: Burns supper

text: That may be done by the individual guests or by invited experts, and it goes on for as long as the guests wish. It may include other works by poets influenced by Burns, particularly poets writing in Scots. Foreign guests may also be invited to sing or say works from their land.


title: Burns supper

text: Finally, the host will call on one of the guests to give the vote of thanks. Then, everyone is asked to stand, join hands, and sing "" to bring the evening to an end.


title: Frank Ntilikina

text: Frank Bryan Ntilikina (; born 28 July 1998) is a French professional basketball player for the Dallas Mavericks of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was selected by the New York Knicks as the eighth overall pick during the 2017 NBA draft. Ntilikina was born in Belgium and grew up in the French city of Strasbourg. He stands at tall and plays the point guard position.


title: Frank Ntilikina

text: Ntilikina was born in Ixelles, Belgium, on 28 July 1998, to Rwandan parents, he moved to Strasbourg, France at age three. He began his youth club career at the age of five, playing for St-Joseph Strasbourg, before making the move to Strasbourg IG's youth academy when he was 15.


title: Frank Ntilikina

text: Ntilikina was invited to participate in the Jordan Brand Classic International Game in April 2014, tallying six points, three rebounds and one assist in 23 minutes off the bench, and helped SIG to a French Youth League Championship title in the 2014–15 season.


title: Frank Ntilikina

text: In February 2016, he attended the "Basketball Without Borders Global Camp" in Toronto, Canada, during the 2016 NBA All-Star Weekend.


title: Frank Ntilikina

text: In December 2015, Ntilikina signed a professional contract with SIG Strasbourg until 30 June 2019. He had made his debut at the professional level even before the deal, seeing 15 minutes of action on 4 April 2015, in a French LNB Pro A 2014–15 season contest against Boulogne-sur-Mer.


title: Frank Ntilikina

text: On 15 October 2015, Ntilikina logged his first EuroLeague minutes, scoring one point in 12 minutes and 16 seconds of play against KK Crvena zvezda.


title: Frank Ntilikina

text: He saw the court in 32 contests during the 2015–16 Pro A season, scoring 1.2 points per game, and he was named the league's Best Young Player. In the 2016–17 season, Ntilikina became a key part of the Strasbourg team, as he appeared in 45 games for the team while averaging 19.3 minutes per game. His successful campaign led him to winning his second straight Pro A Best Young Player award.


title: Frank Ntilikina

text: In April 2017, Ntilikina entered his name into the 2017 NBA draft. By NBA draft's entry deadline on 12 June, he became one of only 10 international underclassmen to remain in the NBA draft that year. Ntilikina also became one of 20 invitees for the green room on draft night. The night before the draft, Ntilikina played Game 4 in the LNB Pro A Finals with SIG Strasbourg before traveling to Brooklyn, New York to participate in the draft personally. After that night, he played his last game with SIG Strasbourg with them losing the LNB Pro A Finals to Élan Chalon.


title: Frank Ntilikina

text: During the build-up to the draft, there was heavy speculation that the Dallas Mavericks would select Ntilikina with the ninth overall pick. The Mavericks' owner Mark Cuban was quoted as saying that the Mavericks wanted a "pass-first point guard" and said "We can maybe go a little bit more for a project", both of which Ntilikina fit the bill for. When the Knicks ended taking Ntilikina with the eighth pick, the Mavericks chose point guard Dennis Smith Jr.


title: Frank Ntilikina

text: Ntilikina was also rumoured to be coveted by the Knicks' front office and coaching staff, with whom he met in person.


title: Frank Ntilikina

text: On 22 June 2017, Ntilikina was selected by the New York Knicks with the eighth pick in the 2017 NBA draft. On 5 July, Ntilikina signed with the Knicks. He was the second youngest active player in the NBA during his rookie year behind Ike Anigbogu. Ntilikina made his NBA debut on 19 October 2017, in a 105–84 loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder. He scored his first points on 28 October against the Brooklyn Nets in a 107–86 win. He recorded nine points, two rebounds, five assists and a steal during the Knicks' home opener. On 15 January 2018, Ntilikina recorded his first double-double with 10 points, 10 assists, seven rebounds, two blocks, and a steal in a 119–104 win over the Brooklyn Nets. On 24 January 2018, he was selected to represent Team World for the Rising Stars Challenge during the 2018 NBA All-Star Weekend. His rookie season in New York was considered by many as underwhelming, and was often claimed to be a draft bust.


title: Frank Ntilikina

text: Heading into his third season, Ntilikina was coming off a strong performance in the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup. In the early part of the season, Ntilikina took over starting point guard duties and began to show great signs of defense. On 23 November 2019, Ntilikina racked up six steals in a 111–104 loss to San Antonio Spurs. However, like his previous two seasons, he struggled to shoot the ball and eventually was demoted in favor of Elfrid Payton.


title: Frank Ntilikina

text: On 16 September 2021, Ntilikina signed with the Dallas Mavericks. He made his debut on 21 October 2021, in a 87–113 loss to the Atlanta Hawks, playing four minutes.


title: Frank Ntilikina

text: Ntilikina averaged 7.4 points, 2.0 assists, 1.6 rebounds, and one steal per game, en route to winning the 2014 FIBA Europe Under-16 Championship with the Under-16 French Junior National Team.


title: Frank Ntilikina

text: He was spectacular in helping France's Under-18 national team win the 2016 FIBA Europe Under-18 Championship, scoring 31 points, including 7-for-10 from three-point range, in the championship game against the Under-18 Lithuanian team. He averaged 15.2 points, 4.5 assists, 2.8 rebounds, and 2.2 steals a game in the tournament, draining 50 percent of his field goal attempts, including 58.6 percent of his shots from long distance, en route to Most Valuable Player honors.


title: Frank Ntilikina

text: Ntilikina dished out a game-high eight assists, to go along with 13 points and four rebounds, at the FIBA European Under-18 All-Star Game, in September 2015.


title: BMW B57

text: The B57 belongs to a family of modular engines, including the B37 and B47 diesel engines, and B38, B48, and B58 petrol engines. The engines utilise a common displacement of per cylinder. The B57 replaced the previous N57 diesel engine, and was first introduced in the G11 7 Series. The B57 is available in configurations of up to 4 turbochargers, that operate in a double-series layout.


title: Militia (United States)

text: The militia of the United States, as defined by the U.S. Congress, has changed over time. During colonial America, all able-bodied men of a certain age range were members of the militia, depending on each colony's rule. Individual towns formed local independent militias for their own defense. The year before the US Constitution was ratified, "The Federalist Papers" detailed the founders' paramount vision of the militia in 1787. The new Constitution empowered Congress to "organize, arm, and discipline" this national military force, leaving significant control in the hands of each state government.


title: Militia (United States)

text: Today, as defined by the Militia Act of 1903, the term "militia" is used to describe two classes within the United States:


title: Militia (United States)

text: Congress has organized the National Guard under its power to "raise and support armies" and not its power to "Provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the Militia". This, Congress chose to do in the interests of organizing reserve military units which were not limited in deployment by the strictures of its power over the constitutional militia, which can be called forth only "to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions."


title: Militia (United States)

text: The term "militia" derives from Old English "milite" meaning soldiers (plural), "militisc" meaning military and also classical Latin "milit-, miles" meaning soldier.


title: Militia (United States)

text: The Modern English term "militia" dates to the year 1590, with the original meaning now obsolete: "the body of soldiers in the service of a sovereign or a state". Subsequently, since approximately 1665, "militia" has taken the meaning "a military force raised from the civilian population of a country or region, especially to supplement a regular army in an emergency, frequently as distinguished from mercenaries or professional soldiers". The U.S. Supreme Court adopted the following definition for "active militia" from an Illinois Supreme Court case of 1879: " 'a body of citizens trained to military duty, who may be called out in certain cases, but may not be kept on service like standing armies, in times of peace'. . . when not engaged at stated periods . . . they return to their usual avocations . . . and are subject to call when public exigencies demand it."


title: Militia (United States)

text: The spelling of "millitia" is often observed in written and printed materials from the 17th century through the 19th century.


title: Militia (United States)

text: The early colonists of America considered the militia an important social institution, necessary to provide defense and public safety.


title: Militia (United States)

text: On August 29, 1643 the Plymouth Colony Court allowed & established a military discipline to be erected and maintained.


title: Militia (United States)

text: During the French and Indian Wars, town militia formed a recruiting pool for the Provincial Forces. The legislature of the colony would authorize a certain force level for the season's campaign and set recruitment quotas for each local militia. In theory, militia members could be drafted by lot if there were inadequate forces for the Provincial Regulars; however, the draft was rarely resorted to because provincial regulars were highly paid (more highly paid than their regular British Army counterparts) and rarely engaged in combat.


title: Militia (United States)

text: In September 1755, George Washington, then adjutant-general of the Virginia militia, upon a frustrating and futile attempt to call up the militia to respond to a frontier Indian attack:


title: Militia (United States)

text: See New Hampshire Provincial Regiment for a history of a Provincial unit during the French and Indian War.


title: Militia (United States)

text: Just prior to the American Revolutionary War, on October 26, 1774, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, observing the British military buildup, deemed their militia resources to be insufficient: the troop strength, "including the sick and absent, amounted to about seventeen thousand men ... this was far short of the number wanted, that the council recommended an immediate application to the New England governments to make up the deficiency":


title: Militia (United States)

text: "See article: List of United States militia guerrilla actions in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783)"


title: Militia (United States)

text: The American Revolutionary War began near Boston, Massachusetts with the Battles of Lexington and Concord, in which a group of local militias constituted the American side (the "Patriots"). On April 19, 1775, a British force 800 strong marched out of Boston to Concord intending to destroy patriot arms and ammunition. At 5:00 in the morning at Lexington, they met about 70 armed militiamen whom they ordered to disperse, but the militiamen refused. Firing ensued; it is not clear which side opened fire. This became known as "the shot heard round the world". Eight militiamen were killed and ten wounded, whereupon the remainder took flight. The British continued on to Concord and were unable to find most of the arms and ammunition of the patriots. As the British marched back toward Boston, patriot militiamen assembled along the route, taking cover behind stone walls, and sniped at the British. At Meriam's Corner in Concord, the British columns had to close in to cross a narrow bridge, exposing themselves to concentrated, deadly fire. The British retreat became a rout. It was only with the help of an additional detachment of 900 troops that the British force managed to return to Boston. This marked the beginning of the war. It was "three days after the affair of Lexington and Concord that any movement was made towards embodying a regular army".


title: Militia (United States)

text: In 1777, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation, which contained a provision for raising a confederal militia that consent would be required from nine of the 13 States. Article VI of the Articles of Confederation states,


title: Militia (United States)

text: Some militia units appeared without adequate arms, as evidenced in this letter from John Adams to his wife, dated August 26, 1777:


title: Militia (United States)

text: The militia are turning out with great alacrity both in Maryland and Pennsylvania. They are distressed for want of arms. Many have none, we shall rake and scrape enough to do Howe's business, by favor of the Heaven.


title: Militia (United States)

text: The initial enthusiasm of Patriot militiamen in the beginning days of the war soon waned. The historian Garry Wills explains,


title: Militia (United States)

text: The fervor of the early days in the reorganized militias wore off in the long grind of an eight-year war. Now the right to elect their own officers was used to demand that the men not serve away from their state. Men evaded service, bought substitutes to go for them as in the old days, and had to be bribed with higher and higher bounties to join the effort – which is why Jefferson and Samuel Adams called them so expensive. As wartime inflation devalued the currency, other pledges had to be offered, including land grants and the promise of "a healthy slave" at the end of the war. Some men would take a bounty and not show up. Or they would show up for a while, desert, and then, when they felt the need for another bounty, sign up again in a different place. ... This practice was common enough to have its own technical term – "bounty jumping".


title: Militia (United States)

text: The burden of waging war passed to a large extent to the standing army, the Continental Army. The stay-at-home militia tended then to perform the role of the internal police to keep order. British forces sought to disrupt American communities by instigating slave rebellions and Indian raids. The militia fended off these threats. Militias also spied on Loyalists in the American communities. In Albany County, New York, the militia established a Committee for Detecting and Defeating Conspiracies to look out for and investigate people with suspicious allegiances.


title: Militia (United States)

text: Politically, the militia was highly popular during the postwar period, though to some extent, based more on pride of victory in the recent war than on the realities. This skepticism of the actual value of relying upon the militia for national defense, versus a trained regular army was expressed by Gouverneur Morris:


title: Militia (United States)

text: An overweening vanity leads the fond many, each man against the conviction of his own heart, to believe or affect to believe, that militia can beat veteran troops in the open field and even play of battle. This idle notion, fed by vaunting demagogues, alarmed us for our country, when in the course of that time and chance, which happen to all, she should be at war with a great power.


title: Militia (United States)

text: Robert Spitzer, citing Daniel Boorstin, describes this political dichotomy of the public popularity of the militia versus the military value:


title: Militia (United States)

text: While the reliance upon militias was politically satisfying, it proved to be an administrative and military nightmare. State detachments could not be easily combined into larger fighting units; soldiers could not be relied on to serve for extended periods, and desertions were common; officers were elected, based on popularity rather than experience or training; discipline and uniformity were almost nonexistent.


title: Militia (United States)

text: General George Washington defended the militia in public, but in correspondence with Congress expressed his opinion of the militia quite to the contrary:


title: Militia (United States)

text: To place any dependence on the Militia, is, assuredly, resting upon a broken staff. Men just dragged from the tender Scenes of domestic life; unaccustomed to the din of Arms; totally unacquainted with every kind of military skill, which being followed by a want of confidence in themselves, when opposed to Troops regularly trained, disciplined, and appointed, superior in knowledge and superior in Arms, makes them timid, and ready to fly from their own shadows ... if I was called upon to declare upon Oath, whether the Militia have been most serviceable or hurtful upon the whole, I should subscribe to the latter.


title: Militia (United States)

text: In Shays' Rebellion, a Massachusetts militia that had been raised as a private army defeated the main Shays site force on February 3, 1787. There was a lack of an institutional response to the uprising, which energized calls to reevaluate the Articles of Confederation and gave strong impetus to the Constitutional Convention which began in May 1787.


title: Militia (United States)

text: At the end of the Revolutionary War, a political atmosphere developed at the local level where the militia was seen with fondness, despite their spotty record on the battlefield. Typically, when the militia did act well was when the battle came into the locale of the militia, and local inhabitants tended to exaggerate the performance of the local militia versus the performance of the Continental Army. The Continental Army was seen as the protector of the States, though it also was viewed as a dominating force over the local communities. Joseph Reed, president of Pennsylvania viewed this jealousy between the militia forces and the standing army as similar to the prior frictions between the militia and the British Regular Army a generation before during the French and Indian War. Tensions came to a head at the end of the war when the Continental Army officers demanded pensions and set up the Society of the Cincinnati to honor their own wartime deeds. The local communities did not want to pay national taxes to cover the Army pensions, when the local militiamen received none.


title: Militia (United States)

text: The delegates of the Constitutional Convention (the founding fathers/framers of the United States Constitution) under Article 1; section 8, clauses 15 and 16 of the federal constitution, granted Congress the power to "provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the Militia", as well as, and in distinction to, the power to raise an army and a navy. The US Congress is granted the power to use the militia of the United States for three specific missions, as described in Article 1, section 8, clause 15: "To provide for the calling of the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions." The Militia Act of 1792 clarified whom the militia consists of:


title: Militia (United States)

text: At the time of the drafting of the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights, a political sentiment existed in the newly formed United States involving suspicion of peacetime armies not under civilian control. This political belief has been identified as stemming from the memory of the abuses of the standing army of Oliver Cromwell and King James II, in Great Britain in the prior century, which led to the Glorious Revolution and resulted in placing the standing army under the control of Parliament.


title: Militia (United States)

text: During the Congressional debates, James Madison discussed how a militia could help defend liberty against tyranny and oppression. (Source I Annals of Congress 434, June 8, 1789) Though during his presidency, after enduring the failures of the militia in the War of 1812, Madison came to favor the maintenance of a strong standing army.


title: Militia (United States)

text: A major concern of the various delegates during the constitutional debates over the Constitution and the Second Amendment to the Constitution revolved around the issue of transferring militia power held by the States (under the existing Articles of Confederation) to Federal control.


title: Militia (United States)

text: Records of the constitutional debate over the early drafts of the language of the Second Amendment included significant discussion of whether service in the militia should be compulsory for all able bodied men, or should there be an exemption for the "religiously scrupulous" conscientious objector.


title: Militia (United States)

text: The concern about risks of a "religiously scrupulous" exemption clause within the second amendment to the Federal Constitution was expressed by Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts (from 1 Annals of Congress at 750, 17 August 1789):


title: Militia (United States)

text: The "religiously scrupulous" clause was ultimately stricken from the final draft of second amendment to the Federal Constitution though the militia clause was retained. The Supreme Court of the United States has upheld a right to conscientious objection to military service.


title: Militia (United States)

text: While in The Federalist No. 46, Madison argued that a standing army of 25,000 to 30,000 men would be offset by "a militia amounting to near a half million of citizens with arms in their hands, officered by men chosen from among themselves ..." [119] The Antifederalists were not persuaded by these arguments, in part because of the degree of control over the militia given to the national government by the proposed constitution. The fears of the more conservative opponents centered upon the possible phasing out of the general militia in favor of a smaller, more readily corrupted, select militia. Proposals for such a select militia already had been advanced by individuals such as Baron Von Steuben, Washington's Inspector General, who proposed supplementing the general militia with a force of 21,000 men given government- issued arms and special training. [120] An article in the Connecticut Journal expressed the fear that the proposed constitution might allow Congress to create such select militias: "[T]his looks too much like Baron Steuben's militia, by which a standing army was meant and intended." [121] In Pennsylvania, John Smiley told the ratifying convention that "Congress may give us a select militia which will in fact be a standing army", and worried that, [p.34] with this force in hand, "the people in general may be disarmed". [122] Similar concerns were raised by Richard Henry Lee in Virginia. In his widely-read pamphlet, Letters from the Federal Farmer to the Republican, Lee warned that liberties might be undermined by the creation of a select militia that "[would] answer to all the purposes of an army", and concluded that "the Constitution ought to secure a genuine and guard against a select militia by providing that the militia shall always be kept well organized, armed, and disciplined, and include, according to the past and general usage of the states, all men capable of bearing arms.


title: Militia (United States)

text: Note: In Federalist Paper 29 Hamilton argued the inability to train the whole Militia made select corps inevitable and, like Madison, paid it no concern.